Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
chap ter 51
Human resources management and capacity
development
Summary51.2 51.16
Conducting meetings51.27
51.1 Recognizing the crisis in human resources for Conditions for effective meetings Skills of chairing
health51.2 Assessment guide51.28
51.2 Addressing the crisis in the short and long References and further readings 51.28
terms51.3 illustrations
51.3 Understanding the role of HRM at all levels of the Figure 51-1 Staff pressure map 51.18
health care system 51.7 Figure 51-2 Sample job description for a chief pharmaceutical
51.4 Assessing the strength of HRM in the supplies officer51.24
organization51.9 Table 51-1 Pharmaceutical personnel, density per 100,000
51.5 Encouraging human resources leadership at the population in selected countries, 200708 51.3
organizational level51.11 Table 51-2 Australias rural pharmacy program strategies to
51.6 Assessing staffing requirements 51.11 increase pharmacy staff in underserved areas 51.6
Table 51-3 Human resources development components 51.11
51.7 Recruiting and hiring needed workers 51.15 Table 51-4 Comparison of communication channels 51.21
51.8 Developing and maintaining a performance
b oxes
management system51.15
Box 51-1 FIP, UNESCO, and WHO Pharmacy Education
51.9 Establishing a responsive supervisory system 51.17
Taskforce Plan of Action 200810 51.7
51.10 Improving motivation, retention, and productivity Box 51-2 The human resources for health framework 51.8
through HRM51.17 Box 51-3 Benefits of establishing a strong HRM system 51.11
HRM responsibility for fairness in the workplace HRM Box 51-4 Recruitment action checklist 51.14
responsibility for setting work priorities HRM
responsibility for providing feedback on performance c ountry studies
HRM responsibility for providing meaningful work HRM CS 51-1 Using partnerships to improve HR capacity to
responsibility for professional development of staff deliver pharmaceutical services in Namibia 51.4
51.11 Using channels of communication 51.21 CS 51-2 Supporting task shifting to build HR capacity in
Choosing the channel Nonverbal communication pharmaceutical management in Kenya 51.6
Improving communication Feedback skills CS 51-3 Using a regional resource to build capacity in
pharmaceutical management51.10
51.12 Preparing job descriptions 51.22
CS 51-4 Assessing Namibian pharmaceutical sector
Developing a job description Staff orientation Staff
capacity to support the scale-up of HIV/AIDS
procedures handbook
programs51.12
51.13
Disciplining staff51.23 CS 51-5 Instituting an emergency hiring plan in Kenya 51.16
51.14
Handling conflict51.25 CS 51-6 Using performance-based financing to increase
Competing style Accommodating style Avoiding worker retention and service quality in
style Collaborating style Compromising style Rwanda51.19
51.15
Delegating51.26
s u mm a r y
Human resources are central to planning, managing, Effectively addressing human resources challenges
and delivering health services, including pharmaceutical requires improved leadership and management at all
services. In most countries, personnel account for a high levels. An expanded HRM role, especially at the facility
proportion of the national budget for the health sector level, is needed to transform the outdated view of human
often 75 percent or more. Despite the critical importance resources as mainly an administrative function to one
of human resources to the functioning of pharmaceuti- where the human resources staff work closely with man-
cal management programs, few concerted efforts have agers to support the health goals of the organization and
addressed the severe staff shortages facing the health to ensure that the right staff with the right skills are in
sector in many countries. The HIV/AIDS pandemic has place to meet these goals.
intensified this already serious situation.
Managing people is an important and challenging task for
In addition to staffing shortages, the health system faces any manager. Employees are motivated by many factors
many human resources challenges, including human that can be affected by management. Receiving effective
resources planning, recruitment, deployment, training, supervision, perceiving they are fairly treated, under-
staff motivation, and staff development. The root causes standing their job priorities, getting feedback, feeling
of these issues can be traced to years of neglect, low sala- valued and appreciated, and having opportunities for pro-
ries, poor workplace climate, and limited capacity to train fessional development can all help staff perform better.
and update staff skills. Interventions needed to alleviate
Developing and maintaining a fair, equitable, and effec-
the human resources crisis include short-term actions,
tive HRM system can motivate staff and increase their
such as task shifting, while in the long term, countries
level of job satisfaction and efficiency, which can result
need to expand their capacity to train enough staff to fill
in improved service quality. An important part of a
needs. Some issues need to be addressed at the national
long-term strategy is creating an organizational and
level (for example, compensation), but many can be
management structure for HRM that is implemented by
addressed through better leadership and human resource
managers and staff at all levels. A human resources part-
management (HRM) at the facility level. In the pharma-
nership between senior managers, supervisors, human
ceutical sector, the goal of HRM is to develop and sustain
resources professionals, and individual staff members is
an adequate supply of skilled professionals who are moti-
what makes an HRM system work.
vated to provide a high level of pharmaceutical care.
51.1 Recognizing the crisis in human deliver effective services. In these countries, staff attrition
resources for health rates are rising because of HIV infection, illness, and death
as well as the migration of staff to urban areas or other coun-
Countries throughout the world, especially developing tries. Vacancy rates in public-sector organizations are also
countries, have long suffered from a severe lack of skilled rising, while the pool of skilled candidates to fill positions is
health workers and managers. The delivery of health ser- still not deep enough. Results from a twelve-country survey
vices is labor intensive, and the workforce is the primary showed that the problem is so serious that countries simply
determinant of health system effectiveness, yet strategies do not have the human resources capacity to absorb, deploy,
and systems for human capacity development in most min- and use additional funds that they are receiving to improve
istries of health are inadequate to meet the needs of the health (Kinfu et al. 2009). Estimates cited in the survey indi-
population. In addition, the lack of health staff, including cate that workforces in the most-affected countries would
trained pharmacy staff, has compromised health care in need to increase by up to 140 percent to attain health devel-
rural areas. Moreover, the demands of scaling up antiret- opment targets.
roviral treatment (ART) programs and the related time- The pharmaceutical personnel situation in many coun-
consuming care have overburdened already weak systems tries is dire; for example, countries such as Benin and
for human resources development and management and Mali have less than one pharmaceutical worker for every
drained personnel from other health services. Absenteeism 100,000 people, whereas France, in comparison, has more
and low morale are widespread, and work-related stress than 100 per 100,000 (Table 51-1). Uganda has an esti-
reduces health workers productivity. mated 30 percent of the pharmacists it actually needs
Countries with a high prevalence of HIV/AIDS that can- (Matsiko and Kiwanuka 2003). Some industrialized coun-
not address acute shortages in the short term are unable to tries also have pharmacy staff shortages; many areas of the
51/Human resources management and capacity development 51.3
Table 51-1 Pharmaceutical personnel,a density per For example, in Kenya, 58 percent of health facilities are
100,000 population in selected countries, 200708 in the public sector, whereas 86 percent of the pharma-
ceutical workforce is employed in the private sector (FIP
Country Density 2009). Country Study 51-1 shows how a public-private
Benin <1 partnership in Namibia, where pharmacists prefer
Niger <1 private-sector employment, successfully recruited and
Senegal 1 pharmacy professionals into public-sector service.
Burkina Faso 2
Poor distribution of staff: The predominance of health work-
ers is in urban areaswhere they earn more and have
Malawi 2
access to better opportunitiesmeaning that rural areas
Uzbekistan 3 often suffer from acute shortages of trained workers.
Bhutan 4 Uganda is a country that has less than one pharmacist
Ghana 7 per 100,000 people in its population, but almost 90 per-
Liberia 8 cent of the existing pharmacists are located in the Central
region, while the other 10 percent are divided among the
Nigeria 13
other four regions in the country (FIP 2006).
