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gender, education, socio-economic status and employment on resilience
and psychological well-being. Ego Resiliency scale and affectometer-2
Scale were used to collect the data. Sample of the study consisted of 150
individuals including congenitally blind (n = 50, 33.39%), late blind (n = 50,
33.39%) and sighted individuals (n= 50, 33.39%). Purposive convenient
sampling technique was used to collect the data. ANOVA and independent
sample T-test were applied to test the hypotheses. Congenitally blind Head Office:
scored higher on resilience, whereas sighted individuals scored higher on 31, CA Street,
psychological well-being. Male scored higher on resilience and Ipaja, Lagos S
psychological well-being as compared to females. Adults scored lower than Tel: 08025387
E-mail: info@
adolescence on resilience and well-being. Educated and employed
individuals scored higher on resilience and psychological well-being. Our Ref:
Individuals belonging to middle socio-economic status scored higher on National Institute of Psychology,
resilience. Practical Implications of the study are discussed and Quaid-i-Azam University, Islamabad,
suggestions for future research have been made. Pakistan.
Key words: Resilience, psychological well- being, congenitally blind, late blind, *Corresponding author. E-mail:
sighted individuals. psy_naeem@yahoo.com.
INTRODUCTION
supervision, than those who does not have a disability for successful adaptation, positive functioning, or
(Bain, 1998; Dobson et al., 2001; Roberts and Lawton, competence despite high risk, chronic stress, or
2000). Parents of children with a disability tend to have prolonged or severe trauma (Egeland et al., 1993). As a
lower than average incomes (Dobson et al., 2001; result of this adaptive flexibility, individuals with a high
Lukemeyer et al., 2000). Educated sighted individuals level of resiliency are more likely to experience positive
had better psychological well-being as compared to effect, and have higher levels of self confidence and
individuals with visual impairment. And they are likely to better psychological adjustment than individuals with a
experience more stress, lower levels of marital low level of resiliency (Block and Kremen, 1996; Klohnen,
satisfaction, poorer mental health and lower levels of 1996). When confronted by stressful circumstances,
well-being than control (Gardner and Harmon, 2002; individuals with a low level of resiliency may act in a
Patterson, 2002). perseverative manner or chaotically and diffusely, and in
Linely and Joseph (2005) found the prevalence of either case, the resulting behavior is likely to be
depression and lower well-being in visually impaired maladaptive (Block and Kremen, 1996).
groups to be at least twice as high as that found in normal Studies indicate that gender has a notable effect on
populations. Social adjustment to vision loss is construed individuals resilience and self-esteem. Male is found to
to involve difficulties in social functioning, changes in have more level of resilience and self-esteem than female
social support, and loneliness. Although research findings (Heady and Wearing, 2005). Younger men and men from
indicate loss of social activity and, to a lesser extent, loss all age groups tend to make more use of adaptive coping
of social support among the visually impaired, the strategies that focus on the immediate problem than
relationship between vision loss and loneliness remains women (Heady and Wearing, 2005; Luthar, 2003; Werner,
unclear. There are, however, firm indications that social 2001). Gurin et al. (2002) studied the relationship of
support can provide an effective buffer against age- socioeconomic status and level of resilience. They
related vision loss. In one research, comparison of the concluded that within the low, middle and upper
behavioral and emotional adaptation of late visually socioeconomic population, middle socioeconomic class
impaired and sighted people found that age-related visual was more equip to deal with daily stressors. And their
impairment was associated with other forms of level of resilience was found to be significantly higher
substantial loss that increased over a six-year period. than low and high socioeconomic groups. Studies also
Individuals from 10 European countries, who had a indicate that between all three socioeconomic groups,
severe vision loss in their adulthood, were taken in this people belonging to middle socioeconomic group
study. Lower vision was associated with a highly possess higher level of resilience. As they are faced up
significant negative impact on all measured aspects of with more challenges in life, where as lower class move
well-being. This data from a large population based in to quickly give up as they have no resources to call upon,
Europe provide evidence that persons with low vision where as upper class have to face lesser challenges in
have a higher probability of concentration problems life so both are very low on the level of resilience (Heady
during reading and entertainment; losing interest and et al., 1993; Meddley, 2001). In a study, it was seen that
enjoyment in their activities; feeling fatigued, irritable, married individuals cope with life situations and daily
sad, and tearful; having less hope for the future; and stressors much better than their unmarried counterparts
wishing for death. Effective measures of early detection, (Riolli et al., 2002). Johonson and Wiechalt (2004)
prevention, rehabilitation, education and research, as well suggested that education had an influence on
as a holistic view of a patient, could help counter these psychological subjective well-being; whereas, some other
problems, thereby improving mental and physical health researchers found that this effect is not very strong.
