THE GEEKAY WORLD SCHOOL -

RANIPET.

A Project Report

On
TRANSFORMER

Submitted by
P.A.GAUTAM
Grade: XII
2017 2018.

1
 BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE

Certified that this physics project report titled TRANSFORMER is the bonafide work of
P.A.GAUTAM who carried out the research under my supervision. Certified further, that to
the best of my knowledge the work reported herein does not form part of any other project
report.

SIGNATURE
Mr.A.Sajjath Ahmed M.E, B.Ed.
Physics Facilitator
The GeeKay World School
Ranipet.

SIGNATURE SIGNATURE
Ms.Mujeeba M.Com, M.A., M.Phil. B.Ed, Dr.Praseedha Sreekumar M.A, B.Ed, Ph.D.
CBSE Coordinator The Principal,
The GeeKay World School The GeeKay World School
Ranipet. Ranipet

INTERNAL EXAMINER EXTERNAL EXAMINER

2
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I first offer my thanks to the almighty who has given me the strength and
good health during the course of this project.

I express my profound gratefulness to my Principal Dr. Praseedha Sreekumar

who has been motivational and inspiring us always. Thank you mam for always
being supportive and guiding us in all our endeavours.

I also express my gratitude to my Coordinator Ms. Mujeeba who has been

always encouraging and supportive. Thank you mam for giving us space, time and
opportunity to discuss about the project in school.

I am also thankful to Mr. Sajjath Ahmed Physics Facilitator, for his

continual support, assistance and encouragement throughout the project. The
project wouldnt have been a reality without his support. Thank you sir, for your
support and encouragement.

I also thank all my faculty members who were instrumental in the completion
of this project and would like to take this opportunity to thank everyone who have
been motivational and supportive towards completing this project successfully.

P.A. Gautam

3
 TABLE OF CONTENT
Content Title Page No
No
1 Aim 5
2 Materials required 5
3 Theory 5
3.1 Electromagnetism 6
3.2 Field flux 7
3.3 Electromagnetic induction 7
3.4 Faradays laws of electromagnetic induction 7
3.4.1 Faradays first law 7
3.4.2 Faradays second law 7
3.5 Lenzs law 8
3.6 Basic construction of a transformer 8
3.7 Types of transformers 10
3.8 Single phase voltage transformer 11
3.8.1 Transformer construction (single phase) 11
3.9 Three phase transformers 13
3.10 Transformer core design and construction 14
3.10.1 Types of transformer core constructions 15
3.10.2 Transformer laminations 16
3.11 Step up transformer 17
3.12 Step down transformer 18
3.13 Distribution transformer 18
3.13.1 Efficiency of distribution transformer 19
3.14 Instrument transformers 20
3.14.1 Uses of instrument transformers 20
3.15 Power in a transformer 21
3.15.1 Power rating of a transformer 21
3.16 Efficiency of a transformer 22
3.16.1 Transformer efficiency triangle 23
3.17 Energy losses in a transformer 24
3.17.1 Transformer core losses 24
3.17.2 Hysteresis losses 24
3.17.3 Eddy current losses and minimization 25
3.17.4 Copper losses 26
4 Circuit diagram 26
5 Procedure 27
6 Conclusion 27
7 References 27

4
1) Aim:
1) To investigate the relation between the ratio of
i. Input and output voltage and
ii. Number of turns in the secondary coil and primary coil of a
Self-designed transformer.
2) To understand the working principle of a transformer.

2) Materials Required:
240 V AC Mains Supply
Power Plug
Safety Circuit Breakers
16 AWG Enamelled Copper Wire
20 AWG Enamelled Copper Wire
Switch
Papers
Laminated Core Material or Iron Rod
Solder Iron
Solder Wire
Solder Flux
Hot Glue Gun
Glue Sticks
Insulation Tape
Safety scissors
3) Theory:
Transformer works on the principle of Mutual Induction. Mutual
inductance is where the magnetic flux of two or more inductors are linked so that
voltage is induced in one coil proportional to the rate-of-change of current in
another. A transformer is a device made of two or more inductors, one of which is
powered by AC, inducing an AC voltage across the second inductor.
A transformer is an electrical device that transfers electrical energy between
two or more circuits through electromagnetic induction. A varying current in one
coil of the transformer produces a varying magnetic field, which in turn induces a
voltage in a second coil. Power can be transferred between the two coils through
the magnetic field, without a metallic connection between the two circuits.