Turkey 33 Insufficient preservice training: Many countries lack the
Albania 39 ability to train enough pharmaceutical professionals to
Israel 76 fill their needs; they may have no or only one accredited
Bahrain 86 school of pharmacy, for example. Increasing the number
of skilled workers requires capacity in the educational
France 118
systemenough teachers, updated curriculum, and
Source: WHO Department of Human Resources for Health 2008.
a
Pharmaceutical personnel include pharmacists, pharmaceutical technicians, and
adequate infrastructurewhich takes time to build. Even
pharmaceutical technologists. when graduates are available, retention is difficult unless
good management exists to absorb, train, and support
them.
United States have some difficulty filling pharmacist posi-
tions (FIP 2009).
The dynamics of entry and exit from the health workforce 51.2 Addressing the crisis in the short and
in many countries remains poorly understood, and many long terms
reasonssuch as lack of investment in training, illness,
and premature retirement and deathcontribute to the Global action is required not only to address high-priority
shortage. This lack of understanding inhibits countries and infectious diseases but also to meet the long-term human
development partners from developing and implementing resources needs of health systems in developing countries.
appropriate interventions. Several factors, however, are rec- The greatest challenge is to begin addressing shortages of
ognized as important contributors to the shortage of trained health personnel in an integrated and comprehensive fash-
pharmacy personnel and other health care workers, includ- ion. Responses to the challenge must meet both the short-
ing term necessities of providing lifesaving treatment and the
long-term human resources needs of the health sector (see
Migration of health personnel: Migration contributes signifi- Country Study 51-1).
cantly to the loss of health workers from many countries. Short-term responses include implementing aggressive
For example, almost two-thirds of Ghanas 140 pharmacy retention policies, such as improving terms and conditions
school graduates in 2003 migrated to a different country; of service for health workers, providing ART to health work-
between 2001 and 2004, Zimbabwe had about 150 new ers who need it to preserve their health and productivity,
pharmacy graduates, while 100 Zimbabwean pharma- and encouraging temporary regional migration of work-
cists registered to work in the United Kingdom during ers from countries with surplus workers to countries with
the same period (FIP 2006). Even relatively well-off deficits. For example, Kenya has bilateral agreements with
countries like South Africa are losing trained health pro- Namibia, Southern Sudan, and Lesotho to send nurses to
fessionals to richer economies (FIP 2006). work on short-term contracts in those countries.
Staff leaving the public sector: Health staff members leave Task shifting has been used extensively and often effec-
the public sector to work for donor-funded projects tively to fill gaps in health care worker shortages, includ-
that are flourishing from the large influx of money into ing in pharmacies (WHO Maximizing Positive Synergies
Africa; in addition, health workers often choose to work Collaborative Group 2009). Often, lower-level pharmacy
in the private sector, where remuneration is often better. workers, such as pharmacy technicians, or other cadres,
51.4 H uman resources manag ement
Human resources crisis in pharmacy RPM Plus worked with the MoHSS to develop a
mechanism to expedite the hire of pharmacists and
According to the World Health Organizations Global
pharmacist assistants for priority positions in the
Atlas of the Health Workforce, in 2004, Namibia had
public sector; all target positions were identified and
fourteen pharmacists per 100,000 people, or half of South
aligned with MoHSS priorities.
Africas twenty-eight pharmacists per 100,000. Namibias
Job descriptions for temporary staff were made
pharmacists are also poorly distributed80 percent
commensurate with those in the public sector; work
work in the private sector, leaving priority public health
standards were set according to MoHSS policies.
programs short of qualified staff. About half the pharma-
The MoHSS led the interview and selection process.
cists working in the public sector are located in Khomas
Remuneration for recruited staff was set in accor-
region, particularly in Windhoek city, leaving the other
dance with the MoHSS scale.
twelve regions short of qualified personnel. Pharmacist
A local human resources company, Potentia
assistants in most district hospitals occupy positions
Namibia Recruitment Consultancy, recruited suc-
meant for more highly skilled pharmacists.
cessful personnel and managed their remuneration
In 2006, of the forty-eight public-sector pharmacy posts and benefits.
available, only fourteen were filledfour of these were The MoHSS directly supervised and evaluated the
filled by Namibians. performance of recruited personnel.
The MoHSS mobilized its own resources and sys-
Challenges in filling positions in Namibia
tems to progressively absorb the newly appointed
Foreigners on two-to-three-year contracts fill 90 personnel into the government personnel structure.
percent of pharmacist positions. Knowledge of local
Results of the partnership
languages is critical; English speakers usually need
translators to communicate with patients, while the In two years, twenty-eight pharmaceutical staff members
many Cuban pharmacists have a hard time because (eleven pharmacists, one network administrator, and six-
of a lack of Spanish translators. teen pharmacy assistants) were recruited; 64 percent of
No pharmacy school exists in Namibia, and an the staff positions have been absorbed into the public ser-
inadequate number of Namibian students pursue a vice (46 percent of the pharmacists and 81 percent of the
pharmacy degree abroad. Those who do return from pharmacy assistants). Despite Namibias lucrative private
abroad choose careers in the private sector. sector, no pharmacist that the partnership recruited and
Of 515 students pursuing health and social wel- supported has been lost to the private sector. Vacancy
fare training at the University of Namibia during rates have been reduced by more than half, and evidence
200304, only two were enrolled in the prepharmacy suggests that the quality of pharmaceutical care and ser-
program. vices has improved. According to the Kunene regional
The Namibia National Health Training Center director, There is better ordering of pharmaceutical
trained only about eight pharmacist assistants in a items and stock management has improved. The com-
year. pilation of consumption pattern has been done, and it is
The public-sector recruitment process was time con- easier to forecast needs of certain pharmaceutical items.
suming; therefore, engaging pharmacistsparticu- The Regional and District Therapeutic Committees have
larly those from abroadtook a long time. been resuscitated and have begun to look more closely at
pharmaceutical issues in the region and districts.
A partnership to expedite the recruitment of
pharmacy staff Lessons learned
The Ministry of Health and Social Services (MoHSS) and The time and resources needed to manage staff before
the Rational Pharmaceutical Management Plus (RPM they were absorbed into the public sector proved higher
Plus) Program developed an intervention with the goal than RPM Plus expected. Thus, contracting with a local
of increasing the number of facilities with qualified phar- human resources company to manage the seconded staff
maceutical staff. The partnership model comprised the on behalf of the MoHSS and RPM Plus proved vital to the
following components partnerships success. Additional steps that were critical
to the process included working closely with the MoHSS
51/Human resources management and capacity development 51.5
to identify its needs, complying with MoHSS policies and itybuilding interventions should be based on existing
standards, and recruiting pharmacy assistants as they government systems to ensure their eventual integration
graduate and before they slip into the private sector. and sustainability. This innovative collaboration created
a new mechanism for the government to fill priority
Innovative partnerships between the public and private
pharmaceutical positions more quickly while allowing it
sectors can help national programs expand their human
to gradually absorb the positions into its existing struc-
resources base more quickly; however, the success of
turethereby addressing immediate program needs
such partnerships relies heavily on the explicit commit-
while ensuring long-term contributions.
ment of each partner, including the host government, the
donor, and the technical assistance team. Human capac- Source: Tjipura-Tjiho et al. 2007.
such as nurses, are given the responsibility of running through improved retention (see http://www.who.int/hrh/
an entire dispensing site because no fully trained phar- migration/expert_meeting/en/index.html).
macist is available to do so. Some countries are training Long-term solutions require national-level planning and
community health workers to dispense certain medicines, strategies. Governments should work with professional
especially for childhood illnesses. Country Study 51-2 illus- organizations, regulatory bodies, training institutions,
trates how Kenya supported pharmaceutical management unions, and employers to develop long-term workforce
task shifting to support ART scale-up. The World Health plans. Strategies should strive for self-sufficiency rather
Organization (WHO), the U.S. Presidents Emergency Plan than rely on foreign workers or educational institutions.
