Mechanical Vibrations Slides PDF

MEMB343 Mechanical Vibrations
FUNDAMENTALS OF
VIBRATIONS
BASIC CONCEPTS
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Upon completion of this lecture, you should be able to:

Understand the concepts of degree-of-freedom, and discrete
and continuous systems.
Compute the stiffness of some simple spring elements.
Determine the equivalent mass or inertia, and equivalent
spring and damping constants of vibrating systems.
Understand the definitions of free and forced vibration,
undamped and damped vibration, linear and non-linear
vibration, and deterministic and random vibration.
VIBRATION IN ENGINEERING
PRACTICE
Good
Machine condition monitoring.
Vibrating sieves, mixers and tools.
Electric massaging units, dentist drills, electric
toothbrushes.
Bad
Noise, vibration and harshness (NVH).
Machinery and structural failures.
Motion sickness, white finger syndrome, etc.
TACOMA NARROWS BRIDGE
This photograph shows the twisting motion of

the center span just prior to failure.
The nature and severity of the torsional

movement is revealed in this picture taken
from the Tacoma end of the suspension span.
When the twisting motion was at the
maximum, elevation of the sidewalk at the
right was 28 feet (8.5m) higher than the
sidewalk at the left.
TACOMA NARROWS BRIDGE (cont.)

POSITIVE DISPLACEMENT BLOWER
Shearing of shaft attributed to high torsional vibrations. Rotor operating

speed was within the vicinity of a torsional natural frequency.
POSITIVE DISPLACEMENT BLOWER

(cont.)
EXAMPLES OF VIBRATING
SYSTEM
Masses attached to springs.

Flexible Rods.
Pendulums.
BASIC CONCEPTS OF VIBRATION
When a particle or a rigid body in stable equilibrium is

displaced by the application of an additional force,
mechanical vibration will result.
Some important concepts in mechanical vibration theory
can be categorized into the followings:
Elementary parts of vibrating systems.
Degree of freedom.
Discrete and continuous system.
ELEMENTARY PARTS OF VIBRATING

SYSTEMS
To be subject to vibration, a system must be able to store
energy in two different forms and allow energy to be
transferred from one to the other.
In particular, for vibration to exist, there must be a transfer
of energy from potential to kinetic and vice-versa.
Potential energy is due to either gravity or the elasticity of
the system, whilst the kinetic energy is due to the motion
of the mass.
The simplest mechanical oscillators are the pendulum and
the spring-mass system. The corresponding simplest
electrical oscillator is the capacitor-inductor system.
SPRING ELEMENTS
Linear Spring
FS kx
Torsional Spring
M S kT
A spring is a mechanical link that is generally assumed to
have negligible mass and damping.
A force is developed in a spring whenever there is a
relative motion between two ends of the spring.
Work done in deforming a spring is stored as potential
energy in the spring.
SPRING ELEMENTS (cont.)
A spring element is generally made of an elastic material.

The stiffness in a spring element can be related more
directly to its material (elastic modulus) and geometric
properties.
A spring-like behavior results from a variety of motion
configurations, including:
Longitudinal motion (vibration in the direction of the
length).
Transverse motion (vibration perpendicular to the length).
Torsional motion (vibration rotating around the length).
STIFFNESS OF SPRING ELEMENTS
Stiffness associated with the longitudinal vibration of a

slender prismatic bar.

(cont.)
Stiffness associated with the torsional vibration of a shaft.


(cont.)
Stiffness associated with a helical spring.


(cont.)
Beam stiffness associated with the transverse vibration of

the tip of a beam.
EQUIVALENT SPRING CONSTANT
Springs in Parallel Springs in Series

1 1 1 1
keq k1 k2 .... kn ....
keq k1 k2 kn
MASS OR INERTIA ELEMENTS
Linear Motion
F mx
Rotational Motion
M I
The mass or inertia element is assumed to be a rigid body.
A rigid bodys inertia is responsible for the resistance to
acceleration of a system.
Work done on a mass is stored in the form of kinetic
energy of the mass.
EQUIVALENT MASS OF A SYSTEM

Translational Masses Connected by a Rigid Bar.
Original system
x1 x 2 x3
Pivot point From trigonometric
m1 m2 m3
relationship
l1 l2
x2 xeq
l1
l2
l3 l3
x3 xeq
Equivalent system l1
xeq
Assume
meq xeq x1
l1

(cont.)
Translational Masses Connected by a Rigid Bar.
Equate the kinetic energy of the three masses to that of the
equivalent systems mass
1 1 1 1
m1 x1 m2 x2 m3 x3 meq xeq
2
2
2
2
2 2 2 2
The equivalent systems mass is therefore obtained
2 2
l2 l3
meq m1 m2 m3
l1 l1

(cont.)
Coupled Translational and Rotational Masses.
From kinematics, the relationship
between the linear and the angular
J0 velocity is x
r
r
To obtain the equivalent translational
m mass x x
eq
x
To obtain the equivalent rotational
mass
eq

(cont.)
Coupled Translational and Rotational Masses.
Equivalent Translational Equivalent Rotational Mass

Mass

2
1 2 1 x 1 1 2 1 2 1
mx J 0 meq xeq
2
m r J 0 J eqeq
2
2 2 r 2 2 2 2
J0 J eq mr 2 J 0
meq m 2
r
DAMPING ELEMENTS
Linear Damper
FD cx
Torsional Damper
M D cT
A damper is generally assumed to have negligible mass
and stiffness.
A force is developed in a damper whenever there is a
relative velocity between two ends of the damper.
The damper dissipates energy from a system in the form of
heat or sound.
DAMPING ELEMENTS MODELS
Viscous Damping
The damping force is proportional to the velocity of the
vibrating body.
Coulomb Damping
The damping force is constant in amplitude but opposite
the direction to that of the motion of the vibrating body.
Hysteretic Damping
The energy dissipated per cycle is proportional to the
square of the vibration amplitude.
EQUIVALENT DAMPING CONSTANT
Dampers in Parallel Dampers in Series

1 1 1 1
ceq c1 c2 .... cn ....
ceq c1 c2 cn
DEGREE OF FREEDOM
The minimum number of independent coordinates required

to determine completely the positions of all part of a
system at any instant of times.
y
y
x
x
z
Unconstrained rigid body with 6 d.o.f.
z
DISCRETE AND CONTINUOUS SYSTEM
Systems with a finite number of degrees of freedom are

called discrete or lumped parameter systems, and those
with an infinite number of degrees of freedom are called
continuous or distributed systems.
Discrete System Continuous System
Solution: 2nd Order Ordinary Solution: Partial Differential

Differential Equation Equation
CLASSIFICATION OF VIBRATION
Free and Forced Vibration.

Undamped and Damped Vibration.
Linear and Nonlinear Vibration.
Deterministic and Random
Vibration.
FREE AND FORCED VIBRATION
Free Vibration
Oscillation occurring at a natural frequency, after an initial
force input.
mx kx 0
mx cx kx 0
Forced Vibration
Oscillation occurring at the frequency of a driving force
input.
mx kx F (t )
mx cx kx F (t )
UNDAMPED AND DAMPED VIBRATION
Undamped Vibration
No energy is lost or dissipated in friction or other
resistance during oscillation.
mx kx 0
mx kx F (t )
Damped Vibration
Energy is lost or dissipated during oscillation.
mx cx kx 0
mx cx kx F (t )
LINEAR AND NONLINEAR VIBRATION
Linear Vibration
The cause (force) and effect (response) are proportionally
related. Principle of superposition holds.
Nonlinear Vibration
Relationship between cause and effect is no longer
proportional.
DETERMINISTIC AND RANDOM

VIBRATION
Deterministic Vibration
The instantaneous values of the vibration amplitude at any
time (t) can be determined from mathematical expressions.
Random Vibration
Future instantaneous values of the vibration amplitude
cannot be predicted in a deterministic sense.
EXAMPLE 1
A composite propeller shaft, which is made of steel and

aluminium, is shown below. Determine the torsional
spring constant of the shaft The shear modulus G of steel
is 80 GPa and for aluminium 26 GPa.
EXAMPLE 1 (cont.)
The polar area moment of inertia for a hollow shaft is

given by the following equation where D and d are the
outer and inner diameters, respectively.
D 4 d 4
IP
32
Torsional stiffness for the shaft is:
GI P G D d 4 4

kt
l 32l
EXAMPLE 1 (cont.)
For the steel shaft, torsional stiffness is:
80 109 0.254 0.154

ktS 5.34 106 Nm/rad
32 5
For the aluminium shaft, torsional stiffness is:
26 10 0.15 0.1
9 4 4
0.207 10
ktA 6
Nm/rad
32 5
Shafts are in parallel, therefore:
keq ktS ktA 5.547 106 Nm/rad
FUNDAMENTALS OF
VIBRATIONS
SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION
LEARNING OBJECTIVES

Determine if a vibration motion can be classified as simple
harmonic.
Represent simple harmonic motion in both trigonometric and
complex forms.
Understand some basic terminology that are used to define a
vibration signal.
INTRODUCTION
Oscillatory motion may repeat itself regularly as in the

case of a simple pendulum, or it may display considerable
irregularity, as in earthquakes.
When the motion is repeated in equal intervals of time ,
it is called periodic motion.
The repetition time is called the period of oscillation,
and its reciprocal 1 is called the frequency.
f

If the motion is designated by the time function xt , then
any periodic motion must satisfy the relationship:
xt xt
SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION
The simplest type of periodic motion is called a simple

harmonic motion.
It is essentially a periodic motion with a single frequency.
It can be demonstrated by a mass suspended from a light
spring.
If the mass is displaced from its rest position and released,
it will oscillate up and down.
SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION (cont.)
The motion of the mass can be expressed by the equation

t
x A sin 2

A is the amplitude of oscillation, measured from the
equilibrium position of the mass.
is the period, and the motion is repeated when t .
Harmonic motion is often represented as the projection on

a straight line of a point that is moving on a circle at
constant speed.
With the angular speed of the line OP designated by ,
the displacement x can be written as x A sint .

The quantity is measured in radians per second, and is
referred to as the circular or angular frequency.
Since the motion repeat itself every 2 radians, we have
the relationship 2 .
2f

and f are the period and frequency of the harmonic
motion, usually measured in seconds and cycles per second
(Hz), respectively.
The velocity and acceleration of harmonic motion can be
simply determined by differentiation of x A sint .
x A cos t A sin t 2
x 2 A sin t 2 A sin t
Thus the velocity and acceleration are also harmonic with

the same frequency of oscillation but lead the displacement
by / 2 and radians, respectively.
The acceleration can be written as x x .

2
Therefore, in simple harmonic motion, the acceleration is

proportional to the displacement and is directed towards
the origin.
As Newtons 2nd law states that the acceleration is
proportional to the force, harmonic motion can be expected
with linear springs with force varying as kx .
COMPLEX FORM OF SIMPLE

HARMONIC MOTION
The trigonometric functions of sine and cosine are related

to the exponential function by Eulers equation:
ei cos i sin
A vector of amplitude z rotating at constant angular speed
can be represented as a complex quantity A in the
Argand diagram.
COMPLEX FORM OF SIMPLE HARMONIC

MOTION (cont.)
The following relationship holds:

z Ae it
A cos t iA sin t
x iy
The quantity z is referred to as the complex sinusoid with
x and y as the real and imaginary components.
COMPLEX FORM OF SIMPLE HARMONIC

MOTION (cont.)
The above figure shows z and its conjugate z * which is

rotating in the negative direction with angular speed .
From this diagram, it is seen that the real component x is
expressed in terms of z and z * by the equation:
x 12 z z * A cos t Re Ae it
Re stands for the real part of the quantity z .
COMPLEX FORM OF SIMPLE

HARMONIC MOTION (cont.)
Some of the rules of exponential operations between
z1 A1ei1 and z2 A2ei 2 are:
Multiplication z1 z2 A1 A2ei 1 2
z1 A1 i 1 2
Division e
z2 A2
z n An ein
Powers
1 1 i
z A e
n n n
VIBRATION TERMINOLOGY
Since the position, velocity and acceleration change

continually with time, several other quantities are used to
discuss vibration.
The peak value, defined as the maximum displacement, or
magnitude A , usually indicates the maximum stress that
the vibrating part is undergoing.
VIBRATION TERMINOLOGY (cont.)
Another quantity useful in describing vibration is the

average value, denoted as x , and defined by:
x lim xt dt
1 T
T T 0
The average value indicates a steady or static value

somewhat like the DC level of an electrical current.
For example, the average value for a complete cycle of a
sine wave Asin t is zero.
Its average value for a half-cycle is, however:

sin t dt
A 2A

x 0.637 A
0
Since the square of displacement is associated with a

systems potential energy, the average of the displacement
squared is sometimes a useful vibration property to
discuss.
The mean square value of a time function xt , denoted
2
by x is found from the average of the squared values,
integrated over some time interval T :
x lim x t dt
2 1 T 2
T T 0
If xt A sin t , its mean square value is:

A2 1
1 cos 2t dt A
1 2
T
x lim
2
T T 0 2 2
The root mean square (rms) value is the square root of the
mean square value.
From the previous example for xt A sin t , the rms of
the sine wave of amplitude A is:
A
Arms 0.707 A
2
Vibration instrumentation generally measures root mean
square vibration amplitudes (displacement, velocity or
acceleration).
Since the peak value of the velocity and acceleration are

multiples of the circular frequency times the displacement
amplitude, these three basic quantities often differ in value
by an order of magnitude.
For systems with circular frequency larger than 1 rad/s,
the relative amplitude of the velocity response is larger
than that of the displacement by a multiple of , and the
acceleration response is larger by a multiple of 2 .
For systems with circular frequency less than 1 rad/s, the
velocity and acceleration have smaller relative amplitudes
than the displacement.
A common unit of measurement for vibration amplitudes

and rms values is the decibel (dB). As the decibel is a
logarithmic unit, it compresses or expands the scale.
The decibel was originally defined in terms of the base 10
logarithm of the power ratio of two electrical signals, or as
the ratio of the square of the amplitudes of two signals.
2
P1 x1 x1
dB 10 log10 10 log10 20 log10
P2 x2 x2
The equation based on the ratio of the square of the

amplitudes of two signals results from the fact that power
is proportional to the square of the amplitude or voltage.
Cycle is the movement of a vibrating body from its

equilibrium position to its extreme position in one
direction, then to the equilibrium position, then to its
extreme position in other direction, and back to
equilibrium position. 1 revolution (angular displacement
of 2 radians) of the pin P or one revolution of the vector
OP constitute a cycle.
Amplitude, denoted by A , is defined as the maximum

displacement of a vibrating body from its equilibrium
position.
Period of oscillation, denoted by , is defined as the time
(second) taken to complete one cycle of motion.
It is equal to the time required for the vector OP to rotate
through an angle of 2 and therefore: 2

Frequency of oscillation, denoted by f , is defined as the
number of cycles per unit time. f is measured in
cycles/second (Hz). 1
f
2
Phase angle ( ) is the difference in time between two

events such as the zero crossing of two waveforms.
is expressed in radians as the time between two events
divided by the period, times 2. t
2

EXAMPLE 1
The maximum displacement and the maximum

acceleration of the foundation of a centrifugal pump were
found to be 0.25 mm and 0.4g. Find the operating speed of
the pump. Assume the motion of the foundation is
harmonic.
EXAMPLE 1 (cont.)
For harmonic motion, the following relationship between

displacement and acceleration is valid:
xmax 2 xmax
From the above equation, we solve for the angular
frequency:
xmax 0.4 9.81

3
125.28 rad/s
xmax 0.25 10
EXAMPLE 1 (cont.)
The operating speed of the pump is related to the angular

frequency by the following equation:
60 60 125.28
N 1196.3 rpm
2 2
FREE VIBRATION OF SINGLE-