5
 Faraday's law of induction discovered in 1831 described this effect.
Transformers are used to increase or decrease the alternating voltages in electric
power applications.
Since the invention of the first constant-potential transformer in 1885,
transformers have become essential for the transmission, distribution, and
utilization of alternating current electrical energy.
A wide range of transformer designs is encountered in electronic and electric
power applications. Transformers range in size from RF transformers less than a
cubic centimetre in volume to units interconnecting the power grid weighing
hundreds of tons.
It is a static device and doesnt contain on rotating parts, hence no friction
losses. It converts electrical power from one circuit to another without changing its
frequency.
Transformer works on the principle of mutual induction of two coils or
Faraday Laws of Electromagnetic induction. When current in the primary coil is
changed the flux linked to the secondary coil also changes. Consequently an EMF
is induced in the secondary coil due to Faraday laws of electromagnetic induction.
The transformer is based on two principles: first, that an electric current can
produce a magnetic field (electromagnetism), and, second that a changing magnetic
field within a coil of wire induces a voltage across the ends of the coil
(electromagnetic induction). Changing the current in the primary coil changes the
magnetic flux that is developed. The changing magnetic flux induces a voltage in
the secondary coil.

3.1) Electromagnetism
The interaction between magnetic field and electric current is termed
electromagnetism. Current carrying conductors produce magnetic field when
current passes through it. Movement of electrons in a conductor will result to
electric current (drifted electrons) which occurs as a result of the EMF set up across
the conductor.
The EMF set up across the conductor can be in form of that stored in chemical
energy or magnetic field. Current carrying conductor placed in a magnetic fields
will experience mechanical force while a conductor placed in a magnetic field will
have its electrons drifted which will results to electric current.

6
3.2) Field Flux
Two magnets of unlike poles will attract each other while magnets of like
poles will repel each other (so it is with electric charges). Every magnet is
surrounded by a force field and is represented by imaginary lines emanating from
the north pole of a magnet going into the south pole of the same magnet.
The lines linking the north and south pole of a magnet which represents
force field which links coils in a transformer is termed as magnetic flux.
3.3) Electromagnetic Induction
Electromagnetic induction is a phenomenon that explains how EMF and
current is or can be induced in a coil when a coil and a magnetic field interact. This
phenomenon electromagnetic induction is explained by Faradays laws of
electromagnetic induction. The direction of induced EMF in a coil is explained by
Lenzs law and Flemings right hand rule.
3.4) Faradays laws of electromagnetic induction
After Ampere and others investigated the magnetic effect of current, Michael
Faraday tried the opposite. In the course of his work he discovered that when there
was change in a magnetic field in which a coil was placed, EMF was induced in the
coil.
This happened only whenever he moved either the coil or the magnet he used
in the experiment. EMF was induced in the coil only when there was change in the
field flux (if the coil is fixed, moving the magnet towards or away from the coil
causes EMF to be induced). Thus Faradays laws of electromagnetic induction
states as follows;
3.4.1) Faradays first law
Faradays first law of electromagnetic induction states that EMF is induced
in a coil when there is a change in the flux linking the coil.
3.4.2) Faradays second law
Faradays second law of electromagnetic induction states that the magnitude
of induced EMF in a coil is directly proportional to the rate of change of flux linking
the coil.

=

7
Where,
N is number of turns in the closed coil,
d is change in magnetic flux,
dt is change in time,
is induced e.m.f in the coil.
3.5) Lenzs law
Lenzs law entails how the direction of an induced EMF in a coil can be
determined. It thus states that the direction of induced EMF is such that it opposes
the change causing it. In other words, When an E.M.F is induced in a circuit, the
current setup always opposes the motion, or change in current, which produces it.
An induced EMF will cause a current to flow in a close circuit in such a direction
what its magnetic effect will oppose the change that produced it.
According to this law (which introduced by Lens in 1835), the direction of
current can be found. When the current through a coil changes magnetic field, the
voltage is created as a result of changing magnetic field, the direction of the induced
voltage is such that it always opposes the change in current. In very simple words,
Lenzs law stating that the induced effect is always such as to oppose the cause that
produced it.
3.6) Basic construction of a transformer
A simple transformer has a soft iron or silicon steel core and windings placed
on it (iron core). Both the core and the windings are insulated from each other. The
winding connected to the main supply is called the primary and the winding
connected to the load circuit is called the secondary.

