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Overview of the physiological light flicker effects and estimation of the light flicker
in the electrical power networks
I. Bili1, M. Cifrek1
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Faculty of Electrical Engineering and Computing, University of Zagreb, Zagreb, Croatia
Abstract One of the important aspects of the power quali-
ty in electric power distribution and transmission networks is
estimation of the light flicker caused by voltage variations.
International standards governing design of power quality
recording devices and various standards for evaluating power
quality include model-based estimation of visual discomfort
using UIE/IEC Flickermeter. Newer standards also use as-
sessment of Rapid voltage changes (RVC) computationally
simplified but yet less precise model. Both models are based on
the discomfort level reported by test subjects, which limits
them on perceivable disturbances. However, many studies
indicate that light flickering may cause number of physiologi-
cal effects even when affected individual is not aware of the
disturbance: headaches, eyestrain, decreased performance,
interference with cortical processes, seizures etc. Some of these
potential effects require further detailed research, but all of
them should be considered as a topic in future development of
the power quality standards.
Keywords light flicker, flicker fusion frequency, photosen-
sitivity, power quality.
I. INTRODUCTION
Quality of the electrical energy (also called Power quali-
ty) delivered to the customers by the utilities is regulated by
the various national and international standards.
Electric power quality is determined by measuring num-
ber of the voltage (and sometimes current) properties in-
cluding stability of the frequency, RMS value, spectral
content (harmonics and interharmonics) etc. Majority of the
disturbances measured by power quality parameters influ-
ence operation of the consumer devices and most of the
devices on the market are immune to minor supply voltage
variations, which are common phenomenon in the distribu-
tion and transmission networks.
However, even voltage fluctuations which are harmless
to the electrical devices can cause noticeable light flickers.
Such flickers cause certain level of discomfort and they are
the only power quality disturbance noticeable directly by
the customers. In order to correlate visible light flickers
with voltage fluctuations, voltage-lamp-brain model is
required which allows power quality measuring devices to
calculate estimated level of discomfort. Such model, also
known as flickermeter is defined in the IEC 61000-4-15
IBIlic_MCifrek_MBEC2014-IB-140505-2.doc
standard [1]. It is based on discomfort level caused by the
light flicker of the incandescent light-bulb.
One of the recent alternatives to the IEC flicker meter
model is Rapid voltage change (RVC) concept which is still
not internationally accepted as regulated power quality
parameter, but it is mentioned without defining strict criteria
in many standards, including EU power quality standard
EN50160 [2].
Both IEC Flickermeter and RVC assessments are based
on level of discomfort caused by the light flickering noticed
by the test subject, discarding the influence of the disturb-
ances which cause some physiological effects, but test sub-
jects are not aware of them. Some of those effects, de-
scribed more detailed in part III of this paper include
eyestrain, headaches, migraine and epileptic seizures, de-
creased working performance. Flicker frequencies which are
causing those effects are partly eliminated or their influence
is attenuated in currently used detection methods.
This paper presents overview of physiological effects of
the light flicker, with emphasis on those effects which are
poorly assessed by currently used flicker measurement
methods.
II. CURRENTLY USED FLICKER MEASUREMENT METHODS
A. UIE/IEC Flickermeter
UIE/IEC Flickermeter, defined in [1] is based on a hu-
man sensation of the luminance variations produced by a
60 W 230 V incandescent lamp. Human perception model is
based on the works of H. De Lange [3] and C. Rashbass [4].
De Langes experiments were focused on finding relation of
Critical flicker fusion frequency (CFFF or Flicker fusion
threshold, FFT) to luminance variation magnitude. Critical
flicker fusion frequency is a frequency at which periodically
varying light stimulus appears to be steady to the observer
it can be treated as a cut-off frequency of human visual
system. Experiments have shown that test subjects report
lowest flicker detection threshold at 5-8 Hz, depending on
the average (background) brightness level, and that detec-
tion threshold increased with the frequency. Flicker fre-
quency sensitivity characteristic can be approximated as a
linear band-pass filter. Rashbass experiments have indicated
that perception of the positive or negative pulse-like lumi-
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nance variations depends on magnitude and duration varia-
tion thresholds are consistent with De Langes findings
when pulse-like variation is treated as one cycle of the con-
tinuous variation. Furthermore, Rashbass experiments have
shown that detection threshold of the two consequent varia-
tions follows elliptic form. Rashbass proposed human flick-
er sensation model (Fig. 1) consisting of De Langes filter,
squaring element to represent elliptic characteristic and
finally low-pass filter (integrator) with 300 ms time constant
which mimics visual system insensitivity to illuminations
variance sequence (order). Input of this model is luminance
variation, and output is instantaneous flicker sensation
(Pinst) which corresponds to real time flicker sensation.