for AIDS Relief, and the Joint United Nations Programme Governments also need to ensure that legislation and
on HIV/AIDS (WHO, PEPFAR, and UNAIDS 2008) have regulations keep up with capacity-building strategies. For
also collaborated on guidelines for task shifting in the example, Sudans Ribat University opened a new school and
health sector. approved a three-year curriculum for pharmacy technicians;
To address the lack of pharmaceutical workers in rural however, the pharmacy technician cadre was not defined in
or peri-urban areas, countries such as Vietnam require any policy or legislation, and how the cadre differs from that
students receiving government scholarships to work in of pharmacy assistant or what its role is in pharmacy prac-
underserved areas upon graduation. Vietnam also allows tice is unclear (FIP 2009).
pharmacy schools to accept students from underserved More educational and preservice training opportunities
provinces and rural areas without a competitive examina- are the key to solving long-term staffing problems. WHO
tion (FIP 2009). Other countries use financial incentives to and the International Pharmaceutical Federation (FIP) have
boost recruitment in rural areas, but this strategy may not established a task force to examine issues related to address-
be sustainable if it relies on outside funds. Australia is tack- ing pharmacy education as a means of increasing the num-
ling its shortage of pharmacists through a series of strate- ber of pharmacists. Box 51-1 includes the task forces plan of
gies known as the Rural Pharmacy Program. The framework action. Namibia addressed its lack of pharmaceutical train-
is based on the belief that a combination of incentives to ing capacity by expanding the ability of the National Health
address these multiple factors is more likely to be successful Training Centre to train pharmacy assistants by renovating
than a single intervention and that the synergy among the classrooms and offices, revising curriculum, and provid-
interventions can improve both recruitment and retention ing tutors and training consultants. As a result, the center
(FIP 2009). Table 51-2 shows examples of the types of strate- increased its yield of pharmacy assistant graduates by 100
gies the program uses. percent in one yearfrom nine in 2009 to eighteen in 2010,
Countries are also enacting policies and incentives to with sixty more in line to graduate by 2012. The 2010 gradu-
recruit and retain more pharmaceutical personnel in the ates were all recruited into the public sector.
public sector. In Kenya, for example, improved policies and In addition to using public institutions to help build
terms of service in the public sector have led to higher reten- pharmaceutical sector human resources, providing techni-
tion of pharmacy stafffrom 433 in 2005 to 609 in 2008 cal assistance to academic institutions in resource-limited
and Sudan now requires pharmacist graduates to spend one countries and fostering regional collaboration are efficient
year in government health institutions, which has increased ways to build institutional capacity. The Regional Technical
the number of pharmacists in the public sector, particularly Resource Collaboration for Pharmaceutical Management,
in rural areas (FIP 2009). Sudan has also created opportuni- described in Country Study 51-3, is an example of such a
ties for postgraduate study to minimize attrition from the regional approach to capacity building.
public sector (FIP 2009). WHO launched an initiative to Box 51-2 presents a human resources for health (HRH)
increase access to health workers in remote and rural areas framework that promotes a comprehensive and integrated
51.6 H uman resources manag ement
Table 51-2 Australias rural pharmacy program strategies to increase pharmacy staff in underserved areas
Box 51-1
FIP, UNESCO, and WHO Pharmacy Education Taskforce Action Plan 200810
To define pharmacy service competencies across all To guide stakeholders toward an accepted holistic
settings and levels of the health system vision for the entire continuum of pharmacy educa-
To set educational objectives aligned with compe- tion at the global, regional, and local levels
tencies and develop a framework that considers the To provide advocacy and technical guidance to
entire pharmacy education continuum from under- country-level stakeholders and educational institu-
graduate education through to continuing profes- tions
sional development at the postgraduate level To establish a global platform for ongoing dialogue;
To develop a global framework for quality assurance sharing of evidence, practices, lessons learned,
and the development of accreditation systems (e.g., resources, and tools for pharmacy education; and
development of standards for educational institu- workforce planning
tions and programs) in pharmacy education FIP = International Pharmaceutical Federation; UNESCO = United
To gather and analyze data on the academic/faculty Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization; WHO =
workforce, and review and develop capacity devel- World Health Organization.
opment strategies that meet local, regional, or global
needs
approach to developing strategies to tackle both immediate salaries and working conditions, but these benefits must be
and longer-term HRM challenges. The framework exam- equitable for all staff.
ines six components of planning and managing the work- Even as policy makers adjust policy and regulatory frame-
force so that appropriately trained personnel are available works at the national level, managers of district health ser-
in the right places at the right time: HRM, policy, finance, vices, nongovernmental organizations, public hospitals, or
education, partnerships, and leadership. HRM systems are pharmacies can still do much to strengthen the HRM sys-
at the center of the diagram because of their importance in tem. At the organizational level, where most program man-
integrating all the other components. Country Study 51-4 agers function, HRM involves linking management and
illustrates how the results of an HRM assessment of the development of human resources to an organizations strate-
pharmaceutical sector in Namibia were organized using the gic plan, goals, and objectives. Establishing these links is an
HRH framework. essential management strategy.
An essential part of the overall management strategy
should be to consider how HRM can help the organiza-
51.3 Understanding the role of HRM at all tion fulfill its goals. Often people view HRM as having a
levels of the health care system limited, administrative role focused on documenting staff
personnel actions. Although this administrative role is very
Human resources management is the integrated use of sys- important, the role of human resources should not be lim-
tems, policies, and management practices to recruit, main- ited to these activities. In light of the new global initiatives
tain, and develop employees so the organization can meet its resulting in scaled-up public health treatment programs for
desired goals (MSH 1999). Effective HRM should help man- diseases such as HIV/AIDS and malaria, human resources
agers make plans and hire trained staff, and help employees should
find meaningful work with avenues for career development.
A comprehensive HRM system provides managers with Be a strategic partner in developing and attaining the
a framework and tools to better plan, recruit, hire, deploy, goals of global initiatives
motivate, and retain employees. At the national level, HRM Align human resources needs with the demand for
involves developing health-sector strategies, policies, and new and old services
practices to ensure a workforce that is balanced in numbers Assess the need for task shifting and new job descrip-
of staff, qualifications, and placement. tions
Initiatives such as the Global Fund to Fight AIDS, Develop incentives for staffing hard-to-reach areas
Tuberculosis and Malaria and the Presidents Emergency Keep all employees informed about the changes taking
Plan for AIDS Relief, while adding more financial resources, place
are also putting pressure on human resources. Sometimes Create opportunities for staff to contribute ideas
such initiatives can be an opportunity to advocate for better Encourage teamwork and team spirit
51.8 H uman resources manag ement
Box 51-2
The human resources for health framework
The World Health Organization and the U.S. Agency ing and implementing a national strategy for human
for International Development invited thirty-five rep- resources for health; be simple but comprehensive; and
resentatives from various agencies, donor countries, show the interdependencies among the various players,
nongovernmental organizations, and academia to draft a institutions, and labor markets involved in the health
common technical framework to help governments and workforce.
national planners understand the complex problems of
The following figure and table illustrate and explain the
human resources for health.
final framework. Additional information on the develop-
Meeting participants agreed that the framework should ment of the framework and how it can be used to develop
be scientifically based, tested in the field, and useful in a national strategy can be found in the publication Tools
a multisectoral and multistakeholder context. It had to for Planning and Developing Human Resources for HIV/
capture the content and processes involved in develop- AIDS and Other Health Services (MSH/WHO 2006).