Fig 3.1) Step down transformer representation

8
 A single phase voltage transformer basically consists of two electrical coils
of wire, one called the Primary Winding and another called the Secondary
Winding. For this tutorial we will define the primary side of the transformer as
the side that usually takes power, and the secondary as the side that usually
delivers power. In a single-phase voltage transformer the primary is usually the side
with the higher voltage.
These two coils are not in electrical contact with each other but are instead
wrapped together around a common closed magnetic iron circuit called the core.
This soft iron core is not solid but made up of individual laminations connected
together to help reduce the cores losses.
The two coil windings are electrically isolated from each other but are
magnetically linked through the common core allowing electrical power to be
transferred from one coil to the other. When an electric current passed through the
primary winding, a magnetic field is developed which induces a voltage into the
secondary winding as shown.
The working of a transformer is based on mutual induction phenomenon. Let
an ideal transformer in which the primary and secondary coil have negligible
resistance and all the flux in the core links both primary and secondary windings.
The induced e.m.f in the primary coil

= -Np
The induced e.m.f in the secondary coil

= -Ns
Where the is the magnetic flux linked with each turn of primary and secondary
coil at a time t, then
Ns
= = K = Transformer Ratio
Np

For an ideal transformer, there is no loss of energy, then

Input power = Output Power

Ip = Is
Ip
= =K
Is

9
3.7) Types of Transformers:

Types of Transformers

On the basis of On the basis of On the basis of On the basis of

Construction Purpose Supply use

Power Distribution Instrument

Core Type Step-Up Single Phase
Transformer Transformer Transformer

Current
Shell Type Step-Down Three Phase
Transformer

Potential
Transformer

10
3.8) Single phase voltage transformer
For a transformer there is no direct electrical connection between the two coil
windings, thereby giving it the name also of an Isolation Transformer. Generally,
the primary winding of a transformer is connected to the input voltage supply and
converts or transforms the electrical power into a magnetic field. While the job of
the secondary winding is to convert this alternating magnetic field into electrical
power producing the required output voltage as shown.

3.8.1) Transformer construction (single-phase)

Fig 3.2) Single transformer construction and symbols

Where:
VP - is the Primary Voltage
VS - is the Secondary Voltage
NP - is the Number of Primary Windings
NS - is the Number of Secondary Windings
(phi) - is the Flux Linkage
Notice that the two coil windings are not electrically connected but are only
linked magnetically. A single-phase transformer can operate to either increase or
decrease the voltage applied to the primary winding. When a transformer is used to
increase the voltage on its secondary winding with respect to the primary, it is
called a Step-up transformer. When it is used to decrease the voltage on the
secondary winding with respect to the primary it is called a Step-down transformer.

11
 However, a third condition exists in which a transformer produces the same
voltage on its secondary as is applied to its primary winding. In other words, its
output is identical with respect to voltage, current and power transferred. This type
of transformer is called an Impedance Transformer and is mainly used for
impedance matching or the isolation of adjoining electrical circuits.
The difference in voltage between the primary and the secondary windings is
achieved by changing the number of coil turns in the primary winding (N P)
compared to the number of coil turns on the secondary winding (NS).
As the transformer is basically a linear device, a ratio now exists between the
number of turns of the primary coil divided by the number of turns of the secondary
coil. This ratio, called the ratio of transformation, more commonly known as a
transformers turns ratio, (TR). This turns ratio value dictates the operation of the
transformer and the corresponding voltage available on the secondary winding.
It is necessary to know the ratio of the number of turns of wire on the primary
winding compared to the secondary winding. The turns ratio, which has no units,
compares the two windings in order and is written with a colon, such as 3:1. This
means in this example, that if there are 3 volts on the primary winding there will be
1 volt on the secondary winding, 3 volts-to-1 volt. Then we can see that if the ratio
between the number of turns changes the resulting voltages must also change by the
same ratio, and this is true.
Transformers are all about ratios. The ratio of the primary to the secondary,
the ratio of the input to the output, and the turns ratio of any given transformer will
be the same as its voltage ratio. In other words for a transformer: turns ratio =
voltage ratio. The actual number of turns of wire on any winding is generally not
important, just the turns ratio and this relationship is given as:
Transformers Turns Ratio

Assuming an ideal transformer and the phase angles: P S

Note that the order of the numbers when expressing a transformers turns
ratio value is very important as the turns ratio 3:1 expresses a very different
transformer relationship and output voltage than one in which the turns ratio is given
as: 1:3.

