1.science Part 1

ILP SET 4 BLOCK 1: SCIENCE VAN-I 2017
CONTENTS
1 NUTRITION IN PLANTS
1.1 Nutrients
1.2 Photosynthesis
1.3 Photosynthesis in desert
1.4 Synthesis of plant food other than carbohydrates
1.5 Heterotroph modes of nutrition in plants
1.6 Saprotrophs
2 NUTRITION IN ANIMALS
2.1 Different ways of taking food
2.2 Digestion in humans
2.3 Digestion in grass eating animals
2.4 Feeding and digestion in amoeba
3 FIBRE TO FABRIC
3.1 Animal fibers wool and silk
3.2 From fibers to wool
3.3 Silk
4 HEAT
4.1 Hot and cold
4.2 Measuring temperature
4.3 Transfer of heat
4.4 Kinds of cloths we wear in summer and winter
5 ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS
5.1 Acids and bases reaction with metals
5.2 Metal carbonates and metal hydrogen carbonates reaction with acids
5.3 Neutralization or acid base reaction with each other
5.4 Reaction of Metallic Oxides with Acids
5.5 Reaction of a Non-metallic Oxide with Base
5.6 What do all acids and all bases have in common?
5.7 Measuring Strengthens of acid and base solutions
5.8 Salts
6 PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL CHANGES
6.1 Mixture
6.2 Solution
6.3 Separating the components of a mixture
6.4 Physical and chemical changes
6.5 Types of pure substances
7 WEAHTER, CLIMATE AND ADAPTATIONS OF ANIMALS TO CLIMATE
7.1 Weather
7.2 Climate
7.3 Climate and adaptation.
8 WINDS, STORMS AND CYCLONE
8.1 Air exerts pressure
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8.2 High speed winds are accompanied by reduced air pressure

8.3 Air expands on heating
8.4 Winds currents are generated due to uneven heating
8.5 Thunderstorms and cyclones
8.6 Effective strategy measures
9 SOIL
9.1 Soil teeming with life
9.2 Soil profile
9.3 Absorption of water by soil
9.4 Moisture in the soil
9.5 Soil and crops
9.6 Soil erosion
10 RESPIRATION IN ORGANISMS
10.1 Breathing
10.2 How do we breathe ?
10.3 What do we breathe out
10.4 Breeding in other animals
10.5 Do plants also respire.
11 Transportation in Animals and Plans
11.1 circulatory system
11.2 blood
11.3 blood vessels
11.4 excretion in animals
11.5 Transport of substance in plants
11.6 transpiration
NUTRITION IN PLANTS
Nutrients
A substance that provides nourishment which is necessary for maintenance of life and
growth.
OR
A component in food that organism uses to survive and grow
Carbohydrates, protein, fats, vitamins and minerals. These are major nutrients in food.
By some tests we can measure the nutrients present in the food.
Carbohydrate
By using dilute iodine solution, we can test whether food has starch or not.
Functions provides energy (energy giving food)
Protein
Add caustic soda and copper sulphate to the food. If it turns into violet color, then this
means food contains protein.
Functions growth and repair of our body. (body building food)
Fats
Put the food in a paper and crush it. If it leaves an oily patch or water patch on paper,
then it means food has fats.
Functions also provides energy but more compare to carbohydrate (energy giving
food)
Vitamins
Functions protecting body against diseases

o Keep eyes, bones, teeth and gums healthy.
Vitamins/ minerals Deficiency disease/ disorder Symptoms

Vitamin A Loss of vision Poor vision
Loss of vision in
darkness (night)
Sometimes complete
loss of vision
B1 Beriberi Weak muscles and
very little energy to
work
C Scurvy Bleeding gums,
wounds take longer

time to heal
D Rickets Bones soft and bent
Calcium Bone and tooth decay Weak bones, tooth
decay
Iodine Goiter Glands in the neck
appear swollen,
mental disability in
children
Iron Anaemia Weakness
Minerals essential for proper growth of body, maintain good health

Deficiency of protein for long time stunted growth, swelling of face, discoloration of
hair, skin disease and diarrhoea.
Deficiency of protein + carbohydrate growth stops completely anf person becomes
lean, thin and weak.
Mode of nutrition in plants

Nutrition mode of taking food by organism and its utilization by our body.
It is of 2 types autotroph and Heterotrophs.
Autotroph (auto self; trophos - nourishment) mode of nutrition in which organism
make their food own.
Heterotroph in this mode of nutrition organism dont make their food on own but
dependent on others like plants.
Photosynthesis
Leaves food factories of a plant.
While roots absorb water and minerals present in the soil.
Vessels transport the minerals and water to the leaves.
Q) How leaves make food?

By the process of photosynthesis using chlorophyll.
Chlorophyll it is a green pigment present in the leaves.
Function of chlorophyll helps leaves to capture the energy of sunlight. This energy is
used to synthesise food from CO2 and water.
Q) What does photosynthesis mean?

Photo light and synthesis means to combine.
So, it means synthesis of food in the presence of sunlight.
Solar energy captured by leaves is stored in the form of food.
So, sun is the ultimate source of energy for all living organisms.
Q) What happens during photosynthesis?

Chlorophyll inside the leaves synthesize carbohydrates from the CO2 and water in the
presence of sunlight and it releases 02.
The same can be written in equation format CO2 + Water Carbohydrate + 02
Click here for higher resolution

The carbohydrates are ultimately converted into starch.
By testing a leaf for starch we can get to know that whether the leaf has undergone
photosynthesis or not.
We can say they have nose but it is called as stomata. Stomata is a pore which is
surrounded by guard cells. When the guard cells shrink the pore opens and exchange of
gases necessary for photosynthesis takes place.
Leaves having deep red, violet or brown leaves also perform photosynthesis and they
too have chlorophyll (green pigment). Its just that large amount of red, brown and
other color mask the green color pigment.
Photosynthesis in desert
Photosynthesis also takes place in other parts of plants i.e. green stems and green
branches. So, in desert plants leaves are reduce to spines so less transpiration but green
stems of these plants do photosynthesis.
Algae
Contain green chlorophyll which gives them green color. They are also autotrophs.
We have read about algal bloom in environment. (eutrophication)
Synthesis of plant food other than carbohydrates

We have read that carbohydrates are made of Carbon, hydrogen and oxygen.
Carbohydrates are used to synthesize other components of food like proteins and fats.
Proteins are nitrogenous substances which contain nitrogen.
We know that pulses are sources of protein.
We have read many times that if farmers grow pulses then their fields will never
deficient in nitrogen.
Heterotroph modes of nutrition in plants

There are many plants whom dont have chlorophyll such plants dont make their food
on own and depends on other plants i.e. they are Heterotroph.
Parasitism
We have read parasitism in environment.
The cuscutta plant is heterotroph (i.e. have no chlorophyll)

o It takes nutrition from other plants on which it climbs.
o Here host is the plant on which cuscutta is dependent.
o Cuscutta is parasite because while getting nutrient s from host, it deprives the
host from valuable nutrients.
E.g. Mosquito, bed bugs, lice and leeches are also parasites.
Insectivorous plants
These are plants which eats insects.
E.g. pitcher plant
In pitcher plant the leaf of the plant is modified to pitcher and lid.
Whenever a fly or other insect lands in pitcher the lid closes and the hairs inside the
pitcher entangles the fly.
The pitcher releases some digestive juice which digests the fly.
1) Does pitcher plant carry photosynthesis? If yes, then why traps flies and other insects?
Because they grow in soils that are low in or completely void of nutrients. Feeding on
insects gives them required nutrients and enable them to grow more quickly.
Saprotrophs
Saprotrophs plants which use saprotrophic mode of nutrition. They are also heterotrophs.
Saprotrophic mode of nutrition

In this mode of nutrition organism take nutrients in form of solution from dead and decaying
matter. (also covered in detritus food chain in environment notes)
E.g. Fungi on pickles, breads.
Fungi - It is any member of the group of eukaryotic organisms that includes unicellular
microorganisms such as yeasts and molds, as well as multicellular fungi that produce familiar
fruiting forms known as mushrooms.
Fungi and other saprotroph organism secrete digestive juices on the dead and decaying
matter and convert it into a solution. So that they can easily absorb nutrients from
solution.
Fungi also grow on moist wood, leather and cloth when they are left in hot and humid
weather for long time.
This is the same reason for why we put blankets and Quilt in sunlight, few days before
using them.
Q) How Fungi appears suddenly during the rainy season?

