Mechanics of Fluids

CEWB123
Chapter 2: Pressure & Head
Lecturer : Nazirul Mubin Zahari

Sources:
Dr. Faizah Che Ros
Dr. Gasim Hayder
Nazirul Mubin
Objectives
1. Define the relationship between absolute pressure,
gage pressure, and atmospheric pressure.
2. Describe the degree of variation of atmospheric
pressure near Earths surface.
3. Describe the properties of air at standard atmospheric
pressure.
4. Define the relationship between a change in elevation
and the change in pressure in a fluid.
5. Describe how a manometer works and how it is used to
measure pressure.
6. Describe a barometer and how it indicates the value of
the local atmospheric pressure.
7. Describe various types of pressure gages and pressure
transducers.
Chapter Outlines
1. Absolute and Gage Pressure
2. Relationship between Pressure and Elevation
3. Development of the Pressure-Elevation Relation
4. Pascals Paradox
5. Manometers
6. Barometers
7. Pressure Gages and Transducers
Review.

PRESSURE
Pressure: A normal force exerted by a
fluid per unit area

The normal stress (or pressure)

Some basic on the feet of a chubby person is
pressure much greater than on the feet of a
gages. slim person.
4
 2.1 Absolute and Gage Pressure
1) Absolute pressure: The actual pressure at a given position. It is measured relative to
absolute vacuum (i.e., absolute zero pressure).
2) Gage pressure: The difference between the absolute pressure and the local
atmospheric pressure. Most pressure-measuring devices are calibrated to read zero
in the atmosphere, and so they indicate gage pressure.
3) Vacuum pressures: Pressures below atmospheric pressure.
Normal variation of
atmospheric pressure
near earth surface is
from 95~105 kPa (abs).

At sea level, the

standard atmospheric
pressure is 101.3 kPa
(abs).

Unless the atmospheric

pressure is given, we
will assume atmospheric
pressure to be 101 kPa.

5
 Example 2.1

Express a pressure of 155 kPa (gage) as an absolute pressure. The

local atmospheric pressure is 98 kPa (abs).
Note that the units in this calculation are kilopascals (kPa) for each term and are
consistent. The indication of gage or absolute is for convenience and clarity.

= +
= 155 kPa (gage) + 98kPa (abs) = 253 kPa (abs)
 Example 2.2

Express a pressure of 75.2 kPa as a gage pressure. The local

atmospheric pressure is 103.4 kPa.

= +
=
= 75.2 kPa 103.4 kPa = -28.2 kPa.

Note that the result is negative. This can also be read 28.2 kPa below
atmospheric pressure or 28.2 kPa vacuum.
 Example 2.3

Express a pressure of 42.7 kPa as an absolute pressure.

= +

Because no value was given for the atmospheric pressure, we will use Patm=101
kPa:

= -42.7 kPa + 101 kPa = 58.3 kPa.

Exercise 2.1
Convert the given pressure from gage to absolute pressure or from
absolute to gage pressure as indicated. The value of the atmospheric
pressure is given.
No. Given Pressure (kPa) Express as Answer

1 583(abs) 103(abs) Gage pressure

2 157(abs) 101(abs) Gage pressure

3 30(abs) 100(abs) Gage pressure

4 74(abs) 97(abs) Gage pressure

5 101(abs) 104(abs) Gage pressure

6 284(gage) 100(abs) Absolute pressure

7 128(gage) 98(abs) Absolute pressure

8 4.1(gage) 101.3(abs) Absolute pressure

9 -29.6(gage) 101.3(abs) Absolute pressure

10 -86.0(gage) 99 (abs) Absolute pressure

2.2 Relationship between Pressure and Elevation
1) The term elevation means the vertical distance from some reference level to
a point of interest and is called z.
2) A change in elevation between two points is called h. Elevation will always be
measured positively in the upward direction.
3) In other words, a higher point has a larger elevation than a lower point.
 2.2 Relationship between Pressure and
Elevation
The change in pressure in a homogeneous liquid at rest due to a change in
elevation can be calculated from
=
where
= change in pressure
= specific weight of liquid
= change in elevation

1000 9.81
Note that = = = 9.81kN/m3
3 2
Example 2.4

Calculate the change in water pressure from the surface to

a depth of 5 m.