DEGREE-OF-FREEDOM SYSTEMS
UNDAMPED FREE VIBRATIONS
LEARNING OBJECTIVES

Determine the equation of motion of an undamped single-
degree-of-freedom system.
Determine the undamped natural frequency of a single-
Solve the equation of motion of the undamped free response.
Understand the relationship between various solutions to the
equation of motion.
INTRODUCTION
The vibration analysis procedure generally involves:
Mathematical modeling.
Derivation of governing equations.
Solution of the governing equations.
Interpretation of the results.
This lecture deals with the undamped free vibration
response of a single-degree-of-freedom system.
UNDAMPED FREE VIBRATIONS
A free vibration is produced and maintained by forces such

as elastic and gravitational forces.
These forces depend only on the position and motion of the
body.
When forces that oppose the restoring force (friction, air
resistance, etc.) are negligible, the vibration is called
undamped.
An undamped free vibration will repeat itself indefinitely.
In real systems, the frequency and period of vibration
obtained for a freely vibrating system are very close to the
values obtained for a system that has a small amount of
damping.
UNDAMPED FREE VIBRATIONS (cont.)
Consider a block of mass m sliding on a frictionless

horizontal surface.
Vibration is induced by displacing the block a distance
x0 and then releasing it with an initial velocity of
x0 v0 .
The elastic restoring force of the spring Fs kx is always

directed toward the equilibrium position, whereas the
acceleration a d 2 x / dt 2 x acts in the direction of
positive displacement.
It is important to remember that since acceleration is the
second time derivative of displacement, both the
displacement x and the acceleration x must be measured
positive in the same direction.
Applying Newtons 2nd law to the block gives the
differential equation of motion of the block:
kx mx or mx kx 0
The general solution for the previous equation based on

physical observation is given by:
xt A sin nt
A is the amplitude, or maximum value of the function.
n , the angular natural frequency measured in rad/s,
determines the interval in time that the function repeats
itself.
, the phase measured in radians, determines the initial
value of the sine function.
It is standard to measure time t in seconds.
The velocity and acceleration of the block are obtained by

differentiating xt A sin nt with time.
The velocity of the block is x t n A cos nt .
The acceleration of the block is xt n2 A sin nt .
Substitution of these equations into the equation of motion

given by mx kx 0 yields:
m 2 A sin nt kAsin nt 0
Dividing the previous equation by A and m yields the

fact that this equation is satisfied if 2 k .
n
m
The constant n characterizes the spring-mass system, as
well as the frequency at which the motion repeats itself,
and hence is called the systems natural frequency.
The constants A and are determined by the initial

stage of motion of the mass-spring system. If no energy is
imparted to the mass, it will stay at rest.
If, however, the mass is displaced to a position x0 at time
t 0 , the potential energy in the spring will result in
motion. Also, if the mass is given an initial velocity of
v0 at time t 0 , motion will result.
These are called initial conditions and when substituted
into the previous equations for displacement and velocity
x0 x0 A sin n 0 A sin
yield:
v0 x0 n A cos n 0 n A cos
Solving these two equations simultaneously for the two

unknowns A and yields:
n2 x02 v02 n x0
A tan 1
n v0
Thus the solution of the equation of motion for the spring-

mass system is given by:
n2 x02 v02 1 n x0
xt sin nt tan
n v0
Since the solution repeats whenever their argument

increases by an angle 2 , the period of the oscillation is
given by: 2
n
n
The natural frequency of the oscillation in Hz (cycles per
second) is then: 1 n
fn
n 2
The results above may be used to analyze the vibrational
motion of a particle or rigid-body whenever the equations
of motion reduce to the form which characterizes simple
harmonic motion given by x 2 x 0 .
n
ALTERNATIVE SOLUTIONS
Following the theory of elementary differential equations,

we can assume the solution for the equation of motion as:
xt aet
a and are nonzero constants to be determined.
Upon successive differentiation of xt , we obtain:
x t aet
xt 2 aet
Substituting the assumed exponential form into the

equation of motion yields: m2 aet kaet 0
ALTERNATIVE SOLUTIONS (cont.)
Since the term ae t is never zero, the previous expression

can be divided by ae t to yield:
m2 k 0
Solving this algebraically results in:
k k
j n j
m m
j 1 is the imaginary number and n is the natural

frequency.
Note that there are two values for : n j n j

This results because the equation for is of second order,
which implies that there must be two solutions of the
equation of motion.
Substituting these two values of into xt ae yields:
t
xt ae jnt xt ae jnt
The principal of superposition for linear systems states that
the sum of two solutions is also a solution, hence:
xt a1e jnt a2e jnt
a1 and a2 are complex-valued constants of integration.
Another alternative solution for the equation of motion is:

xt A1 cos nt A2 sin nt
A1 and A2 are real-valued constants of integration to be

determined from the initial conditions:
xt x0 and xt v0 when t 0
The velocity and acceleration of the block are obtained by
differentiating xt with time.
xt n A1 sin nt n A2 cos nt
xt n2 A1 cos nt n2 A2 sin nt
SOLUTIONS RELATIONSHIP
The solution of mx kx 0 subject to non-zero initial

conditions can be written in three equivalent ways.
First, the solution can be written as follows where A and
are real-valued constants.
xt A sin nt
Second, the solution can be written as follows where
a1 and a2 are complex-valued constants.
xt a1e jnt a2e jnt
Third, the solution can be written as follows where A1 and
A2 are real-valued constants.
SOLUTIONS RELATIONSHIP (cont.)
Each set of two constants is determined by the initial

conditions.
Following trigonometric identities and the Eulers
formulas, the various constants are related by:
A1
A A A 1
2 2
2 tan
-1
A2
A1 a1 a2 A2 a1 a2 j
A1 A2 j A1 A2 j
a1 a2
2 2
DISPLACED EQUILIBRIUM POSITION
The deformation of the spring in the static equilibrium

position is , and the spring force k is equal to the
gravitational force W acting on the mass m .
k W mg

(cont.)
Measuring the displacement x from the static equilibrium
position, the forces acting on m are k and W .
With x chosen to be positive in the downward direction,
so are all quantities (force, velocity and acceleration).
Applying Newtons 2nd law of motion to the mass m :
mx F W k x
Since k W , we obtain k
x x 0
m
The choice of the static equilibrium position as reference
for x has eliminated W , the force due to gravity, and the
static spring force k , from the equation of motion.

(cont.)
The equation of motion may be written as x n2 x 0
where n2 k / m .
The natural period of oscillation and the natural frequency
is respectively established from:
m and 1 k
n 2 fn
k 2 m
n , f n and n depend only on the mass and stiffness of the
system, which are properties of the system.
For this case and any case where vibration is measured
from gravity equilibrium position, no gravity terms have to
be included in the equations of motion.
EXAMPLE 1
A heavy ring of mass moment of inertia 1 kgm2 is attached

at the end of a two-layered hollow shaft of length 2 m. If
the two layers of the shaft are made of steel and brass,
repectively, determine the natural time period of torsional
vibration of the heavy ring. Shear modulus for steel and
brass are 80 GPa and 40 GPa, respectively.
EXAMPLE 1 (cont.)
Torsional stiffness for a hollow shaft is:
GI P G D 4 d 4
kt
l 32l
EXAMPLE 1 (cont.)
For the steel shaft, torsional stiffness is:
80 109 0.054 0.044

ktS 14490.6 Nm/rad
32 2
For the brass shaft, torsional stiffness is:
40 10 0.04 0.03
9 4 4
3436.1 Nm/rad
ktB
32 2
Shafts are in parallel, therefore:
keq ktS ktB 17926.7 Nm/rad
EXAMPLE 1 (cont.)
The torsional natural frequency is:
keq 17926.7
n 133.89 rad/s
J0 1
The torsional natural time period is:
22
n 0.047 s
n 133.89

ENERGY METHOD
LEARNING OBJECTIVES

Derive the equation of motion of a single-degree-of-freedom
system using the energy method.
Determine the natural frequency of a single-degree-of-
freedom system using the energy method.
Understand that the energy method is based on the principle
of conservation of energy and therefore is only valid for
undamped vibration systems.
INTRODUCTION
Dynamic systems can be characterized in terms of one or

more natural frequencies.
The natural frequency is the frequency at which the system
would vibrate if it were given an initial disturbance and
then allowed to vibrate freely.
There are many available methods for determining the
natural frequency. The most utilized include:
Newtons Law of Motion
Rayleighs Method
Energy Method
Lagranges Equation.
ENERGY METHOD
The total energy of a conservative system (damping and

external forces equal zero) is constant. Thus
T U 0
d T: kinetic energy
dt U: potential energy
Kinetic energy is the energy of motion, as calculated from

the velocity.
Potential energy has several forms. One is strain energy.
Another is the work done against a gravity field.
RAYLEIGHS METHOD
The principle of conservation of energy in the context of

an undamped vibrating system can be restated as
1,2 : denotes two different
T1 U1 T2 U 2
instants of time
Subscript 1 denotes the time when the mass passes through
its static equilibrium position; therefore U1=0.
Subscript 2 denotes the time corresponding to the
maximum displacement of the mass; therefore T2=0.
For a system undergoing harmonic motion T1 and U2
denote the maximum values of T and U, respectively.
Tmax U max
EXAMPLE 1
x
x
A manometer used in a fluid mechanics laboratory has a

uniform bore of cross-section area A.
If a column of liquid of length l and density r is set into
motion as shown in the above figure, find the frequency of
the resulting motion.
SOLUTION TO EXAMPLE 1
Energy Method.
T mx lAr x
1 2 1 2

2 2
1 2 1 2 Axrg 2
U kx x
2 2 x
d
T U lArxx 2 Argxx 0
dt
2g 2g
x x 0 n rad / s
l l
SOLUTION TO EXAMPLE 1 (cont.)
Newtons Law.
F mx
2 Axg r lArx
2g
x x 0
l
2g
n rad / s
l
EXAMPLE 2
x
r k
A circular cylinder of mass m and radius r is connected by

a spring of modulus k.
If it is free to roll on the rough horizontal surface without
slipping, finds its natural frequency.
Energy Method.
1 2 1 2 3 2 1 2
T mx J 0 mx J 0 mr
2 2 4 2
1 2 r x
U kx
2 r x
d
T U mxx kxx 0
3
dt 2
2k
3
mx kx 0 n rad / s
2 3m
Newtons Law.
F mx kx
mx kx F f (1)
Ff
M J 0
J 0 F f r Insert (2) into (1) 3
mx kx 0
1 2 x 2
mr F f r
2 r
2k
1
F f mx
n rad / s
2 (2) 3m
EXAMPLE 3
Determine the effect of the mass

of the spring on the natural y
frequency of the spring-mass
system.
k: spring stiffness
k l
m: mass density of the
dy
spring (mass/length)
l: length of spring m
x
1 2
Kinetic energy of the mass: Tm mx
2
1 2
Potential energy of the spring: U kx
2
1
Kinetic energy of the spring: Ts mlx 2
6
1 1 2
Total kinetic energy of the system: T m ml x
2 3
Assume a harmonic motion where X is the maximum

amplitude and n the natural frequency: xt X cos t
n
The maximum potential and kinetic energies are:

1 1 2 2
Tmax m ml X n
2 3
1
U max kX 2
2 k
n rad / s
Equating Tmax and Umax, we have 1
m ml
3
RAYLEIGHS METHOD: EFFECTIVE

MASS
Rayleighs method can be used for multi-mass or for
distributed mass systems, provided the motion of every
point in the system is known.
In multi-mass systems which are joined by rigid links,
levers or gears, the motion of the various masses can be
expressed in terms of the motion of some specific point,
and thus reducing the system to 1 DOF.
Kinetic energy can then be written as 1 2 .
T meff x
2
meff is the effective mass or an equivalent mass at the
specified point where motion of the various masses are
referred to.

MASS (cont.)
If the stiffness at the specified point is also known, the
natural frequency can be calculated from:
k
n
meff

MASS (cont.)
In distributed mass systems such as springs and beams, a
knowledge of the distribution of the vibration amplitude
becomes necessary before the kinetic energy can be
calculated.
Rayleigh showed that with a reasonable assumption for the
vibration amplitude, it is possible to take into account
previously ignored masses and arrive at a better estimate
for the fundamental frequency.
EXAMPLE 4
A simply supported l/2

beam of total mass m has
a concentrated mass M at M m
mid-span.
Determine the effective x l
mass of the system at
mid-span and find its
natural frequency. M: mass of
concentrated load
m: total mass of beam
l: length of beam
Assume the deflection of the beam to be due to a

concentrated load at mid-span:
3x x 3
y y max 4
l l
The velocity is therefore:
3x x 3
y y max 4
l l
The maximum kinetic energy of the beam is given by:

l
2 y x dx
1 2 m
Tmax 2
2 0 l
0.4857 m y max
1 2
Tmax
2
If meq denotes the equivalent mass of the beam acting at

mid-span, its maximum kinetic energy is:
1

Tmax meq y max
2
2
meq 0.4857m
The effective mass at mid-span is expressed as:

meff M 0.4857m
The natural frequency is:
k
n
meff
k
n
M 0.4857 m
48 EI
n
l 3 M 0.4857 m

DAMPED FREE VIBRATIONS
LEARNING OBJECTIVES

Determine the equation of motion of a damped single-
Determine if the system is underdamped, critically damped
or overdamped.
Solve the equation of motion of the damped free response.
Determine the damped natural frequency of an underdamped
single-degree-of-freedom system.
Determine the logarithmic decrement of an underdamped
single-degree-of-freedom system, and relate it to the
damping ratio.
INTRODUCTION
The analysis of undamped free vibrations is only an

idealization of real systems because it does not account for
the energy lost to friction.
Once set into motion, such idealized systems vibrate
forever with a constant amplitude.
All real systems, however, lose energy to friction and will
eventually stop unless there is a source of energy to keep
them going.
When the amount of energy lost in the system is small, the
results of undamped free vibrations are often in good
agreement with real systems.
DAMPED FREE VIBRATIONS
Common types of friction forces that can remove

mechanical energy from vibrating systems include:
Fluid friction (viscous damping force), which arises when
bodies move through viscous fluids;
Dry friction (coulomb friction), which arises when a body
slides across a dry surface; and
Internal friction, which arises when a solid body is
deformed.
Damping caused by fluid friction is quite common in
engineering work, and only linear viscous damping is
considered in this lecture.
THE LINEAR VISCOUS DAMPER
Viscous damping is usually represented by a dashpot,

which consists of a piston moving in a cylinder filled with
viscous fluid.
The viscous dampers considered are linear; the magnitude
of the viscous damping force is directly proportional to the
velocity with which the damper is being extended or
compressed F cx .
The constant of proportionality c is called the coefficient
of viscous damping. Units in the SI system are Ns/m .
The direction of the viscous damping force is always
opposite to the direction of the velocity.
VISCOUS DAMPED FREE VIBRATIONS
Consider a block of mass m sliding on a frictionless

horizontal surface.
Vibration is induced by displacing the block a distance
x0 and then releasing it with an initial velocity of
x 0 v0 .

(cont.)
The elastic restoring force of the spring Fs kx is still
directed toward the equilibrium position (negative
coordinate direction).
Since the positive directions for the velocity x and
acceleration x are the same as the positive coordinate
direction, the damping force Fd cx also acts in the
negative coordinate direction.
Applying Newtons 2nd law to the block gives the
differential equation of motion of the block
kx cx mx or mx cx kx 0
The above equation is a second-order linear differential
equation with constant coefficients.

