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from evaporative cooling, is discussed in Sec. V. Possible of state. Here csat (T ) is saturated vapor density, is relative
extensions of the present model and directions for further humidity of air far from the pool.
studies are outlined in Sec. VI. v x / x = v y / x = T / x = c / x = 0 at the left and right
boundaries, v x / y = v y / y = T / y = c / y = 0 at upper
II. NUMERICAL MODEL
boundary, v x = v y = T / x = c / x = 0 at lower boundary
A. Problem Formulation except for the pool surface. Computational domain is extended
We consider natural thermal and concentration-induced using increasing-grid-step layer more than 200 pool lengths to
convection in the air above water reservoir. Water temperature the left and to the right and more than 600 pool lengths
and parameters (temperature and relative humidity) of the air upwards in order to avoid interaction between boundary
far from the water surface are maintained constant. Only air- conditions and the developing flow.
side is simulated, water is represented by boundary conditions Problem formulation for finding the temperature difference
described below. Air dynamics is governed by Navier-Stokes between air and water is almost the same except that
equations complemented by transport equation for vapor temperature is uniform in the initial state. Water surface
temperature evolution is controlled by evaporation mass and
density. Compressibility effects are taken into account in
heat balance at the surface, which is described by boundary
simplified form, neglecting dp / dt in energy equation. This
conditions. Hereinafter we will refer to problem with fixed
allows to use numerical methods developed for incompressible water temperature as case A and to problem with water
fluid without considering the sound waves. Correspondingly, cooling due to evaporation as case B for brevity.
time step limitation becomes associated with local gas velocity
B. Boundary Conditions at Air-Water Interface
instead of speed of sound, which is important for slow
convective flows simulations. Both experimental data and numerical computations [9]
show that convection velocity in water is 10-20 times less than
air-side velocity. Moreover, water heat conductivity is
+ div( v ) = 0,
t relatively large, so temperature gradient is negligible in water.
dv Thus, it is possible to use no-slip condition v = 0 at the
= grad p + (v ) + grad div v + g,
dt 3 boundary and to calculate air-side only. Slow decrease of the
dT v v 2 v l
2 (1) water level due to evaporation is neglected.
c p = ( a T ) + i + k ik + g v,
dt 2 x k x i 3 x l According to Hertz-Knudsen relation [17], evaporative mass
dc
flux from water to the vapor near the surface equals
= (Dc ),
dt
p ( y) a a w p (T ) p (T )
= 0 1 c. m = sat sat + , (2)
RT w 2R T T+
form (see [8]) and stationary. Numerical results are shown in Fig. 4 as
Sherwood number relation to absolute value of Rayleigh
Sh = B Sc1 / 3 Ra n , (5) number. There is still universal curve in this case, but it lies
considerably lower than known correlations. Note that all
correlations except [13] were obtained for hot water case and
where Sc = /( D ) is Schmidt number. Fig. 3 presents the
are presented in Fig. 4 for qualitative comparison only. Power-
comparison between simulation results and known correlations
law approximation yields Sh = 0.981 | Ra |0.154 with even lower
for positive Rayleigh numbers. This implies positive, zero or
slightly negative temperature difference between water and air exponent.
as thermal convection usually dominates over concentration-
induced convection. Universal curve is obtained with good
accuracy in contrast to J - ( p w p a ) plane. Numerical results
lie within the range of existing correlations though Sherwood
numbers are less than predicted by most of them, especially for
high Rayleigh numbers. This can be associated either with the
absence of turbulence modeling or with two-dimensional
geometry of simulations. Note that both for analytical [5] and
empirical [15] correlations turbulent regime yields higher Sh .
Obtained power-law approximation Sh = 1.11 Ra 0.197 has
exponent lower than any of existing correlations (from 0.205
[13] to 0.327 [15]). The exponent in Sherwood-Rayleigh
relation determines evaporation rate dependence on pool size:
J ~ L3n 1 . If exponent is smaller than 1/3, evaporation rate Fig. 4. Sherwood-Rayleigh relation for negative Rayleigh numbers.
decreases with pool size increasing. Most of existing
correlations suggest that this decrease is slow. However, in V. WATER SURFACE COOLING DUE TO EVAPORATION
1882 Stefan derived that for circular and elliptical pans
evaporation rate is inversely proportional to pan radius, which
corresponds to n = 0 . Thus, the question about dependence on
pool size seems to be still open.
Fig. 3. Sherwood-Rayleigh relation for positive Rayleigh As mentioned above, using boundary condition (3) and
numbers: simulation results and known correlations. assuming vapor saturation at the water surface enables one to
calculate temperature difference between air and water in
IV. FIXED WATER TEMPERATURE: NEGATIVE RAYLEIGH quasi-stationary state. Water is gradually cooled until heat loss
NUMBERS due to evaporation is balanced by gain from conductive
Cold water situation when concentration-induced exchange with air, pool walls and from radiation. Note that
convection is suppressed by thermally stable stratification is radiation and heat gain by water through the walls are
less popular. Correlation by Sparrow et al. [13] is the only one described in simplified form using efficient heat transfer
known for this case. Nevertheless, this situation is common coefficient = 13.7 W/(m2K) as evaluated from experiments
e.g. in oceanography in upwelling phenomenon. No stochastic [16]. The final state is not stationary because convection
plume generation occurs in this case, the final state is laminar proceeds in chaotic bursts as in the case A for hot water. If a
convective plume emerges somewhere at the water surface, [3] W. H. Carrier, The temperature of evaporation, ASHVE Trans., vol.
