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Piled footings
References
Poulos and Davis; Tomlinson; AS2159 SAA Piling Code; BHP Steel Piling Booklet;
http://sbe.napier.ac.uk/projects/piledesign
Scope
Pile types and uses
Axial load capacity
o Settlement of piles
Lateral capacity of piles
o deflection of piles under lateral load
Pile group effects
Load testing
o static
o dynamic
Piling code AS2159
Function
Transmit structural loads through soil strata of low bearing capacity (and/or
stiffness) to deeper soil or rock having high bearing capacity (and/or stiffness)
Resist uplift forces. eg due to wind or wave loading
Resist horizontal loads. eg wharfs, oil platforms
Structures on reactive soils
At all stages of loading the total pile load = sum of shaft friction and end bearing
components
End bearing pile - Founded in hard strong layer. Large end bearing component, small
shaft friction.
Friction pile (floating pile) - No distinctly different layer at base of pile. (End
bearing component and significant shaft friction).
Static analysis
Pult = Ps + Pb
Shaft resistance
Ps = A s .q s
For piles in clay the undrained capacity is usually less than the drained capacity
except for HIGHLY overconsolidated material. The undrained capacity is usually
used for design.
Base:
Nc = 9 for deep footings (L/d > 4) - use smaller value for short piles
Nq = 1, N = 0, p = L
Pb = Ab (Nc.cu + p)
Shaft:
The skin friction usually varies with depth, z, due to increasing strength.
qs(z) = . cu(z)
depends on:
soil type
type of pile
cu of soil - decreases with increasing cu
time
nature of soil overlying the clay
L
1
q s = . c u dz
L0
We have,
so,
drained analysis
slow loading
long term analysis
Base:
Nc,c' & .B..N terms are small compared to the other term (c' and B are small).
Usually neglect these. Hence,
qb = Nq.p, where p = 'vb is the effective vertical stress at the base of the pile
but in sands this leads to and overestimate in the capacity of long piles. The maximum
value of 'vb is therefore limited to the value of the effective vertical stress ('v) at the
critical depth zl ( see figure). The limiting depth is about 6d in loose sand and 15d in
dense sand (where d is the pile diameter).
Shaft:
L
1
q s = K v tan dz
L0
where,
is the friction angle between the pile and the soil
K is the earth pressure coefficient (ratio of horizontal stress / vertical stress) Kp, Ko, or
Ka ???
but again in sands this leads to an overestimate in the capacity of long piles. The
maximum value of 'v is therefore limited to the value at the critical depth zl ( see
figure).
qs = . 'v tan
qs = . 'v
In stiff clay it appears that is fairly constant (0.24 - 0.29 for values of ' between 20
and 30)
ie. the maximum working load capacity, Pdesign, of a pile is the lesser of:
where Ps is the shaft resistance capacity and Pb is the base resistance capacity
As usual in the limit state methods P* S* (S* is the ultimate load which includes the
weight)
In special circumstances - eg. piles driven through a soft consolidating soil - a drag
force on the pile shaft will act downwards adding to total pile load. Such a force is
known as negative skin friction or down drag.
Downward forces:
P - load on top of pile
W - weight of pile
Psd - Negative skin friction
Resistance forces:
Pb - Base resistance
Psr - upwards skin resistance
S* does NOT INCLUDE the load Psd because negative skin friction is a serviceability
load, and does not occur at the strength limit state.
Serviceability
Psd must be included as an adverse load when calculating settlement.
Estimates of settlement
Pile load test on prototype pile - Most accurate
Using elastic theory (Poulos and Davis) or empirical equations
Back analysis of load tests to give elastic parameters for above
From dynamic stress wave analysis
Advanced numerical analysis such as finite or boundary element analysis. It is
very difficult to get sufficient data of appropriate quality to obtain worthwhile
results.
Elastic theory
Use published solutions to the elastic problem.
P
s = I ; where I is a function of L/d and K.
L.E s
Ep
K= RA ; is called the relative stiffness or pile stiffness factor.
ES
d
Settlement Influence Factor, I
10.0
200
100
70
50
30
20
15
10
7
5
1.0
3
0.1
10 100 1000 10000
Pile stiffness factor, K
It is not simple to determine a suitable value of the soil modulus Es (table in code
gives estimates for various types of soil which may be used for preliminary
calculations).
Pile groups
Pu = n . Pu1
Where n is the no. of piles in the group.
Pu1 is the ultimate capacity of a single pile in the group.
Pu = the ultimate capacity of an equivalent block, containing the piles and the
soil between the piles.
The capacity of the block is calculated using the previous theory for single
piles and treating the block as if it were a large short pile.
With a rigid pile cap all piles settle by the same amount.
Design requires:
Adequate factor of safety against ultimate failure
Adequate deflection at working load
Method of Broms
assumed pressure distributions and magnitudes of earth pressure at failure.
considered short / long and free / restrained cases.
derived solutions from simple static equilibrium.
produced dimensionless design charts for ultimate lateral resistance (Theory and
eqns presented in Poulos and Davis)
must calculate capacity using BOTH short and long assumptions and choose the
lesser. This will also indicate the mode of failure.
for cohesionless soil the value ok Kp used in the charts is the RANKINE value.
p-y method
models the pile as a beam (vertical) supported by springs (horizontal)
spring constant is obtained from the coefficient of subgrade reaction
load deflection curve specified for each spring (p-y curve) - nonlinear
need to limit spring force to a maximum value (three times the Rankine value?)
H
= I F
E s .L
Where the terms, IH, IM, etc are influence factors, determined from charts. They are
a function of the flexibility factor:
E p .I pile
KR =
E s .L4
When using published results and tables ensure the notation, meaning and definitions
of all terms is clearly understood.
Hiley formula:
n.W.h
Pu =
c
s+
2
where,
Pu is the average resistance to penetration = ultimate static pile load
n is a hammer efficiency factor - depends on mass on pile and hammer and coefficient
of restitution
W is the weight of the hammer
h is the hammer drop distance
s is the set per hammer blow
c is an energy loss term (compression of packing, pile and ground)
Wave equation analysis is better and more widely used - test after installation
Analysis of data
Shaft resistance separation of stress and velocity curves.
Soil shaft resistance can only produce compressive reflection.
Any tensile reflection arriving at the gauge location (near the top of the pile) is
due to:
o Reflection from base
o Reflection from change in cross section of the pile
o Damage
The first two are expected the time of arrival of the tensile wave is known. If
the tensile wave does not correspond to the first two than damage is likely.
By comparing the size of the tensile reflection with that of the incident
compressive wave, corrected for the shaft resistance above the point, a or
integrity factor can be calculated.
PILE CONDITION
1.0 Undamaged
Wave equation