The fungal spores are generally present in the air and when they land on wet and warm
things they germinate and grow.
Disease by fungi
Athlete's foot - caused by the mold known as Epidermophyton floccosum
Aspergillosis - caused by the fungus Aspergillus and usually occurs in people with lung
diseases or weakened immune systems.
Blastomycosis - caused by the fungus Blastomyces, which lives in moist soil in parts of
the United States and Canada.
Figure blastomycosis
Ringworm - a common fungal skin infection that often looks like a circular rash.
Uses of fungi
Yeasts have been used for thousands of years in the production of beer, wine, and
bread.
Fungi not only directly produce substances that humans use as medicine, but they are
also versatile tools in the vast field of medical research.
Some fungi attack insects and, therefore, can be used as natural pesticides.
Penicillin is derived from a common fungus called Penicillium. It is used to fight bacteria
in our body.
How to remember difference between algae and fungi? A for algae and A for
autotrophs (i.e. chlorophyll) and fungi is opposite of algae so heterotroph
Symbiotic relationship
We have read it in environment.
In this relationship some organisms live together and share shelter and nutrients.
Example
o Rhizobium bacteria and plant roots
o Lichens algae and fungi live together
o Algae provides food and nutrients to fungi, as fungi cannot make its food own.
Fungi provide shelter, water and minerals to algae.
How nutrients are replenished in the soil?

If we use a field many times to grow crops, then after some times the nutrients in the
soil will be depleted.
So, farmers use manure or fertilizers which are spread in field to fulfill the demand of
soil.
You have many times heard the term NPK. The NPK is nitrogen, phosphorous and
potassium.
These nutrients presence in soil should be 3:2:1 ratio so a balance remain there.
Excessive nutrients can wash into rainfall and can cause eutrophication in water bodies.
Nitrogen which is available in plenty in air cannot be used directly by plants like CO2.
They needed nitrogen in soluble form.
A bacteria called rhizobium take atmospheric nitrogen and convert it into soluble form.
Rhizobium lives in roots of leguminous plants. It gets it food and shelter from the plants
roots and in return provides nitrogen in soluble form.
NUTRITION IN ANIMALS
Animals get their food from plants, either directly (by eating plants) or indirectly (eating
animals which eats plants).
E.g. Directly vegetables
o Indirectly deer, fish
Animals nutrition includes nutrient requirement, mode of intake of food and its
utilization in our body.
Our body cannot digest complex substance like carbohydrate as it is and so we require
breakdown of complex components into simpler substances. This process of breakdown
is called as digestion.
Different ways of taking food

Mode of taking food into the body varies in different organism.
Example -
o We and many animals feed on mothers milk.
o Bees and humming bird such plants nectar.
o Snakes swallow their food.
Click here to see video how starfish eats his food.
Digestion in humans
In our body there is canal which starts from Buccal cavity and ends at anus.
This canal is known as Alimentary canal (Digestive tract)
It can be divided into various compartments
o Buccal cavity
o Food pipe or esophagus
o Stomach
o Small intestine
o Large intestine
o Anus
Digestive system = digestive tract + gland associated with digestive tract
Glands in digestive system

Salivary glands, liver and pancreas secrete digestive juices on food in various
compartments of canal to convert complex substance simpler.
Each gland function is covered in the compartment i.e. parts of canal, where they are
situated.
The mouth and buccal cavity
The following function takes place in buccal cavity -

Ingestion
Process of taking food into the body
Teeth
Teeth mechanically breaks down food into small pieces.
Milk teeth and permanent teeth
1. Milk teeth set of teeth grown during infancy. They fall off at the age between 6 to 8
years.
2. Permanent teeth these set of teeth grow after 6 or 8 years age or they are
replacement of milk teeth. They last throughout life or fall off during old age or due to
dental disease.
There are 4 types of teeth
o Incisor - a narrow-edged tooth at the front of the mouth, adapted for cutting. In
humans there are four incisors in each jaw.
o Canine - a pointed tooth between the incisors and premolars of a mammal,
often greatly enlarged in carnivores like lion, dog, tiger etc.
o Premolar - a tooth situated between the canine and the molar teeth. An adult
human normally has eight, two in each jaw on each side.
o Molar - a grinding tooth at the back of a mammal's mouth.
Sweet and tooth decay

Our mouth has bacteria, but they are not harmful.
If we dont clean our mouth after eating sweets or food many harmful bacteria start
living and growing in our teeth. These bacterias breakdown the remains of foods and
sweets and releases acids which corrodes the enamel (a protective layer which protects
our teeth) of teeth.
This is called as tooth decay
To avoid this, we must clean our teeth at least 2 times in 24-hour duration + rinse
mouth after every meal.
Salivary gland
It secretes saliva, which breaks down the starch (present in food) into sugars.
Tongue
Fleshy muscular organ attached at back to the floor of the buccal cavity.
Free at front and can move in all directions.
Functions
Helps in talking (you cannot talk without your tongue)
Mixes saliva with food during chewing
Helps in swallowing food
Helps in tasting the food by its taste buds.
Cough, hiccups
Windpipe in our body carries air from nostrils to lungs. This windpipe runs adjacent with food
pipe. Both share a common passage. While swallowing food windpipe remains close with flap
like valve and guides food into food pipe but sometimes the food particles enter the
windpipe and we feel choked, get hiccups or cough.
The food pipe / esophagus

After buccal cavity the swallowed food is passed into the food pipe or esophagus.
Q) What happens during vomiting?
Click here for video

As can be seen in digestive system diagram the food runs along the neck and chest.
The food inside food pipe is pushed by the movement of the food pipes walls.
When our stomach doesnt accept the food (like if there is hair in our food) then it is
vomited out.
The stomach
It is a thick walled bag and in shape like a flattened U.

Widest part of alimentary canal.
Opening food pipe (stomach receives food from food pipe)
End opens in to small intestine.
Function
o Inner lining of stomach secretes mucous, HCL, digestive juices.
o The HCL can burn stomach lining but mucous protects it.
To kill bacteria that entered with food and helps the digestive juices to act on food
Digestive juices breakdown protein into simpler substances.
The small intestine

Highly coiled 7.5 meters long (OMG)
Receives secretion from - liver (bile juice) and pancreas (pancreatic juice)
Releases or secrets juices
Liver
Reddish brown gland
Situated in upper part of abdomen on right side
Largest gland in the body
Secretes bile juice (stored in a sac caked gall bladder)
Bile juice helps in digestion of fats
Pancreas
Large cream color gland
Just below stomach
Secretes pancreatic juice
Pancreatic juice acts on
o Carbohydrates converted into glucose
o Fats fatty acids + glycerol
o Proteins animals acids
Absorption in the small intestine

The food is digested now and can be pass into the blood vessels in the wall of intestine.
This process is called as absorption.
Villi (finger like outgrowths in inner walls of small intestine) increases the surface area
for the absorption of digested food.
The network of small and thin blood vessels close to the surface of villi helps villi in
absorbing substances.
These substances like nutrients are transported via blood vessels to different body
organs
These body organs utilize them to build complex substances like proteins. This is called
as assimilation.
In cells. The glucose is breakdown into CO2 and water with the help of O2. During this
process energy is released which is required by our body to do work.
In vehicles also similar process is there, the fuel in the presence of the O2
breakdown into and releases energy which moves the vehicle
Large intestine
Undigested and unabsorbed food enters into large intestine
It is wider but shorter than small intestine (actually small intestine is large in length and
large intestine is small in length)
1.5 metres long
Function absorb water and salts from undigested and unabsorbed food.
Remaining waste passed into rectum where it remains as semi-solid faeces.
Anus removed these faecal matter
This is called as egestion
Diarrhoea
Frequent watery stool is called as dirrohea.
Causes infection, food poisoning or indigestion.
It can be fatal because of excessive loss of water and salts from the body
Treatment plenty of boiled and cooled water with pinch of salt and sugar dissolved in
it (i.e. ORS oral rehydration solution)
Digestion in grass eating animals

Grass eating animals like cow, buffaloes quickly swallow the grass and store it in a part
of stomach called rumen.
Food gets partially digested in rumen and is called as cud.
Q) Why didnt they chew during eating?

Most ruminants do not have upper front teeth; they graze by pressing their lower front
teeth on the hard pad at the top of their mouth.
When a ruminant animal eats it simply is putting the food into its stomach with very
little early chewing. The food is then mixed with saliva in the rumen and reticulum. The
food then forms into solid lumps, called cud, which the animal can regurgitate later for
chewing.
The cud is chewed slowly, with a side to side grinding motion, using their hind teeth,
before being swallowed. Grass and plants are hard to digest so this second chewing is
required to break the food down further for digestion. After food is swallowed the
second time it can be passed into the other parts of the stomach, the omasum, and
abomasum, the last of which is considered to be a true stomach.
Q) why we cant digest cellulose?