12
3.9) Three phase transformers
Voltage transformers can also be constructed for connection to not only one
single phase, but for two-phases, three-phases, six-phases and even elaborate
combinations up to 24-phases for some DC rectification transformers.
If we take three single-phase transformers and connect their primary
windings to each other and their secondary windings to each other in a fixed
configuration, we can use the transformers on a three-phase supply.
Three-phase, also written as 3-phase or 3 supplies are used for electrical
power generation, transmission, and distribution, as well as for all industrial uses.
Three-phase supplies have many electrical advantages over single-phase power and
when considering three-phase transformers we have to deal with three alternating
voltages and currents differing in phase-time by 120 degrees as shown below.

Fig 3.3) Three phase voltages and currents phasor diagram

Where: VL is the line-to-line voltage, and VP is the phase-to-neutral voltage.
A transformer cannot act as a phase changing device and change single-phase
into three-phase or three-phase into single phase. To make the transformer
connections compatible with three-phase supplies we need to connect them together
in a particular way to form a Three Phase Transformer Configuration.
A three phase transformer can be constructed either by connecting together
three single-phase transformers, thereby forming a so-called three phase
transformer bank, or by using one pre-assembled and balanced three phase
transformer which consists of three pairs of single phase windings mounted onto
one single laminated core.

13
 The advantages of building a single three phase transformer is that for the
same kVA rating it will be smaller, cheaper and lighter than three individual single
phase transformers connected together because the copper and iron core are used
more effectively. The methods of connecting the primary and secondary windings
are the same, whether using just one Three Phase Transformer or three
separate Single Phase Transformers. Consider the circuit below:

Fig 3.4) Three phase transformer connections

The primary and secondary windings of a transformer can be connected in
different configuration as shown to meet practically any requirement. In the case
of three phase transformer windings, three forms of connection are possible: star
(wye), delta (mesh) and interconnected-star (zig-zag).
The combinations of the three windings may be with the primary delta-
connected and the secondary star-connected, or star-delta, star-star or delta-delta,
depending on the transformers use. When transformers are used to provide three or
more phases they are generally referred to as a Polyphase Transformer.
3.10) Transformer core design and construction
This magnetic circuit, know more commonly as the transformer core is
designed to provide a path for the magnetic field to flow around, which is necessary
for induction of the voltage between the two windings.
However, this type of transformer construction were the two windings are
wound on separate limbs is not very efficient since the primary and secondary
windings are well separated from each other.

14
 This results in a low magnetic coupling between the two windings as well as
large amounts of magnetic flux leakage from the transformer itself. But as well as
this O shapes construction, there are different types of transformer construction
and designs available which are used to overcome these inefficiencies producing a
smaller more compact transformer.
The efficiency of a simple transformer construction can be improved by
bringing the two windings within close contact with each other thereby improving
the magnetic coupling. Increasing and concentrating the magnetic circuit around the
coils may improve the magnetic coupling between the two windings, but it also has
the effect of increasing the magnetic losses of the transformer core.
As well as providing a low reluctance path for the magnetic field, the core is
designed to prevent circulating electric currents within the iron core itself.
Circulating currents, called eddy currents, cause heating and energy losses within
the core decreasing the transformers efficiency.
These losses are due mainly to voltages induced in the iron circuit, which is
constantly being subjected to the alternating magnetic fields setup by the external
sinusoidal supply voltage. One way to reduce these unwanted power losses is to
construct the transformer core from thin steel laminations.
In all types of transformer construction, the central iron core is constructed
from of a highly permeable material made from thin silicon steel laminations
assembled together to provide the required magnetic path with the minimum of
losses. The resistivity of the steel sheet itself is high reducing the eddy current losses
by making the laminations very thin.
These steel transformer laminations vary in thicknesss from between
0.25mm to 0.5mm and as steel is a conductor, the laminations are electrically
insulated from each other by a very thin coating of insulating varnish or by the use
of an oxide layer on the surface.
3.10.1) Types of transformer core constructions
Generally, the name associated with the construction of a transformer is
dependent upon how the primary and secondary windings are wound around the
central laminated steel core. The two most common and basic designs of
transformer construction are the Closed-core Transformer and the Shell-core
Transformer.
In the closed-core type (core form) transformer, the primary and secondary
windings are wound outside and surround the core ring. In the shell type (shell
form) transformer, the primary and secondary windings pass inside the steel
magnetic circuit (core) which forms a shell around the windings as shown below.

