Cell Communication

- All levels of biological organisation depend on specific interactions and information

transfer
- Transport processes = enable the transfer of chemicals, energy and information
within living systems
- cells communicate over long or short distances or by direct cell-to-cell contact.

CELL COMMUNICATION (2 lectures)

1. Define the two key communication
systems of the body
2. - How are messages sent throughout the
body
between distant cell (hormone)
between adjacent cells
(neurotransmitters)
Nervous system:
direct communication
regulates every system in body
Endocrine system
no direct control
releases hormones
communicated by blood to other
systems/organs

NERVOUS SYSTEM
Spinal nerves + cranial nerves
Central nervous system
brain and spinal cord
Peripheral Nervous system
Somatic nervous system regulates muscles
Autonomic nervous system (sympathetic NS, parasympathetic NS, enteric NS)
regulates the visceral tissues and organs

Communication
Very fast ~ 120m/s
Messages as sent through an axon. Neurons have a long tail like structure. Electrical
impulse is called action potential
Chemical messenger neurotransmitter
Messages sent through neurons via and electrical impulse (action potential:
electrical signal that travels through the axial)

ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
Communication:
- Slows hours before you see the effect of the hormone
- Chemical messenger: hormone
- Messages sent via the blood (slow, longer to take effect)
Pineal gland:
Parathyroid gland ----> gland = release hormones
Pituitary gland:
- Hypothalamus: travel to cell bodies, group of cell bodies nuclei (common
destination) capable of excreting hormones
- If they secrete a hormone, they are a gland. (Hypothalamus is also a gland) Three
main glands in the brain

- Every cell in the body

releases some sort of
chemicals (not hormones)
factors lets adjacent cells
know what is happening

INTRACELLULAR COMMUNICATION
Direct
Exchange of ions and molecules between adjacent cells across gap junctions
(channels between channels)
Occurs between two cells of same type (e.g. cardiac cells)
Highly specialised and relatively rare
Paracrine communication
Uses chemical signals to transfer information from cell to cell within a single tissue
Common form
 Endocrine communication NS communication (synaptic)
Endocrine cells release specific Ideal for crisis management
chemicals (hormones) into Occurs across synaptic clefts (small
bloodstream travel anywhere in space in the synapse)
the body (highly vascularised) Neurotransmitter from end of axon
Route of travel: gland part of must jump across the gap
body Chemical message =
Alters metabolic activities of many neurotransmitter
tissues and organs simultaneously Limited to specific areas
Target cells: specific cells that
possess receptors needed to bind
and read hormonal messages
cells only respond to the
hormones if they have the receptors
Receptors = protein molecules
change the conformational shape
when something binds to it
Hormones: stimulate synthesis of
enzymes or structural proteins, I or
D rate of synthesis, turn existing
enzyme on or off
Travels at the rate of blood flow in
body

ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
SECRETION AND DISTRIBUTION OF HORMONES
Free Hormones
Short life span
Remain functional for less than one
air
Diffuse out of bloodstream and bind
to receptors on target cells
Are broken down and absorbed by
cells of liver or kidneys
Are broken down by enzymes in
plasma or ICF (blood doesnt need
excess hormones)
Thyroid and steroid hormones
Remain in circulation much longer
because most are bound
Enter bloodstream;
more the 99% = to special
transport proteins (stabilised
hormone)
bloodstream contains substantial
reserve of bound hormones
MECHANISMS OF HORMONE ACTION
Hormone receptor:
protein, molecule binds strongly
responds to diff hormones
diff tissues have diff combination of receptors
presence or absence of specific receptor determines hormonal sensitivity

Hormones, and plasma membrane receptors

First messenger: signal arriving at the cell surface is received by a receptor
If membrane is insoluble. A second messenger signally chemical is produced
Bind to receptors in plasma membrane
Cannot have direct effect on activities inside target cell
Use intracellular intermediary to exert effects
Important second messengers:
1. Cyclic-AMP (cAMP) (derivative of ATP)
2. Cyclic- GMP (cGMP) (derivative of GTP)
3. Calcium ions
Amplification
Signal is amplified as more and more 2nd messengers connect.
Binding small no. hormones to receptors thousands of second messengers in cell
magnified effect of hormone on target cell