Because certain kind of bacteria are not there in human which can digest cellulose.
The cud later returns into mouth in small lumps and animal chews it. Process is called as
rumination and animals are called as ruminants.

Ruminants have a large sac like structure called caecum between small intestine and
large intestine.
Feeding and digestion in amoeba
Amoeba is one of those small organisms which do not have mouth and a digestive
system
Amoeba is a microscopic (i.e. can be seen from microscope only) single celled organism
found in pond water.
It has a cell membrane, a rounded and dense nucleus and small vacuoles which looks
like small bubbles in cytoplasm.
It constantly changes its shape and position. It pushes out pseudopodia (finger like
projections) or false feet for movement and capture of food.
Eats microscopic organism.
When it senses food, it pushes out pseudopodia around the food particle and engulfs it.
The food is trapped in food vacuole and digestive juices are secreted into it.
These juices break down food into simpler substances
Gradually the digested food is absorbed and used for maintenance, growth and
multiplication.
Undigested residue of food is expelled outside by the vacuole.
FIBRE TO FABRIC
Natural fiber fibers which are obtained from plants and animals
e.g. cotton cotton plant

wool rabbit, camel, yak (hairs from 3) and goat, sheep (fleece from both
animals)
silk silkworm
jute jute plant
Synthetic fiber fiber which are made from chemical substances and not obtained from plants
and animals.
e.g. polyester, nylon, acrylic
Fiber strands yarn fabric cloth
Fiber to yarn by spinning using spindle or charkha.
Yarn to fabric by weaving and knitting.
Weaving process of arranging 2 sets of yarns to make a fabric
Knitting a single yarn is used to make a piece of fabric.
Animal fibers wool and silk

Wool
Wool is obtained from - camel, yak, goat, sheep and other animals
The sheeps hairy skin has 2 types of fibers
o The coarse beard hair
o The fine soft under-hair close to the skin (these provide fibers for making wool)
Selective breeding - Breeding of animals or plants having desirable characters or
breeding in a way to make a race better.
Animals that yield wool

Source of wool is not only sheep other animals also gives us wool but sheep wool is commonly
available in market.
Example
o yak wool Tibet and ladakh
o angora wool angora goat Jammu and Kashmir (hilly regions)
o goat hair Kashmiri goat (for pashmina shawls) Kashmir
o camel fur camel Rajasthan
o wool llama and alpaca south America
From fibers to wool

Rearing and breeding of sheep
Many times you have seen shepherd taking their herds of sheep for grazing shepherds rear
these sheeps for wools. Not all sheeps have fine hairs and good quality wool and so they do
selective breeding.
Processing fibers into wool

The shawls or sweaters we wear is a finish product of long process
Shearing scouring sorting rolling
Shearing process of removing of fleece of sheep long with thin layer of skin (dead skin and
hairs are removed during hot weather so sheep dont have any problem and till winter hairs
will grow again)
Hair woolen fibers woolen yarn
Scouring washing of hair to remove the dirt, grease and dust in tanks or by machine.
Sorting separation of different textures of hairs
Natural fleece of sheep color black, brown and white. These are dyed in various colors.
Rolling after straightening and combing, fibers are rolled into yarn.
Longer fibers are for sweater while shorter are for woolen cloths.
Occupation hazard in woolen industry sorters job is risky as sometimes they get
infected by a bacterium, anthrax, which causes a fatal blood disease called sorters
disease. Such risks faced by workers in any industry are called occupational hazards.
Silk
Silk fibers also come under animal fibers
Silk fibers are obtained from silkworms and rearing of silkworm is called as sericulture.
Life history of silk moth

Caterpillar or silkworms - The female silk moth lays eggs, from which hatch larvae which
are called caterpillars or silkworms.
Caterpillar grow in size and it is called as pupa (next stage of life history of caterpillar
covering itself by silk fibers)
It swings its head in form of figure eight and during this movement secretes protein.
This protein hardens on exposure to air and become silk fiber
The silk cover through which caterpillar covers itself is called as cocoon.
Development of pupa moth taken place inside the cocoon.
Use of silk fibers to weave cloth

Soft silk yarn strength strong as thread of steel.
We get silk yarn from cocoon of silk moth
You have heard many times mulberry silk, tassar silk, mooga silk, kosa silk etc.
These are types of silk obtained from different variety of silk moths. These types are
different in texture (coarse, smooth, shiny etc.)
Mulberry silk moth is most common silk moth among them this silk is soft, lustrous and
elastic and can be dyed in beautiful colors.
We have read about export by India during ancient times. (link ancient period chinas
silk route and present One road one belt)
From cocoon to silk
Q) How silkworms are reared?

As we have read a female silk moth lays 100s of eggs at a time.
The eggs of these moth are stored on cloth paper and then sold to silk worm farmers.
These farmers kept these eggs in hygiene conditions and with appropriate temperature
and humidity
Farmers warm the eggs so that larvae hatch the eggs (this is done when mulberry tree
bears fresh crop of leaves)
The larvae i.e. caterpillar are kept in clean bamboo trays with fresh mulberry leaves.
Caterpillar eat these day and night and grow in size. After 25-30 days they stop eating
and move to corner of tray and start spinning cocoons.
The silk moth develops inside the cocoon
Processing silk
The cocoon spinned by silk worms is kept under sun or boiled or exposed to steam so that silk
fibers get separated. This process of separating silk from cocoon is called as reeling the silk.
Silkworm cocoon silk fibers silk threads silk cloth
Discovery of silkworm was done by Chinese empress Si-lung-chi
HEAT
Hot and cold

Temperature reliable measure of the hotness of an object (though we can sense by touch as
but how many of you are ready to touch fire . So, sense of touch is not a reliable measure)
Measuring temperature
To measure a temperature a device is used called as thermometer.
Thermometer can be used to measure different temperature.
There are many thermometers but we will study 2 thermometers here and one in
climate chapter.
Clinical thermometer
Measures our body temperature
It is long, narrow, uniform glass tube

Has bulb at one end which consists mercury
Scale on thermometer - 35C to 42C (India have adopted C scale)
Normal temperature of human being - 37C (average body temperature of large number
of healthy persons)
35C to 42C means - human body temperature doesnt go below 35C or above 42C.
The kink in thermometer prevents mercury from falling on its own.
We cant use clinical thermometer to measure things which are >42C or <35C as they
can break the glass
Laboratory thermometer
It is used to measure temperature of objects.

Range --ve 10C to 110C
Reading is noted when object is inside the water or object.
It also can be used to measure body temperature but it will not be feasible to do so.
Digital thermometers
As we have read in environment that mercury is a toxic substance and can cause minamata
disease + difficult to dispose. So, now days digital thermometer are used which dont have
mercury.
Transfer of heat
Heat always travels from hotter object to cooler object
Heat will not be transferred if temperature of 2 objects is same.
Conduction
Conduction is a process by which heat is transferred from the hotter end to the colder
end of an object.
Conduction takes place when 2 objects are in contact with each other. Generally in
solids
All substances not conduct heat easily.
Conductors
Material which allow heat to pass through them easily.
Example Al, Cu, Iron (fe)
Insulators
Materials which do not allow heat to pass through them
Poor conductors of heat water and air
Convection
The process in which heat moves through a gas or a liquid as the hotter part rises and
the cooler, heavier part sinks.
Example
While heating water near the base of container heats first and rises up while the cold
water sinks into the base of container. This cold water gets heated and rises up.
The air near the heat source gets hot and rises. The air from the sides comes in place to
take its place and so on air gets heated.
Land breeze and sea breeze (only sea breeze is explained as it is already covered in
geography notes)
The air over the land warms up (during day) and rises up. To fill this gap cold air rushes
from sea. This is called as sea breeze.
Radiation
Transforming of heat without any medium
Example
The heat from sun comes to us by radiation and requires no medium.
So if you encounter a statement anywhere that heat from sun comes to us by
conduction and convection is a wrong statement.
Heat by heater in room.
All hot bodies radiate heat. When this heat falls on some object, a part of it is reflected,
a part is absorbed and a part may be transmitted. The temperature of the object
increases due to the absorbed part of the heat.
Kinds of cloths we wear in summer and winter

In summer we prefer light color cloths because they absorb less heat and keeps our body cool.
While in winter we prefer dark cloths because they absorb more and thus, keeping our body
warmer.
Woolen cloths keep us warm in winter

Wool poor conductor of heat.
o It traps the air between the wool fibers and so the heat remains as it is near
body and wool i.e. prevents heat flowing out from our body.
It is better to use 2 thin blankets joined together than one thick blanket because the 2
would trap air between the blankets.
The same concept can be used in construction of walls of houses. One way to do so is
use of hollow bricks.
ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS

