Beruflich Dokumente
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3
H A P T E R
Characteristics of Liquid
Penetrant and Processing
Materials
Penetrants and their ancillaries must have toward the liquids interior, and the
physical properties that fall within fairly surface acts like a skin. It acts to minimize
narrow ranges. None are difficult to attain the surface area of the liquid and it
but properties cannot stray very far from requires effort (the surface tension) to
optimum. The coverage of these topics is stretch this skin.
essentially practical. Some physical Contact angle is the measured angle
chemistry is included, particularly relating that a drop of liquid makes with a solid
to capillarity, light absorption and surface. If contact angle is zero, cos = 1
scattering but not enough to require that and the liquid will wet and spread. If the
the reader be a professional physical contact angle is 90 degrees or more, cos
chemist. Discussions are limited to = 0 and the liquid will not wet but will
descriptions of usable processes and how remain as a rounded drop. Intermediate
they work. No effort is made to discuss contact angles indicate intermediate
unproved processes or theories. degrees of wetting. Contact angles can be
For readers who have interests in other measured on special sample surfaces with
theories behind the mechanisms of special equipment.
penetration, surface wetting, adsorption Energy of adhesion is a measure of the
and development and other fundamental strength of attraction of a liquid to a solid
physical chemistries of liquid penetrant surface and is of more theoretical than
testing, additional readings1-7 are practical value.
suggested. Penetration of a discontinuity is
primarily a capillary effect. The forces
involved are those associated with
capillary action and are called capillary
Penetration pressure or excess surface pressure. This
The very name penetrant suggests that the pressure is given by Eq. 1:
ability to penetrate into voids is the major
feature of a penetrant. This is no doubt 2
(1) P =
true but it is not a critical feature. Very R
nearly any liquid will wet a solid surface
and penetrate into voids. In fact, it is not where is the surface tension of the liquid
easy to find a liquid that will not and R is the radius of curvature of the
penetrate. If it wets, it will penetrate; if liquid surface. The effect of this capillary
not, it will not. pressure can best be shown by examining
Wetting of smooth, chemically clean the two systems depicted in Figs. 1a
surfaces has been studied extensively with and 1b.
relationships worked out between surface In Fig. 1a the liquid wets the capillary
tension, interfacial tension, wetting and the pressure P1 is up. In Fig. 1b the
contact angle, energy of adhesion. None liquid does not wet the capillary and the
are very appropriate because many of pressure P2 is down. The ability to wet or
these quantities are not measurable on the not wet determines in which direction the
kinds of surfaces that are tested with surface will curve, whereas the degree of
liquid penetrant. Even a cleaned surface wetting determines to what extent the
can pick up a molecular monolayer of oil surface will curve. Therefore, the first
or oxide in a very short time. The requirement for penetration is its ability
slightest taint of oil on a surface can to wet the surface of the discontinuity.
change a surface and cause a penetrant The dimensions of the capillary are
film to become less wet and to pull up also important and the radius of the
into droplets. As a practical matter, this is capillary can be related to the capillary
not too serious. Reapplication of pressure by examining Fig. 1c. It is found
penetrant will usually dissolve this film that R = r/cos , i.e., cos = r/R, where r is
and allow testing to proceed. the radius of the tube and is the angle
Surface tension can be defined as the of contact of the liquid and the tube.
force needed to expand (or pull apart) the Equation 1 becomes:
surface of a liquid. It results from the
2 cos
attraction of all the molecules within the (2) P =
liquid for each other. At the surface, with r
no more liquid outside, the net force is
R1 P1
r
R2 P2
R
Legend
P = pressure
R = radius of liquid surface curvature
r = tube radius
= angle of contact between liquid and tube
Capillary Radius
_________________________________________________________________________________
1.0 mm 0.1 mm 0.01 mm 1.0 m 0.5 m
(4 102 in.) (4 103 in.) (4 104 in.) (4 105 in.) (2 105 in.)
0.025 (1.7 103) 50 (7) 500 (70) 5000 (700) 50 000 (7000) 100 000 (200 000)
0.035 (2.4 103) 70 (10) 700 (100) 7000 (1000) 70 000 (10 000) 140 000 (20 000)
Viscosity
Liquid penetrants drain off surfaces at a
rate that depends on their viscosities and
to an extent that depends on drainage
time and surface roughness. Studies in the
laboratory with nonvolatile liquids
draining from calibrated, vertical surfaces
led to Eq. 8:
(8) D = S + 7.86 10 3
T
1.2
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
10 1 0.1 0.01 0.001 0.0001 0.00001
(400) (40) (4) (0.4) (0.04) (0.004) (0.0004)
Importance of Light
Scattering for Fluorescent
Liquid Penetrant Testing
Partially fill a clear glass container, beaker
or cylinder with fluorescent liquid
penetrant, place it under a near ultraviolet Penetrant layer
lamp and look at it from above. What you
see is a dim greenish fluorescent liquid
surface. Next squat down and view the Part surface
liquid penetrant surface from the
edge. What you now see is a thin bright Legend
yellow layer at the surface with nothing = Angle at which total internal reflection begins
I0 It
Penetrant layer
Part surface
I0
Layer of developer
and liquid penetrant
Part surface
(15) F = Q I 0 (1 10 ect )
Required ultraviolet
light intensities measured in various
lighting environments. 10 (1000)
Eyesight is very important to any
inspector and much has been written
about the need for vision acuity and dark 1 (100)
adaptation. Other factors exist. Cataracts
can affect the ability of an inspector to see 0.1 (10)
fluorescent indications. First there is a 10.76 107.60 1076.00
defocusing that can be partially corrected (1) (10) (100)
with glasses. Second, the eyes lenses
become yellow and absorb the violet Ambient visible light intensity, Ix (ftc)
(405 nm) emission peak from the visible
fluorescent radiation, making it appear
red. Thus acuity decreases, but because
less violet radiation is seen the field of
view darkens and contrast
increases. Replacing cataracts with clear
plastic lenses allows the 405 nm radiation
to be seen. Ultraviolet lamps then seem to
emit an intense violet light that washes
out faint indications.
Assessing vision acuity can become
very complex, as there are a wide range of
eye conditions that may affect an
inspectors ability to see and evaluate
indications. Color blindness and ordinary
ability to resolve tiny lines and spots are
only the most well known
conditions. None of this has much to do
with liquid penetrant materials
themselves but as long as human eyes are
part of the liquid penetrant testing
process, their performance must be
anticipated in planning tests and
considered in evaluating test results.