Fig. 1 Rashbass model of human flicker sensation
UIE/IEC Flickermeter expanded Rashbass model adding
additional 0.05-40 Hz band-pass filter (6th order Butter-
worth), Lamp model (60 W 230 V incandescent bulb) which
estimates luminance variation from voltage changes, and
statistical calculation block which takes and calculates
short-time flicker severity index (Pst) from the distribution
of the Pinst values in predefined time interval (usually 10
minutes). Commonly used measure for flicker severity is
the Long-time flicker severity index (Plt) which is cube root
of sum of cubed Pst values in 2 hour period. Plt is suitable to
estimate flicker caused by several independent sources, or
by sources with variable duty cycles. Plt values less than 1
are considered to be satisfactory by the most of the power
quality standards.
B. Flicker sensitivity of different lamp types
Using incandescent bulb as light source enables usage of
relatively simple lamp model, but many new, more effective
light source types (halogen, fluorescent, LED...) have been
introduced, making incandescent bulbs almost obsolete.
Study performed by R.Cai et al. [5] showed that frequen-
cy dependent flicker characteristics different types of the
lamps showed large variations, which implicates that the
same voltage variation can cause very differing flicker sen-
sations with different lamp types. The 60 W incandescent
bulb is shown to be the most sensitive to the flicker, com-
pared to other types of the lamps (20 W halogen, 15 W
fluorescent, 9 W compact fluorescent and 11 W energy
saving lamp). According to that fact, current flickermeter
IBIlic_MCifrek_MBEC2014-IB-140505-2.doc
design should always give the worst case results, independ-
ent of the lamp type used by observer.
However, other studies like Sharma et al. [6] and Pop-
lawski et al. [7] indicate that different makes of compact
fluorescent lamps (CFL) and solid state (LED) lamps have
significantly different flicker characteristics; some of them
even demonstrate more intensive flickering than standard
60 W incandescent bulbs. Another important factor is the
use of light dimmers, which tend to increase lamp flicker
sensitivity, especially for the dimmable CFL lamps.
Results of those studies implicate that would be very
hard to adjust Flickermeter lamp model to fit all different
lamp technologies available now (and in the future). More
convenient way of ensuring flickermeter consistency is to
provide normative regulation of flicker sensitivity for lamps
on the market.
C. Rapid voltage changes (RVC)
IEC standard 61000-4-30 [8] defines rapid voltage
change (RVC) as a quick transition in RMS voltage be-
tween two steady state conditions. RMS voltage defined by
the same standard is trend of root-mean-square values (ef-
fective voltage values) calculated for each half-period of the
power line voltage. It is not stated how rapid should quick
transition be and what are other parameters to classify RVC
events. The Norwegian Water Resources and Energy Direc-
toratehas presented detailed definition in [9]. Rapid voltage
change is transition in RMS voltage within 10% of the
nominal voltage level (Unom) whose change rate is more
rapid than 0.5% of the Unom per second (for instance 0.5%
of 230 V gives min. dU/dt equal to 1.15 V/s).
Fig. 2 Rapid voltage change parameters
Same paper gives results of the study which examined
human perception of light fluctuations caused by RVC-s on
a 60 W incandescent lamp. Fig. 2 shows some parameters
important for the human RVC perception on a typical volt-
age RMS disturbance caused by a motor start. Experiments
have shown that besides dU/dt 0.5% Unom/s criteria, in
order to be noticed by test subjects, RVC should cause of
the difference between two steady state levels (Uss) greater
than 3% of the Unom, or have maximum voltage deviation

(Umax) of at least 5% of the Unom. Additional constraint on
noticing two consecutive RVC events as separate disturb-
ances is time between them. Criterion for this time is same
as the criteria for end time of the RVC: difference between
minimum and maximum RMS voltage in 1 second sliding
window should be less than 0.5% of Unom.
The main reason for the introducing concept of the RVC
is the fact that several RVC disturbances can be noticed by
the viewers (and cause some visual disturbance), and since
they are not occurring frequently enough, values of the Pst
and Plt flickers remain within the acceptable limits.
RVC events are limited to Umax voltage within 10% of
the nominal voltage Unom. Voltage disturbances with RMS
deviations larger than 10% Unom are treated as voltage sags
or voltage swells. These events are considered to be possi-
bly dangerous to the electrical equipment, and counted
separately. However, those events are also noticeable by
human observers, so it is questionable should they be ex-
cluded from the RVC statistics. In addition, limits for de-
tecting RVC events are fixed, discarding magnitude and
time between disturbances relations, which are shown to be
important by Rashbass [4]. This may lead to false positive
and true negative detections used by RVC counting device.