Acid
Acids are sour in taste and change the color of blue litmus to red.
Chemical nature -acidic
Bases
Bitter and change the color of the red litmus to blue.
Acids and bases reaction with metals

Acid + Metal Salt + Hydrogen gas
Metal in the above reaction displaces hydrogen from the acids. The metal combines with
the remaining part of the acid and forms a compound called a salt.
Base + Metal Salt + Hydrogen gas
Such reactions are not possible with all metals
Metal carbonates and metal hydrogen carbonates reaction with acids

Metal carbonate/Metal hydrogencarbonate + Acid Salt + Carbon dioxide + Water
Limestone, chalk and marble are different forms of calcium carbonate. All metal carbonates
and hydrogencarbonates react with acids to give a corresponding salt, carbon dioxide
and water.
Neutralization or acid base reaction with each other

Effect of a base is nullified by an acid and vice-versa.
Base + acid salt + water
Reaction of Metallic Oxides with Acids

Metal oxide + Acid Salt + Water
metallic oxides are said to be basic oxides because acid + base = salt +water. Now we have
acid and product is salt + water, this means another substance is base
Reaction of a Non-metallic Oxide with Base

Non Metal oxide + Acid Salt + Water
Since this is similar to the reaction between a base and an acid, we can conclude that
non- metallic oxides are acidic in nature.
What do all acids and all bases have in common?

Acids conduct electricity while glucose and alcohol solutions do not conduct electricity.
The electric current is carried through the solution by ions.
Cation present in acids is H+ acids produce hydrogen ions, H+(aq), in solution,
responsible for their acidic properties.
Hydrogen ions cannot exist alone. hydrogen ions in HCl are produced in the presence of
water. The separation of H+ ion from HCl molecules cannot occur in the absence of
water.
Bases generate hydroxide (OH) ions in water.
Alkalis - Bases which are soluble in water
All bases do not dissolve in water.
They are soapy to touch, bitter and corrosive.
Q) why we add acid to water and not water to acid?
The process of dissolving an acid or a base in water is a highly exothermic one. (as more H+ ion
will be there)
The acid must always be added slowly to water with constant stirring. If water is added to a concentrated
acid, the heat generated may cause the mixture to splash out and cause burns. The glass container may also
break due to excessive local heating
Dilution - Mixing an acid or base with water results in decrease in the concentration of ions (H3O+ /OH)
per unit volume
Measuring Strengthens of acid and base solutions

Indicator indicate the presence of acid and base
Litmus is a natural indicator (extracted from lichens). Has mauve(purple) color in distilled
water
o Turns to red in acid and to blue in basic
Turmeric is another such indicator.
Synthetic indicators - methyl orange, phenolphthalein (it gives pink color in base n remain
colorless in acid)
Litmus solution is a purple dye extracted from lichen, a plant belonging to the division
Thallophyta
Red cabbage leaves, turmeric, coloured petals of some flowers such as Hydrangea, Petunia
and Geranium, red petal (hibiscus flower)
hibiscus lichen
olfactory indicators - substances whose odor changes in acidic or basic media.

universal indicator - shows different colors at different concentrations of hydrogen ions
in a solution
pH scale - A scale for measuring hydrogen ion concentration in a solution
o p in pH stands for potenz in German, meaning power.
o Higher the hydronium ion concentration, lower is the pH value. i.e. more acidic
o pH <7 acidic
o pH = 7 neutral
o pH > 7 basic
The strength of acids and bases depends on the number of H+ ions and OH ions
produced, respectively
Diff. acids with same concentration produce different amounts of hydrogen ions
More H+ ions strong acids

Less OH ions weak acids / strong base
Importance of pH in everyday life

1. pH sensitivity towards animals and plants
Our body works within the pH range of 7.0 to 7.8
2. Acid rain - rain containing excess of acids OR When pH of rain water is less than 5.6
The rain becomes acidic because carbon dioxide, sulphur dioxide and nitrogen
dioxide (which are released into the air as pollutants) dissolve in rain drops to
form carbonic acid, sulphuric acid and nitric acid respectively.
Acid rain can cause damage to buildings, historical monuments, plants and
animals.
pH of rain water 5.6
The atmosphere of venus is made up of thick white and yellowish clouds of
sulphuric acid.
3. Soil treatment
Excessive use of chemical fertilizers makes the soil acidic. Plants do not grow well
when the soil is either too acidic or too basic.
Soil is too acidic treat it with bases like quick lime (calcium oxide) or slaked lime
(calcium hydroxide)
Soil is basic - organic matter is added which releases acids to neutralize the basic
nature of the soil.
4. pH in our digestive system
Our stomach produces hydrochloric acid. If too much acid isproduced, then this
causes pain and irritation.
Remedy antacid. These antacids neutralise the excess acid. Magnesium
hydroxide (Milk of magnesia), baking soda is also used
5. pH change as the cause of tooth decay
Tooth decay starts when the pH of the mouth is lower than 5.5. Tooth enamel,
made up of calcium phosphate is the hardest substance in the body. It does not
dissolve in water, but is corroded when the pH in the mouth is below 5.5.
Bacteria present in the mouth produce acids by degradation of sugar and food
particles remaining in the mouth after eating.
Using toothpastes, which are generally basic, for cleaning the teeth can neutralize
the excess acid and prevent tooth decay
6. Self defense by animals and plants through chemical warfare
Bee-sting leaves an acid which causes pain and irritation. Use of a mild base like
baking soda on the stung area gives relief.
Stinging hair of nettle leaves inject methanoic acid causing burning pain.
remedy is rubbing the area with the leaf of the dock plant, which often grows
beside the nettle in the wild
Natural source Acid Natural source Acid

Vinegar Acetic acid Sour milk Lactic acid
Orange Citric acid Lemon Citric acid
Tamarind Tartaric acid Ant sting Methanoic acid
Tomato Oxalic acid Nettle sting Methanoic acid
Ascorbic acid (vitamin
Amla, citrus fruits
C)
Name of base Found in Name of base Found in

Ammonium
Calcium hydroxide Lime water Window cleaner
hydroxide
Sodium hydroxide/ Magnesium
Soap Milk of magnesia
Potassium hydroxide hydroxide
Salts
Family of salts - Salts having the same +ve or -ve radicals are said to belong to a family.
For example, NaCl and Na2SO4 belong to the family of sodium salts. Similarly, NaCl and KCl
belong to the family of chloride salts.
pH of Salts
1. Strong acid + strong base = salt having neutral pH value of 7
2. strong acid + weak base = salt, acidic in nature, with pH value <7
3. weak acid + strong base = salt, basic in nature, with pH value >7
Chemicals from common salt

Seawater contains many salts dissolved in it. Sodium chloride is separated from these salts. These
large crystals are often brown due to impurities. This is called rock salt. Beds of rock salt were
formed when seas of bygone ages dried up. Rock salt is mined like coal
Common salt A raw material for chemicals

It is a raw material for sodium hydroxide, baking soda, washing soda, bleaching powder and many
more.
1. Sodium hydroxide
When electricity is passed through an aqueous solution of sodium chloride (called
brine), it decomposes to form sodium hydroxide. The process is called the chlor-alkali
process because of the products formed chlor for chlorine and alkali for sodium hydroxide
2NaCl(aq) + 2H2O(l) 2NaOH(aq) + Cl2(g) + H2(g)
Chlorine gas -at the anode

hydrogen gas - at the cathode.
Sodium hydroxide solution is formed near the cathode
2. Bleaching powder
Chlorine gas is used for the manufacture of bleaching powder. Bleaching powder is
produced by the action of chlorine on dry slaked lime [Ca(OH)2]. Bleaching powder is
represented as CaOCl2, though the actual composition is quite complex.
Ca(OH)2 + Cl2 CaOCl2 + H2O
Bleaching powder is used
I. Bleaching cotton and linen in textile industry
II. Bleaching wood pulp in paper factories
III. Bleaching washed clothes in laundry
IV. As an oxidizing agent in many chemical industries
V. For disinfecting drinking water
3. Baking soda (sodium hydrogen carbonate)

Used in the kitchen for making tasty crispy pakoras also added for faster cooking.
Chemical name of the compound is sodium hydrogencarbonate (nahco3). It is
produced using sodium chloride as one of the raw materials.
It is a mild non-corrosive base.
NaCl + H2 O + CO2 + NH3 NH4 Cl (ammonium chloride) + NaHCO3 (sodium
hydrogen carbonate)
Uses of sodium hydrogen carbonate (NaHCO3)
For making baking powder = baking soda (sodium hydrogen carbonate) + tartaric
acid (mild edible acid)
o When Baking powder heated or mixed in water following reaction takes
place
NaHCO3 + H+ CO2 + H2O + Sodium salt of acid (CO2 produced here make bread or
cake soft n spongy)
(From any acid)
Baking soda is also an ingredient in antacids.
It is also used in soda-acid fire extinguishers
4. Washing soda
NaCO3 .10H2O (washing soda) is obtained from sodium chloride
Sodium can be obtained by heating baking soda
2NaHCO3 He
at Na2 CO + H2O + CO2
(Sodium hydrogencarbonate) ( s o d i u m carbonate)
Recrystallization of sodium carbonate gives washing soda. It is also a basic salt.
Na2CO3 + 10H2O Na2CO3.10H2O
10H2O signifies water of crystallization. This makes Na2CO3 wet
Uses of washing soda
Used in glass, soap and paper industries.
Used in the manufacture of sodium compounds such as borax.
Can be used as a cleaning agent for domestic purposes.
Used for removing permanent hardness of water.
Are the crystals of salts really dry?