24, pp. 25-50, 1918.
humidity gradient is decreased and evaporation heat loss [4] G. W. Himus, J. W. Hinchly, The effect of a current of air on the rate
diminishes. This leads to local water surface temperature of evaporation of water below the boiling point, Chemistry and
increase and correspondent decrease of temperature difference Industry, vol. 22, pp. 840845, August 1924.
with air. Heat gain from conductivity and radiation drops, [5] M.M. Shah, Prediction of evaporation from occupied indoor swimming
pools, Energy & Buildings, vol. 35, pp. 707-713, August 2003.
which results in water temperature decrease. These oscillations [6] ASHRAE Handbook HVAC Applications. Atlanta: American Society
take place all over the air-water interface, causing stochastic of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers, Inc, 2003.
plume generation. Average water temperature is higher near [7] M. Al-Shammiri, Evaporation rate as a function of water salinity,
Desalination, vo1. 150, pp. 189-203, November 2002.
the pool center, which confirms Stefans result that [8] S.M. Bower and J.R. Saylor, A study of the Sherwood-Rayleigh
evaporation is more intense near the edge. relation for water undergoing natural convection-driven evaporation,
Average temperature difference between air and water is Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer, vol. 52, pp. 3055-3063, June 2009.
[9] S.J.K Bukhari and M.H.K. Siddiqui, Characteristics of air and water
shown in Fig. 5 as function of ambient air relative humidity for velocity fields during natural convection, Heat Mass Transfer, vol. 43,
different ambient temperatures. The dependence show linear pp. 415-425, March 2007.
behavior in all three cases. The values show good agreement [10] Z. Li and P. Heiselberg, CFD Simulations for water evaporation and
airflow movement in swimming baths indoor environmental
with experiment [16]. Investigation of terms in (3)
engineering, Aalborg University, Denmark, Report for the project
demonstrates that most important are the second and the third Optimization of ventilation system in swimming bath, April 2005.
terms i.e. evaporation and external heat from radiation and [11] L.M.K. Boelter, H.S. Gordon, B.F. Sharpley, Free evaporation into air
through the walls. Conductive heat flux and heat fluxes along of water from a free horizontal quiet surface, Ind. Eng. Chem., vol. 38,
pp. 596-600, 1946.
the surface are about 10 times less in quasi-stationary state. [12] B.F. Sharpley and L.M.K. Boelter, Evaporation of water into quiet air
from a one-foot diameter surface, Ind. Eng. Chem., vol. 30, pp. 1125-
VI. CONCLUSIONS 1131, 1938.
[13] E.M. Sparrow, G.K. Kratz, M.J. Schuerger, Evaporation of water from
Boundary conditions have been proposed which enable one a horizontal surface by natural convection, J. Heat Transfer, vol. 105,
to calculate evaporation rate directly, performing simulations pp. 469-475, August 1983.
[14] R.J. Goldstein, E.M. Sparrow, D.C. Jones, Natural convection mass
in either fixed water temperature formulation or taking into transfer adjacent to horizontal plates, Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer, vol.
account water cooling due to evaporation. Computations have 16, pp. 1025-1035, May 1973.
yielded universal curves for Sherwood-Rayleigh relation in [15] J.R. Lloyd and W.R. Moran, Natural convection adjacent to horizontal
both cases of negative and positive Rayleigh numbers. surface of various planforms, J. Heat Transfer, vol. 96, pp. 443-447,
November 1974.
However, these curves are characterized with lower power-law [16] Y.Y. Plaksina, V.N. Aksenov, E.G. Andreev, Study of cool and warm
exponent than the existing empirical correlations. Next step is surface skin formation in laboratory conditions, Moscow Univ. Phys.
to incorporate turbulence modeling and to explore turbulence Bulletin, vol. 64, pp. 355-357, June 2009.
[17] C. Cercignani, Rarefied gas dynamics. Cambridge University Press,
influence on Sherwood-Rayleigh relation at high Rayleigh 2000, pp. 273-285.
numbers. Another obvious extension is performing 3D- [18] A.I. Osipov, A.V. Uvarov, N.A. Vinnichenko, Influence of the initial
simulations. Also, volume condensation model should be nonequilibrium state of a medium on the structure of von Karman
vortex street, Phys. Fluids, vol. 18, 105106, October 2006.
included to extend the range of situations which can be
modeled. So far, water-side flow was not taken into account.
Its velocity is much lower than the velocity of air-side flow,
however it is important for exploration of temperature
gradients in water and more accurate modeling of water
heating from the pool walls. Hence, more detailed simulations
should include water consideration and v x / y = 0 instead of
v x = 0 at air-water interface. One more factor which can
affect evaporation rate is horizontal wind in the vicinity of
water surface. As in the case of forced convection heat
exchange, even weak wind can enhance humid air removal
from the surface, leading to evaporation rate increase. All
these factors are to be modeled and compared directly to the
experiment in the near future.
REFERENCES
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[2] M. Knudsen, Die maximale verdampfungsgeschwindigkeit des
quecksilbers, (in German), Ann. NatPhys., vol. 47, pp. 697-708,
August 1915.