Hormones, and intracellular receptors

Hormones bind to the receptors in the NUCLEUS
Alter rate of DNA transcription change patterns of protein synthesis = regulates
production of mRNA and the eventual protein
Affects metabolic activity and structure of target cell
Includes steroids and thyroid hormones
CONTROL OF ENDOCRINE ACTIVITY BY ENDOCRINE RELFEXES
Endocrine reflexes;
Functional counterparts of neural reflexes
Controlled by negative feedback mechanisms
Stimulus triggers productions of hormone; the direct or indirect effects of the
hormone reduce intensity of the stimulus
Can be triggered by;
1. Humoral stimuli
- changes in composition of extracellular fluid
2. Hormonal stimuli
- arrival or removal of specific hormone
3. Neural stimuli
- arrival of neurotransmitters at neuroglandular junctions
Types:
Simple endocrine reflex
Involves only one hormone
endocrine cells respond directly to changes in the composition of the extracellular
fluid
secreted hormone adjusts the activities of target cells and restores homeostasis.
Controls hormone secretion by the heart, pancreas, parathyroid gland, and digestive
tract
Complex endocrine reflex
One or more intermediary steps
Two or more hormones
The hypothalamus provides highest level of endocrine control

1. HPT neurons synthesise hormones and transport them along axons to posterior lobe
and released into circulation
2. HPT secretes regulatory hormones (hormones that control endocrine cells in the
pituitary gland)
 3. Autonomic centres that exert direct neural control of endocrine cells of adrenal
medulla

MECHANISMS OF HORMONE ACTION

Thyroid gland
General Description Lies inferior to thyroid cartilage of larynx
Consists of two lobes connected by narrow isthmus

Thyroid follicles
Hollow spheres lined by cuboidal epithelium
Cells surround follicle cavity that contains viscous
colloid
Surrounded by network of capillaries that deliver
nutrients and regulatory hormones, and accept
secretory products and metabolic wastes

Secreted hormones Secreted by the follicles

Tetraiodothyronine T4 (thyroxine)
Triiodothyronine T3
Tetraiodo = 4 iodine ions attached
Triiodo = 3 iodine ions attached.
T4 needs to be converted to T3 to be activated
Thyroid-binding Globulins (TBGs)
Plasma proteins that bind about 75% of T4 and 70% of
T3 entering the bloodstream
Transthyretin (thyroid-binding prealbumin TBPA) and albumin
Bind most of the remaining thyroid hormones
Thyroid-Stimulating Hormone (TSH)
Absence causes thyroid follicles to become inactive
(Neither synthesis nor secretion occurs)
Binds to membrane receptors
Activates key enzymes in thyroid hormone production
Functions of thyroid Enter target cells by transport system
hormones Affect most cels in body
Bind to receptors in cytoplasm, surfaces of
mitochondria, nucleus
Essential for normal development in children (e.g.
skeletal, muscular, and nervous system)
 Effects of thyroid 1. Elevates rates of oxygen consumption and energy
hormones on consumption; in children, may cause a rise in body
peripheral tissues temperature
2. Increases heart rate and force of contraction; generally
results in a rise in blood pressure
3. Increases sensitivity to sympathetic stimulation
4. Maintains normal sensitivity of respiratory centers to
changes in oxygen and carbon dioxide concentrations
5. Stimulates red blood cell formation and thus enhances
oxygen delivery
6. Stimulates activity in other endocrine tissues
7. Accelerates turnover of minerals in bone
The C cells of the C (clear cells) are also called parafollicular cells, located
thyroid gland and just about the follicles
calcitonin Produce Calcitonin (CT)
Helps regulate concentrations of Calcium in body fluids
Thyroid diseases Hashimotos disease
Most common cause of hypothyroidism
Bodys immune system mistakenly attacks and slowly
destroys the thyroid gland ==> inability to produce
hormones
Diagnosis: Testing level of TSH
Treatment: hormone replacing medication
Graves disease
Hyperthyroidism (overactive thyroid, overproduction of
hormone)
Autoimmune disease
Hereditary
Diagnosis:
- Physical exam: enlarged thyroid, enlarged bulging
eyes, decreased metabolism
- Blood test: high levels if T4 and low levels of TSH
Treatment: beta blockers, anti-thyroid medication,
radioactive iodine, surgery.
Goiter
Noncancerous enlargement
Common cause = iodine deficiency in diet
Diagnosis: neck palpitation, ultrasound, blood tests
(thyroid hormone levels, TSH and antibodies)
Treatment: small doses of iodine, radioactive iodine can
shrink the thyroid glans, surgery will remove all or part
of the gland