(cont.)
From the theory of ordinary differential equations, the
solution of any linear, ordinary differential equation with
constant coefficients is always of the form: xt aet .
a and must be chosen to satisfy the differential

equation and the initial conditions.
Substituting the solution into the governing equation gives:

aet m2 c k 0
If the constant a is zero, the trivial solution x 0 is
obtained, which is of no interest. Since the exponential
e t is never zero, we have the characteristic equation:
m2 c k 0

(cont.)
The characteristic equation has roots
c c 2 4mk
1, 2
2m
The displacement of the block is then given by
xt a1e1t a2e2t
The constants are determined from the initial conditions.
t 0; x a1 a2 x 0 and x a11 a22 v0
The roots can be rewritten in terms of a non-dimensional
parameter known as the damping ratio.
c c

2 mk 2m n

(cont.)
In terms of the damping ratio and the natural frequency
n , the roots of the characteristic equation become:
1, 2 n n 2 1
The behavior of the system depends on whether the

quantity under the radical is positive, zero or negative.
The value of c that makes the radical zero is called the
critical damping coefficient cc .
cc 2m n 2 mk
The solution will have three distinct types of behavior
depending on whether the actual system damping c is
greater than, equal to, or less than cc .
OVERDAMPED SYSTEMS
When the damping coefficient c is greater than cc , then

the damping ratio 1 , and the radical is real.
The two roots 1 and 2 are both real and are unequal,
and since 2 1 , both roots will be negative.
1 n n 2 1
2 n n 2 1
The solution then becomes:
2 1 t 2 1 t

xt e
n n
nt
a1e
a2 e

OVERDAMPED SYSTEMS (cont.)
The real-valued constants of integration a1 and a2 are

determined by the initial conditions.
a1

v0 2 1 n x0
2 n 2 1
a2

v0 2 1 n x0
2 n 2 1
OVERDAMPED SYSTEMS (cont.)
Therefore the displacement simply decreases to zero as

t increases, and the motion is non-vibratory.
CRITICALLY DAMPED SYSTEMS
When the damping coefficient c is equal to cc , then the

damping ratio 1 , and the radical is zero.
The two roots 1 and 2 are equal and negative.
1 2 n
The solution in this case has the special form:
xt a1 a2t ent
The real-valued constants of integration a1 and a2 are
determined by the initial conditions.
a1 x0
a2 v0 n x0
CRITICALLY DAMPED SYSTEMS (cont.)
The displacement simply decreases to zero as t increases,

and the motion is non-vibratory.
Qualitatively the motion for critical damping is the same as
the motion for overdamped system.
CRITICALLY DAMPED SYSTEMS (cont.)
Critical damping is of special importance because it is the

dividing point between non-vibratory motions and damped
oscillatory motions.
Critical damping is the smallest amount of damping for
which a system will not oscillate.
A critically damped system will come to rest in less time
than any other system starting from the same initial
conditions (i.e. the value of damping that provides the
fastest return to zero without oscillation).
UNDERDAMPED SYSTEMS
When the damping coefficient c is less than cc , then the

damping ratio 1 , and the radical is imaginary.
The two roots 1 are 2 complex conjugates.
1 n j d
2 n j d
The constant d n 1 is called the damped natural

2
circular frequency.

The solution then becomes: xt e nt a1e jd t a2e jd t
UNDERDAMPED SYSTEMS (cont.)

j
By making use of the Euler formula e cos j sin ,
the equation for the displacement can be written as:
xt e nt a1 a2 cos d t j a1 a2 sin d t
e nt A1 cos d t A2 sin d t
Ae nt sin d t
The constants A and are evaluated using the initial

conditions.
x0 x0 A sin
x0 v0 n x0 x0d cot
The constants A and can be expressed as:

x x0 d
A 0 tan
sin v0 n x0
With this value of , the sine becomes:
x0 d
sin
v0 n x0 2 x0 d 2
Thus value of A and are determined to be:
A
v0 n x0 2 x0 d 2 tan1 x0 d
d2 v0 n x0
Motion of the underdamped system is called time-periodic.

The motion oscillates about the equilibrium position, but
the amplitude Ae nt decreases because the exponent is
negative.
Since the amplitude decreases monotonically with time,

the oscillation will never repeat itself exactly, unlike the
case of a undamped free vibration.
The constant d n 1 2 is called the damped natural
circular frequency.
Since 0 1 for underdamped vibration , the damped
natural frequency d will always be less than the
undamped natural circular frequency .
n
By analogy with the undamped free vibration, a damped

natural frequency d and a damped natural period
d may be defined as
d n 1 2
fd
2 2
2 2
d
d n 1 2
It is interesting to note that the damped natural period

and the damped natural frequency are constant
(independent of time) even though the amplitude is not.
EXAMPLE 1
A torsional pendulum has a natural frequency of 200

cycles/min when vibrating in vacuum. The mass moment
of inertia of the disc is 0.2 kgm2. It is then immersed in oil
and its natural frequency is found to be 180 cycles/min.
Determine the damping constant. If the disc, when placed
in oil, is given an initial displacement of 2, find its
displacement at the end of the first cycle.
EXAMPLE 1 (cont.)
Undamped and damped torsional natural frequencies are:

200
n 2f n 2 20.94 rad/s
60
180
d 2f d 2 18.85 rad/s
60
Damping ratio is obtained from:
2
d
2
18.85
1 1 0.4355
n 20.94
EXAMPLE 1 (cont.)
Torsional damping coefficient is obtained from:

ct 2 J 0n 2 0.2 20.94 0.4355 3.65 Nms/rad
Initial conditions are:
0 2 0.035 rad
0 0
Damped natural period is:
22
d 0.33 s
d 18.85
EXAMPLE 1 (cont.)
Value of is determined from:

0 n 0 0d
2 2
d2

0 0.4355 20.94 0.035 0.035 18.85
2 2
18.852
0.039 rad
EXAMPLE 1 (cont.)
Value of is determined from:
0d
tan
1

0 n 0
1 0.035 20.94
tan
0 0.4355 18.85 0.035
68.6
1.2 rad
EXAMPLE 1 (cont.)
At the end of 1 cycle, t d 0.33 s . The displacement is

obtained from:
t e n t
sin d t
0.039 e 0.435520.940.33 sin 18.85 0.33 1.2
0.0017 rad
0.097
LOGARITHMIC DECREMENT
Viscous damping in an underdamped 1-DOF system

causes the vibration to decay exponentially.
The exponent is a linear function of the damping ratio .
A convenient measure of the amount of damping is
provided by the extent to which the amplitude xt has
fallen during one complete cycle of vibration.
Logarithmic decrement is defined as the natural
logarithm of the ratio of two successive amplitudes, and is
defined as follows, where d is the damped natural
period:
xt
ln
xt d
LOGARITHMIC DECREMENT (cont.)
Substitution of the analytical form of the underdamped

response yields: Ae nt sin d t
ln n t d
Ae sin d t d d
As d d 2 , the expression for the logarithmic

decrement reduces to:
ln e n d n d
The circular damped natural frequency is substituted into

the above equation to give: 2 2
n
n 1 2
1 2
Solving the expression for yields:

4 2 2
Logarithmic decrement can be determined from a record of
the displacement response of an underdamped system.
Let t1 and t2 t1 d represent the times corresponding
to consecutive displacements x1 and x2 measured one
cycle apart.
The logarithmic decrement is given by:
x1
ln
x2
The peak measurements can be used over any integer

multiple of the period to increase the accuracy over the
measurements taken at adjacent peaks ( m is an integer
which corresponds to the number of complete cycles).
1 x1
ln
m xm1
For 0.3 or 2 , the log decrement and the

damping ratio can be approximated as:

2
2
EXAMPLE 2
The free vibration response of an electric motor of weight

500 N mounted on a flexible foundation is shown in the
figure below. Find
the undamped and damped natural frequencies of the electric
motor - foundation system, and
the spring constant and damping coefficient of the
foundation.
EXAMPLE 2 (cont.)
EXAMPLE 2 (cont.)
From the time-response plot, the damped natural period is

0.2 s. The damped natural frequency is:
2 2
d 31.416 rad/s
d 0.2
Log decrement is also obtained from this plot from:
1 x1 1 8
ln ln 0.693
m xm1 3 1
EXAMPLE 2 (cont.)
Since 2 , damping ratio is obtained from:
0.693
0.11
2 2
Undamped natural frequency is then computed from:
d 31.416
n 31.608 rad/s
1 2 1 0.112
EXAMPLE 2 (cont.)
Spring constant of the foundation is obtained from:
500
k m 2
n 31.6082 50920.8 N/m
9.81
Damping constant of the foundation is:
500
c 2mn 2 31.608 0.11 354.4 Ns/m
9.81
REVIEW OF FREE VIBRATIONS
There are four cases of interest with regards to the free

vibrations of a single degree-of-freedom-system.
Undamped system (0) s j
1, 2 n
Underdamped system (0<1)

s1,2 n j n 1 2
Critically damped system (1) s

1, 2 n
Overdamped system (1)

s1,2 n n 2 1
REVIEW OF FREE VIBRATIONS (cont.)
Characteristics roots in the Argand (complex) plane.

HARMONICALLY EXCITED
VIBRATION OF SINGLE-DEGREE-
OF-FREEDOM SYSTEMS
UNDAMPED FORCED VIBRATIONS
LEARNING OBJECTIVES

Compute the homogeneous (transient) and particular
(steady-state) solutions for the undamped forced vibration of
a single-degree-of-freedom system.
Understand the concept of resonance and the definition of
magnification factor.
Understand the concept of beat phenomena.
INTRODUCTION
Free vibration takes place when a system oscillates under

the forces inherent in the system itself, and when the
external forces are absent.
Forced vibration takes place when a system oscillates
under the action of external forces. When the excitation
force is harmonic, the system is forced to vibrate at the
excitation frequency.
If the frequency of excitation coincides with one of the
natural frequencies, resonance is encountered.
Resonance is a phenomena in which the amplitude build
up to dangerously high levels, limited only by the degree
of damping.
EQUATION OF MOTION
k x
m F(t)
The equation of motion for a viscously damped spring-

mass system subjected to an external excitation force is
given by:
mx cx kx F t
EQUATION OF MOTION (cont.)
The general solution is given by the sum of the

homogeneous solution and the particular solution.
The homogeneous solution represents the free vibration of
the system; the free vibration eventually dies out with time.
The general solution therefore reduces to the particular
solution which represents the steady state motion of the
same frequency as that of the excitation.
Homogeneous, particular and general solutions for an

underdamped forced vibration system.
UNDAMPED FORCED HARMONIC

MOTION
The equation of motion for a spring-mass system subjected
to an external harmonic force excitation is given by:
mx kx F0 cos t
The homogeneous solution xh t of this equation is given

by
xh t A1 cos nt A2 sin nt
Because the exciting force is harmonic the particular

solution x p t is also harmonic and has the same
frequency .
x p t X cos t

MOTION (cont.)
Solving for X , we obtain:
F0
X
k m 2
The total solution therefore is the sum of the homogeneous

solution xh t and the particular solution x p t .
F0

x t A1 cos nt A2 sin nt 2
cos t
k m

MOTION (cont.)
Using the initial conditions x0 x0 and x 0 v0 :
F0
A1 x0
k m 2
v0
A2
n
The total solution therefore is given by:

F0 v0 F0
xt x0 2
cos nt sin nt 2
cos t
k m n k m

MOTION (cont.)

1
n

1
n
MAGNIFICATION FACTOR
The maximum amplitude X can also be expressed as
F0
X k
2

1
n
F0 / k has a physical significance: it is the static deflection

of the spring st under the constant load F0 .
MAGNIFICATION FACTOR (cont.)
The previous equation can be expressed in the following

form:
X 1

st
2
1
n
The quantity X / st represents the ratio of the dynamic

to the static amplitude of motion and is called the
magnification factor, amplification factor or amplitude
ratio.
X/st vs. /n
Variation of the amplitude ratio X / st with the frequency

ratio / n .
X/st vs. /n (cont.)
0 / n 1 / n 1
For 0 / n 1 , the response of the system is in phase

with the excitation force.
For / n 1 , the response is 180 degrees out of phase
with the external force.
X/st vs. /n (cont.)
As / n approaches infinity, the vibration response

approaches 0.
For / n 1 , the vibration response becomes infinite.
This condition, for which the forcing frequency is
equal to the natural frequency of the system n , is called
resonance.
At resonance, the vibration response increases linearly
with time.
RESONANCE
As the forcing frequency becomes exactly equal to the

systems natural frequency, n , the solution becomes:
f0
t sin nt
2 n
F0
f0
m
Evaluating the initial displacement x0 and velocity

v0 yields:
xt x0 cos nt
v0 f0
sin nt t sin nt
n 2 n
RESONANCE (cont.)
xt grows without bound, and this defines the phenomena

of resonance.
The amplitude of vibration becomes unbounded at:
n k m
BEAT PHENOMENA
A very important phenomena occur when the driving

frequency becomes close, but not exactly, to the systems
natural frequency.
This phenomena is known as beat.
In this kind of vibration, the amplitude builds up and then
diminishes in a regular pattern.
For zero initial conditions x0 v0 0 , the general solution
for an undamped forced vibration system can be written as:

xt 2
F0 m
cos t cos nt
n 2
BEAT PHENOMENA (cont.)
The previous equation may be expressed as:

xt 2
F0 m n
t sin
n
2
2 sin t
n 2 2
Let the forcing frequency be slightly less than the natural

frequency n 2 where is a small positive
quantity.
Then n and n 2 .
Multiplication of n 2 and n 2 yields:
n2 2 4
Substituting n 2 , n 2 and n2 2 4
into the general solution equation, we obtain:
F0

x t
m
sin t sin t
2
If is small, the function sin t varies slowly; its period,

equal to 2 , is large.
The above equation therefore represents a vibration
response with period 2 and of variable amplitude
equal to:
F0 m
sin t
2

It can be observed that the sin t curve will go through
several cycles, while the sin t wave goes through a single
cycle.
Thus the amplitude builds up and dies down continuously.
The time between the points of zero amplitude or the
points of maximum amplitude is called the beat period.
The period of the beat is given by:
2 2
b
2 n
The beat frequency is given by:

beat n 2
EXAMPLE 1
A mass m is suspended from a spring of stiffness 4000

N/m and is subjected to a harmonic force having an
amplitude of 100 N and a frequency of 5 Hz. The
amplitude of the forced motion of the mass is observed to
be 20 mm. Find the value of m.
EXAMPLE 1 (cont.)
Forcing frequency is given by:
2f 2 5 31.42 rad/s
Static deflection is obtained from:
F0 100
st 0.025 m
k 4000
EXAMPLE 1 (cont.)
Use the following relationship to relate the magnification

factor with the ratio of forcing to natural frequency.
3
1 X 20 10
0.8

2
st 0.025
1
n
Ratio of forcing to natural frequency is then solved.

1.5
n
EXAMPLE 1 (cont.)
Natural frequency is determined from the previous

equation.
31.42
n 20.95 rad/s
1.5 1.5
The mass is obtained from:
k
4000
m 2 9.1 kg
n 20.95 2
EXAMPLE 2
A spring-mass system is subjected to a harmonic force

whose frequency is close to the natural frequency of the
system. If the forcing frequency is 39.8 Hz and the natural
frequency is 40.0 Hz, determine the period of beating.
EXAMPLE 2 (cont.)
Period of beating is obtained from:
2 2
b 5s
n 2 40 39.8
OF-FREEDOM SYSTEMS
DAMPED FORCED VIBRATIONS
LEARNING OBJECTIVES

Compute the homogeneous (transient) and particular
(steady-state) solutions for the damped forced vibration of a
single-degree-of-freedom system.
Appreciate the role of damping in forced vibration.
Determine the quality factor from the damped forced
response of a single-degree-of-freedom system and relate it
to the damping ratio.
EQUATION OF MOTION
k x
m F(t)

mass system subjected to an external excitation force is
given by:
mx cx kx F t
The general solution is given by the sum of the

homogeneous solution and the particular solution.
The homogeneous solution represents the free vibration of
the system; the free vibration eventually dies out with time.
The general solution therefore reduces to the particular
solution which represents the steady state motion of the
same frequency as that of the excitation.
Homogeneous, particular and general solutions for an

underdamped forced vibration system.
DAMPED FORCED HARMONIC

VIBRATION

mass system subjected to an external harmonic force
excitation is given by:
mx cx kx F0 cos t

VIBRATION (cont.)
As the exciting force is harmonic, x p t is also harmonic
and has the same frequency .
x p t X cost
X cos t cos X sin t sin
Taking the appropriate derivatives of x p t and inserting

them into the differential equation gives:

X k m 2 cos c sin cos t
X k m sin c cos sin t F cos t
2
0

VIBRATION (cont.)
As the solution is supposed to satisfy the differential
equation at every instant of time, the above equation must
hold for every instant of time.
Since the equation holds for all time, the constant
coefficients of sin t and cos t may be equated to
give:

X k m 2 cos c sin F0
X k m sin c cos 0
2

VIBRATION (cont.)
Solving the previous equations and taking into
consideration the relationship between k m 2 and
c with gives:
X
F0 1 c

tan
k m c
2 2 2
k m
2

VIBRATION (cont.)
Graphical representation of forcing function and response.