Copper sulphate crystals contain water of crystallization. they appear dry but actually
they are not. When we heat the crystals, this water is removed and the salt turns white.
If we moisten the crystals, blue colour reappears
Water of crystallisation - fixed number of water molecules present in one formula unit of
a salt
o One formula unit of copper sulphate contains 5 water molecules
o Chemical formula for hydrated copper sulphate is Cu SO4. 5H2O
o One other salt, which possesses water of crystallisation is gypsum.It has two
water molecules as water of cyrstallisation (formula - CaSO4.2H2O)
Use of this salt

Plaster of Paris On heating gypsum at 373 K, it loses water molecules and becomes
calcium sulphate hemihydrate (CaSO4.1/2H2O)
Used by doctor as plaster
It is a white powder and on mixing with water, it changes to gypsum once again giving a
hard solid mass.
POP use - for making toys, materials for decoration and for making surfaces smooth.
Calcium sulphate hemihydrate is called Plaster of Paris because large deposit of
gypsum in the Mont Martre hill in Paris.
PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL CHANGES
If something is pure, it means that all the constituent particles of that substance are the
same in their chemical nature. A pure substance consists of a single type of particles.
Mixture
MIXTURE More than one substance (substance pure matter)

Substance will always have the same characteristic properties.
Types of mixtures
1. HOMOGENEOUS MIXTURES OR SOLUTIONS - uniform composition throughout. Eg. Salt
in water
a. homogeneous mixture can have a variable composition.
2. HETEROGENEOUS MIXTURES non uniform compositions
Solution
SOLUTION - homogeneous mixture of two or more substances

Solutions can be solid awa liquid i.e. solid solutions (alloys) and gaseous solutions (air)
Solution have homogeneity at particle level e.g. lemonade (evenly distribution of particles)
Solution = solute + solvent
Examples
o tincture of iodine = iodine(solute) +alcohol(solvent),
o soda drink = co2(solute) + water(solvent)
SOLUTE The component of the solution that is dissolved in the solvent (usually in lesser
quantity)
SOLVENT The component of the solution that dissolves the other component in it (usually
larger amount)
ALLOYS mixture of 2 or more metals or metal n non-metal

Cannot be separated into their components by physical methods
It is considered as a mixture because it shows the properties of its constituents and can have
variable composition. E.g. BRASS = zinc (30%) + copper (70%)
Properties of a solution
o Homogeneous mixture
o Cannot be seen by naked eyes because particles are smaller than 1 nm (10-9
metre) in diameter.
o Do not scatter a beam of light because of small particles
o Solution is stable because solute particles cannot be separated from the

mixture by the process of filtration
Concentration of a solution
2 types dilute and concentrated or saturated solution
Saturated solution
when no more solute can be dissolved in a solution at a given temperature, it is called a
saturated solution.
By increasing temperature more solute can be added to solution
Solubility
The amount of the solute present in the saturated solution at this temperature is
called its solubility.
If the amount of solute contained in a solution is less than the saturation level, it is
called an unsaturated solution.
Different substances in a given solvent have different solubilities at the same
temperature.
Concentration of a solution
The amount of solute present in a given amount (mass or volume) of solution, or the amount of
solute dissolved in a given mass or volume of solvent.
Concentration of solution = Amount of solute/Amount of solution
Or
Amount of solute/Amount of solvent
Suspension
Suspension - a heterogeneous mixture in which the solute particles do not dissolve but
remain suspended throughout the bulk of the medium.
Properties of a Suspension
o Heterogeneous mixture.
o Particles can be seen by the naked eye.
o Scatter a beam of light
o Unstable - The solute particles settle down when a suspension is left
undisturbed. Filtration can separate them. When the particles settle down, the
suspension breaks and it does not scatter light any more.
Colloidal solution
The particles of a colloid are uniformly spread throughout the solution.
Due to the relatively smaller size of particles, as compared to that of a suspension,

the mixture appears to be homogeneous. But actually, a colloidal solution is a
heterogeneous mixture
for example, milk, ink
Properties of a colloid
It is a heterogeneous mixture.
The size of particles of a colloid is too small to be individually seen by naked eyes.
Colloids are big enough to scatter a beam of light
They do not settle down when left undisturbed, that is, a colloid is quite stable.
This scattering of a beam of light is called the Tyndall effect after the name of the scientist who
discovered this effect.
Tyndall effect can be observed when sunlight passes through the canopy of a dense forest.
In the forest, mist contains tiny droplets of water, which act as particles of colloid dispersed
in air.
The components of a colloidal solution - dispersed phase and dispersion medium.

Dispersed phase - The solute-like component or the dispersed particles in a colloid
Dispersing medium - the component in which the dispersed phase is suspended
Separating the components of a mixture
Heterogeneous mixtures can be separated by simple physical methods like handpicking,

sieving, filtration.
Separation of colored component (dye) from blue / black ink

Ink is a mixture of a dye in water. So we can separate volatile component (solvent) from its
non-volatile solute by the method of evaporation.
Centrifugation
The principle is that the denser particles are forced to the bottom and the lighter particles
stay at the top when spun rapidly.
Applications
Diagnostic laboratories for blood and urine tests.
Dairies and home separate butter from cream
Washing machines to squeeze out water from wet clothes.
Separating funnel
Applications
o To separate mixture of oil and water
o In the extraction of iron from its ore, the lighter slag is removed from the
top and molten iron remains at the bottom in the furnace.
Principle - immiscible liquids separate out in layers depending on their densities
Sublimation
Principle solid to gas without changing into liquid state
Some examples of solids which sublime are ammonium chloride, camphor,
naphthalene and anthracene, separation of mixture of salt and ammonium chloride
Chromatography
Usually, a dye is a mixture of two or more colours. The coloured component that is
more soluble in water, rises faster and in this way the colours get separated.
Chromatography Kroma in Greek means colour and so it is the technique used for
separation of those solutes that dissolve in the same solvent.
Applications
To separate
Colours in a dye
Pigments from natural colours
Drugs from blood.
Distillation separation of components of a mixture containing two miscible liquids that