D. Common features of the Pst /Plt flickers and RVC
Both flicker estimation approaches are based on lumi-
nance disturbances reported by the test subjects. This is
limiting their usability only to those flickering frequencies
which test subjects are aware of. Frequency dependent de-
tection thresholds are weightened by filter derived from
experimental results. This leads to attenuation or even elim-
ination of flicker detection of flicker which may cause phys-
iological effects, but test subjects are not aware of them.
III. PHYSOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF THE LIGH FLICKER
Only flicker with frequency below the CFFF is perceiva-
ble by the human viewer (visible flicker). Since electro-
retinogram responses to frequencies higher than CFFF can
be recorded [11], CFFF is considered to be determined by
cerebral cortex and it varies between individuals [10]. Most
of the researches on invisible flicker effects are conducted
using fluorescent lamps with electromagnetic ballasts
(which produce significant amount of flicker at
100 Hz/120 Hz depending on power line frequency) and
CRT monitors (usually producing 50-75 Hz flicker). Alt-
hough focused on only couple of the flicker frequencies,
these studies give good overview of physiological effects.
IBIlic_MCifrek_MBEC2014-IB-140505-2.doc
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A. Headaches and eyestrain
Study conducted by Wilkins et al. [12] demonstrated that
incidence of headaches and eyestrain can be reduced by
factor of 2 or more after switching from fluorescent lamps
with electromagnetic ballasts to high-frequency ballast.
Eysel and Burandt [13] have detected firing of nerve cells
synchronous with the (invisible) light flicker in subcortical
structures of the cat, and other studies confirm cortical ac-
tivity synchronous to the high-frequency flickers [14]. Exact
mechanism of headache/eyestrain induction is not clear but
it could be related to long-term excitation of certain cortical
or subcortical structures, or interference with ocular motor
control.
B. Decreased visual performance
Interference of the light flicker with ocular motor control
has been demonstrated in several studies. Saccades rapid,
involuntary eye movements produced during attempted
visual fixation (for example in reading, moving eye focus
from one letter to next one) are enlarged under 100 Hz
flickers [15]. Flicker also increases the number of prema-
turely triggered saccades, leading to less accurate eye
movements and triggering additional corrective saccades; it
can also change trajectory of the already triggered saccade,
again leading to missing the target [16]. Increased number
of inaccurate saccades and triggered corrective saccades
may lead to decreased reading performance [16], [17].
C. Migraine and epilepsy
Light flicker in various ranges of the frequencies causes
synchronous, phase-locked triggering in the neural circuits
of the subcortical and cortical structures [13], [14]. In indi-
viduals suffering from hyperexcitability this local cortical
activity can spread to surrounding tissue which may lead to
epileptic seizures or migraine episodes.
According to literature [18] on photosensitive epilepsy
(PSE), 2% of epilepsy cases are photosensitive, up to 10%
of those with onset in childhood, making it the most com-
mon of the stimulus-induced epilepsies. Wide range of
flicker frequencies is triggering seizures (165 Hz), with
peek sensitivity at around 15 Hz (70% percent of the pa-
tients is sensitive to 1030 Hz range).
About 18% of the female and 6% of the male population
suffers from the migraine [19]. Approximately 40% of that
population has photosensitive form of the migraine.
D. Cortical resonances
Experiment performed by Herrmann [14], in which
steady state visual evoked potential response (SSVEP) to 1
100 Hz flicker stimuli were recorded, has shown some in-
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teresting cortical responses. Frequency responses in the 10,
20, 40 and 80 Hz range show resonant phenomena visual
cortex responds to those frequencies strongly than to others,
but only in magnitude. While normal response to all fre-
quencies contains fundamental and harmonic components,
response to 39 Hz stimulus is different: numerous frequency
components, all multiples of 13.5 Hz, are present in the
response. This frequency belongs to 40 Hz band, connected
to visual feature binding (connecting object properties like
color and shape which are processed in different parts of the
visual cortex) flicker at this frequency may interfere with
feature binding process. One more interesting response is
found: 1, 5, 10, 25, 50, 75 and 100 Hz stimuli cause spectral
peek at 50 Hz. This is the power line frequency, so selective
responses may indicate cortical interaction with the power
line frequency flickering.
IV. CONCLUSIONS
Light flicker estimation models used for power quality
assessment are not appropriate for evaluating all relevant
physiological effects of the flicker: from decreased reading
performance to serious tonic-clonic epileptic seizures. Fu-
ture enhancements or development of new flicker estima-
tion models should include results of the electrophysiologi-
cal studies, not only sensitivity reported by test subjects.
Enhancements of the lamp models can be done, but dif-
ferences between lamp types and makes on the market indi-
cate that normative regulation of flicker sensitivity for
lamps should be provided in order to ensure higher level of
consistency.
CONFLICT OF INTEREST
The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.
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Author: Ivan Bili
Institute: Faculty of Electrical Engineering and Computing
Street: Unska 3
City: Zagreb
Country: Croatia
Email: bilic@live.com