Parathyroid gland
Four Parathyroid Glands
Embedded in the posterior surface of the thyroid gland
Altogether, the four glands weigh 1.6 g
Parathyroid Hormone (PTH) or parathormone
Produced by parathyroid (chief) cells in response to low concentrations of Ca2+
Antagonist for calcitonin

Three Effects of PTH

1. It stimulates osteoclasts and inhibits osteoblasts
Accelerates mineral turnover and releases Ca2+ from bone
Reduces rate of calcium deposition in bone
2. It enhances reabsorption of Ca2+ at kidneys, reducing urinary losses
3. It stimulates formation and secretion of calcitriol by the kidneys
Effects complement or enhance PTH
Also enhances Ca2+, PO43- absorption by digestive tract

SUMMARY

Communication via direct contact (gap junctions)

NERVOUS SYSTEM
Neurotransmitters a cell in the brain can send a signal all the way down to the
spinal cord to innovate big toe
Result of activating neurons is highly localised activated by region (signal that
goes to heart to increase HR is not going to cause muscles in the leg to contract)
hormones travel through blood, activated by receptors
Neurotransmission: the dissemination of information within the NS and its target organs
Information is conveyed in one of two forms:
Electrical synapses (minority)
Chemical synapses (major)
Neural Tissue
Consists of two types of cells:
Neurons: cells that send and receive signal (sensory neurons become activated)
Neuroglia: cells that support and protect neurons (glial cells), provide nutrition to
neurons, take the junk away etc.
act like glue, pulls nervous system together
NEURONS
Basic functional units of the nervous systems
Building blocks
Structural classification of Neurons
- Come in different shapes and sizes , shape varies
- About 86 billion neurons in NS same amount of neuroglia

Functional classification of Neurons

1. Sensory or afferent
Carries information from the PNS to the CNS
Deliver info from sensory receptors to the CNS, conduct action potentials toward
the CNS
Bringing information from outside (skin, joints, muscles) to the CNS
Senses changes in the body
2. Motor or efferent
Sends information from the CNS to the periphery (innovates the muscle)
Take info from the brain to an effector
3. Interneurons or association neurons
Located between motor and sensory connect them
Analyses sensory input and coordinate motor output
distribute sensory information and coordinate motor activity
Can be excitatory of inhibitory
Very short
Depending on info received they can modulate behaviour that occurs
compare data theyve received and make a decision about action
Process info
NEUROGLIA
Four types:
1. Astrocytes
- Provide tight junctions that form around the capillaries in the brain;
endothelial cells lining CNS capillaries control the chemical exchange between the
blood and interstitial fluid ==> bloodbrain barrier (BBB): isolates the CNS from the
general circulation prevents substances from the blood entering the brain e.g.
pathogens, hormones (let oxygen come out, let nutrients come out)
- Protects brain
- Provide nutrition
2. Microglia
- Brains macrophages
- Clean up the debris of the neuron
- Prevent inflammation from taking place
- Remove cell debris, wastes, and pathogens by phagocytosis
- Constantly send out processes checking all the neurons
3. Oligodendrocytes
- Produce myelin insulation around the axons
- Provide one or few segments of myelin to an axon (CNS, Schwann cells myelin in PNS
specific, one segment for one axon)
- Myelinate CNS axons; provide structural framework
4. Ependymal cells
- Produce cerebrospinal fluid
- assist in producing, circulating, and monitoring cerebrospinal fluid