15
 Fig 3.5) Types of transformer core constructions
In both types of transformer core design, the magnetic flux linking the
primary and secondary windings travels entirely within the core with no loss of
magnetic flux through air. In the core type transformer construction, one half of
each winding is wrapped around each leg (or limb) of the transformers magnetic
circuit as shown above. However, with this type of transformer construction, a small
percentage of the magnetic lines of force flow outside of the core, and this is called
leakage flux.
Shell type transformer cores overcome this leakage flux as both the primary
and secondary windings are wound on the same centre leg or limb which has twice
the cross-sectional area of the two outer limbs. The advantage here is that the
magnetic flux has two closed magnetic paths to flow around external to the coils on
both left and right hand sides before returning back to the central coils.
3.10.2) Transformer laminations
The coils are firstly wound on a former which has a cylindrical, rectangular
or oval type cross section to suit the construction of the laminated core.

Fig 3.6) Types of transformer core laminations

16
 In both the shell and core type transformer constructions, in order to mount
the coil windings, the individual laminations are stamped or punched out from
larger steel sheets and formed into strips of thin steel resembling the
letters Es, Ls, Us and Is as shown above.
These lamination stampings when connected together form the required core
shape. Individual laminations are tightly butted together during the transformers
construction to reduce the reluctance of the air gap at the joints producing a highly
saturated magnetic flux density. Transformer core laminations are usually stacked
alternatively to each other to produce an overlapping joint with more lamination
pairs being added to make up the correct core thickness. This alternate stacking of
the laminations also gives the transformer the advantage of reduced flux leakage
and iron losses. E-I core laminated transformer construction is mostly used in
isolation transformers, step-up and step-down transformers as well as auto
transformers.

Fig 3.7) E-I transformer core lamination arrangement

3.11) Step-up transformer
As the name states that, the secondary voltage is stepped up with a ratio
compared to primary voltage. This can be achieved by increasing the number of
windings in the secondary than the primary windings as shown in the figure.

Fig 3.8) Step-up transformer

Ns > Np, Vs > Vp and Is<Ip

17
 In power plant, this transformer is used as connecting transformer of the
generator to the grid.
3.12) Step-down transformer
It used to step down the voltage level from lower to higher level at secondary
side as shown below so that it is called as a. The winding turns more on the primary
side than the secondary side.

Fig 3.9) Step-down transformer

Ns > Np, Vs > Vp and Is<Ip
In distribution networks, the step-down transformer is commonly used to
convert the high grid voltage to low voltage that can be used for home appliances.
3.13) Distribution transformer
The step down transformers used for electric power distribution purpose are
referred as distribution transformer. There are several types of transformer used in
the distribution system. Such as single phase transformer, three phase transformer,
pole mounted transformer, pad mounted transformer, and underground
transformer. Distribution transformers are generally small in size and filled with
insulating oil.

Fig 3.10) Distribution Transformer

18
 These transformers are available in the market in various sizes and efficiency.
Selection of distribution transformer depends upon the purpose and budget of the
end users. Secondary terminals of distribution transformer deliver electrical power
at a utilization voltage level to the consumer end via energy metering system.
In case of three phase distribution system three phase four wire secondary
systems are adopted. Here, three phases, which means red, yellow and blue phase
conductors, come out from three low voltage bushing studs of the transformer. The
neutral wire is connected to the fourth bushing which is also referred as a neutral
bushing of the transformer. The neutral point of the distribution transformer is
projected from the tie point of 3phase winding inside the transformer. In case of
industrial heavy three phase load, four wire system is directly delivered to the
consumer end, but in case of single phase light load, one phase and neutral
connection of the three phase distribution transformer, are connected to the
consumers energy meter. The secondary terminals of distribution transformer at
first is connected to the three phase bus of distribution kiosk, located nearby the
transformer. This connection is essentially made via a fuse unit to provide
protection from external fault to the transformer. From this three phase bus in the
distribution kiosk, different, three phase or single phase service mains or sub
distributors are connected.
A typical type of-single phase system is available in United State of America
for supplying single phase residential tons. Here, single phase pole mounted
transformer is used for supplying single phase residential load. This type pole
mounted transformer has total three secondary terminals, one of which is ground
and other two are phase terminals. Two phase wires provide 240 volts across them,
and the voltage across any of the phase wire and the ground wire is 120 volts. So a
consumer can be supplied either of 240 volts or 120 volts supply depending upon
his requirement. Actually in this system, the secondary winding of the distribution
transformer is centre tapped. The centre wire is grounded and marked as neutral.
The two end conductors of the winding is called hot wire.
3.13.1) Efficiency of distribution transformer
The efficiency of distribution transformer is defined as the ratio between
output power to input power of the transformer at full load condition, but in case of
a distribution transformer, the concept is a little bit different as the possibility of
running a distribution transformer at its full load condition is nearly nil. The
efficiency of the transformer is maximum at 50% of full load.