and reducing the economic impact of low vision (Linely
and Joseph, 2005).
Resilience, another important variable of the study, is Rationale of the study
seen as having the ability to function effectively or
positively in adverse circumstances (Schoon, 2006). In Pakistan there are a large number of people who are
Compared to childhood resilience, little is understood visually impaired. Sudden vision loss at the any stage of
about resilience in adulthood (Bartley, 2006). life is a traumatic experience for an individual. It may lead
Researchers in childhood and adolescent development toward the psychological distress. Whereas the physical,
first described resilience as a factor enabling children in psychological and socioeconomic distress of blindness is
adverse circumstances to develop into well-adjusted and well recognized, in view of the relative paucity of
successful adults. The concept of resilience was literature, the attitude of the medical community toward
developed to help explain why some children do well psychosocial care of the visually impaired individuals can
under disadvantaged circumstances. Resilience is be described as not very enthusiastic. While many often
attributed to children who grew up under unfavorable perceived people who are visually impaired as helpless,
circumstances without showing unfavorable conse- resentful, bitter, and unhappy, some advocated that
quences (Masten, 2001). It is defined as the capacity blindness itself does not create emotional disturbance.
J. Educ. Res. Stud. 3
Instead, it is societal prejudices that cause emotional The maximum score can be 56. All items of the scale
distress. This research is an attempt to understand the are positively scored Those who score low on this
demographic and psychosocial problems of a group of measure are expected to experience more emotional
blind people in Pakistan as a way of attracting more distress or problems compared to those who score high
attention to and providing information that can improve when adversity is controlled. Sample items include I
the psychosocial care of the visually challenged people. quickly get over and recover from being startled, and I
The emphasis on the blind individuals may differ from enjoy dealing with new and unusual situations.
society to society. We conducted this study with some Coefficient alpha was 0.81 and the testretest reliability
hope that research and the further development of was 0.67. The alpha reliability of the Ego Resiliency Scale
services will improve the lot of blind people throughout is (r =0.81). The Scale was checked for face validity by
the world. the authors before using it in the present research.
Table 1. Mean, Standard Deviation and F values for congenitally blind, late blind, and sighted individuals on Ego Resiliency
Scale and Affectometer-2 (N = 150).
Table 2. Mean, Standard Deviation and t values for Gender, Education, Age, and Employment on Ego Resiliency Scale and
affectometer-2 (N = 150).
Scales Variable N M SD t p
Male 120 20.46 2.256
a. Ego Resiliency Female 30 19.43 2.482 2.806 .005
Male 120 19.10 3.064
b. Well Being Female 30 18.04 2.042 1.137 .033
Educated 129 20.34 2.315
c. Ego Resiliency Uneducated 21 19.53 2.091 1.325 .008
Educated 129 18.34 3.087
d. Well Being Uneducated 21 17.14 2.511 1.423 .021
Adolescence 112 18.34 3.089
e. Ego Resiliency Adulthood 38 17.14 2.531 1.483 .139
Adolescence 112 18.54 3.501
f. Well Being Adulthood 38 17.26 3.081 1.384 .167
Employed 24 19.51 4.211
g. Ego Resiliency Unemployed 126 17.81 3.452 4.311 .024
Employed 24 18.23 3.332
h. Well Being Unemployed 126 17.39 3.237 3.128 .007
df = 148
Table 3. Mean, Standard Deviation and F values for high, middle, and low socio-economic status on Ego Resiliency Scale
and Affectometer-2 (N = 150).