STRUCTURE OF NEURONS

Dendrites
Highly branches
Receives input from 100s to 1000s of other neurons
Dendritic spines
- many fine processes
- receive information from other neurons
 - 80-90% of neuron SA increase surface area where connections can be made
- other neurons make contact with these spines
- age/disease lose the spines, start losing cells/neurons
Cell body (soma)
Contains nucleus
Cytoplasm (perikaryon)
Contains organelles that provide energy and synthesize organic materials
Large number of mitochondria that generate energy cant store energy, need to
make it every time
Free and fixed ribosomes
Axon
vary in length depending on how tall you are
carries electrical signal (action protection) to target other cells
damage = wont be able to send or receive information (no communication)
Telodendria
Projections from each axon, end in synaptic terminals

SENDING MESSAGES
Exchange of ions moving back and forth between membrane
Release of neurotransmitters at axon terminal

The electrochemical gradients

Even distribution of ions does not occur because membrane has selective
permeability
Chemical gradient [potassium] is high on the inside, [sodium] and [chloride] is
high on the outside
Inside of cell has high negative charge (high [anions]) = K starts leaving the cell,
inside becomes more negative = creates electrical gradient
I/S of a cell of a neuron at rest has a negative charge (-70 mV)
Electrical gradient tries to pull the positive Na and K inside the cell
Generating an action potential
Resting membrane exposed to chemical/active stimulus
As it is stimulated, sodium (+ve charge) rushes in inside of cell becomes more
positive passing 0 to +ve 20 (last 1-2 milliseconds)
Whenever charge within a cell moves towards positive = depolarisation
As sodium flows in it depolarises the membrane.
More channels open up along the entire length of axon = more and more
depolarisation
Na channel opens
Transmembrane potential rises from -70, charge is moving towards 0
Depolarisation occurs

Unmyelinated: needs to polarise all the way down the axon channels need to open along
the axon (takes longer)
Myelinated myelin creates insulation, local current skips the internodes and depolarizes
the closest node to threshold (Saltatory conduction) can travel much faster only at gaps
or nodes between adjacent myelin sheaths

Na channel density at nodes ~100 times higher than in unmyelinated neuron

Conduction time between nodes is very small send message quicker along the axon
Much quicker conduction velocity (120 m/s)
Typical measured velocities
- Toucher receptor axon: 50 m/s
- Motor axon to muscle: 100 m/s

Axon diameter and propagation speed

Axon diameter affects action potential speed
Larger diameter = lower resistance = current flows through much fast

Axon groups:
Classified by;
- Diameter
- Myelination
- Speed of action potentials

Fibre Types
Type A:
- large-diameter
- myelinated
- Conduct at 15-140 m/s
Type B
- medium-diameter
- lightly myelinated
- Conduct at 3-15 m/s
Type C
- small-diameter
- unmyelinated
- Conduct at 2 m/s or less

Synapse
Area where a neuron communicates with another cell, muscle or gland
Gap between membranes sending the
message and membranes receiving the
message
Presynaptic cell: neuron that sends the
message (synaptic terminal)
Postsynaptic cell: neuron that receives
message (cell body/dendrite)
The synaptic cleft: small gap that
separates the presynaptic membrane and
the postsynaptic membrane (~20nm)
Synaptic knob: expanded area of the axon
that contains synpatic vesicles consisting
of neurotransmitters (chemical message)
Neurotransmitters
Chemical messengers
Packed into vesicles
Released at presynaptic membrane
Bind to receptors on postsynaptic membrane
Broken down by enzymes (located in the synaptic cleft) once the message is sent
Reassembled at synaptic knob

AP travels to synaptic knob = Opens calcium channels. (ca = high concentration o/s
cell)
Calcium move in and move vesicles to the presynaptic membrane to fuse with
membrane and empty their contents into synaptic cleft.
Contents bind with receptors and enzymes break down the neurotransmitters that
are released once it has finished its job.

Classes of Neurotransmitters
1. Excitatory NTs:
cause depolarization of postsynaptic membranes more positive inside
promote APs propagate the signal
2. Inhibitory NTs:
cause hyperpolarization of postsynaptic membranes more negative inside
suppress APs

Effect of neurotransmitter depends on the receptor, not the NS itself

Types of synapses
1. Electrical synapses
- Direct physical contact between cells
- Locked together at gap junctions (connexions)
- Allow ions to pass between cells
- Produce continuous local current and action potential propagation
- Found in areas of brain, eye ciliary, ganglia
2. Chemical synapses
- Signal transmitted across a gap by chemical neurotransmitters