19
 A transformer has mainly two types of losses, these are, iron losses and
copper losses. Iron loss, which is also referred as core loss, consists of hysteresis
loss and eddy current loss. These two losses are constant when the transformer is
charged. That means the amount of these losses does not depend upon the condition
of secondary load of the transformer. In all loading condition, these are fixed. But
the copper loss which is also referred as I2R loss entirely depends upon load I. A
distribution transformer cannot be run with constant load throughout 24 hours. At
day peak time its loading is high, whereas in night lean time its loading may be
negligible. So selecting a transformer depending upon its conventional efficiency is
not practical and economical, too. As a solution of these problems, the concept of all
day efficiency of distribution transformer came into the picture. So this efficiency
is same as the efficiency of distribution transformer. In this concept, we use the ratio
of total energy delivered by the transformer to the total energy fed to the
transformer, during a 24 hrs span of time instead of ratio of power output and input
of the transformer. Hence, all day efficiency is determined as, total KWh at the
secondary to the total KWh at the primary of the transformer for a long specific
time period preferably 24 hrs.
3.14) Instrument Transformers
Instrument Transformers are used in AC system for measurement of
electrical quantities i.e. voltage, current, power, energy, power factor,
frequency. Instrument transformers are also used with protective
relays for protection of power system.
Basic function of Instrument transformers is to step down the AC System voltage
and current. The voltage and current level of power system is very high. It is very
difficult and costly to design the measuring instruments for measurement of such
high level voltage and current. The two types of instrument transformers are
Potential Transformers and Voltage Transformers.
The measurement of such very large electrical quantities, can be made
possible by using the Instrument transformers with these small rating measuring
instruments. Therefore these instrument transformers are very popular in modern
power system.
3.14.1) Uses of instrument transformers
1. The large voltage and current of AC Power system can be measured by using
small rating measuring instrument.
2. By using the instrument transformers, measuring instruments can be
standardized. Which results in reduction of cost of measuring instruments.
More ever the damaged measuring instruments can be replaced easy with
healthy standardized measuring instruments.

20
 3. Instrument transformers provide electrical isolation between high voltage
power circuit and measuring instruments. Which reduces the electrical
insulation requirement for measuring instruments and protective circuits and
also assures the safety of operators.
4. Several measuring instruments can be connected through a
single transformer to power system.
5. Due to low voltage and current level in measuring and protective circuit,
there is low power consumption in measuring and protective circuits.

Fig 3.11) Instrument Transformer

3.15) Power in a transformer

Where: P is the primary phase angle and S is the secondary phase angle.
Note that since power loss is proportional to the square of the current being
transmitted, that is: I2R, increasing the voltage, lets say doubling ( 2 ) the voltage
would decrease the current by the same amount, ( 2 ) while delivering the same
amount of power to the load and therefore reducing losses by factor of 4. If the
voltage was increased by a factor of 10, the current would decrease by the same
factor reducing overall losses by factor of 100.
3.15.1) Power rating of a transformer
Another one of the transformer basics parameters is its power rating. The
power rating of a transformer is obtained by simply multiplying the current by the
voltage to obtain a rating in Volt-amperes, (VA).