boil without decomposition and have sufficient difference in their boiling points.
E.g. separate acetone and water from their mixture via distillation flask . acetone vaporises,
condenses in the condenser and can be collected from the condenser outlet.
Fractional distillation
separation of components of a mixture containing two miscible liquids for which difference in
boiling points is less than 25 K
e.g. Separation of different gases from air, different factions from petroleum products
Crystallization
CRYSTALLIZATION - process that separates a pure solid in the form of its crystals from a
solution
e.g. salt we get from sea water can have many impurities in it.
Crystallization technique is better than simple evaporation technique as
Some solids decompose or some, like sugar, may get charred on heating to dryness.
Some impurities may remain dissolved in the solution even after filtration. On
evaporation these contaminate the solid.
Applications
Purification of salt that we get from sea water.
Separation of crystals of alum (phitkari) from impure samples.
Obtaining Different gases from air
Physical and chemical changes
Properties such as shape, size, color and state of a substance are called its physical
properties. A change in which a substance undergoes a change in its physical properties
is called a physical change
Interconversion of states is a physical change because no change in chemical
composition and no change in the chemical nature
CHEMICAL CHANGE - A change in which one or more new substances are formed. It is also
called a chemical reaction.
e.g. Explosion of a firework is a chemical change, apple acquires a brown colour, ozone abosrbs
UV rays of sun and breaks down to oxygen
Burning is a chemical change because one substance reacts with another get new
substances. A chemical change is also called a chemical reaction.
Magnesium (Mg) + Oxygen (O2) Magnesium oxide (MgO)
Magnesium oxide (MgO) + Water (H2O) Magnesium hydroxide [Mg(OH)2]
Magnesium hydroxide is a base
Copper sulphate (blue vitriol or neela thotha) mixed with water and acid gives blue
colour and when it is mixed with iron it gives green colour because of reaction between
copper sulphate and iron and formation of iron sulphate
Copper sulphate solution (blue) + Iron Iron sulphate solution (green) + Copper (brown
deposit)
Vinegar (Acetic acid) + Baking soda (Sodium hydrogen carbonate) Carbon dioxide +
other substances
Carbon dioxide (CO2) + Lime water [ C a( OH )2] C a l c i u m C a r b o n a t e
(CaCO3) + Water (H2O)
o When carbon dioxide is passed through lime water, calcium carbonate is
formed, which makes lime water milky. The turning of lime water into milky is a
standard test of carbon dioxide
Rusting of iron
Iron (Fe) + Oxygen (O2, from the air) + water (H2O) rust (iron oxide Fe2O3)
For rusting, the presence of both oxygen and water (or water vapour) is essential.
In fact, if the content of moisture in air is high, which means if it is more humid,
rusting becomes faster.
To prevent rusting
Apply a coat of paint or grease
Deposit a layer of a metal like chromium or zinc on iron. This process of depositing a
layer of zinc on iron is called galvanisation.
The salt water makes the process of rust formation faster. Therefore, ships suffer
a lot of damage from rusting in spite of being painted
Stainless steel = iron + carbon + chromium + nickel and manganese. It does not rust.
Types of pure substances
Elements
Robert Boyle coined term element in 1661.
Antoine Laurent Lavoisier (1743-94), establish an experimentally useful definition of an
element. He defined
element as a basic form of matter that cannot be broken down into simpler substances by
chemical reactions.
Elements are divided into metals, non-metals and metalloids.
1. Metals usually show some or all of the following properties:

o Lustre (shine)
o Silvery-grey or golden-yellow colour.
o Conduct heat and electricity.
o Ductile (can be drawn into wires).
o Malleable sheets
o Sonorous (make a ringing sound when hit).
Mercury is the only metal that is liquid at room temperature.

2. Non-metals usually show some or all of the following properties:
o Display a variety of colors.
o Poor conductors of heat and
o Electricity
o Not lustrous, sonorous or malleable.
Examples iodine, bromine, chlorine

3. metalloids (semiconductors) Some elements have intermediate properties between
those of metals and non-metals, they are called metalloids; examples are
boron, silicon, germanium etc.
Compounds
Composed of two or more elements, chemically combined with one another in a fixed
proportion.
1. Known elements 100
a. 92 natural
b. 8 man made
2. Majority are solid.
3. Eleven elements are in gaseous state
4. Two elements are liquid at room temperature mercury and bromine.
5. gallium and cesium become liquid at a temperature slightly above room

temperature (303 K).
Compound
Mixture
Elements or compounds just mix together to
form a mixture and no Elements react to form new compounds.
new compound is formed.
Composition of each new substance
Variable composition
Is always fixed.
Shows the properties of the
Different properties
Constituent substances.
Constituents can be seperated easily by physical Only by chemical or electrochemical
methods. Reactions.
WEAHTER, CLIMATE AND ADAPTATIONS OF ANIMALS TO CLIMATE

Weather
the day to day condition of the atmosphere at a place with respect to the temperature,
humidity, rainfall, wind speed etc. is called weather.
Meteorological department of a country prepares the weather report.
Rainfall measurement device rain gauge
Elements of weather temperature, humidity, rainfall and wind speed.
In a weather report the maximum and minimum temperatures are measured every day.
(remember the maximum and minimum temperature measuring thermometer)
Generally, max. temperature afternoon while minimum in early morning.
All changes in weather are because of sun.
Climate
The average weather pattern taken over long time (about 25 or 35 years) is called as
climate of place.
Example Rajasthan climate is hot and dry.
Climate and adaptation

Climate has a profound impact on all living organisms.
Not only animals but even we are adopted to survive in the conditions in which we live.
During the prices of evolution, the features and habits of animals adapt to their
surroundings.
Effect of climate on animals

The polar region
Countries belonging to polar regions are Canada, Greenland. Iceland Norway, Sweden,
Finland, Alaska (USA), Siberia (Russia)
Extreme climate
Snow covered region for most part of year.
For 6 months sun doesnt set and for next 6 months it doesnt rise.
Temperature in winter up to -37C
Adaptation by animals in this region
1. Polar bear
white color of fur helps from predators and helps in catching prey. Protect from
extreme cold.
Fats under skin to insulate them from cold (move slowly to avoid overheating of
body)
But they would be needing cooling in summer so, they swim in water.
Can swim under water for longer duration by closing nostril
Strong sense of smell helps in catching prey.
Long curved and sharp claws helps in walk on ice.
2. Penguin
White color of body merges with white background of snow
Similar to bear it also has thick skin and lot of fats under skin
They stay together so that they can keep themselves warmer
Web feets make them good swimmer
Streamlined body
3. Other animals
Musk
Oxen
Rein deer
Foxes
Seals
Whales
Fishes
Birds
Fishes - can live in cold water
Birds they need to keep their body warm and so they migrate to warmer regions when winter
starts. Example
Siberian crane travels from Siberia to bharatpur keoladeo national park, Rajasthan and
sultanpur, Haryana.
The tropical rainforest
Climate hot and wet (plenty of rainfall)

Location around equator.
Temperature range - 15C(winter) to 40C (summer)
Forests tropical rain forest
Wide variety of plants and animals monkeys, apes, gorillas, lions, tiger, elephant,
leopards, lizards, snakes, birds and insects.
Because of large number of animals there is an intense competition for resources.
Animals adapted to live on trees.
o Red eyed frog it has developed sticky pads on its feet to climb trees on which it
lives.
o Monkey long tails for grasping the tree branches. Hands and feet for easy hold
on branches.
o Competition lead to some animals to adapt to get food not easily reachable.
o E.g. bird Toucan large beak helps in reaching those fruits which dont support
its weight.
Lion tailed macaque (beard ape)
o Lives rain forest of western ghats

o Most outstanding feature silver white mane surrounding the head from cheeks
down to its chin
o Good climber
o Feeds on fruits, seeds, young leaves, stems, flowers and buds.
Elephant
o Uses trunk as nose and so has strong sens e of smell.
o Pick up food by trunk
o Tusks modified teeth (tear bark trees)
o Large ears helps in listening soft sounds, keep elephant cool in hot and humid
climate.
WINDS, STORMS AND CYCLONE
Wind- moving air.
Air exerts pressure

Example easier to ride boat or cycle when wind comes from backside.
A warm bottle with tightly cap under cold water distorted its hsape because of air
pressure.
Helping of wind to fly kite.
Burst of tyre, overfilled with air.
High speed winds are accompanied by reduced air pressure

Increased wind speed is accompanied by reduced air pressure and this can even blow
the weak roofs of houses.
Air always move from high pressure to low pressure (air pressure is low). As the
difference between 2 pressures increases the faster air moves.
Air expands on heating

As the air warms it expands and rises up. Warm air is light in weight but it occupies more
space because of expansion.
This is the reason that why smoke always goes up
Exactly opposite happens in case of cold air i.e. contracts less space heavier
So when air rises the pressure of air in that place lowers and the cold air from the
surrounding area rushes to fill its place and so convection sets place in air.
Wind currents are generated due to uneven heating on earth

Situations
1. Uneven heating between the equator and the poles
region close to equator gets more heat and so warm air rises up. The gap is filled by
the cold air from 30N and 30S. these cold air comes towards equator.
The same thing takes places between 60 N and S and poles. The warmer air at 60
latitudes rises up while the colder air from poles tried to fill the gap or tried to take its
place and so a wind circulation starts from poles to warmer latitudes.
The winds are not exactly from 30N or 30S towards equator because of corriolis force or
rotation of earth.
2. Uneven heating of land and water

Lands warms faster than water.
During summer season the land over Tibet plateau and northern India gets immense
heat and a high pressure is developed here.
Because of slow heating of water, oceans have low pressure. The winds over ocean run
towards high pressure to take place of warm moisture which they carry over land.
These winds are called as monsoon winds.
In winter the process is reversed
Monsoon has socio-economic and religious significance in our country especially for
farmers.
Thunderstorms and cyclones

They developed in hot, humid tropical areas (like india)
Thunderstorm a violent, short-lived weather disturbance that is almost always

associated with lightning, thunder, dense clouds, heavy rain or hail, and strong, gusty
winds.
Thunderstorms arise when layers of warm, moist air rise in a large, swift updraft to
cooler regions of the atmosphere.
There the moisture contained in the updraft condenses to form towering cumulonimbus
clouds and, eventually, precipitation.
Columns of cooled air then sink earthward, striking the ground with strong downdrafts
and horizontal winds.
At the same time, electrical charges accumulate on cloud particles (water droplets and
ice). Lightning discharges occur when the accumulated electric charge becomes
sufficiently large. Lightning heats the air it passes through so intensely and quickly that
shock waves (shock wave) are produced; these shock waves are heard as claps and rolls
of thunder.
On occasion, severe thunderstorms are accompanied by swirling vortices of air that
become concentrated and powerful enough to form tornadoes (tornado).
How a thunderstorm becomes cyclone?