=
kN
= (9.81 kN/m3 ) 5.0m = 49.05 2 = 49.05 kPa
m

If the surface of the water is exposed to the atmosphere,

the pressure there is 0 Pa(gage). Descending in the water
(decreasing elevation) produces an increase in pressure.
Therefore, at 5 m the pressure is 49.05 kPa(gage).
 2.2 Relationship between Pressure and
Elevation

The pressure of a fluid at rest Pressure in a liquid at rest

increases with depth (as a result of increases linearly with
added weight). distance from the free surface.
 2.2 Relationship between Pressure and
Elevation

The pressure is the same at all points on a horizontal plane in a given

fluid regardless of geometry, provided that the points are
interconnected by the same fluid.
Example 2.5
Figure below shows a tank of oil with one side open to the
atmosphere and the other side sealed with air above the
oil. The oil has a specific gravity of 0.90. Calculate the gage
pressure at points A, B, C, D, E, and F and the air pressure
in the right side of the tank.
Point A
At this point, the oil is exposed to the atmosphere, and therefore

= 0 Pa
Point B
The change in elevation between point A and point B is 3.0 m, with B
lower than A. We need the specific weight of the oil:
kN kN
oil = (sg)oil 9.81 3 = 0.90 9.81 3 = 8.83 kN/m3
m m

Then we have
kN kN
= h = 8.83 3.0 = 26.5 = 26.5 kPa
m3 m3

Now the pressure at B is:

= + = 0pa gage = 26.5 kPa = 26.5 kPa
Point C
The change in elevation from point A to point C is 6.0 m, with C lower than A.
Then, the pressure at point C is
kN kN
= h = 8.83 3 6.0 = 53.0 3 = 53.0 kPa
m m
= + = 0 Pa + 53.0 kPa = 53.0 kPa
Point D
Because point D is at the same level as point B, the pressure is the same.
That is, we have
= = 26.5 kPa
Point E
Because point E is at the same level as point A,
the pressure is the same. That is, we have

= = 0 kPa
Point F
The change in elevation between point A and point F is 1.5 m, with F higher
than A. Then, the pressure at F is
kN kN
= h = 8.83 3 1.5 = 13.2 3 = 13.2 kPa
m m
= + = 0 Pa + 13.2 kPa = 13.2 kPa

Air Pressure
Because the air in the right side of the tank
is exposed to the surface of the oil, where
pF = -13.2kPa the air pressure is also -
13.2kPa or 13.2 kPa below atmospheric
pressure.
 Summary of observations from Example 2.5

The pressure increases as the depth in the fluid increases. This result can be seen
from pC > pB > pA .
Pressure varies linearly with a change in elevation; that is, pC is two times greater
than pB and C is at twice the depth of B.
Pressure on the same horizontal level is the same. Note that pE = pA and pD = pB .
The decrease in pressure from E to F occurs because point F is at a higher elevation
than point E. Note that pF is negative; that is, it is below the atmospheric pressure that
exists at A and E.
Exercise 2.2
1. Compute the depth of the oil if depth of
the water is 2.8 m and the gage at the
bottom of the tank reads 52.3 kPa (gage).
2. Compute the depth of the water if depth
of the oil is 6.9 m and the gage at the
bottom of the tank reads 125.3 kPa
(gage).
3. Let say the figure represents an oil
storage drum that is open to the
atmosphere at the top. Some water was
accidentally pumped into the tank and
settled to the bottom as shown in the
figure. Calculate the depth of the water
2 if the pressure gage at the bottom
reads 158 kPa (gage). The total depth
is 18.0 m.
FIGURE 1
ANS : 1) 2.94m 2)6.84m 3)4.47m
 2.3 Development of the Pressure-Elevation Relation
The relationship between a change in elevation in a liquid, h,
and a change in pressure is

= ---- (1)