21
 Small single phase transformers may be rated in volt-amperes only, but much
larger power transformers are rated in units of Kilo volt-amperes, (kVA) where 1
kilo volt-ampere is equal to 1,000 volt-amperes, and units of Mega volt-amperes,
(MVA) where 1 mega volt-ampere is equal to 1 million volt-amperes.
In an ideal transformer (ignoring any losses), the power available in the
secondary winding will be the same as the power in the primary winding, they are
constant wattage devices and do not change the power only the voltage to current
ratio. Thus, in an ideal transformer the Power Ratio is equal to one (unity) as the
voltage, V multiplied by the current, I will remain constant.
That is the electric power at one voltage/current level on the primary is
transformed into electric power, at the same frequency, to the same
voltage/current level on the secondary side. Although the transformer can step-up
(or step-down) voltage, it cannot step-up power. Thus, when a transformer steps-up
a voltage, it steps-down the current and vice-versa, so that the output power is
always at the same value as the input power. Then we can say that primary power
equals secondary power, (PP = PS).
3.16) Efficiency of a transformer
A transformer does not require any moving parts to transfer energy. This
means that there are no friction or winding losses associated with other electrical
machines. However, transformers do suffer from other types of losses called
copper losses and iron losses but generally these are quite small.
Copper losses, also known as I2R loss is the electrical power which is lost in
heat as a result of circulating the currents around the transformers copper windings,
hence the name. Copper losses represents the greatest loss in the operation of a
transformer. The actual watts of power lost can be determined (in each winding) by
squaring the amperes and multiplying by the resistance in ohms of the winding
(I2R).
Iron losses, also known as hysteresis is the lagging of the magnetic molecules
with in the core, in response to the alternating magnetic flux. This lagging (or out-
of-phase) condition is due to the fact that it requires power to reverse magnetic
molecules; they do not reverse until the flux has attained sufficient force to reverse
them. Their reversal results in friction, and friction produces heat in the core which
is a form of power loss. Hysteresis within the transformer can be reduced by making
the core from special steel alloys.
The intensity of power loss in a transformer determines its efficiency. The
efficiency of a transformer is reflected in power (wattage) loss between the primary
(input) and secondary (output) windings.

22
 Then the resulting efficiency of a transformer is equal to the ratio of the
power output of the secondary winding, PS to the power input of the primary
winding, PP and is therefore high.
An ideal transformer is 100% efficient because it delivers all the energy it
receives. Real transformers on the other hand are not 100% efficient and at full load,
the efficiency of a transformer is between 94% and 96% which is quite good. For a
transformer operating with a constant voltage and frequency with a very high
capacity, the efficiency may be as high as 98%. The efficiency, of a transformer
is given as:

Where: Input, Output and Losses are all expressed in units of power.
Generally when dealing with transformers, the primary watts are called volt-
amps, VA to differentiate them from the secondary watts. Then the efficiency
equation above can be modified to:

It is sometimes easier to remember the relationship between the transformers

input, output and efficiency by using pictures. Here the three quantities
of VA, W and have been superimposed into a triangle giving power in watts at
the top with volt-amps and efficiency at the bottom. This arrangement represents
the actual position of each quantity in the efficiency formulas.
3.16.1) Transformer efficiency triangle

23
 Transposing the above triangle quantities gives us the following
combinations of the same equation:

Then, to find Watts (output) = VA x eff., or to find VA (input) = W/eff., or to find

Efficiency, eff. = W/VA, etc.
3.17) Energy losses in a transformer
3.17.1) Transformer core losses
The ability of iron or steel to carry magnetic flux is much greater than it is in
air, and this ability to allow magnetic flux to flow is called permeability. Most
transformer cores are constructed from low carbon steels which can have
permeability in the order of 1500 compared with just 1.0 for air.
This means that a steel laminated core can carry a magnetic flux 1500 times
better than that of air. However, when a magnetic flux flows in a transformers steel
core, two types of losses occur in the steel. One termed eddy current losses and
the other termed hysteresis losses.
3.17.2) Hysteresis losses
Transformer Hysteresis Losses are caused because of the friction of the
molecules against the flow of the magnetic lines of force required to magnetise the
core, which are constantly changing in value and direction first in one direction and
then the other due to the influence of the sinusoidal supply voltage.
This molecular friction causes heat to be developed which represents an
energy loss to the transformer. Excessive heat loss can overtime shorten the life of
the insulating materials used in the manufacture of the windings and structures.
Therefore, cooling of a transformer is important.
Also, transformers are designed to operate at a particular supply frequency.
Lowering the frequency of the supply will result in increased hysteresis and higher
temperature in the iron core. So reducing the supply frequency from 60 Hertz to 50
Hertz will raise the amount of hysteresis present, decreased the VA capacity of the
transformer.

24
3.17.3) Eddy current losses and minimization
Transformer Eddy Current Losses on the other hand are caused by the flow
of circulating currents induced into the steel caused by the flow of the magnetic flux
around the core. These circulating currents are generated because to the magnetic
flux the core is acting like a single loop of wire. Since the iron core is a good
conductor, the eddy currents induced by a solid iron core will be large.
Eddy currents do not contribute anything towards the usefulness of the
transformer but instead they oppose the flow of the induced current by acting like a
negative force generating resistive heating and power loss within the core.
Laminating the core can eliminate eddy current losses.