S i t u a t i o n a l a n a l y si s
on Policy
ti
lua
a n d e va
Pla n ni n g
Leadership Finance
Human Resources
Management Systems
rin g to
Partnership Education
ni o
I m pl e m e n t a ti o n
Health services
Equity
Effectiveness
Efficiency
Quality
Framework components
Component Goal Factors in achieving the goal
HRM systems HRM systems are in place that result in adequate and HRM capacity in health facilities, local governments,
timely staffing, staff retention, teamwork, effective and local health offices
planning, and good performance. Effective personnel systems: planning, recruitment,
hiring, transfer, promotion, firing
Staff retention strategies
Training aligned with job requirements
Human resources information systems
Workplace programs for HIV prevention
Policy Employment process in government is streamlined; National civil service rules
appropriate HR policies are in place and enforced. Government policies and structure for HRM (such as
centralized hiring and firing)
Authorized scopes of practice for health cadres
Finance Approved budget is adequate to sustain projected Health expenditures
health workforce requirements. Allocation authority is Salary structures
aligned with technical and management planning and Incentives to prevent migration of health staff
decision making. Support for preservice and in-service training
Administrative costs for recruitment, hiring
Supervision
Accountability
Education Preservice training institutions have the capacity to Enough institutions to train all required health cadres
meet demand for essential health workers and to adapt Adequate number of lecturers and tutors who meet
curricula as needed for new content requirements. quality standards for both content and teaching
capacity
Training programs that match demand for health
cadres and include essential content (clinic
management, health management information
systems, etc.)
Availability of equipment and supplies needed for
preservice training
Partnerships Planned links among sectors; districts; and Effective links among public-sector, private-sector,
nongovernmental, community, and religious and community networks
organizations increase human capacity. Collaboration between ministry of health and
ministries of finance and education
Leadership Managers at all levels demonstrate that they value Visionary leadership
health workers and provide staff with leadership to face Advocacy for reform of human resources policies
challenges and achieve results. Leadership development for managers at all levels
Source: MSH/WHO 2006.
Furthermore, a strong and comprehensive HRM system strong, comprehensive HRM system is gathering the infor-
has many benefits for managers and employees at all levels mation that will help plan for and implement the system. To
in both public- and private-sector organizations. Such a do this, management needs to assess the organizations exist-
system can help ensure that staff members deliver quality ing areas of strength and the areas that need strengthening.
health and pharmaceutical services to their client communi- After it has identified the areas that require strengthening,
ties. Box 51-3 lists the benefits of establishing a strong HRM management should prioritize them and develop an HRM
system. action plan to address them.
By asking the following questions, a manager can begin
to think about some of the issues involved and begin the
51.4 Assessing the strength of HRM in the process of establishing an HRM system that improves pro-
organization ductivity and helps provide quality services
HRM is perhaps the most misunderstood and poorly used Do employees understand how their work specifically
management system in the health sector. As a result, deter- contributes to the mission and goals of the organization?
mining an organizations view of its human resources and Do employees view performance appraisals as an
how it should strengthen its systems can be a challenging opportunity to learn about their skills and competen-
task. One of the most important actions in establishing a cies and to discuss plans?
51.10 H uman resources manag ement
Is the supervisors role valued and supported by the Do managers spend less than 10 percent of their time
organization? dealing with grievances?
Are job descriptions up-to-date and readily available to Can the organization take on new objectives or tasks
all employees? with cooperation from everyone?
Are employees routinely considered for job vacancies
and other opportunities for promotion? Assuming the assessment identifies gaps that indicate
Do employees understand the organizations policies the need to establish a stronger HRM system in the orga-
on salaries and benefits and consider them fair and nization, several key issues should be considered, which
equitable? include
Can the organization engage in long-range planning,
knowing it has or can develop the human resources Encouraging human resources leadership at the orga-
required? nizational level
Does the organization have strategies to provide mean- Assessing staffing requirements
ingful jobs? Developing and maintaining a performance manage-
Does the organization have a spirit of achievement and ment system
high performance? Establishing a responsive supervisory system
Do employees come to work on time and work pro- Improving staff motivation and performance through
ductively for the full workday? better human resources practices
Box 51-3
Benefits of establishing a strong HRM system
These HRM areas are relevant in any organization, Table 51-3 Human resources development components
regardless of its size, purpose, and degree of complexity, and
Component Sample elements
whether it is public or private. Carrying out a comprehen-
HRM capacity HRM budget
sive HRM assessment will help address policy, planning, HRM staff
training, and management in an integrated way.
HRM planning Organizational mission and goals
HRM planning
Personnel policy Job classification system
51.5 Encouraging human resources leadership and practice Compensation and benefits system
at the organizational level Recruitment, hiring, transfer, and
promotion
Many organizations treat HRM in a piecemeal fashion. Orientation program
Policy manual
Human resources leaders link all components of human Discipline, termination, and grievance
resources to create one, integrated HRM system. When an procedures
organizations leaders create this type of integrated system, Relationships with unions
Labor law compliance
the effect on organizational performance can be profound.
In supporting human resources by giving it a prominent and HRM data Employee data
Computerization of data
strategic role, managers and leaders are also sending a mes- Personnel files
sage to all staff that the organization will treat them fairly
Performance Job descriptions
and will respect their contribution to its success. Table 51-3 management Supervision
lists the components that contribute to developing a human Work planning and performance review
resources system. Training Staff training
Every organization or program needs leadership at the Management and leadership
highest level to support human resources. To take a leader- development
ship role in HRM, a manager should Links to external preservice training
What is the scope of the services to be offered in rela- most of the importation, bulk inventory control, and bulk
tion to the selection, procurement, distribution, and storage occur within the private sector.
use of pharmaceuticals? An example of a large-scale human resources challenge
What different types of workers are required at each is the integration of ART for HIV/AIDS into existing
level of the system? pharmacy services, which can easily double the volume of
What is the optimal number of employees needed to pharmaceutical products the staff handles and dramati-
deliver these services in the most efficient and effective cally increase the number of patients served at the phar-
manner? macy. Pharmacy staff that dispenses antiretroviral drugs
must spend more time counseling patients, especially new
Administrative arrangements can vary considerably, even patients. In addition, because patients continue therapy for a
within one agency or government. For example, medicine lifetime, they need regular monitoring for treatment adher-
selection and use may fall under the purview of the min- ence, which adds to staff responsibility.
istry of health, whereas procurement and distribution may An analysis of information on human resources require-
be handled by a different ministry, responsible for supplies. ments for ART showed that the number of pharmacy staff
Also, many options exist in linking with pharmaceutical needed depended on how dispensing and counseling activi-
supply sources. If pharmaceutical procurement and distri- ties were divided among different cadres; however, the aver-
bution are provided directly by a government agency, then age number of pharmacy staff was estimated at one to two
all jobs may be performed by government staff. If the cen- per 1,000 ART patients (Hirschhorn et al. 2006). In Kenya,
tral procurement office is limited to negotiating with com- ART managers have addressed the shortage of pharmacists
mercial suppliers for direct delivery to health facilities, then by developing a cluster of facilities that share the services
51.14 H uman resources manag ement
Box 51-4
Recruitment action checklist
Duties and responsibilities of the job If you are asking applicants to complete an application
Qualifications and experience required form, check that it requests all the details you will need
Personal qualities sought to help you assess the candidates. Asking a colleague to
Location complete the form from the perspective of a candidate
Some indication of the salary range can also be helpful to ensure that the form is clear.
Form of reply you require (i.e., CV and covering let- Source: Society for Human Resources Management (http://www.shrm.
ter, copies of relevant certificates, and testimonials) org).