M SD M SD M SD F p
Ego Resiliency 19.21 2.449 21.73 2.189 20.18 2.320 4.963 .008
Well Being 13.64 4.191 12.98 4.025 10.52 3.128 5.541 .003
Between groups df = 1; Within group df = 148; Groups total df = 149
psychological well-being. was drawn. This study
To test the hypotheses, concluded that visually
we used the t-test and impaired either congenital
ANOVA to see the or late will show lower
differences between the level of psychological
groups. well-being as compared to
Our first hypothesis was sighted people. The
that congenitally blind will findings of the current
have high resilience as study also suggest that
compared to late blind there are significant mean
and sighted individuals, differences among
who were supported by congenitally blind, late
the research. Findings of blind and people without
our study are in line with visual impairment. Sighted
the previous studies. For people have scored
example, Bonanno (2004) higher than congenitally
have investigated the blind and late blind on
level of resilience between affectometer-2 scale.
congenitally blind, late The hypothesis that
blind and sighted people. male will have high score
The study was conducted on resilience and
in the university of psychological well-being
Heidelberg Germany. as compared to female, is
Results showed that supported by the results
among all three groups of the current study. As far
congenitally blind had the as gender differences in
higher level of resilience resilience are concern,
as they are faced up with there are significant mean
challenges in life. Results differences in the scores
of the present study also of male and female on
indicated that congenitally resilience and
blind scored higher on psychological well-being.
resilience as compared to Friburg et al. (2005)
late blind and sighted studied the gender
people. The second differences in resilience
hypothesis that sighted and found that male
individuals will have high possess more resilience
score on psychological than female. The current
well-being as compared to study also confirms this
congenitally blind and late finding that male have a
blind was also supported higher level of resilience
in the current research. In than female.
one study, Charney There is also research
(2004) studied the evidence that women are
relationship of visual low on psychological well-
impairment and being as compared to
psychological well-being. men. Bonanno et al.
In this study, a (2003) found that women
comparison between experience more negative
visually impaired and emotion then men.
sighted people on Results showed that
psychological well-being there are no
significant mean
Zeeshan and Aslam 6
differences in the scores of adults and adolescence on blindness. It provides evidence that late blindness is more
resilience and psychological well-being. Previous challenging than congenital blindness. Specialized
research literature also states that age and resilience are separate interventions can be designed for congenital
not interrelated (Luthar, 2003; Werner, 2000).We also blind and late blind individuals.
hypothesized that educated and employed individuals
have high score on resilience and psychological well-
being as compared to uneducated and unemployed Conclusion
individuals. Results are significant and consistent with the
past studies. We also expected that individuals belonging The present study is insightful in understanding the
to middle socio-economic status are more resilient, while psychological health of visually impaired individuals with
Individuals belonging to high socio-economic status have respect to resilience and psychological well-being.
more psychological well-being. Findings showed the Specialized counseling services can be helpful in
significant mean differences among the scores of low, facilitating the well being among the individuals with
middle and high socio-economic groups. The middle visual impairment. Moreover, resilience can serve as a
socio-economic group scored higher on resilience than protective factor to enhance the wellbeing and cope with
both low and high socio-economic groups. Previous life adversities. In addition, government and non-
researches also confirm these findings that psychological governmental organziations need to consider the
wellbeing and resilience is higher among those partici- planning of long-term mental health and educational
pants who belongs to the middle socio-economic group, policies for the visually challenged and such policies need
as compared to those participants who belong to either to be based on an outreach model. Continued research
low or high socioeconomics groups (Heady and Wearing, in this area will uncover the pathways and suggest ways
2005; Meddley, 2001). to improve health and well-being among those individuals
experiencing serious life stress.
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