Fig 3.12) Eddy currents in solid and laminated cores

Eddy current losses within a transformer core cannot be eliminated
completely, but they can be greatly reduced and controlled by reducing the
thickness of the steel core. Instead of having one big solid iron core as the magnetic
core material of the transformer or coil, the magnetic path is split up into many thin
pressed steel shapes called laminations.
The laminations used in a transformer construction are very thin strips of
insulated metal joined together to produce a solid but laminated core as we saw
above. These laminations are insulated from each other by a coat of varnish or paper
to increase the effective resistivity of the core thereby increasing the overall
resistance to limit the flow of the eddy currents.
The result of all this insulation is that the unwanted induced eddy current
power-loss in the core is greatly reduced, and it is for this reason why the magnetic
iron circuit of every transformer and other electro-magnetic machines are all
laminated. Using laminations in a transformer construction reduces eddy current
losses. The losses of energy, which appears as heat due both to hysteresis and to
eddy currents in the magnetic path, is known commonly as transformer core
losses. Since these losses occur in all magnetic materials as a result of alternating
magnetic fields.

25
 Transformer core losses are always present in a transformer whenever the
primary is energized, even if no load is connected to the secondary winding. Also
these hysteresis and the eddy current losses are sometimes referred to as
transformer iron losses, as the magnetic flux causing these losses is constant at
all loads.
3.17.4) Copper losses
Transformer Copper Losses are mainly due to the electrical resistance of the
primary and secondary windings. Most transformer coils are made from copper wire
which has resistance in Ohms, (). This resistance opposes the magnetising
currents flowing through them.
When a load is connected to the transformers secondary winding, large
electrical currents flow in both the primary and the secondary windings, electrical
energy and power (or the I2 R) losses occur as heat. Generally copper losses vary
with the load current, being almost zero at no-load, and at a maximum at full-load
when current flow is at maximum.
A transformers VA rating can be increased by better design and transformer
construction to reduce these core and copper losses. Transformers with high voltage
and current ratings require conductors of large cross-section to help minimise their
copper losses. Increasing the rate of heat dissipation (better cooling) by forced air
or oil, or by improving the transformers insulation so that it will withstand higher
temperatures can also increase a transformers VA rating.
Then we can define an ideal transformer as having:
No Hysteresis loops or Hysteresis losses 0
Infinite Resistivity of core material giving zero Eddy current losses 0
Zero winding resistance giving zero I2R copper losses 0
4) Circuit diagram:

Fig 4.1) Circuit diagram of a self-designed transformer

26
5) Procedure:
1) Take thick iron rod and cover it with a thick paper and wind a large number
of turns of thin 20 AWG Cu wire on thick paper (say 60). This constitutes
primary coil of the transformer.
2) Cover the primary coil with a sheet of paper and wound relatively smaller
number of turns (say 20) of thick 16 AWG copper wire on it. This constitutes
the secondary coil. It is a step down transformer.
3) Connect P1 and P2 to AC mains (220V~240V) and measure the input voltage
and current, using AC voltmeter and ammeter respectively.
4) Similarly, measure the output voltage and current through S1S2.
5) Now connect the S1S2 to AC mains and again measure voltage and current
through primary and secondary coil of step-up transformer.
6) Repeat all steps for other configurations of self-made transformer by
changing number of primary turns in secondary coils.

6) Conclusion:
1) There is no loss of power between input and output coil of an ideal
transformer.
2) Thus from the investigatory project, I have gained considerable amount of
information about transformers and the principles behind its working,
construction and applications. I have also learnt about various types of
transformer and their importance in day to day life in supplying and
transmission of power.
7) References:
1. NCERT Class 12 Physics Textbook Part-1
2. Class12 Physics Lab Manual - Laxmi Publications
3. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transformer#Basic_principles
4. http://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/transformer/three-phase-transformer.html
5. http://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/transformer/transformer-construction.html
6. https://www.elprocus.com/working-procedure-on-how-do-transformers-work/
7. https://www.elprocus.com/various-types-of-transformers-applications/
8. http://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/category/transformer
9. http://www.electricaleasy.com/2014/04/transformer-losses-and-efficiency.html
10.http://www.cbseguess.com/ebooks/xii/physics/mutual-induction.php
11.https://www.elprocus.com/working-procedure-on-how-do-transformers-work.

27