VIBRATION (cont.)
Dividing the numerator and denominator of the previous
equations by k yields the non-dimensional equations:
X 1 undamped

st 2 n
k natural

2

2
m
1 2 frequency
n n
cc 2m n critical
damping

2 c
damping
tan 1 n cc ratio
2
1

n

VIBRATION (cont.)
Variation of amplitude ratio and phase angle with / n.


VIBRATION (cont.)
In summary, we can write the differential equation and its
complete solution, including the transient term as:

xt X 0 e nt sin 1 2 nt 0
F0
k
cos t
2 2
1 2

n n
VECTOR RELATIONSHIP IN FORCED

VIBRATION
For n 1 , both the inertia and damping forces are

small, which results in a small phase angle.
The magnitude of the impressed force is then nearly equal
to the spring force.
VECTOR RELATIONSHIP IN FORCED

VIBRATION (cont.)
For the case of n 1 , the phase angle is 90.
The inertia force, which is now larger is balanced by the
spring force, whereas the impressed force overcomes the
damping force.
The amplitude at resonance can be found from:
F0 F0
X
c n 2k
For large values of n 1 , approaches 180.

The impressed force is expended almost entirely in
overcoming the large inertia force.
QUALITY FACTOR AND BANDWIDTH
When the damping ratio is increased, two phenomena is

observed in the vicinity of the resonance frequency:
the amplitude tends to decrease, and
the amplitude peak tends to shift to the left of n 1 .
The maximum value of X st occurs at a frequency of:
n 1 2 2
The maximum value of the amplitude ratio is given by:
X 1

st max 2 1
2

(cont.)
For light damping 0.05 , the curves are approximately
symmetric about the vertical through n 1 .
The peak value of X st occurs in the immediate vicinity
of n 1 and is given by:
X 1
Q
st 2
The value of the amplitude ratio at resonance is called Q
Factor or Quality Factor.
The Q Factor is a measure of damping in a system.

(cont.)
Harmonic response curve showing half power points and

bandwidth.

(cont.)
Points R1 and R2 where the amplitude of X st
reduces to Q 2 are called the half power points.
The difference in the frequencies of points R1 and R2 is
called the Bandwidth (or 3 dB Bandwidth)of the system.
For light damping 0.05 , it can be shown that:
1 n
Q
2 2 1
1 and 2 are the frequencies at points R1 and R2 ,

respectively.
EXAMPLE 1
Find the response of a single-degree-of-freedom system

with m=10 kg, c=20 Ns/m, k=4000 N/m, x0=0.01 m, and
released from rest at time t=0 s, under the following
conditions:
Free vibration with F(t)=0, and
An external force F(t)=F0cos(t) with F0=100 N and =10
rad/s (neglect the transient response of the system).
EXAMPLE 1 (cont.)
Undamped natural frequency is given by:
k 4000
n 20 rad/s
m 10
Critical damping is given by:
cc 2mn 2 10 20 400 Ns/m
Damping ratio is given by:

c 20
0.05
cc 400
EXAMPLE 1 (cont.)
Damped natural frequency is given by:
d n 1 2 20 1 0.052 19.97 rad/s

Ratio of forcing frequency to undamped natural frequency
is given by:
10
r 0.5
n 20
Free response of an underdamped system is given by:

xh t X 0e t
n
sind t 0
EXAMPLE 1 (cont.)
Determine X0 and 0 from:
X0
v0 n x0 2 x0d 2
d2

0 0.05 20 0.012 0.0119.97 2
19.97 2
0.01 m
x0d 0.0119.97
0 tan1
tan 1
1.52 rad
v0 n x0 0 0.05 20 0.01
EXAMPLE 1 (cont.)
Free response is therefore:

xh t X 0 e nt sin d t 0
0.01e 0.0520t sin 19.97t 1.52
0.01e t sin 19.97t 1.52 m
Forced response is given by:

cost
x p t
F0
k 1 r 2r
2 2 2
EXAMPLE 1 (cont.)
Determine from:
2r 1 2 0.05 0.5
tan
1
2
tan 0.067 rad
1 r 1 0.5
2
Forced response is then:

cos t
x p t
F0
k 1 r 2r
2 2 2
100 cos 10t 0.067

4000 1 0.5 2 0.05 0.5
2 2 2
0.033 cos 10t 0.067 m

OF-FREEDOM SYSTEMS
RESPONSE DUE TO BASE EXCITATION
LEARNING OBJECTIVES

Differentiate between the two cases of damped forced
vibration: (1) the mass is acted upon by a harmonic force
and (2) the support or base is subjected to harmonic
excitation.
Compute the motion of a mass when its base or support is
subjected to harmonic displacement.
Compute the force transmitted to the base or the support due
to the reactions from the systems spring and dashpot.
INTRODUCTION
This lecture is concern with a special case of damped

forced vibration which is of significant importance.
The damped forced vibration response is due to the
harmonic excitation of the base or support of a system.
The forcing in this system, unlike the case of a forcing
function of F t F0 sin t acting on the mass, is due to
the displacement yt Y sin t of the base or support.
RESPONSE TO BASE EXCITATION
The base or support of a spring-mass-damper system

sometimes undergoes harmonic motion.
Forced vibration may therefore arise from the harmonic
excitation of the base or support of a system.
RESPONSE TO BASE EXCITATION (cont.)
Let yt denote the displacement of the base and xt the

displacement of the mass from its static equilibrium
position at time t .
The net elongation of the spring is x y and the relative
velocity between the two ends of the damper is x y .
In the displaced position the unbalanced forces are due to
the damper and the springs, and the equation of motion
becomes:
mx cx y k x y 0
Making the substitution z x y and assuming the

solution yt Y sin t , the previous equation becomes:
mz cz kz my m 2Y sin t
The solution to the above equation is zt Z sint ,

which yields the steady-state amplitude and phase for the
relative motion:
m 2Y c
Z tan 1
2
k m c
2 2 2
k m
If the steady-state absolute motion of the mass, xt , is

desired, we can solve for x z y .
The solution is made easier if we use the exponential form
of the harmonic motion given by:
y t Ye jt

z t Ze j t Ze j e jt
xt Xe j t
Xe e
j jt
Substituting the exponential form of the harmonic motion

into the solution of the equation of motion yields:
j m 2Y
Ze
k m 2 jc
From the relationship x z y , we have:
Xe e
j jt

Ze j Y e jt
Substituting the exponential form Ze j into the

exponential form of the relationship x z y , we obtain:
Xe e
j jt

k j c jt
Ye

k m jc
2
The ratio of the amplitude of the response xt to that of

the base motion y t , X is the Displacement
Transmissibility. Y
k 2 c
2
X

Y k m c
2 2 2
mc 3

tan
1

2
k k m c
2
Variation of Td and with n .

The value of Td is unity at n 0 , and close to unity for

small values of n .
For an undamped system ( 0 ), Td at resonance.
The value of Td is less than unity ( Td 1 ) for any amount
of damping for n 2 .
The value of Td 1 for all values of at n 2 .

For n 2 , smaller damping ratios lead to larger

values of Td .
For n 2 , smaller values of damping lead to smaller
values of Td .
The displacement transmissibility Td attains a maximum
for 0 1 at the frequency ratio n given by:
1
1 2
1 8 1
2
n 2
FORCE TRANSMITTED
A force is transmitted to the base or the support due to the

reactions from the spring and the dashpot.
The force can be determined as:
F k x y cx y mx
The following relationship is obtained by assuming a

solution in the form of xt Xe j t :
F m 2 Xe j t FT e j t
FORCE TRANSMITTED (cont.)
F T is the amplitude or maximum value of the force

transmitted to the base given by:
FT k 2 c
2 2 2

2 2

kY n k m c 2
FT
The ratio kY is known as the Force Transmissibility.
The transmitted force F T is in phase with the motion of
the mass xt .
FORCE TRANSMITTED (cont.)
Variation of FT with n for different values of .

kY
EXAMPLE 1
A 3000 N heavy machine is supported on a resilient

foundation. The static deflection of the foundation due to
the weight of the machine is 0.075 m. It is observed that
the machine vibrates with an amplitude of 0.01 m when the
base of the foundation is subjected to harmonic oscillation
at the undamped natural frequency of the system with an
amplitude of 0.0025 m. Find the:
Damping constant of the foundation.
Dynamic force amplitude on the base.
Amplitude of displacement of machine relative to the base.
EXAMPLE 1 (cont.)
The stiffness of the foundation is given by:

mg 3000
k 40000 N/m
st 0.075
The undamped natural frequency is given by:
k 40000
n 11.44 rad/s
m 3000 / 9.81
The displacement transmissibility is given by:

X 0.01
TD 4
Y 0.0025
EXAMPLE 1 (cont.)
It is given that n . With this information, we solve

for the damping ratio using the following equation.
1 2 1
2
4
1 1 2 1
2 2 2
64 2 1 4 2
0.129
EXAMPLE 1 (cont.)
The damping coefficient is obtained from:

3000
c cc 2mn 2 11.44 0.129 902.6 Ns/m
9.81
The dynamic force amplitude on the base is:
2
X
FT kY
n Y
40000 12 0.0025 4
400 N
EXAMPLE 1 (cont.)
The displacement of the machine relative to the base is

given by:
m 2Y
Z
k m c
2 2 2
3000
11.44 2 0.0025
9.81
2
2
11.44 902.6 11.44
3000
40000
2
9.81
0.0097 m
OF-FREEDOM SYSTEMS
RESPONSE DUE TO ROTATING
UNBALANCE
LEARNING OBJECTIVES

Differentiate between the two cases of damped forced
vibration: (1) the mass is acted upon by a constant harmonic
force and (2) the mass is acted upon by a frequency-
dependent harmonic force.
Compute the motion of a mass when it is subjected to
harmonic force due to rotating unbalance.
INTRODUCTION
This lecture is concern with a special case of damped

forced vibration which is of significant importance.
The damped forced vibration response is due to rotor
imbalance, which is common in rotating machinery.
The forcing in this system, unlike the case of a forcing
function of constant amplitude F t F0 sin t , is due to
imbalance force in rotating machinery whose force
amplitude is dependent on frequency F t me 2 sin t .
RESPONSE TO ROTATING UNBALANCE
Unbalance in rotating machines is a common source of

vibration excitation.
The unbalance is represented by an eccentric mass m with
eccentricity e which is rotating with angular velocity .

(cont.)
Let x be the displacement of the non-rotating mass M m
from the static equilibrium position.
The displacement of m is therefore given by:
x e sin t
The equation of motion can therefore be written as:
2
M mx m 2 x e sin t kx cx
d
dt

(cont.)
The previous equation may be rearranged to give:
Mx cx kx me 2 sin t
This equation is similar to the case of a damped forced
vibration, where the force is given by F t F0 sin t , if we
replace F 0 with me 2 .
The steady-state solution is therefore given by:
me 2 c
X tan 1
2
k M c
2 2 2
k M

(cont.)
The steady-state solution can be expressed in non-
dimensional form as:
2

n 2
n
MX
1
me 2 tan
2

2
2
1 2 1
n n
n

(cont.)
Variation of MX with n for different values of .

me

(cont.)
All the curves begin at zero amplitude.
The amplitude near resonance n is significantly
affected by damping.
MX
At very high speeds n 1 , me is almost unity, and
the effect of damping is negligible.
For 0 1 2 , the maximum MX occurs when:
me
d MX 1
0 1

d me n 1 2 2
n

(cont.)
The corresponding maximum value of MX is given by:
me
MX 1

me max 2 1 2
The peaks occur to the right of the resonance value

n 1 .
MX
For 1 2 , does not attain a maximum.
me
Its value grows from 0 at n 0 to 1 as n .
EXAMPLE 1
A centrifugal pump weighing 600 N and operating at 1000

rpm is mounted on six springs of stiffness 6000 N/m each.
Find the maximum permissible unbalance in order to limit
the steady-state deflection to 5 mm peak-to-peak.
EXAMPLE 1 (cont.)
The mass of the centrifugal pump is given by:

W 600
m 61.16 kg
g 9.81
The angular frequency is given by:
2N 2 1000
104.72 rad/s
60 60
The equivalent spring stiffness is given by:

keq 6 6000 36000 N/m
EXAMPLE 1 (cont.)
The natural frequency is:

keq 36000
n 24.26 rad/s
m 61.16
The ratio of the forcing frequency to the natural frequency

is:
104.72
r 4.32
n 24.26
r 2 4.32 2 18.66
EXAMPLE 1 (cont.)
The unbalance can be found using the following equation:

m 0 e 2
X 2
k r 1
The unbalance is therefore:

kX r 2 1 36000 0.0025 18.66 1
m0 e 0.145 kg - m
2
104.72 2
TWO-DEGREE-OF-FREEDOM
SYSTEMS
EQUATIONS OF MOTION AND FREE
VIBRATION RESPONSE
LEARNING OBJECTIVES

Understand the difference between generalized and principal
coordinates.
Determine the equations of motion of a two-degree-of-
freedom system.
Express the equations of motion in matrix form.
Determine the characteristics equation, undamped natural
frequencies and associated mode shapes.
INTRODUCTION
Most engineering systems are continuous and have an

infinite number of degrees of freedom.
For simplicity of analysis, continuous systems are often
approximated as multi-degree of freedom systems, which
requires the solution of a set of ordinary differential
equations.
There is one equation of motion for each degree of
freedom.
There are n natural frequencies, each associated with its
own mode shape, for a system having n degrees of
freedom.
MATHEMATICAL MODELING
A continuous system can be approximated as a multi-

degree of freedom system by substituting the distributed
masses or inertia with a finite number of lumped masses or
rigid bodies.
The lumped masses are assumed to be connected by
massless elastic and damping members.
Linear or angular coordinates are used to describe the
motion of the lumped masses or rigid bodies.
The minimum number of coordinates necessary to describe
the motion of the lumped masses or rigid bodies defines
the number of degrees of freedom of the system.
DEGREES OF FREEDOM
Number of degrees of freedom = Number of masses in the

system x number of possible types of motion of each mass.
EQUATIONS OF MOTION
There are n equations of motion for an n degrees of

freedom system, one for each degree of freedom.
These equations are generally in the form of coupled
differential equations; each equation involves all the
coordinates.
If a harmonic solution is assumed for each coordinate, the
equations of motion lead to a frequency equation that gives
n natural frequencies.
During free vibration at one of the natural frequencies, the
amplitudes of the n degrees of freedom are related in a
specific manner and the configuration is called a normal
mode, principal mode, or natural mode of vibration.
EQUATIONS OF MOTION (cont.)
If an arbitrary initial condition is given to a system, the

resulting free vibration will be a superposition of the
normal modes of vibration.
If the system vibrates under the action of an external
harmonic force, the resulting forced harmonic vibration
takes place at the frequency of the applied force.
Under harmonic excitation, resonance occurs when the
forcing frequency is equal to the natural frequencies of the
system (i.e. the amplitudes of the motion will be at a
maximum).

The configuration of a system can be specified by a set of
independent coordinates such as length, angle, or some
physical parameters.
Any such set of coordinates is called generalized
coordinates.
There exist a particular set of coordinates which uncouples
the equations of motion (each equation of motion contains
only one coordinate).
Such a set of coordinates is called principal coordinates.
FORCED VIBRATION EQUATIONS OF

MOTION
Forced vibration of a two-degree-of-freedom system.


MOTION (cont.)
The equations of motion for forced vibration of a
two-degree-of-freedom system is given by:
m1x1 c1 c2 x1 c2 x2 k1 k2 x1 k 2 x2 F1
m2 x2 c2 x1 c2 c3 x2 k2 x1 k 2 k3 x2 F2
When c2 k2 0 , the equations become uncoupled,

which implies that the two masses are not
physically connected.