When water is heated it changes into vapor. This vapor has heat.
When vapor is condensed or converted into water it releases the heat which it gained
during conversion.
Water takes heat from the atmosphere and change into vapor. When vapor changes
into liquid as raindrops it releases heat into atmosphere.
This heat warms the air which rises up creating a low pressure in center. The
surrounding air rushes to center of storm. This cycle is keep on repeating.
This is called as cyclone
Factors which help in development of cyclone wind speed, wind direction,
temperature and humidity
Less on west coast of India but east coast vulnerable.
Destruction by cyclones
Very destructive
Strong winds coming towards coasts are warming of cyclones.
When cyclone move towards coast its like water-wall moving towards coast.
Entry of sea water causes great loss to life and property and also reduces the soil fertility
Continuous rainfall can cause flood.
Most are weak

Violent tornado has speed of 300 kmph
They can form within cyclones.
Effective strategy measures

Early warning systems installation
Rapid communication to government, ports, fishermen, ships and public
Construction of cyclone shelters in cyclone prone areas.
What people should take care?
Not ignoring warnings issued by meteorological department especially fishermen.
Necessary arrangement of essential things
No driving on roads with water
Emergency phone numbers
Not drinking water (as it may be contaminated)
Not to touch wet switches and fallen power lines.
Not to pressurize the rescue force by making undue demands.
Cooperate and help your neighbors and friends.
SOIL
Soil teeming with life

You would have heard of that polythene pollutes the soil but you would have never
heard of that polythene kills organisms living in soil and its true.
Other pollutant of soil waste products, chemicals and pesticides
While waste products and chemicals should be treated before releasing into soil the use
of pesticides should be minimized.
Soil profile
In geography we have seen that weathering helps in formation of soil (weathering
breaking down of rocks by action of wind, water and climate)
The color, texture and properties of soil depends on types of rocks from which it had
made.
Type of vegetation also soils nature
Soil profile
Vertical section through different layers of soil is called as soil profile

Each layer is different in texture (feel), color, depth and chemical composition. These
layers are called as horizons.
Horizon A
Uppermost horizon
Dark color
Rich in humus and minerals
Humus make soil fertile and provide nutrients to growing plants
Soft, porous layer and can retain more water.
Also called as the topsoil or the A-horizon.
Provides shelter for many living organisms such as worms, rodents, moles and beetles.
Roots of small plants are embedded entirely in the topsoil.
Horizon B
Lesser amount of humus but more of minerals.
Harder and more compact
Also known as B-horizon or the middle layer.
Horizon C
3rd layer
Made up of small lumps of rocks with cracks and crevices.
Below it is bedrock (very hard and difficult to dig)
Soil types
Weathering of rocks produces small particles of various materials
Sandy soil if soil contain greater proportion of big particles

o Sand particle are quite large and so they cannot fit closely and have large spaces
between them, filled with air, or we can say sand is well aerated
o Because of so much space water percolates easily (its just like the bigger the
hole in your pocket sooner the money goes out )
o In short sandy light, well aerated and dry.
Clayey soil if soil has higher proportion of fine particles
o The clay had opposite case - smaller particles tightly packed little air and so
can retain water.
o In short heavy, not aerated and hold water
Loamy soil amount of large and fine particles same
o Best topsoil for growing plants
o Mixture of sand, clay and silt (another type of soil particle)
o Silt occurs in riverbed and their size is between sandy and clay
o It also has humus
o It has right water holding capacity for plant growth
For pots and surahi clay is best because of its above mentioned properties.
Absorption of water by soil

Percolation means ability of water to absorb the soil.
Now you are in a position to tell that which soil has higher percolation and which has
lower.
Sandy higher
Clay lower
Moisture in the soil

In summer, the vapor comes out of soil reflects the sunlight and the air above the soil seems to
shimmer.
Soil and crops

India has different types of soil
Soil is affected by wind, rainfall, temperature, light and humidity (these are important
climatic factors) (covered in geography notes)
Climatic factors and soil components decides which type of vegetation and crops will
grow in a region.
Clayey and loamy soil wheat and gram (because retain water)
Clayey with humus paddy
Loamy soil (which drains water) - lentils and other pulses
Sandy loam or loam (aerated and drains water easily) cotton
Q) Why horse dung is mixed with clayey soil, which is used to make pots, surahis?
When items made of clay are baked horse dung burns and helps open up the pores in the soil.
So that water could percolate out of the matkas and surahis, evaporate and cools the water
inside.
Soil erosion
Destruction of soil by wind or rain after vegetation cover is removed.
Soil erosion is a particular problem in less developed countries (LDCs), where population
pressure leads to deforestation and over-grazing. It also occurred in the American
dustbowl.
Water erosion can be controlled by contour terracing and the construction of small
storage dams, and both forms of erosion can be prevented by planting ground-cover
vegetation. (more covered in geography notes)
RESPIRATION IN ORGANISMS
Q) Why do we respire?
Our cells perform various functions like nutrition, transport, excretion and reproduction
and to perform these functions energy is needed.
This energy is inside the food but to harness that energy we need to breakdown the
food so that energy can be obtained. This function is performed by respiration.
During respiration O2, which we have inhaled, breakdown the food so that energy can
be obtained. This function is performed by respiration.
During respiration O2 is carried to all the cells of our body. The O2 in cells breakdown
the food and release energy. This process is called as cellular respiration. It takes place
in all the cells of an organism.
Food is breakdown means glucose is break down into CO2 and water. This process is
called as aerobic respiration.
Glucose CO2 + water + energy.
If food is break down in absence of O2 then it is called as anaerobic respiration.
Yeasts (an organism) can survive in absence of air and called as anaerobes.
o Get energy through anaerobic respiration
o Breakdown of glucose in absence of oxygen

Glucose Alcohol + water + energy.
o And so yeasts are used to make alcohol.
Answer is yes but only for a short period of time. When there is temporary deficiency of
O2.
Fast running, heavy exercises demand O2 but because of less supply of O2 our muscles
respire anaerobically which accumulates lactic acid which is the reason for muscle
cramps after heavy exercise
Glucose lactic acid + water
If we take a hot water bath or massage then the supply of blood will improve in body
and that means more supply of O2 which will breakdown lactic acid into CO2 and water
and so relief from muscle cramp.
Breathing
Breathing taking in air rich of O2 and giving out air rich in CO2
Inhalation when we take air rich in O2
Exhalation when we give out air rich in CO2
Breathing is a process which goes on all time and throughout life.
Breathing rate number of times a person breathes in a minute
Inhalation and exhalation goes alternatively not simultaneously.
1 Breathe = 1 inhalation + 1 Exhalation
In normal cases i.e. human beings at rest breathes in and out 15-18 times in a minute.
But during heavy exercises the breathing rate increases and it goes up to 25 times per
minute.
After physical activity we feel hungry because all the energy is get exhausted.
When we breathe air it is not pure O2 because if we take pure O2 there would be
several negative effects, including accumulation of fluid in the lungs, chest pain and
slowed gas flow across the alveoli, which causes the person to breathe more to retain
enough oxygen. Also, the total volume of exchangeable air in the lungs decreases by 17
percent, and mucous plugs collapse the alveoli.
Answer is low oxygen levels in the paraventricular nucleus (PVN) of the hypothalamus of
the brain can induce yawning.
How do we breathe?
When we inhale air it passes through our nostrils into the nasal cavity.
From there it passes though windpipe and reaches to lungs
Lungs are in chest cavity which is surrounded by ribcage and diaphragm (large muscular
sheet) forms the floor of chest cavity
During inhalation the ribs moves up and outwards and diaphragm moves down. It
increases space in our chest cavity and air rushes into lungs to fill them with air.
During exhalation exactly opposite ribs contract (moves down and inwards)
diaphragm moves up decreases space air pushes out.
Q) why do we sneeze?
Sneezing happens when something irritates the nose or throat's mucous membranes.
The most common cause for people to sneeze is catching a cold or being ill with a flu.
People with allergies sneeze to expel dust, pollen, mold and animal dander. Certain nose
sprays, which contain corticosteroids, can also cause sneezing.
What do we breathe out?