Deadline for the submission of applications and
where the application should be sent
of one ART-trained pharmacist, who floats among the clus- required by a health facility or organization. Box 51-4 has a
tered sites, while technicians or nurses take care of the rou- recruitment action checklist that focuses on planning and
tine responsibilities. undertaking the initial stages of the process. In addition to
Calculating and justifying the number of pharmaceuti- assessing the need for additional or replacement staff, the
cal management staff needed can be difficult. The norms process involves identifying the tasks to be carried out, spec-
approach, which specifies a standard staffing level, or norm, ifying the kind of person needed, finding a pool of suitable
for each staff cadre, quickly breaks down in practice. For candidates, drawing up a short list, conducting interviews,
example, a norm that says that each regional store needs hiring, inducting the new hires, and deploying them.
three supplies officers will result in overstaffing at small Country Study 51-5 describes how implementing emer-
regional stores and understaffing at busier stores. gency administrative reform allowed Kenya to fast-track
The workload approach to staffing is based on the activi- recruitment and hiring into the public-sector health ser-
ties, volume of work (workload), and activity standards for vices.
each type of staff at each level. This is known as the WISN,
or workload indicator of staffing need, approach (Shipp
1998). The WISN method is generally a much more realis- 51.8 Developing and maintaining a
tic approach for determining staffing needs than the norms performance management system
approach. Because it is based on actual workload, results
from the WISN method are more readily explained and One of the most important tasks for a manager is to support
defended. the establishment of an organization-wide performance
No matter how the organizational structure and contrac- management system that connects strategic and operational
tual arrangements are defined, all the tasks and related jobs plans with performance measures for organizational units
must be performed if the pharmaceutical supply system is to and for individuals. This system helps employees under-
operate reliably and expeditiously. An organizational chart stand how their work contributes to the success of the orga-
describing the relationships among different staff positions nization, which may make them feel more motivated and be
is very useful. more productive. When implemented in a systematic way,
performance management has the potential to improve both
group and individual performance and to make organiza-
51.7 Recruiting and hiring needed workers tions more successful.
Human resources elements of a performance manage-
Effective recruitment processes are vital in ensuring that ment system include
a ministry of health or any other health organization has
the people it needs to implement its strategy and meet its A written job description for each position in the orga-
objectives. Recruitment can be expensive, but so too is the nization
appointment of an employee who is inadequately qualified, Defined supervisory relationships
fails to perform well, or leaves the organization before he or Regular work-planning meetings between supervisors
she has been able to make a significant contribution. The and their staff
time and effort invested in planning the process of recruit- Periodic performance review meetings
ment carefully can help get the right person for the job, Opportunities for training and staff development
reduce turnover, build a strong team, and enhance organi-
zational performance. Regular work planning is a key element in an effec-
Recruitment is the process of attracting, assessing, select- tive performance management system. To do work plan-
ing, and employing people to carry out the work activities ning, the supervisor and the employee jointly develop the
51.16 H uman resources manag ement
employees workplan objectives for a designated period, out the framework for a code of conduct for public-sector
often six months. They derive these objectives in part from employees
the organizations annual workplan objectives. They should
write the employees workplan down and sign it. At the end A public service is a trust that requires a public servant
of the designated period, they meet again to review the to place faithfulness to his/her moral contract with
employees performance against his or her performance society and obedience to the laws and ethical prin-
objectives and to develop a workplan for the next period. ciples above private gain.
Work planning helps the staff member understand his A public servant shall fulfill his/her lawful obligations
or her work objectives and understand that he or she is to the government and the public with professionalism
accountable for achieving them. If an employee is unable to and integrity.
perform at a satisfactory level, a good HRM system provides A public servant shall perform his/her official duties
personnel procedures for the supervisor to follow in provid- with justice, truthfulness and with a spirit of service to
ing opportunities to learn needed skills or in taking correc- the common good (public interest).
tive actions. A public servant shall perform his/her official duties
Accountability, or being responsible for achieving agreed- with honesty, transparency, and accountability.
upon work objectives, is an important element in a perfor- A public servant shall respect the rights of the public
mance management system. A core set of people-centered and of his/her colleagues.
values does not mean a lack of employee accountability. A A public servant shall disclose unethical practice and
human resources leader shows respect for people by build- corruption to appropriate authorities.
ing a performance management system that provides for A public servant shall avoid any actions that may create
assessing employee performance in an objective and con- the appearance of violating the law or ethical principles
structive way and holds employees accountable for work- promoted by this code of conduct.
planning objectives. (See References and Further Readings
for a list of performance management tools.) In addition, codes of conduct can specify actions that the
As a way to promote accountability and deter unethi- employee must avoid to adhere to the code, such as avoiding
cal behavior in public servants or employees, some coun- conflicts of interest, not giving preferential treatment to an
tries and organizations establish codes of conduct based organization or person, or not engaging in private activities
on moral values and ethical principles. As part of its Good that would reflect poorly on the government or organization
Governance for Medicines program, WHO (2006) has laid of employment.
51.9 Establishing a responsive supervisory contribute to the delivery of high-quality health services
system to clients. They do so in two ways: through both individual
and team supervision. For either supervisory approach,
The role of the supervisor in an effective human resources the role of the supervisor is to facilitate the work of indi-
system is critical because he or she provides the bridge vidual employees or employee teams so they can effectively
between the organization and the employee. The supervi- perform their job responsibilities. Staff members respond
sor communicates the larger goals of the organization to the positively when they are given interesting and challenging
employee and, through the work-planning process, guides work assignments by supervisors who are themselves clearly
the work of the employee to directly support these goals. The working hard toward fulfilling the organizations objectives.
supervisor needs to be aware of gaps in job readiness and to Individual supervision involves supervising the perfor-
support the development of employee skills and capacity as mance of an individual employee on a one-to-one basis. It
needed. The supervisor must also be aware of problems in also involves periodic joint work planning and performance
employee performance that cannot be solved through train- review meetings between the supervisor and the staff mem-
ing or development activities and make decisions about how ber. It can also involve day-to-day guidance, mentoring, and
to address them in a positive and constructive manner. problem solving.
Several characteristics are likely to define supervisors who In team supervision, supervisors build and support a
are concerned about the developmental as well as the disci- clinic team whose members work together to analyze and
plinary aspects of supervision. These supervisors are solve problems on an ongoing basis. A team approach to
supervision emphasizes individual performance only as it
Knowledgeable and enthusiastic about the jobs they relates to the ability of the team to achieve common goals.
are supervising By using a team approach to supervision and by placing an
Sensitive to staff members needs and feelings emphasis on team problem solving, supervisors can over-
Capable of supporting and guiding without harass- come many of the shortcomings of traditional supervi-
ment sion, which can focus more narrowly on vertical programs
Skilled in communicationgood listeners, approach- or individual performance and may not be as supportive
able, and open-minded about ideas that conflict with or facilitative (see MSHs Improving Supervision: A Team
their own Approach in References and Further Readings).
Ready to praise good work and quick to support their An effective supervisory system
staff
Willing, whenever possible and appropriate, to involve Describes all supervisory roles in writing
staff in making decisions, especially about matters Ensures that all supervisors and employees are aware
directly affecting their own work of the system and the procedures
Able to preserve harmony within the team and the Makes clear all individual performance objectives and
workforce by minimizing personal jealousies and con- also overall clinic objectives and desired results or out-
flicts comes
Able to organize effectively and to mobilize staff Trains supervisors
Able to allow staff to complete assigned duties without Provides adequate time and resources for supervisors
interference and supervisees to meet and work together
Willing to delegate tasks Fully integrates the supervisory system with the overall
Scrupulous in making regular supervisory visits and strategies and goals of the organization and the other
punctual in keeping appointments components of the HRM system
Capable of appraising staff without bias and writing
reports on the basis of work performance rather than
hearsay or favoritism 51.10 Improving motivation, retention, and
productivity through HRM
Managers must allow supervisors adequate time to meet
with and develop their supervisees for the supervisory pro- If staff members were asked to brainstorm on all the factors
cess to be effective in meeting the needs of the staff and of that affect their attitudes about work, the resulting pressure
the organization. In addition, the organization must fully map might look something like Figure 51-1. If staff mem-
integrate the supervisory process with other HRM com- bers are then asked to say whether each of these pressures
ponents, such as performance management and personnel is positive or negative, they are likely to find more nega-
policy. tives than positives on the chart. Most will feel that they are
At all levels of the organization, supervisors in pharma- poorly paid and are expected to handle heavy workloads
ceutical management and other areas of the health sector with limited resources. Because advancement frequently
51.18 H uman resources manag ement
S ub s is te nce Pres
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s
on Salary
Promoti
Hou
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inin
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s
m ife
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re
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io
m
su
vis
un
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es
er
on
it y
p
Pr
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rk
Pre
So
Wo
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ssu
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loa
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Wo
Famil
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Educatio
Lifey
depends on formal educational qualifications or on affili- Workforce Alliance (2008) commissioned a publication that
ations rather than on the quality of work done, many may extensively describes incentive plans for health workers. The
feel that they have low promotion prospects. Supervision is guidelines include nonfinancial incentives, such as career
often constrained by lack of transport and other resources. development and positive working environments, as well as
If a staff member has extensive family responsibilities, he or financial incentives, such as performance-linked payments.