MOTION (cont.)
In matrix form, the equations of motion can be expressed

mxt cx t k xt F t
as:
m1 0
m Mass Matrix
0 m2
c1 c2 c2
c Damping Matrix
c 2 c 2 c 3
k1 k 2 k2
k Stiffness Matrix
k2 k 2 k3

MOTION (cont.)
The displacement vectors and force vectors for the matrix
formulation of the equations of motion are given by:

mxt cx t k xt F t
x1 t
x t
x2 t
Displacement Vectors
F1 t
F t
F2 t
Force Vectors
UNDAMPED FREE VIBRATION

ANALYSIS
For free vibration analysis, the forces F1 t and F2 t are
set to zero.
m1x1 t k1 k 2 x1 t k 2 x2 t 0
m2 x2 t k 2 x1 t k 2 k3 x2 t 0
Assuming that it is possible to have harmonic motion of

m1 and m2 at the same frequency and the same phase
angle , the solutions are:
x1 t X 1 cos t
x2 t X 2 cos t

ANALYSIS (cont.)
Substituting the solutions into the equations of motion, we
obtain:
m k k X k X cost 0
1
2
1 2 1 2 2
k X m k k X cost 0
2 1 2
2
2 3 2
Since the above equation must be satisfied for all values of

the time t , the terms between brackets must be zero.
m
1
2

k1 k 2 X 1 k 2 X 2 0

k 2 X 1 m2 2 k 2 k3 X 2 0

ANALYSIS (cont.)
The previous equations can be expressed in matrix form as
given below:
m1 2 k1 k2 k2 X 1 0

k2 m2 k2 k3 X 2 0
2

ANALYSIS (cont.)
It can be seen that the previous equations are satisfied by
the trivial solution X 1 X 2 0 , which implies that there
is no vibration.
For a non-trivial solution of X 1 and X 2 , the determinant
of the coefficients of X 1 and X 2 must be zero.
m k k
1
2
1 2 k2
0

det
k2 m2 k2 k3
2

ANALYSIS (cont.)
The previous equations can be expanded and expressed as
given below:
m1m2 4 k1 k2 m2 k2 k3 m1 2
k1 k2 k2 k3 k22 0
This equation is called the Characteristic Equation or the
frequency equation.
The solution of the characteristic equation yields the
frequencies or the characteristics values of the system.

ANALYSIS (cont.)
The roots of the characteristic equation are given by:
1 k1 k 2 m2 k 2 k3 m1
,
2
1
2
2
2 m1m2
0.5
1 k1 k 2 m2 k 2 k3 m1 k1 k 2 k 2 k3 k 22
2
4
2 m1m2 m1m2


ANALYSIS (cont.)
This shows that it is possible for the system to have a non-
trivial harmonic solution of the following form when is
equal to 1 and 2 .
x1 t X 1 cos t
x2 t X 2 cos t
1 and 2 are the natural frequencies of the system.


ANALYSIS (cont.)
The values of X 1 and X 2 depends on the natural
frequencies 1 and 2 .
Denoting the values of X 1 and X 2 corresponding to 1 as
X 11 and X 21 and those corresponding to 2 as
X 2 and X 2 , we obtain:
1 2
X 21 m112 k1 k 2 k2
r1 1
X1 k2 m212 k 2 k3
X 22 m1 22 k1 k 2 k2
r2 2
X1 k2 m2 22 k 2 k3

ANALYSIS (cont.)
2
2
Normal modes of vibration corresponding to 1 and 2 is
expressed as:
1 X 1 X 1
X 11 1 1
X 2 r1 X 1
2 X 2 X 2
X 12 1 2
X 2 r2 X 1
1 2
The vectors X and X , which define the normal
modes of vibration, are known as the modal vectors of the
system.

ANALYSIS (cont.)
The free vibration solution of the motion in time can be
expressed as:
1 x11 t X 11 cos 1t 1
x t 1 1
x2 t r1 X 1 cos 1t 1
2 x12 t X 12 cos 2 t 2
x t 2 2
x2 t r2 X 1 cos 2t 2
FREE VIBRATION ANALYSIS OF A

TORSIONAL SYSTEM
Forced vibration of a two-degree-of-freedom torsional

system.

TORSIONAL SYSTEM (cont.)
The previous figure shows a torsional system consisting of
two discs mounted on a shaft.
The three segments of the shaft have rotational spring
constants kt1 , kt 2 , and kt 3 .
The discs have mass moments of inertia J 1 and J 2 , the
applied torques are M t1 and M t 2 and the rotational
degrees of freedom 1 and 2 .

TORSIONAL SYSTEM (cont.)
The differential equations of rotational motion for the discs
J 1 and J 2 can be expressed as:
J11 kt11 kt 2 2 1 M t1
J k k M
2 2 t2 2 1 t3 2 t2
For the free vibration analysis of this system, the above

equation reduces to:
J11 kt1 kt 2 1 kt 22 0
J 22 kt 21 kt 2 kt 3 2 0
SYSTEMS
COORDINATE COUPLING AND SEMI-
DEFINITE SYSTEMS
LEARNING OBJECTIVES

Understand the concepts of static and dynamic couplings in
the equations of motion of a two-degree-of-freedom system.
Recognize that the choice of generalized coordinates
determines the type of coupling in the equations of motion.
Recognize that a system that undergoes rigid body motion,
known as semi-definite system, will have one or more
natural frequencies that is zero corresponding to rigid body
modes.
COORDINATE COUPLING
The differential equations of motion for the two degrees of

freedom are in general coupled.
This means both coordinates appear in each equation.
In the most general case the two equations for the
undamped vibration system are expressed in matrix form
as:
m11 m12 x1 k11 k12 x1 0
m
21 m22 x2 k21 k22 x2 0
COORDINATE COUPLING (cont.)
Mass or dynamical coupling exists if the mass matrix is

non-diagonal.
Stiffness or static coupling exists if the stiffness is non-
diagonal.
It is possible to find a coordinate system which has neither
form of coupling.
The two equations are then decoupled and each equation
may be solved independently of the other.
COORDINATE COUPLING (cont.)
Although it is always possible to decouple the equations of

motion for the undamped system, this is not always the
case for a damped system.
m11 m12 x1 c11 c12 x1 k11 k12 x1 0
m
21 m22 x2 c21 c22 x2 k21 k22 x2 0
If c12 c21 0 , then the damping is said to be proportional

(proportional to the stiffness or mass matrix).
The system equations can therefore be decoupled.
STATIC COUPLING
Choosing coordinates x and , the system will have

static coupling.
m 0 x k1 k2 k2l2 k1l1 x
0
0 J k l k l
2

k1l1 k2l2 0
2
2 2 1 1
If k1l1 k2l2 , the coupling disappears, and we obtain

uncoupled x and vibrations.
DYNAMIC COUPLING
There is some point C along the bar where a force applied

normal to the bar produces pure translation i.e. k1l3 k2l4 .
Choosing coordinates xc and eliminates static coupling
and introduces dynamic coupling.
m me xc k1 k2 0 xc 0
me J 0
k1l32 k2l42 0

c
STATIC AND DYNAMIC COUPLING
If we choose x x1 at the end of the bar, the following

equations of motion will result:
m ml1 x1 k1 k 2 k 2l x1 0
ml J k l 2

k2l 0
1 1 2
Both static and dynamic coupling are now present.

SEMI-DEFINITE SYSTEMS
Semi-definite systems are also known as unrestrained or

degenerate systems.
Physically this implies that the system is supported in such
a manner that rigid-body motion is possible.
SEMI-DEFINITE SYSTEMS (cont.)
For the spring-masses system, the equations of motion is

given by:
m1x1 k x1 x2 0
m2 x2 k x2 x1 0
For free vibration, we assume the motion to be harmonic

of the form:
xi t X i cost i
i 1,2
Substitution of the solution into the equations of motion

yield:
m
1
2

k X 1 kX 2 0

kX1 m2 2 k X 2 0
Equating the determinant of the coefficients of X 1 and

X 2 to zero, we obtain the characteristic equation:
2 m1m2 2 k m1 m2 0
The natural frequencies are therefore found to be:

1 0
k m1 m2
2
m1m2
It is seen that one of the natural frequencies of the system

is zero, which means that the system is not oscillating.
The system moves as a whole without any relative motion
between the two masses (rigid body translation).
EXAMPLE 1
Two identical circular cylinders, of radius r and mass m

each, are connected by a spring of stiffness k. Determine
the natural frequencies of oscillation of the system.
Assume no slipping occurs.
EXAMPLE 1 (cont.)
Determine the equivalent mass of one of the cylinder for

translational motion.
1 1 1
meq vG2 J G 2 mvG2
2 2 2
2
1 1 1 2 vG 1 2
meq vG mr mvG
2
2 22 r 2
3
meq m
2
Since both mass are identical the equivalent masses are the
same.
EXAMPLE 1 (cont.)
Write the equations of motion.
mx1 k x1 x2 0
3
2
mx2 k x1 x2 0
3
2
Assume the solutions given below and substitute these

solutions and their derivatives into the above equations.
x1 t X 1 cost
x2 t X 2 cost
EXAMPLE 1 (cont.)
The following equations are then obtained.

3
m 2
k X 1 kX 2 0
2
3
m k X 2 kX1 0
2
2
The above equations in matrix form are:
3

2 m 2
k k X 1 0
3
k m 2 k X 2 0
2
EXAMPLE 1 (cont.)
Equate the determinant of the dynamic matrix in the

previous equation to zero, and we obtain the characteristics
equation.
3
m 2 k k
det 2 0
3
k m 2 k
2
9 2 4 6
m mk 2 0
4 2
9 2 2 6 2
m mk 0
4 2
EXAMPLE 1 (cont.)
The roots of the characteristics equation give the natural

frequencies of this system.
1 0
4k
2 rad/s
3m
SYSTEMS
FORCED VIBRATION RESPONSE
USING MODAL ANALYSIS
LEARNING OBJECTIVES

Understand the underlying principle of modal analysis.
Transform the physical coordinates of a system to its
principal coordinates.
Determine the forced response of an undamped two-degree-
of-freedom system using modal analysis.
MODAL ANALYSIS CONCEPTS
The equations of motion of the two degrees of freedom

system shown above without damping is expressed in
matrix form as:
m1 0 x1 k1 k2 k2 x1 F1
0 m x k
k2 k3 x2 F2
(1)
2 2 2
MODAL ANALYSIS CONCEPTS (cont.)
In solving Eq. (1) for the response x for a particular set

of exciting forces, the major obstacle encountered is the
coupling between the equations.
Both coordinates x1 and x2 occur in each of the
equations.
The types of coupling could either be:
static (elastic) coupling (non-diagonal stiffness matrix), or
dynamic (inertial) coupling (non-diagonal mass matrix).
Both types of coupling may also occur together.
MODAL ANALYSIS CONCEPTS (cont.)
If the system of equations could be uncoupled, so that we

obtain diagonal mass and stiffness matrices, then each
equation would be similar to that of a single degree of
freedom system.
These equations could then be solved independent of each
other.
The process of deriving the equations of motion into an
independent set of equations is known as modal analysis.
PRINCIPAL COORDINATES
The coordinate transformation that is required is one that

decouples the system inertially and elastically
simultaneously.
This transformation yield diagonal mass and stiffness
matrices.
It has been proven that if the mass or the stiffness matrix is
post and pre-multiplied by a mode shape and its transpose
respectively, the result is some scalar constant.
Thus with the use of a matrix whose columns are the
mode shape vectors, we already have at our disposal the
necessary coordinate transformation.
PRINCIPAL COORDINATES (cont.)
The x coordinates are transformed to by the

equation:
x (2)
u1 u1 u1
u u
u2 2 2
(3)

un 1 un
2
un
n
is referred to as the modal matrix and is called the

principal coordinates, normal coordinates or modal
coordinates.
Eq. (1) can be rewritten as:

mx k x F (4)
Substituting Eq. (2) into Eq. (4) yields:

m k F (5)
Pre-multiplying Eq. (5) by the transpose of the modal

matrix T we obtain:
T m T k T F (6)
The post and pre-multiplication of the mass matrix by the

mode shapes and their transpose results in a matrix M D .
The diagonal elements of M D are some constants while
all the off-diagonal terms are zero.
T m M D (7)
Similarly for the stiffness matrix

T k K D (8)
M D and K D are diagonal matrices.

Therefore Eq. (6) can be rewritten as:
M D K D T F (9)
Eq. (9) represents n equations of the form:

M ii Kii i F Fi
T
(10)
i is the ith column of the modal matrix i.e. the ith mode
shape.
M i and K i are the ith modal mass and the ith modal
stiffness, respectively.
Eq. (10) is the equation of motion for the single degree of

freedom system shown in the above figure.
Since Ki i2 M i , Eq. (10) can be written as:
i i2i
Fi

i F
T
(11)
Mi i T mi
Once the solution (time responses) of Eq. (10) for all n is

obtained, the solution in terms of the original coordinates
x can be obtained by transforming back, i.e. substituting
in Eq. (2).
x
EXAMPLE 1
Consider the free vibration analysis for the system above

where m1 = 5 kg, m2 = 10 kg, k1 k2 = 2 N/m and k3 = 4
N/m.
Substituting these values into the equations of motion, we
have: 5x 2 2x 2 x 0
1 1 2
10 x2 2 x1 2 4x2 0
EXAMPLE 1 (cont.)
Assuming solutions of the form x1 t X 1e jt , we have:

x2 t X 2 e jt
5 4X 2 X e 0
2
1 2
jt
2 X 10 6X e 0
1
2
2
jt
We can express the above equation as:

5 2 4 2 X 1 0

2 10 6 X 2 0
2
EXAMPLE 1 (cont.)
Equating the determinant of the dynamic matrix to zero:

5 2 4 2
det 0
2 10 6
2
The characteristic equation therefore becomes:

50 4 70 2 20 0
The roots of the characteristics equation are given by:

70 702 4 50 20
2

2 50
1, 2
EXAMPLE 1 (cont.)
Thus 1 2 / 5 and 2 1 and the two natural frequencies

2 2
are given by:

1 2 / 5
2 1
Substitution of 1 and 2 into either one of the equations

of motion will give the two natural mode shapes.
5 2 4 2 X 1 0

2 10 6 X 2 0
2
EXAMPLE 1 (cont.)
The mode shape for 1 is given by:

5 2 / 5 2 4 2 X 1 0

2 2

10 2 / 5 6 X 2 0
2 X1 2 X 2 0
X1 X 2
X1
The mode shape for the natural frequency 1 is: 1 X
1
X 1 is arbitrary.
EXAMPLE 1 (cont.)
Similarly the mode shape for 2 is given by:

512 4 2 X 1 0

2 101 6 X 2 0
2
X1 2 X 2 0
X1
X2
2
The mode shape for the natural frequency 2 is:
X1
2

1
X / 2
EXAMPLE 1 (cont.)
For an arbitrary deflection X1 1 the two mode shapes

would be:
1
1 1 2 / 5
1
1
2 2 1
1 / 2
EXAMPLE 1 (cont.)
EXAMPLE 1 (cont.)
The system thus can vibrate freely with simple harmonic

motion when started in the correct way at one of two
possible frequencies.
The masses move either in phase or 180 degrees out of
phase with each other.
Since the masses reach their maximum displacements
simultaneously, the nodal points are clearly defined.
EXAMPLE 2
Consider the forced vibration response analysis for the

system above where m1 = 5 kg, m2 = 10 kg, k1 k2 = 2
N/m and k3 = 4 N/m.
Substituting into Eq. (1) and neglecting damping, we
obtain: 5 0 x 4 2 x F
0 10 x 2
1 1 1

2 6 x2 F2
EXAMPLE 2 (cont.)
The two natural frequencies and natural mode shapes were

previously obtained as:
1
1 2 / 5 1 1

1
2 1 2
1 / 2
Thus the modal matrix using the natural mode shapes is:
1 1

1 1 / 2
EXAMPLE 2 (cont.)
The x coordinates are transformed by the equation:

x
x1 1 1 1

2
x 1 1 / 2 2
Substitution of the above equation into the equations of

motion and pre-multiplying by T yields the equations of
motion in principal coordinates:
5 0 1 T 4 2 1 T F1