We breathe out O2, CO2 and water vapors
We can test CO2 by exhaling into lime water which will turn inti milky after our
exhalation.
It shows us that when we inhale the chest is expanded and vice versa.
Breathing in other animals

Cockroach
Has small openings on side of its body called spiracles.
Also has trachea (network of air tubes) for gas exchange
Inhalation - Oxygen rich air rushes through spiracles into the tracheal tubes, diffuses
into the body tissue, and reaches every cell of the body.
Exhalation - carbon dioxide from the cells goes into the tracheal tubes and moves out
through spiracles. These air tubes or tracheae are found only in insects and not in any
other group of animals.
Earthworm
Earthworms are found in the soil. In the soil they eat dead and decaying organic matter
along with soil.
In return, they help in aeration of soil by digging holes in it and enhance fertility of soil.
In earthworms there is no specialized organ to do respiration.
So, in earthworms respiration process takes place through its moist, thin and highly
vascular skin.
The oxygen gas absorbed by the skin diffuses into the blood and transported to all the
cells of the body. In the cells, oxygen is used up for oxidation of food.
During this process, carbon dioxide is produced. Then, this carbon dioxide mixes in the
blood and diffused out of the body through its moist skin.
Frogs have a pair of lungs like human beings, they can also breathe through their skin,
which is moist and slippery.
Breathing under water
Gills (projections of skin) helps them to use O2 dissolved in water.

Gills have well supplied blood vessels for exchange of gases
Do plants also respire?
Already covered in nutrition chapter (O2, CO2, Carbohydrate, starch, chlorophyll,
stomata)
The roots of plants also respire. They needed O2 to generate energy and so take up air
from the air spaces present between soil particles.
TRANSPORTATION IN ANIMALS AND PLANTS

Circulatory system
Heart and blood vessels function is to transport the substances to different parts of
body and forms a circulatory system
Blood
It is a fluid which flows in blood vessels
It transports substances like digested food from the small intestine to other parts of the
body
Carries O2 from lungs to cells

Transports waste for removal
Blood is a liquid which has cells of various kinds suspended in it.
Fluid part of blood called plasma
RBC (red blood cells)
Type of cell
Contains red pigment called Hb (Haemoglobin)
Haemoglobin
Binds with O2 and transport to all parts of body (ultimately to cell)

If Hb is less then, O2 will not be delivered sufficiently to cells.
Hb presence makes blood color red.
WBC (white blood cells)
Fight against germs
Platelets
Type of cell
Helps in blood clotting
Without it blood will keep on flowing in case of injury
Blood vessels
Artery
Type of blood vessel
Carry O2 rich blood from heart to call parts of our body
Have thick walls because of rapid blood flow at high pressure
A for artery A for achha Khoon
Pulse
Throbbing of blood vessel
Because of blood flowing in the artries
Pulse rate no. of beats per minute.
Resting person pulse rate 72 to 80 beats per minute.
Veins
Type of blood vessel
Carry O2 rich blood from all parts of body to heart
Have thin walls
Valves in veins allow blood to flow only towards heart.
Capillaries
Extremely thin tubes which are divided from vessels
Join up to veins which empty into heart
Heart
Beats continuously so can act as a pump for transport of blood
Located in chest cavity
Lower tip tilted slightly towards the left

Its size is roughly equal to our fist.
It has 4 chambers so that O2 rich blood and CO2 rich blood dont mix
Atria upper 2 chambers
Ventricle lower 2 chambers
Functioning of circulatory system
The pulmonary vein carries O2 rich blood from lungs to heart. It further travels to heart.
From there it is transported to all the cells of the body and from all the cells to CO2 rich
blood is transported back to heart via veins.
From heart it is transported to lungs through pulmonary artery
Heart beat
The chamber walls are made of muscles. These muscles contract and relax rhythmically
Heartbeat constitutes of rhythmic contraction flowed by relaxation constitute a
heartbeat.
The heartbeat can be listened with an instrument called stethoscope.
Stethoscope
Device to amplify the sound of the heart
Consists of a chest piece that carries a sensitive diaphragm, 2 ear pieces and a tube
joining the parts.
Q) Do hydra and sponges also have blood?

No circulatory system
Because the function of blood is done by water. Water brings food and O2.
Water carries way waste and CO2.
Excretion in animals
When cells perform their functions they also produce waste which are toxic and so need
to be removed.
Excretion removal of waste products produced in cells
Excretory system organs which are involved in removing waste from our body.
Excretory system in humans

Waste in blood is removed by filtering
This is done on kidney by blood capillaries
When blood reaches to kidney. It is mixture of useful and not useful substances
Useful substances are absorbed by kidney and non-useful substances dissolved in water
are removed as urine.
The urine is stored in urinary bladder through tube like ureters and passed out though
muscular tube called urethra.
Excretory system consists of -
o Kidneys
o Ureter
o Bladder
o Urethra
Normal human being urine in 24 hours 1 to 1.8 liter
It consists of
o 95% water
o 2.5% urea
o 2.5% other wastes
Sweating keeps our body cool. Sweat contains salt and water.
The removal of waste chemicals depends on availability of water.
Aquatic animals excretes cells waste as ammonia which dissolves in water.
Birds, lizards, snake uric acid (white color compound) and semi-solid.
Humans major excretory product urea
Dialysis
Artificial filtering of blood through artificial kidney
It is needed to those persons whose kidney gets damaged or failed

If not done, then waste will accumulate and person will not survive.
Transport of substances in plants

Transport of water and minerals
Plants absorb water and minerals through roots

The root hairs in roots help in absorbing minerals and nutrients dissolved in water frim
roots to leaves plants have pipe like vessels (which transport water and nutrients from
soil)
These vessels are made of special cells called as vascular tissue (tissue group of cells
for special function)
Vascular tissue for transport of water and nutrients is called as xylem
Xylem is continuous network of channels that connects roots to leaves and transport
water and nutrients
The food prepared by plants is transported back to all the parts of plants via vascular
tissue called phloem.
Xylem and phloem are like 2 way roads
Transpiration
Not all water absorbed by plants is utilized

The water is evaporated through stomata present on leaves in process of transpiration
It is done to generate a suction pull to pull water to great heights in tall trees
Best Wishes
IASbaba
Copyright by IASbaba
All rights are reserved. No part of this document may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system
or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or
otherwise, without prior permission of IASbaba.

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ILP SET 4 BLOCK 1: SCIENCE VAN-I 2017

8.2 High speed winds are accompanied by reduced air pressure

Functions protecting body against diseases

Vitamins/ minerals Deficiency disease/ disorder Symptoms

wounds take longer

Minerals essential for proper growth of body, maintain good health

Mode of nutrition in plants

Q) How leaves make food?

Q) What does photosynthesis mean?

Q) What happens during photosynthesis?

Click here for higher resolution

Synthesis of plant food other than carbohydrates

Heterotroph modes of nutrition in plants

The cuscutta plant is heterotroph (i.e. have no chlorophyll)

Saprotrophic mode of nutrition

E.g. Fungi on pickles, breads.

Q) How Fungi appears suddenly during the rainy season?

How nutrients are replenished in the soil?

Different ways of taking food

Glands in digestive system

The following function takes place in buccal cavity -

There are 4 types of teeth

Sweet and tooth decay

The food pipe / esophagus

Q) What happens during vomiting?

Click here for video

It is a thick walled bag and in shape like a flattened U.

The small intestine

Absorption in the small intestine

Digestion in grass eating animals

Q) Why didnt they chew during eating?

Q) why we cant digest cellulose?

Feeding and digestion in amoeba

e.g. cotton cotton plant

Animal fibers wool and silk

Animals that yield wool

From fibers to wool

Processing fibers into wool

Life history of silk moth

Use of silk fibers to weave cloth

From cocoon to silk

Q) How silkworms are reared?

Silkworm cocoon silk fibers silk threads silk cloth

Discovery of silkworm was done by Chinese empress Si-lung-chi

Hot and cold

It is long, narrow, uniform glass tube

It is used to measure temperature of objects.

Kinds of cloths we wear in summer and winter

Woolen cloths keep us warm in winter

ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS

Acids and bases reaction with metals

Metal carbonates and metal hydrogen carbonates reaction with acids

Neutralization or acid base reaction with each other

Reaction of Metallic Oxides with Acids

Reaction of a Non-metallic Oxide with Base

What do all acids and all bases have in common?

Q) why we add acid to water and not water to acid?

Measuring Strengthens of acid and base solutions

olfactory indicators - substances whose odor changes in acidic or basic media.

More H+ ions strong acids

Importance of pH in everyday life

Natural source Acid Natural source Acid

Name of base Found in Name of base Found in