she will be tempted to look outside the job for opportunities Such performance-based incentive plans are receiving
to increase income. In such circumstances, motivating staff increasing attention as successful mechanisms to improve
members to perform their best may be difficult. Many of service quality and worker satisfaction. Country Study 51-6
these factors are not within the control of individual manag- describes how a performance-based financing scheme has
ers. Some of these problems relate to a general lack of funds affected health services in Rwanda.
for running health services; other obstacles cannot easily be A human resources system that integrates performance
overcome within the constraints of typical budgeting and management with organizational goals will ensure that
civil service procedures. employees understand how their work relates to and con-
Conventional motivational approaches often rely on tributes to the mission of their organization.
reward schemes, improved working conditions, or compe- A carefully planned and implemented human resources
tition for promotions and pay increases. These approaches system addresses the kinds of employee concerns that can
are not always easy to apply in resource-constrained set- affect motivation. These concerns are reflected in ques-
tings. Although people need fair compensation, money tions that employees frequently ask about their workplace,
alone does not improve performance. Meaningful work including
that is integral to the goals of the organization, has the
respect of fellow employees, and provides opportunities to Am I being treated fairly?
develop individual skills results in a more sustained level What am I supposed to do?
of employee performance. For example, senior staff from How well am I doing it?
eleven pharmaceutical supply organizations in sub-Saharan Does my work matter to the organization?
Africa reported that the main factors contributing to staff How can I develop myself within the organization?
motivation were team-building exercises, bonus schemes,
staff appraisal systems, staff meetings, and church fellow- HRM responsibility for fairness in the workplace
shiprelated activities (WHO/EPN 2006).
As part of a joint initiative of several international health A major factor in employee motivation is peoples percep-
professional councils, including the FIP, the Global Health tion of fairness, which is especially important regarding sal-
51/Human resources management and capacity development 51.19
ary and compensation. An employee may begin to develop agers who have hired people for a specified job ask them to
his or her perception of fairness in the organization start- perform other duties. If employees do not understand their
ing with the hiring process. Perceptions of fairness relate to work priorities or if their supervisor changes their work pri-
the day-to-day application of personnel policies, the distri- orities on a regular basis, employees find maintaining a con-
bution of tasks and responsibilities among employees, the sistent level of productivity and a sense of self-worth in the
organizations salary policies, and the organizations support organization difficult.
for and recognition of employees. One of the steps that can strengthen an HRM system is
One important managerial responsibility is making sure to make sure that all staff members have an up-to-date job
that all managers and staff apply personnel policies on a day- description that provides them with information about their
to-day basis and distribute tasks and responsibilities fairly general duties and responsibilities. The description should
and equitably among employees. When developing an inte- clearly describe all job responsibilities and the supervisory
grated HRM system, a manager should review the organiza- relationship. The job description gives the supervisor a
tions job classifications and related salary scales to ensure starting place in developing a workplan with the employee.
that salaries are appropriate to the level of responsibility and See Section 51.12 for more detail on how to develop job
are competitive when compared with local economic condi- descriptions.
tions. In some cases, correcting salary imbalances may be Because the job description is general, it does not describe
difficult, but every effort should be made to take corrective the specific responsibilities or performance objectives for
action internally to ensure that all staff members receive fair which a supervisor may hold an employee accountable in
and equitable compensation. a certain period. Most employees do not perform all the
A manager should also review the organizations person- duties listed in their job description all the time, even if the
nel policies, update them as needed, and make the updated job description is up-to-date, because work and organiza-
information available to all staff. In addition, all supervi- tional priorities change. As stated earlier, a supervisor and
sors and managers should be informed about the new per- a staff member should conduct work-planning and per-
sonnel policy and apply the rules fairly and equitably to all formance review meetings on a semi-annual basis to allow
employees. them to jointly and systematically plan the specific perfor-
mance objectives for which the employee will be respon-
HRM responsibility for setting work priorities sible in a given six-month period. This joint work-planning
process also helps the supervisor identify in a timely way
People want to know exactly what is expected of them in the skills and resources that the employee needs to success-
their work. In many cases, job descriptions are not clear, fully perform the tasks required to meet his or her work
supervisors have not specified their expectations, or man- objectives.
HRM responsibility for providing feedback on new responsibilities, and when they believe that their efforts
performance will strengthen their careers. Providing these opportuni-
ties can also be an important way to recognize employees.
Employees need ongoing feedback about their job perfor- Participating in training and other activities where people
mance. Anxiety about not performing well can directly share learning and value each others experience increases
affect an employees motivation and productivity. This anxi- staff collaboration and teamwork and can increase overall
ety often results in denial and avoidance of responsibilities performance and productivity.
and in other work behaviors that reduce productivity. Health organizations devote a significant portion of their
An important element of a work-planning and perfor- funds and staff time to training, with the goal of improving
mance review system is holding work-planning and per- the effectiveness and efficiency of their staff and their pro-
formance review meetings on a regular basis. As discussed, grams. Often, however, health organizations have designed
the supervisor and employee agree on specific performance and implemented this training without adequately diagnos-
objectives during these meetings. These agreed-upon objec- ing or planning for the needs of the organization or their
tives become the basis of the next performance review. This employees, who hope that training will further their career
system allows both the supervisor and the employee to eval- development and credentials. As a result, whether the train-
uate performance and to plan for training or other career ing has either solved individual performance problems or
development activities, if needed. A work-planning and contributed to improving the organizations performance
performance review system can improve individual perfor- overall is not always clear. Furthermore, many health orga-
mance and increase staff motivation. If the system is used for nizations are becoming reluctant to pay for expensive train-
creating a staff development plan, it will also help align staff ing until they see more tangible benefits to employees, the
development efforts more closely with the organizations organization, and the community.
goals. Ongoing supervision between the semi-annual work- Making staff development a priority is an important
planning and performance review meetings is also key. component of a comprehensive HRM system. Posting job
opportunities within the organization and supporting inter-
HRM responsibility for providing meaningful work nal candidates will send a signal that the current experience
of the staff is valued. A well-managed program of training
When employees feel that their work is meaningful to their and staff development can broaden the skills and competen-
organization and important to the people they serve, they cies of staff and reap many payoffs. Formal, organized train-
work more productively. For many people, having skills and ing, which is discussed below, is only one vehicle for staff
competencies and performing well is not motivating if the development. Other staff development strategies include
result does not contribute to the success of the organiza-
tion. Therefore, communicating to employees that their On-the-job learning through mentoring relationships
work matters is an important element in an HRM strategy. Cross-functional assignments
Engaging in systematic planning and taking steps to make Membership in task forces and committees
sure that peoples day-to-day work directly supports the pri- Additional job assignments
orities of the organization is critical in meeting the organi- Technical presentations and discussions at staff meet-
zations objectives. These objectives represent the strategic ings
areas in which the organization has decided to focus in a
given year, as identified during the organizations annual These strategies can all provide the challenge and oppor-
planning process. These objectives may vary on an annual tunity needed for personal and professional growth, as well
basis, depending on changing organizational priorities. as increase the knowledge that people have in common and
A supervisor can link the work-planning and perfor- expose them to new ways of thinking and doing.
mance review process to the organizations annual work- Technology is also opening up a range of new ways to
planning cycle by using organization, department, or unit transfer knowledge. If staff have access to computers and
priorities as the basis of joint work planning with his or her the Internet, a variety of electronic training and educational
staff. Such linkage will help ensure that the work of each per- resources is available that employees can use to develop
son matters and that each person understands how his or skills without leaving their work site. Although these tech-
her work is important to the organization. nologies have the potential to increase staff competency in
some areas, how staff members can use these technologies
HRM responsibility for professional in a productive and cost-efficient way is not always clear. As
development of staff with traditional training programs, a manager should first
determine the training needs and integrate training plan-
People feel motivated and challenged when they have oppor- ning into the overall HRM system. Doing so will allow the
tunities to learn, develop new competencies, and assume effective use of electronic training to solve individual perfor-
51/Human resources management and capacity development 51.21
mance problems and contribute to improving the organiza- Clarify ideas before attempting to communicate them:
tions performance. Good communication depends on clear thinking.