T

0 10 2 2 6 2 F2
EXAMPLE 2 (cont.)
The products T m and T k are calculated to

be:
1 1 5 0 1 1 15 0
m
T

1 1 / 2 0 10 1 1 / 2 0 15 / 2
1 1 4 2 1 1 6 0
k
T

1 1 / 2 2 6 1 1 / 2 0 15 / 2
EXAMPLE 2 (cont.)
Substituting these products into the equations of motion in

principal coordinates gives:
15 0 1 6 0 1 1 1 F1
0 15 / 2 0 15 / 2 1 1 / 2 F
2 2 2
Thus the equations of motion in are:

151 61 F1 F2
15 / 22 15 / 22 F1 F2 / 2
EXAMPLE 2 (cont.)
The original set of equations of motion are shown to be

uncoupled.
In other words the two degree of freedom system is broken
down to two single degree of freedom systems shown in
the above figure.
EXAMPLE 2 (cont.)
Once the time response for 1 and 2 have been

determined, they can be substituted into the coordinate
transformation equation to give the time response in terms
of the original coordinates x .
x1 t 1 t 2 t
x2 t 1 t 2 t
1
2
The preceding equation illustrates a very important
principle in vibration, namely that any systems motion in
physical coordinates can be written as the sum of its
motion in each principle mode in some proportion and
relative phase.
EXAMPLE 2 (cont.)
In general for an n degree of freedom system:

x1 u1 u1 u1
x u u u
2 2 2 2
1 cos 1t 1 2 cos 2 t 2 ...... n cos nt n

xn un un un
1 2 n
EXAMPLE 2 (cont.)
If the two degrees of freedom system discussed above is

given arbitrary starting conditions, the resulting motion
would be the sum of the two principal modes in some
proportion and would look as shown in the above figure.
LAGRANGES EQUATIONS
LEARNING OBJECTIVES

Understand the concept of generalized coordinates and their
application in Lagranges equations.
Derive the equations of motion of a single-degree-of-
freedom system using Lagranges equations.
Derive the equations of motion of a two-degree-of-freedom
system using Lagranges equations.
INTRODUCTION
Lagranges equation is a general treatment of dynamical

systems formulated from the scalar quantities of kinetic
energy T , potential energy U , Rayleighs dissipation
function D and work W .
Lagranges equations are expressed in term of generalized
coordinates.
Generalized coordinates are independent coordinates
which describe the motion of the degrees-of-freedom of a
system.
GENERALIZED COORDINATES
If physical coordinate are independent of each other, equal

in number to the degrees-of-freedom of the system, they
qualify as generalized coordinates.
In more complex system, the coordinates may not be
independent, as such coordinates may be related to each
other by constraint equations.
GENERALIZED COORDINATES (cont.)
The position of the spherical pendulum can be defined by

the two independent coordinates and .
Hence and are generalized coordinates, and the
spherical pendulum represents a system of two degree-of-
freedom.
The position of the spherical coordinates can also be
described by the three rectangular coordinates x, y, z ,
which exceed the degrees-of-freedom by one.
The coordinates x, y, z are however, not independent,

because they are related by the constraint equation:
x2 y 2 z 2 l 2
The coordinates x, y, z are therefore not generalized

coordinates as they are not independent.
One of the coordinates can be eliminated by the constraint

equation, thereby reducing the number of necessary
coordinates to two.
The excess coordinates exceeding the number of degrees
of freedom of the system are called superfluous
coordinates, and constraint equations equal in number to
the superfluous coordinates are necessary for their
elimination.
Constraint are called holonomic if the excess coordinates
can be eliminated through equations of constraint.
LAGRANGES EQUATIONS
Let us consider a system with N degrees of freedom, that

is described by a set of N generalised coordinates
q j 1, 2, 3,4........N ; q j are generalized velocities.
Lagranges equations are given by:
d T T D V
Qj (1)

dt q j q j q j q j
j 1, 2, 3,4........N
T denotes the systems kinetic energy, V the potential

energy, D the Rayleigh dissipation function and Q j the
generalised force that appears in the j-th equation.
LAGRANGES EQUATIONS (cont.)
The generalized forces Q j in Eq. (1) is expressed as:

rl
Q j Fl Ml l (2)
l q j i q j
Fl and M l are vector representations of the externally

applied forces and moments, respectively.
The index l indicates which external force or moment is
being considered.
rl is the position vector to the location where the force is
applied, and l is the system angular velocity about the
axis along which the considered moment is applied.
LAGRANGES EQUATIONS (cont.)
For vibratory systems with linear inertial characteristics

(mass), linear viscous damping characteristics and linear
stiffness (spring) characteristics, the following are defined:
1 N N
T m jn q j q n
2 j 1 n 1
1 N N
D c jn q j q n (3)
2 j 1 n 1
1 N N
V k jn q j qn
2 j 1 n 1
SINGLE-DEGREE-OF-FREEDOM
SYSTEM
For a single-degree-of-freedom-system, N 1 , and Eq. (1)
becomes:
d T T D V
Q1 (4)
dt q1 q1 q1 q1
The generalized forces given in Eq. (2) become:

rl
Q1 Fl . Ml. l (5)
l q1 l q1
SYSTEM (cont.)
For a single-degree-of-freedom system, the expressions for
T , V and D given in Eq. (3) become:
1 1 1 1 1
T m jn q j q n m11q12 me q12
2 j 1 n 1 2 2
1 1 1 1 1
D c jn q j q n c11q12 ce q12
2 j 1 n 1 2 2 (6)
1 1 1 1 1
V k jn q j qn k11q12 ke q12
2 j 1 n 1 2 2
me , ce and k e are respectively the equivalent mass,

equivalent damping coefficient and equivalent stiffness.
SYSTEM (cont.)
Substituting the expressions for T , V and D given in
Eq. (6) into Eq. (4), we have:
1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2

m
q m q c q k q
d 2 e 1 2 e 1 2 e 1 2 e 1
Q1
dt q1 q1 q1 q1

(7)
d
me q1 0 ce q1 ke q1 Q1
dt
me q1 ce q1 ke q1 Q1
SYSTEM (cont.)
For the case of free vibration, Q1 0 , and the last of Eq.
(7) becomes:
me q1 ce q1 ke q1 0 (8)
For a system represented by Eq. (8), we can determine the

natural frequency and damping ratio from the following:
ke
n
me
(9)
ce ce

2men 2 ke me
EXAMPLE 1
x
r k
A circular cylinder of mass m and radius r is connected by

a spring of modulus k. If it is free to roll on the rough
horizontal surface without slipping, find its natural
frequency using Lagranges equations.
EXAMPLE 1 (cont.)
Since the system is undamped and there are no external

forces or moments acting on it, D and Q1 in Eq. (4) is
zero, and this equation reduces to:
d T T V
0
dt q1 q1 q1
From kinematics, we can relate the linear motion of the

mass center x with the masss angular motion .
x x
;
r r
EXAMPLE 1 (cont.)
Mass moment of inertia of the cylinder about its axis of

rotation is given by 1 2.
J mr
2
We can write the kinetic energy of the cylinder as follows:
1 2 1 2
T J mx
2 2
2
1 1 2 x 1 2
mr mx
22 r 2
3 2
mx
4
EXAMPLE 1 (cont.)
Potential energy of the spring is given by:

1 2
V kx
2
We then insert the kinetic and potential energy terms into
Lagranges equations, and substitute q1 with x , and
q1 with x .
3 2 3 2 1 2
mx mx kx

d 4 4 2 0
dt x x x

EXAMPLE 1 (cont.)
After performing the necessary differentiation, the

previous equation becomes:
d 3
mx 0 kx 0
dt 2
3
mx kx 0
2
2k
x x0
3m

2k
n rad/s
3m
EXAMPLE 2
The uniform rod of mass m is freely pivoted about a

horizontal axis through point O. Assume small
oscillations, and determine the equation of motion for this
system using Lagranges equations. What are the systems
undamped natural frequency and damping ratio?
EXAMPLE 2 (cont.)
As there are no external forces or moments acting on this

system, Q1 0 , and Eq. (4) becomes:
d T T D V
0
dt q1 q1 q1 q1
From kinematics, and assuming small motion, we can

relate the displacement of the spring and the velocity of the
dashpot with the angular displacement and angular
velocity of the rod, respectively.
x s b
x a
d
EXAMPLE 2 (cont.)
mb2
Mass moment of inertia of the rod about O is J O .
3
Kinetic energy of the rod is:

1 2 1 mb2 2 mb2 2
T J O
2 2 3 6
Rayleighs dissipation function is:

2
1 2 1 ca
D cxd c a 2
2
2 2 2
EXAMPLE 2 (cont.)
Potential energy of the spring is:
V kxs k b
1 2 1 kb2 2
2

2 2 2
We then insert T , D and V terms into Lagranges

equations, and substitute q1 with , and q1 with .
mb2 2 mb2 2 ca 2 2 kb2 2

d 6 6 2 2 0
dt

EXAMPLE 2 (cont.)
After performing the necessary differentiation, the

equation of motion is obtained as:
d mb2
0 ca 2 kb2 0
dt 3
mb2
ca 2 kb2 0
3
2 2
3ca 3 kb
2

2
0
mb mb
2
3ca 3k
2
0
mb m
EXAMPLE 2 (cont.)

3k
n rad/s
m
Damping ratio is given by:

3ca 2
2 n
mb2
and
3ca 2 3ca 2 m a2 3c 2
2
2mb n 2mb2
2
3k b 4km
TWO-DEGREE-OF-FREEDOM SYSTEM
For a two-degree-of-freedom-system, N 2 , and Eq. (1)

becomes:
d T T D V
Q1
dt q1 q1 q1 q1
(10)
d T T D V
Q2
dt q 2 q2 q 2 q2
The generalized forces given in Eq. (2) become:

rl
Q1 Fl . Ml. l
l q1 l q1
r
(11)
Q2 Fl . l M l . l
l q2 l q 2
(cont.)
For a two-degree-of-freedom system, the expressions for
T , V and D given in Eq. (3) become:
1 2 2 1 1
T m jn q j q n m11q12 m12q1q 2 m22q 22
2 j 1 n 1 2 2
1 2 2 1 1
D c jn q j q n c11q12 c12q1q 2 c22q 22
2 j 1 n 1 2 2 (12)
1 2 2 1 1
V k jn q j qn k11q12 k12q1q2 k 22q22
2 j 1 n 1 2 2
Note that since the mass, damping and stiffness matrices

are symmetric, m jk mkj , c jk ckj and k jk kkj .
(cont.)
Eq. (12) into the first of Eq. (10), we have:
1 1 2 1 1
m11q1 m12q1q2 m22q2 m11q1 m12q1q2 m22q 22
2
2

d 2 2 2 2
dt q1 q1

1 2 1 2 1 1
c11q1 c12q1q 2 c22q 2 k11q1 k12q1q2 k 22q22
2
(13)
2 Q
2 2 2
q1 q1
1
d
m11q1 m12q2 0 c11q1 c12q2 k11q1 k12q2 Q1
dt
m11q1 m12q2 c11q1 c12q 2 k11q1 k12q2 Q1
(cont.)
Eq. (12) into the second of Eq. (10), we have :
1 1 2 1 1
m11q1 m12q1q2 m22q2 m11q1 m12q1q2 m22q 22
2
2

d 2 2 2 2
dt q 2 q2

1 2 1 2 1 1
c11q1 c12q1q 2 c22q 2 k11q1 k12q1q2 k 22q22
2
(14)
2 Q
2 2 2
q 2 q2
2
d
m12q1 m22q2 0 c12q1 c22q2 k12q1 k22q2 Q2
dt
m12q1 m22q2 c12q1 c22q 2 k12q1 k 22q2 Q2
(cont.)
Eqs. (13) and (14) represent the equations of motion for a
two-degree-of-freedom system.
m11q1 m12q2 c11q1 c12q 2 k11q1 k 12q2 Q1

(15)
m12q1 m22q2 c12q1 c22q 2 k12q1 k 22q2 Q2
(cont.)
In matrix form, Eq. (15) is expressed as:
M q C q K q Q (16)
m11 m12 q1
M q
12
m m22 q2
q1
q
c11 c12 q 2
C
12 22
c c q1
q
q 2
k11 k12 Q1
K Q
12 22
k k Q2
EXAMPLE 3
Use Lagranges equations to derive the equations of

motion for the system shown above.
EXAMPLE 3 (cont.)
Lagranges equations of motion are:

d T T V
0
dt x x x
d T T V
0
dt
Kinetic energy is:

1 2 1 2
T mx J
2 2
EXAMPLE 3 (cont.)
Consider the kinetic energy with respect to translational

displacement:
T T d T
0, mx, mx
x x dt x
Consider the kinetic energy with respect to angular

displacement:
T T , d T
0, J J
dt
EXAMPLE 3 (cont.)
Potential energy is:
V k1 x L1 sin k2 x L2 sin
1 2 1 2
2 2
Consider the potential energy with respect to translational

displacement:
V
k1 x L1 sin k2 x L2 sin
x
EXAMPLE 3 (cont.)
Consider the potential energy with respect to angular

displacement:
V
k1L1 x L1 sin cos k2 L2 x L2 sin cos

Equations of motion are therefore given by:

mx k1 x L1 sin k 2 x L2 sin 0
J k1 L1 x L1 sin cos k 2 L2 x L2 sin cos 0

EXAMPLE 3 (cont.)
Now assume small angular displacement where

sin and cos 1 .
mx k1 x L1 k 2 x L2 0
J k1 L1 x L1 k 2 L2 x L2 0
These two equations can be written in matrix form as:
m 0 x k1 k 2 k1L1 k2 L2 x
0 J k L k L 2
k1L1 k2 L2
2
0
1 1 2 2
EXAMPLE 4
Use Lagranges equations to determine the equations of

motion for the system shown above. The position x of
mass m1 is the displacement from the fixed end, and is
the angular position of the disk measured from the vertical.
EXAMPLE 4 (cont.)
We can write the generalized forces, the generalized

displacements and the generalized velocities as:
Q1 f t ; Q2 M O t ; q1 x; q2 ; q1 x; q2
Lagranges equations are expressed as:

d T T D V
f t
dt x x x x
d T T D V
M O t
dt
EXAMPLE 4 (cont.)
Kinetic energy of the system is the sum of the linear

kinetic energy of the mass and the rotational kinetic energy
of the disk.
1 1 2
T m1 x J O
2
2 2
From kinematics, the net displacement of spring k 2 is

given by x r and the net velocity of damper c2 is given
by x r .
EXAMPLE 4 (cont.)
Rayleighs dissipation function for the dampers is given

by:
1 1

D c1 x 2 c2 x r
2 2
2
Potential energy for the springs is given by:
k1 x k2 x r
1 2 1
V
2
2 2
EXAMPLE 4 (cont.)
Consider the kinetic energy with respect to x, x, and with

respect to , :
1 1 2 1 1 2
T m1 x J O
2
T m1 x J O
2
2 2 2 2
T T
0 0
x
T T
m1 x J O
x
d T d T
m1 x J O
dt x dt
EXAMPLE 4 (cont.)
Consider the Rayleighs dissipation function with respect

to x , and with respect to :
1 1

D c1 x 2 c2 x r
2 2

2 1 1

D c1 x 2 c2 x r
2 2

2
D
x

c1 x c2 x r
D

c 2
r
r
x
D D
c1 c2 x rc2 rc
x r 2
c
x
2 2
EXAMPLE 4 (cont.)
Consider the potential energy with respect to x , and with

respect to :
k1 x k 2 x r k1 x k 2 x r
1 2 1 1 2 1
V V
2 2
2 2 2 2
V V
k1 x k 2 x r k 2 r x r
x
V V
k1 k 2 x rk2 rk2 x r 2 k 2
x
EXAMPLE 4 (cont.)
Substituting these terms into Lagranges equations, we

have:
m1x c1 c2 x rc2 k1 k 2 x rk2 f t
J O rc2 x r 2c2 rk2 x r 2 k 2 M O t
In matrix form, the equations of motion are expressed as:

m1 0 x c1 c2 rc2 x k1 k2 rk2 x f t
0
J O rc2 r c2 rk2
2
r k2 M O t
2
VIBRATIONS OF
CONTINUOUS SYSTEM
TRANSVERSE VIBRATION OF A
STRING OR CABLE
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Upon completion of this lecture, you should be able to

undertake the following:
Derive the equation of motion for the free transverse
vibration of a tightly stretched string or cable.
Solve the partial differential equation representing the
dynamics of this system.
Determine the natural frequencies and the associated mode
shapes of this system.
INTRODUCTION
An infinite number of coordinates are necessary to specify
the position of every particle in elastic bodies, and such
bodies therefore possesses an infinite number of degrees of
freedom.
In general the free vibration of these bodies is the sum of
the principal modes.
If the elastic curve of the body under which the motion is
started coincides exactly with one of the principal modes,
only that principal mode will be produced.
However, the elastic curve resulting from a blow or a
sudden removal of forces seldom corresponds to that of a
principal mode, and thus all modes are excited.
GENERAL ASSUMPTIONS
The string or cable materials is homogeneous and

isotropic, i.e., its mass per unit length is constant.
The string or cable is perfectly elastic and follows Hookes
law, and it does not offer any resistance to bending.
The tension produced by stretching the string or cable is so
large that the effect of gravity can be ignored.
The motion of the string or cable, which occurs only in the
vertical direction, is small and therefore the slope is also
small.
WAVE EQUATION
Consider a vibrating flexible string of mass per unit

length and stretch under a tension T as shown in the
above figure.
The free-body-diagram of an element of length dx of the
string assuming small deflections and slopes is also shown
in the above figure.
WAVE EQUATION (cont.)
If the lateral deflection y is assumed to be small, the

change in tension with deflection is negligible, and
sin .
The equation of motion in the Y -direction is therefore:
2 y
T dx T dx 2 (1)
x dt
The above equation can be reduced to:

2 y
(2)
x T dt 2
WAVE EQUATION (cont.)