The small volume of fluid within a body of The pressure forces acting in a horizontal plane
static fluid. on a thin ring.
 2.3 Development of the Pressure-Elevation Relation
The following concepts are illustrated in the
figure:
1. The fluid pressure at the level of the
bottom of the cylinder is called p1.
2. The fluid pressure at the level of the
top of the cylinder is called p2.
3. The elevation difference between the
top and the bottom of the cylinder is
called dz, where dz = z2 z1
4. The pressure change that occurs in
the fluid between the level of the
bottom and the top of the cylinder is
called dp. Therefore, p2 = p1 + dp.
5. The area of the top and bottom of the Figure shows the forces acting in
the vertical direction.
cylinder is called A.
 2.3 Development of the Pressure-Elevation Relation
6. The volume of the cylinder is the product of
the area A and the height of the cylinder dz.
That is, V=A(dz).
7. The weight of the fluid within the cylinder is
the product of the specific weight of the fluid
and the volume of the cylinder. That is, w
=V=A(dz). The weight is a force acting on
the cylinder in the downward direction
through the centroid of the cylindrical volume.
8. The force acting on the bottom of the cylinder
due to the fluid pressure p1 is the product of Figure shows the forces acting in
the pressure and the area A. That is, F1 = the vertical direction.
p1A. This force acts vertically upward,
perpendicular to the bottom of the cylinder.
 2.3 Development of the Pressure-Elevation Relation
9. The force acting on the top of the cylinder due to the fluid pressure p2 is
the product of the pressure and the area A. That is, F2 = p2A.This force
acts vertically downward, perpendicular to the top of the cylinder.
Because p2 = p1 + dp another expression for the force F2 is

2 = 1 + (2)

Apply the principle of static equilibrium

stating that the sum of the forces in
vertical directions must be zero by
using upward forces as positive, we get
= 0 = 1 2 (3)

Substituting from Steps 79 gives

1 (1 +) () = 0 (4)
Figure shows the forces acting in
the vertical direction.
2.3 Development of the Pressure-Elevation Relation
Notice that the area A appears in all terms on the left side of above
equation. It can be eliminated by dividing all terms by A. The resulting
equation is
1 1 = 0 (5)

Now the term p1 can be cancelled out. Solving for dp gives

= () ---(6)
The process of integration extends Equation 6 to large changes in elevation,
as follows:
2 2
= (7)
1 1

Equation 7 develops differently for liquids and for gases because the
specific weight is constant for liquids and it varies with changes in
pressure for gases.
2.3.1 Liquids

A liquid is considered to be incompressible. Thus, its specific weight

is a constant. This allows to be taken outside the integral sign in
Equation 7. Then,
2 2
= (8)
1 1

Completing the integration process and applying the limits gives

2 1 = 2 1 (9)

For convenience, we define = 2 1 and = 2 1.

Equation (9) becomes = which is identical to Eq. (1).
2.3.2 Gases

Because a gas is compressible, its specific weight changes as

pressure changes.
To complete the integration process called for in Eq. (7), you
must know the relationship between the change in pressure and
the change in specific weight.
The relationship is different for different gases, but a complete
discussion of those relationships is beyond the scope of this
course and requires the study of thermodynamics.
 2.4 Pascal Paradox
In the development of the
relationship p=h the size of
the small volume of fluid does
not affect the result.
The change in pressure
depends only on the change
in elevation and the type of
fluid, not on the size of the Illustration of Pascals paradox
fluid container.
This phenomenon is useful
when a consistently high
pressure must be produced
on a system of
interconnected pipes and
tanks.
Water distribution system
 2.5 Manometers
It is commonly used to measure small and moderate
pressure differences. A manometer contains one or
more fluids such as mercury, water, alcohol, or oil.
Measuring the pressure
drop across a flow
section or a flow device
by a differential
manometer.

The basic
manometer.

In stacked-up fluid layers, the pressure

change across a fluid layer of density
and height h is gh.
29
Types of Manometer

30
Example 2.6
Calculate the pressure at point A.

Solution
1 + =
1 = = 0 pa
9.81kN 9.81kN
= () ( ) = 13.54
m3 m3
= 132.8 kN/m3
= . /

Thus,
= ( ) +
kN
= 0 (9.81kN/m3 ) 0.40m + (132.8 ) 0.25m
m3
kN kN
= 0 3.92 + 33.20
m2 m2

= . = . (gage)

Example 2.7
A manometer is used to measure the pressure of a gas in a tank. The
Fluid used has a specific gravity of 0.85, and the manometer column
height is 55 cm, as shown in the figure. If the local atmospheric
pressure is 96 kPa, determine the absolute pressure within the tank.
Example 2.8
The water in a tank is pressurized by air, and
the pressure is measured by a multifluid
manometer as shown in the figure.
The tank is located on a mountain at an
altitude of 1400 m where the atmospheric
pressure is 85.6 kPa.