Think about how best to express the idea and what for-
mat to use (for example, a formal circular, an informal
51.11 Using channels of communication memo, or a talk), and try to assess its likely impact.
Follow up on any communication: Good communication
The previous sections on management and leadership imply depends on feedback. Ask questions and encourage
that effective managers have good communication skills, reactions.
but no set formula will work every time. Five main channels Be a good listener: Good communication also depends on
used in interpersonal communication are set out, with their good listening. Careful attention to what people say helps
positive and negative aspects, in Table 51-4. one know what is best to say to them.
The key factor in communication is deciding which of the Good managers try to provide feedback as a regular feature
five channels should be used in any given situation. Two of the work experience. Done well, feedback both enhances
basic skills help in communicating with others: the ability individual performance and improves teamwork.
to use all five channels and the sensitivity to choose the most When giving feedback, consider the following recom-
appropriate channel on any particular occasion. mendations
A manager can improve communication with staff in a Ask open rather than closed questions, avoiding those
number of ways that can be answered with a simple yes or no. (What is
51.22 H uman resources manag ement
your experience in this matter?) Qualifications: This section comprises a statement of the
Present possible scenarios that encourage concrete qualifications and requirements necessary for satisfac-
descriptions. (If you were faced with such a problem, tory job performance, including education, experience,
how would you tackle it?) knowledge, skills, and abilities.
Rephrase the speakers words. (You are saying that Reporting relationship: The persons supervisor should be
you feel that you are not trusted, because you are not listed. Adding a chart that indicates the structure of the
allowed to handle the finances for the workshopsam organization can be useful, particularly if it shows report-
I right?) ing relationships.
Acknowledge the other persons feelings. (You seem to
be very worried about this matteram I right?) Developing a job description
Concentrate on what is being implied as well as what is
being said. People are much more willing to talk if they When a job description is outdated or nonexistent, the situ-
are convinced that they are really being heard. ation can be remedied by compiling and analyzing informa-
tion, writing a job description, assigning time allocations,
Clearly, such techniques go well beyond simple criticism and obtaining agreement on the job description among the
or interrogation. employee doing the job, the supervisor, and others who may
The rest of this chapter addresses some of the common have a say, such as the human resources manager.
functions of human resources managementdeveloping Compile information. The information needed to build a
job descriptions, disciplining staff, resolving conflict, and job description can be obtained in several ways
conducting meetingsin light of what has been said about
leadership and communication. Having the employee complete a questionnaire about
key aspects of the job
Observing and interviewing the employee while vari-
51.12 Preparing job descriptions ous tasks are being performed
Conducting a group interview when a number of
One of the most important functions of a pharmaceutical employees perform the same job
supplies manager is to ensure that the tasks of the organi- Having the employee keep a daily record of work done,
zation are distributed equitably. This involves matching in the form of a log or diary
the jobs that need to be done with the skills and abilities of
the individuals who make up the workforce. Each position Analyze information. Identify the major tasks and
should have a written job description and a summary of related clusters of minor ones. Review each cluster to ensure
duties and responsibilities. that it accurately represents the tasks to be performed.
Job descriptions are important management tools. They Arrange the main tasks and related minor ones in a logical
are helpful in sequence, to give a clear overview of the job.
Write the job description. Group activities related to one
Determining job qualifications, because the tasks to be duty, such as planning, budgeting, or supervising. In writ-
performed in a particular job determine the necessary ing the descriptive statements, use active verbs and be con-
skills and experience cise. Try to avoid any ambiguity or vagueness. If someone is
Orienting new employees, because the written job responsible for signing the pharmaceutical supplies order,
description explains basic duties to new employees state signs the supply order rather than approves the sup-
Establishing performance expectations and supervis- plies order.
ing staff Each statement should describe one functional element of
the job and be able to stand by itself. Normally, duties should
Job descriptions have no fixed format, but most have five be arranged in order of priority.
distinct sections Obtain agreement. In updating a current employee
job description, as part of good management practice,
Job title: The title gives only the briefest information needed the immediate supervisor should review the job descrip-
to identify the job, for example, director of pharmaceuti- tion with the employee to ensure that the listed duties and
cal services or chief supplies officer. responsibilities are mutually understood and accepted. The
Job summary: A brief paragraph summarizes the main job description form should include space for both the
responsibilities of the job. supervisors and the employees signatures to formalize this
Duties and responsibilities: The core of the job description is process.
a more detailed description of the work to be performed An example of a job description for a chief pharmaceuti-
and the activities for which the employee is responsible. cal supplies officer is presented in Figure 51-2.
51/Human resources management and capacity development 51.23
Figure 51-2 Sample job description for a chief pharmaceutical supplies officer
JOB DESCRIPTION
JOB TITLE: Chief pharmaceutical supplies officer, Pharmaceutical Service, Ministry of Health
JOB SUMMARY: Responsible for the overall operation of the central medical stores unit; ordering and distributing medicines, medical
supplies, and other related products; supervising stock control; providing technical inputs to the national formulary
committee and tender board; and preparing reports on all aspects of the operation of the service
1. Provide medicines, medical supplies, and other products to all government health institutions by
Estimating requirements for medicine and nonmedicine products
Supervising preparation of medicine orders
Monitoring distribution of medicines and other supplies
Preparing monthly, quarterly, and annual reports on the status of the service
2. Supervise the control of medicines and other supplies to ensure continuous availability by
Maintaining an up-to-date inventory-control system
Continually evaluating the logistics management system
Implementing stock management guidelines and procedures
Liaising with a drug testing laboratory to monitor medicine quality
3.Provide technical inputs to management, as well as other agencies involved in monitoring the supply of medicines and
other products, by
Functioning as a standing representative of the central traders committee
Serving as a member of the national formulary committee
Providing technical information to these committees as required
QUALIFICATIONS:
Education:
Pharmacy degree
Certificate in management
Abilities required:
Forecasting pharmaceutical supply requirements
Coordinating pharmaceutical supply services
Monitoring the quality of work of others
Using computers
Working conditions:
Work is performed at the central medical stores department.
SIGNATURES:
Incumbent: Date:
dures is always preferable. If someone is making mistakes, a Strengths. A competitive strategy might be appropriate
good manager takes that person aside for a talk. Criticizing when
someones behavior is perhaps one of the most difficult tasks
a manager faces. The challenge is to remain objective and Quick, decisive action is vital
avoid blaming. The manager must An unpopular decision needs to be made
No doubt exists about the right course of action
Present the perceived problem clearly Defensive measures are urgently required
Ask for the other persons point of view and listen
when it is given Weaknesses. A competitive strategy can lead to
Avoid expressing anger or frustration and remain calm
and firm Lost opportunities for collaboration or compromise
Focus on possible solutions rather than dwell on mis- Degeneration into stubborn opposition
takes Low morale among employees, who may feel they have
Discuss ways to resolve the issue and how such prob- no input in decision making
lems might be avoided in the future
Accommodating style
Communication breakdown, as when staff left in the In conflict situations, the best approach to take depends
dark stop taking initiatives on the circumstances. A good manager is in command
Reduced effectiveness, as decisions are made by default of all the channels of communication, is sensitive to the
Conflicts persisting and then flaring up later needs of the situation, and can select the correct approach.