As the slope of the string is dy / dx , Eq. (2) becomes:
2 y 1 2 y
2 2 (3)
x 2
c t
T
c

c is the velocity of the wave propagation along the string.
Eq. (3) is known as the wave equation.
WAVE EQUATION SOLUTION
The wave equation given in Eq. (3) can be solved by the

method of separation of variables and assuming a solution
of the form:
yx, t Y x Gt (4)
Substituting this solution into the wave equation gives:

2Y x 1 2Gt
Gt 2 Y x
x 2
c t 2
The above equation can be expressed as:

1 d 2Y x 1 1 d 2Gt
2 (5)
Y x dx 2
c Gt dt 2
WAVE EQUATION SOLUTION (cont.)
The LHS is a function of x only, and the RHS is a

function of t only, so partial derivatives are no longer
required.
Each side must therefore be a constant.
The constant is assumed to be / c 2 for convenience of
solution.
We therefore obtain two ordinary differential equations:
d 2Y x
2
Y x 0
c
2
dx
(6)
d G t
2
2
2
G t 0
dt
The general solutions for Eq. (6) are:

Y x A sin x B cos x
c c (7)
G t C sin t D cost
The constants A and B depend on the boundary

conditions, and C and D on the initial conditions.
The complete solution is:

yx, t A sin x B cos x C sin t D cost (8)
c c
Consider the string being stretched between two fixed

points with distance l between them.
The boundary conditions are y0, t yl , t 0 .
The condition that y0, t 0 will require that B 0 , so
the solution will be:

y C sin t D cost A sin x (9)
c
The condition yl , t 0 then leads to the equation:

l
sin 0
c
The above equation can be expressed as:
nl 2l
n (10)
c
n 1,2,3,.......
c / f is the wavelength and f is the frequency of

oscillation.
Each n represents a normal mode vibration with natural

frequency determined from the equation:
n n T
fn c (11)
2l 2l
n 1,2,3,.......
The mode shape is sinusoidal with the distribution:

x
Y sin n (12)
l

In a more general case of free vibration initiated in any
manner, the solution will contain many of the normal
modes.
The equation for the displacement may then be written as:

nx
yx, t C n
sin nt Dn
cos t sin
n (13)
n 1 l
nc
n
l
Fitting Eq. (13) to the initial conditions of yx,0 and

y x,0 , Cn and Dn can be evaluated.
EXAMPLE 1
Find the time it takes for a transverse wave to travel along

a transmission line from one tower to another one 500 m
away. The horizontal component of the cable tension is 35
kN and the mass per unit length of the cable as 3 kg/m.
EXAMPLE 1 (cont.)
The velocity of propagation of waves along the

transmission cable is obtained from the wave equation.
T 35000
c 108.01 m/s
3
The time taken for the wave to travel a distance of 500 m

is therefore:
s 500
t 4.63 s
c 108.01
VIBRATIONS OF
CONTINUOUS SYSTEM
LONGITUDINAL VIBRATION OF A
BAR OR ROD
LEARNING OBJECTIVES

Derive the equation of motion for the free longitudinal or
axial vibration of a rod or bar with various boundary
conditions.
GENERAL ASSUMPTIONS
The rod or bar is considered thin and has a uniform cross-

sectional area along its length.
The rod or bar has uniform properties, and is made of of
linear, homogeneous, isotropic elastic material.
GOVERNING EQUATIONS
Due to axial forces there will be displacements u along

the rod which will be a function of both the position
x and the time t .
Since the rod has an infinite number of natural modes of
vibration, the distribution of the displacement will differ
with each mode.
GOVERNING EQUATIONS (cont.)
Consider an element of this rod of length dx . If u is the

displacement at x , the displacement at x dx will be:
u u / x dx
It is evident that the element dx in the new position has

changed in length by an amount u / x dx , and thus the
unit strain is:
u / x
Since from Hookes law the ratio of unit stress to unit

strain is equal to the modulus of elasticity E , we have:
u P
(1)
x AE
A is the cross-sectional area of the rod.

Differentiating with respect to x , we have:
2u P
AE 2 (2)
x x
Applying Newtons 2nd law of motion to the element:

P 2u
dx Adx 2 (3)
x t
is the density of the rod, mass per unit volume.

Eliminating P / x between Eqs. (2) and (3), we obtain
the partial differential equation:
2 u E 2u
2 2 (4)
t x
The previous equation can be written as:

2 u 1 2u
2 2 2 (5)
x c t
E
c

Note that Eq. (5) is similar to the wave equation.

The velocity of propagation of the displacement of stress
wave in the rod is then equal to c E / .
Eq. (5) has a solution of the form:

ux, t U x Gt (6)
This solution results in two ordinary differential equations

given below:

U x A sin x B cos x
c c (7)
G t C sin t D cost
The complete solution is given by:

u x, t A sin x B cos x C sin t D cost (8)
E E
EXAMPLE 1
Determine the longitudinal natural frequencies and mode

shapes of a free-free rod.
EXAMPLE 1 (cont.)
For such a bar, the stress at the ends must be zero.
Since the stress is given by the equation Eu / x , the unit
strain at the ends must also be zero, that is:
u
0 at x 0, and x l
x
EXAMPLE 1 (cont.)
The two equations corresponding to these boundary
conditions are therefore:
u
A C sin t D cost 0
x x 0 c
u l l
A cos B sin C sin t D cost 0
x x l c c c
EXAMPLE 1 (cont.)
Since these equations must be true for any time t , A must

be equal to zero from the first equation.
Since B must be finite in order to have vibration, the
second equation is satisfied when:
l
sin 0
c
nl
nl ,2 ,3 ,......n
c E
EXAMPLE 1 (cont.)
The frequency of vibration is therefore:

n E
n (rad/s)
l
n E
fn (Hz)
2l
n represents the order of the mode.

EXAMPLE 1 (cont.)
The solution of the free-free mode associated with natural

frequencies are:
n
u cos x
l
The amplitude of the longitudinal vibration along the rod is

therefore a cosine wave having n nodes.
VIBRATIONS OF
CONTINUOUS SYSTEM
TORSIONAL VIBRATION OF A SHAFT
OR ROD
LEARNING OBJECTIVES

Derive the equation of motion for the free torsional vibration
of a shaft with various boundary conditions.
GENERAL ASSUMPTIONS
The shaft has a uniform cross-sectional area along its

length.
The shaft has uniform properties, and is made of of linear,
homogeneous, isotropic elastic material.
GOVERNING EQUATIONS
The equation of motion of a shaft in torsional vibration is

similar to that of the longitudinal vibration of rods.
Letting x be measured along the length of the rod, the
angle of twist at any length dx of the rod due to a torque
T is:
Tdx
d (1)
I PG
I P G is the torsional stiffness given by the product of the

polar moment of inertia of the cross-sectional area I P and
the shear modulus of elasticity G .
The torque on the two faces of the element are T and

T T / x dx , respectively.
The net torque acting on the element is therefore:
T T
T dx T dx (2)
x x
Inserting the net torque from Eq. (2) into Eq. (1), we have:
T 2
dx I PG 2 dx (3)
x x
Equating the net torque to the product of the mass moment

of inertia of the element and the angular acceleration
2 / t 2 , where is the density of the rod in mass per
unit volume, the differential equations of motion becomes:
2 2
I P dx 2 I PG 2 dx (4)
t x
The above equation may be reduced to:
2 G 2
2 (5)
t x
2
Eq. (5) can be written as:

2 1 2
2 2 (6)
x 2
c t
G
c

The general solution may then be expressed as:

x, t x Gt (7)
This solution results in two ordinary differential equations:

x A sin x B cos x
c c (8)
G t C sin t D cost
The complete solution is therefore:

x, t A sin x B cos x C sin t D cost (9)
G G
EXAMPLE 1
Determine the torsional natural frequencies of a uniform

rod in torsional oscillation with one end fixed and the other
end free.
Use the following equation:

x, t A sin
x B cos x C sin t D cost
G G
Apply the boundary conditions, which are:

x 0, 0

x l , T 0 or 0
x
The first boundary conditions results in:

B0
The second boundary condition results in the equation:

cos l 0
G
This equation is satisfied by the following angles.

3 5 1
n l , , ,......, n
G 2 2 2 2
The natural frequencies of the bar are hence determined by

the equation:
1 G
n n
2 l
n 0,1,2,3.......
VIBRATIONS OF
CONTINUOUS SYSTEM
LATERAL VIBRATION OF BEAMS
LEARNING OBJECTIVES

Derive the equation of motion for the free lateral vibration of
a simple beam with various boundary conditions.
INTRODUCTION
A straight elastic beam possesses both mass and stiffness

to resist bending.
During transverse (lateral) vibration the beam flexes
perpendicular to its own axis to alternately store potential
energy in the elastic bending of the beam and then release
it into the kinetic energy of transverse motion.
Pipes, pilings, and entire buildings can experience these
transverse flexural vibrations.
GENERAL ASSUMPTIONS
The beams have uniform cross-sectional area along the

span.
The beams have uniform properties.
The beams are composed of a linear, homogeneous,
isotropic elastic material, and they obey Hookes law.
The beams are slender. The dimensions of the beam cross-
section are much less than the length of the beam or the
distance between vibration nodes.
GENERAL ASSUMPTIONS (cont.)
Rotary inertia and shear deformation are not considered.

Only deformations normal to the undeformed beam axis
are considered. Plane sections remain plane.
No axial load are applied to the beam.
The shear center of the beam cross-section coincides with
the center of mass, so that rotation and translation of the
beam are uncoupled.
MATHEMATICAL MODEL
Consider the forces and bending moments acting on an

element of the beam shown in the above figure.
V and M are shear and bending moments, respectively,
and px represents the loading per unit length of the
beam.
GOVERNING EQUATIONS
By summing the forces in the y-direction, we obtain;
d2y
V p x dx V dV dx 2
dt
d2y
p x dx dV dx 2 (1)
dt
d2y
px
dV
2
dx dt
is the mass per unit length of the beam.

By summing moments about any point on the right face of

the element, we obtain:
dx
( M dM ) M Vdx px dx 0
2
(2)
dM Vdx px dx 0
1 2
2
Since dx is a differential length, the higher order terms
containing dx 2 can be neglected.
dM Vdx 0
dM (3)
V
dx
The bending moment is related to the curvature by the

flexural equation, which, for the coordinates indicated in
the previous figure is:
d2y
M EI 2 (4)
dx
Substituting Eq. (4) into Eq. (3), we obtain:
dM d d2y d3y
V EI 2 EI 3
dx dx dx dx
(5)
dV d4y
EI 4
dx dx
Inserting Eq. (5) into Eq. (1) gives:

d4y d2y
px EI 4 2
dx dt
(6)
d 2 y EI d 4 y
px
dt 2
dx 4
For the analysis of free vibration response, Eq. (6) is

reduced to the following:
EI d 4 y d 2 y
2 (7)
dx 4
dt

Eq. (7) can be solved using the method of separation of
variables assuming a solution of the form:
yx, t Y x Gt (8)
Substituting this solution into Eq.(7) yields:
EI d 4Y x d 2G t
G t Y x
dx 4
dt 2
(9)
1 EI d Y x
4
1 d G t 2

Y x dx 4
G t dt 2
The LHS is a function of x only, and the RHS is a

function of t only, so partial derivatives are no longer
required.
Each side must therefore be a constant. The constant is
assumed to be 2 for convenience of solution, and Eq.
(9) becomes:
d 4Y x 2
4
Y x 0
dx EI
d 2G t
(10)
2
2
G t 0
dt

2
Substituting 4 into Eq. (10), we obtain:
EI
d 4Y x
4
4
Y x 0
dx
d 2G t
(11)
2
2
G t 0
dt
The general solution of Eq. (11) is:

Y x A cosh x B sinh x C cos x D sin x
(12)
G(t ) E sin t F cos t
The complete solution is obtained by substituting Eq. (12)

into Eq. (8).
In order to determine the natural frequencies and mode
shapes, we only need to solve for Y x .
2
From the relationship
4
, we can determine the
EI
natural frequencies.
nl
EI EI
n 2 2
(13)
l 4
n
The number n depends on the boundary conditions of the

problem.
The following table lists numerical values of n l 2
for
typical end conditions.
EXAMPLE 1
Determine the natural frequencies of lateral vibration of a

uniform beam of length l , simply supported at both ends.
EXAMPLE 1 (cont.)
The deflection and bending moment are zero at each end,

so that the boundary conditions are:
y0

At x 0 d2y
M dx 2 0
y0

At x l d2y
M dx 2 0
EXAMPLE 1 (cont.)
Substituting the boundary conditions at x 0 into the

general solution given in Eq. (11), we obtain:
y x0 A cosh 0 B sinh 0 C cos 0 D sin 0 0
AC 0
d2y
2 A cosh 0 B sinh 0 C cos 0 D sin 0 0
dx x 0
AC 0
Solving the above equations for A and C , we obtain:

AC 0
EXAMPLE 1 (cont.)
Substituting the boundary conditions at x l into the

general solution given in Eq. (11), we obtain:
y xl B sinh l D sin l 0
d2y
2 B sinh l D sin l 0
dx x l
Adding the second equation to the first, we have:

2B sinh l 0
Subtracting the second equation from the first, we have:
2D sin l 0
EXAMPLE 1 (cont.)
That is D sin l B sinh l 0 .
Since l 0 , sinh l 0 , therefore B 0 .
D sin l 0 . Since D 0 , otherwise y 0 for all x ,

then sin l 0 .
Hence y D sin l , and the solutions to sin l 0 give the

natural frequencies:
2 3
0, , , .........
l l l
EXAMPLE 1 (cont.)
The natural frequencies are therefore:
2 3
2 2 2
EI EI EI
0, , , ........rad/s
l l l
0 , 0 is a trivial solution because the beam is at
rest.
The first natural frequency and the first mode shape are:
1 / l EI / rad/s y D sin x / l
2
The second natural frequency and the second mode shape

are:
1 2 / l EI / rad/s y D sin 2x / l
2
EXAMPLE 1 (cont.)
VIBRATION CONTROL
VIBRATION ISOLATION
LEARNING OBJECTIVES