Determine the air pressure in the tank if

1 = 0.1 m, 2 = 0.2 m, 3 = 0.35 m.

Take the densities of water, oil and mercury

to be 1000 kg/ 3 , 850 kg/ 3 , 13,600
kg/3 , respectively.
Exercise 2.3
The figure shows a diagram of the hydraulic system for a vehicle lift. An air compressor
maintains pressure above the oil in the reservoir. What must the air pressure be if the
pressure at point A must be at least 1240 kPa? (Ans: 1226 kPa)
Exercise 2.4
Calculate air pressure above the gasoline in the figure. (Ans: 43.81 kPa)
Exercise 2.5 Exercise 2.6
Calculate the pressure at point A in the For the manometer shown in figure below,
figure below. (Ans: -10.94 kPa) calculate . (Ans: 96.03 kPa)
 Exercise 2.7
For the compound manometer shown in
the figure below, calculate the pressure at
point A. (Ans: 90.05 kPa)
Exercise 2.8
Figure below shows an inclined well-type
manometer in which the distance L indicates the
movement of the gage fluid level as the pressure
is applied above the well. The gage fluid has
a specific gravity of 0.87 and L = 115 mm.
Neglecting the drop in fluid level in the well,
calculate . (Ans: 0.254 kPa)
 2.6 Barometers
Atmospheric pressure is measured by a device called a barometer; thus, the
atmospheric pressure is often referred to as the barometric pressure.
A frequently used pressure unit is the standard atmosphere, which is defined as the
pressure produced by a column of mercury 760 mm in height at 0C (Hg = 13,595
kg/m3) under standard gravitational acceleration (g = 9.81m/s2).

The length or the

cross-sectional area of
the tube has no effect
on the height of the
fluid column of a
barometer, provided
that the tube diameter
is large enough to
avoid surface tension
(capillary) effects.

The basic barometer.

39
Example 2.9
Determine the atmospheric pressure at a location where the
barometric reading is 740 mm Hg and the gravitational
acceleration is g = 9.805 m/s2 . Assume the temperature of
mercury to be 10C at which its density is 13,570 kg/m3 .
Example 2.10
The standard atmospheric pressure is 101.3 kPa. Calculate the
height of a mercury column equivalent to this pressure.

Solution

=
=
101.3/2
= =
132.8/3

= 0.76m
Other Pressure Measurement Devices

1) Bourdon tube: Consists of a hollow metal tube bent

like a hook whose end is closed and connected to a
dial indicator needle.
2) Pressure transducers: Use various techniques to
convert the pressure effect to an electrical effect
such as a change in voltage, resistance, or
capacitance.
3) Pressure transducers are smaller and faster, and they
can be more sensitive, reliable, and precise than
their mechanical counterparts.
4) Strain-gage pressure transducers: Work by having a
diaphragm deflect between two chambers open to
the pressure inputs.
5) Piezoelectric transducers: Also called solid-state
pressure transducers, work on the principle that an
electric potential is generated in a crystalline
substance when it is subjected to mechanical
pressure.
Various types of Bourdon tubes used to
measure pressure. 42
Pressure Measurement Devices

43
 Deadweight tester
1. Another type of mechanical pressure gage. It is used primarily for calibration and
can measure extremely high pressures.
2. A deadweight tester measures pressure directly through application of a weight
that provides a force per unit areathe fundamental definition of pressure.
3. It is constructed with an internal chamber filled with a fluid (usually oil), along
with a tight-fitting piston, cylinder, and plunger.
4. Weights are applied to the top of the piston, which exerts a force on the oil in the
chamber. The total force F acting on the oil at the pistonoil interface is the sum of
the weight of the piston plus the applied weights.

A deadweight tester is able

to measure
extremely high pressures
(up to 70 MPa in some
applications).

44
Deadweight tester (EXERCISE)
46