Unfortunately, what tends to happen is that individual man-
Collaborating style agers and groups become locked into one preferred style of
conflict management and use it in almost every situation.
In the collaborating style, maximum use is made of both Collaboration and compromise are the styles that match
assertiveness and cooperation. Those using this style seek the consulting, all-channels-open, problem-solving man-
to satisfy the needs of all parties concerned. Collaboration is agement approaches explored in this chapter.
the best way to develop consensus solutions to problems and
achieve a commitment to those solutions. Neither side feels
that it has lost out in any way, so this is an ideal management 51.15 Delegating
style.
Strengths. The collaborating style is most effectively used Effective delegation enables managers to become much more
when productive and, therefore, more successful. Unfortunately,
many managers have never learned how to delegate effec-
The needs and concerns of the parties are sufficiently tively. A sure sign of trust between manager and staff is the
important to warrant the time and energy it takes to managers willingness to delegate responsibilities. If delega-
collaborate properly tion happens consistently and properly, the effectiveness of a
All parties agree to combine resources and efforts for a team can be greatly enhanced.
more effective outcome Delegation is more than simply assigning tasks to sub
ordinates. Delegation skills involve the following steps
Weaknesses. This is the most time-consuming and
energy-sapping style. It can result in 1. Selecting the right person for the job. Delegation works
well only when the person to whom work is being
Relatively unimportant matters getting too much delegated is capable of handling the task. Delegating to
attention the wrong person invites failure.
The establishment of cumbersome procedures, which 2. Clearly specifying the assignment being delegated.
may lead to frustrating delays in making decisions and Unless the assignment is clear, the staff member may
taking action do too much or too little.
3. Defining the level of authority being delegated. Is the
Compromising style staff member being asked to investigate a problem
and then report back to the manager for a decision
Compromise is an intermediate strategy, midway between and action? Is the staff member to investigate, see the
competition and collaboration, avoidance and accommoda- manager for a decision, and then act? Or is the staff
tion. The objective is to find a solution that partly satisfies member to investigate, decide, and actinforming the
both partiesby splitting the difference. manager afterward? Both manager and staff member
Strengths. Compromise solutions are appropriate risk anger or frustration if the level of authority is not
when made clear.
4. Informing concerned parties. Unless other staff mem-
The parties are strongly committed to mutually exclu- bers are informed of what assignments have been dele-
sive goals, and it is clear that no solution will be wholly gated and to whom, they may feel that a staff members
satisfactory to both of them actions are inappropriate. They may think that the staff
The goals of both parties are important but not worth member is trying to take over the managers job rather
the effort needed for collaboration than acting on the managers behalf.
Temporary solutions are sought for complex issues 5. Monitoring without meddling. Once an assignment
because the time for decision making is short has been delegated, monitoring progress is important.
The manager may need to advise the staff member
Weaknesses. If compromises are made too readily or of possible problems. But if the manager intrudes,
casually short-circuits, undercuts, goes around, or otherwise
51/Human resources management and capacity development 51.27
meddles in the assignment, the staff member will The calendar says that a meeting is due, but no urgent
lose interest in doing a good job. Accepting that the matters need discussion
assignment will probably be done differently from
the way the manager would have done it is part of
delegating. Different is not necessarily worse. Staff Conditions for effective meetings
members often have more time or other insights that
allow them to do the task better than the manager However informal and lively the interaction, effective meet-
would have. ings are usually the result of careful planning. The following
6. Completing the delegation neatly. When the assignment are some of the most important factors that contribute to a
has been completed, the staff member should brief the meetings success
manager. Necessary follow-up actions should be iden-
tified. Most important, the staff member should receive Purpose: The objectives of the meeting should be clear to all
positive feedback if the assignment went well and clear participants.
and direct negative feedback if the assignment did not Preparation: The members should be knowledgeable about
turn out well. The manager should suggest specific cor- the topics under discussion. Relevant papers may need to
rective action. be circulated beforehand.
Control: The chairperson should be in authority but not the
When these basic steps are not followed, the result is often authority and responsible for the conduct of the meeting
confusion, poor decision making, mistrust, and frustration. but not the only decision maker in the group.
Managers are afraid to delegate because the staff will mess Size: The group should be small enough for everyone to
it up, and staff are afraid to take the initiative because the make a contribution, unless the meeting is merely a gath-
boss will tell me I messed up. ering for dispensing information.
Directing managers have trouble delegating because they Setting: The seating should be arranged so that everyone
do not like to give up control. Avoiding managers have trou- has eye contact with everyone else.
ble delegating because they do not provide clear guidance Atmosphere: The climate should be such that participants
and feedback. Consulting managers generally do the best feel free to offer ideas and to challenge and be challenged.
job of delegating. Summary: The meeting should end with a statement of
Delegation has three main benefits. First, it provides what has been achieved.
subordinates with the opportunity to accumulate valuable Record: Taking accurate minutes of the meeting is impor-
experience and develop new skills. Second, delegation pre- tant so that efficient monitoring can take place and those
vents managers from being overworked, a condition that responsible for arranged actions can be held accountable.
can cause delays in decision making. Finally, delegation Time: The meeting should begin on time and last for a pre-
frees senior managers to concentrate on long-term planning determined length of time.
activities.
Skills of chairing
51.16 Conducting meetings The success of meetings depends on the kind of control
exercised by the chairperson. Some of the main techniques
Properly run meetings can be vital to the effectiveness of an used to facilitate open and purposeful discussion and deci-
organization: they are forums for gathering information, sion making are
reviewing progress, discussing ideas, planning actions, and
resolving conflicts. Improperly run meetings can be a colos- Initiating: Start by ensuring that all members know the
sal waste of time. objectives and agenda of the meeting.
Meetings are appropriate if Seeking opinions: Invite participation by bringing members
in when you know that they will have something to con-
An issue affecting the work team needs to be clarified tribute.
Concerns should be shared with a group Clarifying: Rephrase or illustrate points so they can be
The group needs to be involved in a problem-solving understood by all members.
and decision-making activity Steering: Bring the discussion back on track when it veers
A group has asked for a meeting off course.
Summarizing: Pull together the ideas that have been
Meetings are inappropriate if expressed and sum up the conclusions that have been
reached.
The decisions have already been made Keeping time: End the meeting on time.
51.28 H uman resources manag ement
a s s e s s ment g u ide
In addition to the HRM system assessment questions Is orientation offered to all new employees?
in Section 51.4, the following questions can be used to Does an updated personnel policy manual exist?
assess an organizations human resources components Is it used by managers and supervisors to address
employment questions?
Do experienced HRM staff in your organization
Are formal procedures in place for addressing disci-
maintain human resources functions?
pline and termination issues?
Does an annual human resources plan exist? Is it
Does an organizational chart of staffing positions
monitored?
and relationships exist? When was it last revised?
Is a human resources information system in place
Do job descriptions exist for these positions? When
to gather employee data that can be used in human
were they last revised? Does each staff member have
resources planning and forecasting?
a copy of his or her job description?
Do personnel files exist for all staff? Do staff mem-
Is a training plan in place? Does it include a plan for
bers have access to these files?
management and leadership development?
Is a job classification system in place?
Does the organization have links to preservice train-
Is a system in place to determine salaries and to
ing institutions?
determine upgrades and merit awards?
Finally, the conclusions of most meetings can be encapsu- H Global Health Workforce Alliance (International Council of Nurses,
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