Understand the differences between force (constant and
rotating unbalance) isolation and base motion isolation.
Understand the definitions of constant force transmissibility,
rotating unbalance force transmissibility and motion
transmissibility.
Design vibration isolation system to the required
specifications for vibration control purposes.
INTRODUCTION
Vibration isolation is a process by which the undesirable
effects of vibration are reduced.
This is achieved by the insertion of a resilient member
(isolator) between the source of vibration and the vibrating
object.
The objectives of an isolation system are to:
Protect a delicate object from excessive vibration transmitted
to it from its supporting structure.
Prevent vibratory forces generated by machines from being
transmitted to its surroundings.
EFFECTIVENESS OF ISOLATORS
The effectiveness of an isolator is stated in terms of its

transmissibility.
The transmissibility is defined as the amplitude ratio of the
transmitted force to the disturbing force.
VIBRATION ISOLATION MODELS

OBJECTIVES OF VIBRATION
ISOLATION SYSTEMS
Isolation of Vibratory Force Isolation of Vibratory Motion

TRANSMITTED FORCES
Isolation of Vibratory Forces: In an isolation system

where the foundation or base of a vibrating machine is
protected against large unbalance forces, the force
transmitted ( FT ) to the base is given by:
Ft t kx t cxt (1)
Isolation of Vibratory Motion: In an isolation system

where an object is protected against the motion of its
foundation or base, the force transmitted ( FT ) to the
object is given by:
Ft t mxt k xt yt cxt y t (2)
ISOLATION OF VIBRATORY FORCES
The isolator is assumed to have both elasticity and

damping and is modeled as a spring ( k ) and a dashpot
( c ).
Assuming a force of F t F0 sint , the equation of
motion of the mass becomes:
mx cx kx F0 sin t (3)

(cont.)
The steady-state solution is given by xt X sint ,
where:
F0
X
k m
(4a)
2 2
c 2
1 c
tan (4b)
k m
2

(cont.)
The force transmitted to the foundation given in Eq. (1)
can be expressed as:
F (t ) cx t kx t
(5)
cX cos t kX sint
The magnitude of the total transmitted force FT is given
by:

FT kx cx 2 2
(6)
X k c 2 2 2
FORCE TRANSMISSIBILITY (TR)
The force transmissibility or transmission ratio of the

isolator (TR) is defined as the ratio of the magnitude of the
total force transmitted ( FT ) to that of the exciting force
( F0 ).
From Eqs. (4a) and (6), we can express the transmissibility
as:
FT k 2 c 2 2
TR
k m
(7)
F0 2 2
c 2
FORCE TRANSMISSIBILITY (TR) (cont.)
The transmission ratio of the isolator (TR) may also be

expressed in terms of and as:
n
2

1 2
TR n
2 (8)
2

2
1 2
n
n
The isolation efficiency (IE) is given by: IE=(1-TR) X

100%.
TR vs. /n
TR vs. /n (cont.)
The magnitude of the force transmitted to the foundation

can be reduced by decreasing the natural frequency of the
system.
The force transmitted to the foundation can also be
reduced by decreasing the damping ratio.
However, since vibration isolation requires n 1.4142 ,
the machine should pass through resonance during start-up
and run-down.
Some damping is therefore essential to avoid infinitely
large amplitudes at resonance.
TR vs. /n (cont.)
Although damping reduces the amplitude of the mass for

all frequencies, it reduces the maximum force transmitted
to the foundation only if:

1.4142
n
The addition of damping increases the magnitude of the
force transmitted for values of:

1.4142
n
ISOLATION OF VIBRATORY MOTION
If a sensitive instrument or machine of mass m is to be

isolated from the unwanted harmonic motion of its base,
the governing equation is given by:
mz cz kz my (9)
z x y , represents the displacement of the mass relative

to the base.
The above equation can be solved by assuming a solution:
y Y sin t
Note: The above equation is identical to the case of
support motion, which has been studied previously.
DISPLACEMENT TRANSMISSIBILITY
(TD)
The displacement transmissibility (TD), which is defined as
the ratio of the displacement of the mass to the
displacement of the base, is given as:
2

1 2
X n
TD (10)
2 2
Y 2
1 2
n n

It is evident that the expression for TD is identical to that of
TR.
ROTATING UNBALANCE FORCE
The excitation force caused by rotating unbalance is given

by:
F t F0 sin t me 2 sin t
The force transmissibility can therefore be expressed as:
FT FT
TR (11)
F0 me 2
ROTATING UNBALANCE FORCE (cont.)
Eqs. (11) and (8) yields the force transmissibility for the
case of rotating unbalance:
2

1 2
FT n
TR (12)
me 2
2 2 2
1 2
n n

EXAMPLE 1
A washing machine of mass 50 kg operates at 1200 rpm.

Find the maximum stiffness of an isolator that provides
75% isolation. Assume that the damping ratio of the
isolator is 7%.
EXAMPLE 1 (cont.)
The force transmissibility is 0.25 and damping ratio is

0.07. Substitute these values in the force transmissibility
equation to obtain the ratio of forcing to natural frequency.
2

1 2 0.07

n
0.25
2 2
2
1 2 0.07
n n

This equation can be expressed as:
4 2

0.0625 0.1434 0.9375 0
n n
EXAMPLE 1 (cont.)
The roots of the previous equation can be obtained from:

0.1434 0.14342 4 0.0625 0.9375
2

n 2 0.0625

The positive root is: 2.28
n
The forcing frequency is given by:

2N 2 1200
125.7 rad/s
60 60
EXAMPLE 1 (cont.)
The natural frequency can now be obtained from:

125.7
n 55.1 rad/s
2.28 2.28
The maximum stiffness is then given by:

k mn2 50 55.12 151800.2 N/m
EXAMPLE 2
A 15 kg precision instrument is to be installed on a factory

floor. Due to the operation of a nearby rotating equipment,
the floor vibrates with a frequency of 3500 rpm and an
amplitude of 3 mm. You are asked to propose a vibration
isolator for the precision instrument such that it will not be
subjected to acceleration of greater than 39.24 m/s2.
Assuming the isolator has a damping ratio of 0.02,
compute the:
Maximum displacement of the instrument.
Required stiffness of the isolator.
Static deflection of the isolator.
EXAMPLE 2 (cont.)
The forcing frequency is obtained from:

2N 2 3500
366.52 rad/s
60 60
The following equation relates the maximum displacement

to the maximum acceleration:
X 39.24 4
X 2 2.92 10 m
366.52 2
EXAMPLE 2 (cont.)

is obtained by solving the following equation:
1
X 1 2r 2 2

2
2

Y 1 r 2r
2
r

1
n
2.92 10 4 1 2 0.02r 2
2

0.003
1 r 2 0.02r
2 2 2
Solving the above equation gives r 3.37 .

EXAMPLE 2 (cont.)
The natural frequency of the system is therefore:

366.52
n 108.76 rad/s
r 3.37
The stiffness of the isolator is then obtained from:

k mn2 15 108.762 177431.1 N/m
The static deflection is obtained from:

mg 15 9.81
st 8.29 104 m
k 177431.1
EXAMPLE 3
When a washing machine of mass 200 kg and an

unbalance 0.02 kg-m is mounted on an isolator, the isolator
deflects by 5 mm under the static load. At the operating
speed of 1200 rpm:
Find the amplitude of the washing machine.
Find the force transmitted to the foundation.
EXAMPLE 3 (cont.)
The stiffness of the isolator can be found from the

relationship between the weight of the machine with the
static deflection of the isolator.
mg 200 9.81
k 392400 N/m
st 0.005
The natural frequency is given by:
k 392400
n 44.29 rad/s
m 200
EXAMPLE 3 (cont.)
The forcing frequency is obtained from:

2N 2 1200
125.66 rad/s
60 60

is:
125.66
r 2.84
n 44.29
EXAMPLE 3 (cont.)
The amplitude of the washing machine is therefore:
m0 e r
2
X
m 1 r 2

0.02 2.84
2

200 1 2.84 2

11.42 10 5 m
EXAMPLE 3 (cont.)
The force transmitted to the foundation is:
1
FT m0 e
2
1 r 2

2 1
0.02 125.66
1 2.84 2

44.7 N
VIBRATION CONTROL
UNDAMPED DYNAMIC VIBRATION
ABSORBERS
LEARNING OBJECTIVES

Understand the differences between vibration dampers,
vibration isolators and dynamic vibration absorbers.
Appreciate the merits and limitations of dynamic vibration
absorbers in vibration control practice.
Design dynamic vibration absorbers to required
specifications for vibration control purposes.
INTRODUCTION
A machine or system may experience excessive vibration

if it is acted upon by a force whose excitation frequency is
close to the natural frequency of the machine or system.
The vibration could be reduced either by eliminating the
force; or by changing the mass or stiffness of the system so
as to move its natural frequency away from the excitation
frequency.
Another way to reduce the vibration is by the use of
dynamic vibration absorber, which is simply another
spring-mass system attached to the original system.

ABSORBER
Let the combination K, M be
the schematic representation of
the machine under consideration,
with the force P0 sin t acting
on it.
The vibration absorber consists
of a comparatively small
vibratory system k, m attached
to the main mass M .

ABSORBER (cont.)
The natural frequency k / m of the attached absorber is
chosen to be equal to the frequency of the disturbing force
.
It will be proven that the main mass M does not vibrate at
all, and that the small system k, m vibrates in such a way
that its spring force is at all instants equal and opposite to
P0 sin t .
Thus there is no net force acting on M and therefore the
main mass does not vibrate.
EQUATIONS OF MOTION
The equation of motions are:

Mx1 K k x1 kx2 P0 sin t
mx2 k x2 x1 0
(1)
The forced vibration of this system will be of the form:
x1 a1 sin t
(2)
x2 a2 sin t
Inserting Eq. (2) into Eq. (1), we obtain:
M 2

K k a1 ka2 P0

ka1 m k a2 0
2
(3)
In dimensionless form, Eq. (3) becomes:

2
k
1 a1 k a2 xst
K 2 K
n
(4)
2
a1 a2 1 2

a
P0
x st static deflection of main system
K
k
a natural frequency of absorber
m
K
n natural frequency of main system
M

Solving for a1 and a2
, we have:
2
1 2
a1 a

xst 2 k 2 k
1 2 1 2
a K n K (5)
a2 1

xst 2 k 2 k
1 2 1 2
a K n K
The amplitude a1 of the main mass is zero when the
numerator 1 2 / a2 is zero; this occurs when the excitation
frequency equals the natural frequency of the absorber.
The natural frequencies of the 2 degrees-of-freedom

system with the absorber in place are the values of such
that the denominator of Eq. (5) is zero.
The ratio m / M defines the size of the damper as
compared to the size of the main system.
a / n is the ratio of the natural frequency of the
absorber to the natural frequency of the original system.
The roots of the denominator of Eq. (5) are:
n 1
2
1
2

4
1 2
2 2
1 1
(6)

a 2 2
For the case a , the first factor of the denominator of

Eq. (5) is zero, and the equation reduces to
K P
a2 xst 0 (7)
k k
With the main mass standing still and the damper mass
having a motion P0 / k , the force in the damper spring
varies as P0 sin t which is actually equal and opposite to
the external force.
These relations are true for any value of the ratio / n .
The addition of an absorber has not much reason unless the
original system is in resonance or at least near it.
Consider the case of a n and k / m K / M or k / K m / M .

Eq. (5) therefore becomes:
2
1 2
x1 a
sin t
x st 2
1
2
1
2 a2
a (8)
x2 1
sin t
x st 2 2
1 1
2 2
a a
When equated to zero the denominator of Eq. (8) is a

quadratic equation in 2 / a2 which necessarily has two
roots.
Thus for two values of the external frequencies both
denominators of Eq. (8) becomes zero and consequently
x1 and x2 becomes infinitely large.
These two frequencies are the resonant or natural
frequencies of the system.
The natural frequencies are therefore:
2
2
1 (9)
a 2 4
The relation given in Eq. (9) is shown graphically in the

above figure.
The main results of Eq. (8) is shown graphically in the

above figure for a value of 0.2 .
EXAMPLE 1
A 200 kg machine is attached to a spring of stiffness 4x105

N/m. During operation the machine is subjected to a
harmonic excitation of magnitude 500 N and frequency 50
rad/s. Design an undamped vibration absorber such that
the steady-state amplitude of the primary mass is zero and
the steady-state amplitude of the absorber is less than 2
mm.
EXAMPLE 1 (cont.)
The steady-state amplitude of the machine is zero when the

absorber is tuned to the excitation frequency. Therefore:
k
a
m
When this occurs, the steady-state amplitude of the

absorber mass is given by Eq. (6).
P0 500
0.002 m , therefore k 2.5 105 N/m
k 0.002
EXAMPLE 1 (cont.)
Using the minimum allowable stiffness, the required

absorber mass is:
k 2.5 105
m 2 100 kg
a 50 2
EXAMPLE 2
What are the natural frequencies of the system of Example

1 with the absorber in place.
EXAMPLE 2 (cont.)
The mass ratio is given by:

100 / 200 0.5
The natural frequency of the original system is:

4 105
n 44.72 rad/s
200
The natural frequency of the absorber is:

2.5 105
a 50 rad/s
100
EXAMPLE 2 (cont.)
The natural frequencies of the 2 degrees-of-freedom

system with the absorber in place are given in Eq. (6).
n
2 1 2
1

4 1 2 2 2 1 1

a 2 2
m a
and
M n
EXAMPLE 2 (cont.)
Inserting the values of , and a into this equation, we

obtain the two natural frequencies:
1 32.7 rad/s and 2 68.4 rad/s

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MEMB343 Mechanical Vibrations

Upon completion of this lecture, you should be able to:

TACOMA NARROWS BRIDGE

This photograph shows the twisting motion of

The nature and severity of the torsional

TACOMA NARROWS BRIDGE (cont.)

POSITIVE DISPLACEMENT BLOWER

Shearing of shaft attributed to high torsional vibrations. Rotor operating

POSITIVE DISPLACEMENT BLOWER

Masses attached to springs.

BASIC CONCEPTS OF VIBRATION

When a particle or a rigid body in stable equilibrium is

ELEMENTARY PARTS OF VIBRATING

SPRING ELEMENTS (cont.)

A spring element is generally made of an elastic material.

STIFFNESS OF SPRING ELEMENTS

Stiffness associated with the longitudinal vibration of a

STIFFNESS OF SPRING ELEMENTS

Stiffness associated with the torsional vibration of a shaft.

STIFFNESS OF SPRING ELEMENTS

Stiffness associated with a helical spring.

STIFFNESS OF SPRING ELEMENTS

Beam stiffness associated with the transverse vibration of

EQUIVALENT SPRING CONSTANT

Springs in Parallel Springs in Series

MASS OR INERTIA ELEMENTS

EQUIVALENT MASS OF A SYSTEM

EQUIVALENT MASS OF A SYSTEM

EQUIVALENT MASS OF A SYSTEM

EQUIVALENT MASS OF A SYSTEM

Equivalent Translational Equivalent Rotational Mass

DAMPING ELEMENTS MODELS

EQUIVALENT DAMPING CONSTANT

Dampers in Parallel Dampers in Series

The minimum number of independent coordinates required

DISCRETE AND CONTINUOUS SYSTEM

Systems with a finite number of degrees of freedom are

Discrete System Continuous System

Solution: 2nd Order Ordinary Solution: Partial Differential

Free and Forced Vibration.

FREE AND FORCED VIBRATION

UNDAMPED AND DAMPED VIBRATION

LINEAR AND NONLINEAR VIBRATION

DETERMINISTIC AND RANDOM

A composite propeller shaft, which is made of steel and

The polar area moment of inertia for a hollow shaft is

For the steel shaft, torsional stiffness is:

80 109 0.254 0.154

Upon completion of this lecture, you should be able to:

Oscillatory motion may repeat itself regularly as in the

SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION

The simplest type of periodic motion is called a simple

SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION (cont.)

The motion of the mass can be expressed by the equation

SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION (cont.)

Harmonic motion is often represented as the projection on

SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION (cont.)

SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION (cont.)

Thus the velocity and acceleration are also harmonic with

SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION (cont.)

The acceleration can be written as x x .

Therefore, in simple harmonic motion, the acceleration is

COMPLEX FORM OF SIMPLE