BML Munjal University

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 Casting

Manufacturing Process-II Dr. M. Eswara Krishna

Manufacturing is to make a product
suitable to use.
- Merriam Webster Online dictionary

Design + production +assembly

- CIRP
History
 Typical Cast Parts

(c)

(a)

(b) (d)

Figure: (a) Typical gray-iron castings used in automobiles, including the transmission valve body (left) and the hub
rotor with disk-brake cylinder (front).
(b) A cast transmission housing.
(c) The Polaroid PDC-2000 digital camera with a AZ191D die-cast high-purity magnesium case.
(d) A two-piece Polaroid camera case made by the hot-chamber die-casting process. Source: Courtesy of Polaroid
Corporation and Chicago White Metal Casting, Inc.
A large sand casting weighing 680 kg for an air compressor frame
 CASTING

This process involves in

(a) Pouring the molten metal

into a mould cavity
(b) Allowing it to cool
(c) Removing the metal
from the mould.
Flask: A moulding flask is the one holds the sand mould
intact
Drag: Lower moulding flask
Cope: Upper moulding flask
Cheek: Intermediate moulding flask used in three
piece moulding
Pattern: it is the replica of the object to be made
Parting line: This is the dividing line between the
two moulding flask
Bottom board: This is a board normally made of wood which is
used at the start of mould making.
Core: It is used for making hollow cavities in castings
Chaplet: To support cores
Cross section of a sand mould
Runner: The passageways in the parting plane through which molten metal flow is regulated
before they reach the mould cavity.
Chills: Metallic objects, which are placed in the mould to increase to increase the cooling
rate of castings
Riser: It is a reservoir of molten material provided in the casting so that hot metal can flow back
into the mould cavity when there is a reduction in volume if metal due to solidification.
Solidification of metals
Pure metals

Figure (a) Temperature as a function of time for the solidification of pure metals. Note that the
freezing takes place at a constant temperature. (b) Density as a function of time

Liquid needs to be cooled below their freezing points before the solidification begins.
This is because energy is required to create surfaces for new crystals
 When a liquid metal is poured into a
mould, initially the temperature
everywhere is 0 .
The mould face itself acts as the nucleus
for the crystal growth, and if
conductivity of the mould is high,
randomly-oriented small crystals grow
near the mould face. Subsequently, a
temperature gradient results within the
casting (as indicated for t1 and t2)
As the solidification progress gradually
inwards, long columnar crystals, with
their axis perpendicular to the mould
Fig. Development of Columnar crystals face, grow.
 Cast Structures of Solidified Metals

Figure: Development of a preferred

texture at a cool mold wall. Note that
only favorably oriented grains grow
away from the surface of the mold

FIGURE: Schematic illustration of three cast structures of

metals solidified in a square mold: (a) pure metals, with
preferred texture at the cool mold wall. Note in the middle of
the figure that only favorable oriented grains grow away
from the mold surface; (b) solid-solution alloys; and (c)
structure obtained by heterogeneous nucleation of grains.
 Solidification of Alloys

Figure: Schematic illustration of alloy solidification and temperature distribution in the solidifying metal. Note the formation of
dendrites in the mushy zone.

Solidification in alloys starts when temperature drops below the liquidus, TL and is complete
when it reaches solidus TS
Within this temperature region, the alloy is in mushy or paste state with columnar dendrites.
The width of the Mushy zone which is an important factor during solidification is described in
terms of temperature difference known as freezing zone is given by TL-TS
FIGURE : (a) Solidification patterns for gray cast iron in a 180-mm (7-in.) square casting. Note that after 11 min
of cooling, dendrites reach each other, but the casting is still mushy throughout; it takes about 2 h for this
casting to solidify completely. (b) Solidification of carbon steels in sand and chill (metal) molds; note the
difference in solidification patterns as the carbon content increases. Source: After H.F. Bishop and W.S. Pellini.
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 Effects of Cooling Rates

Slow Cooling rates Coarse dendrite structures with large spacing between dendrite arms
Faster Cooling rates Finer structures with small spacing between dendrite arms
Still higher cooling rates amorphous structure

FIGURE: Schematic illustration of three basic types of cast structures: (a) columnar dendritic; (b) equiaxed
dendritic; and (c) equiaxed nondendritic. Source: Courtesy of D. Apelian.

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Fluid Flow
Bernoullis Theorem: This theorem is based on the principle of the conservation
of energy and relates pressure, velocity, the elevation of the fluid at any location in
the system, and the frictional losses in a system that is full of liquid. The Bernoulli
equation is

Mass Continuity: The law of mass continuity states that, for incompressible
liquids and in a system with impermeable walls the rate of flow is constant.

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 Flow Characteristics

An important consideration of the fluid flow in gating systems is the presence of

turbulence, as opposed to the laminar flow of fluids.
The Reynolds number, Re, is used to quantify this aspect of fluid flow. It
represents the ratio of the inertia to the viscous forces in fluid flow and is defined
as

where v is the velocity of the liquid, D is the diameter of the channel, and and are
the density and viscosity of the liquid,

In gating systems, Re typically ranges from 2000 to 20,000,

value of up to 2000 represents laminar flow.
Between 2000 and 20,000, it represents a mixture of laminar and turbulent flow
(harmless)
Re values in excess of 20,000 represent severe turbulence

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Fluidity of Molten Metal

The capability of molten metal to fill mold cavities is called fluidity, which consists of two
basic factors:
(1) characteristics of the molten metal and
(2) casting parameters.

The following characteristics of molten metal influence fluidity:

Viscosity: As viscosity and its sensitivity to temperature (viscosity index) increase, fluidity
decreases.
Surface Tension: A high surface tension of the liquid metal reduces fluidity.
Inclusions: Because they are insoluble, inclusions can have a significant adverse
effect on fluidity.
Solidification Pattern of the Alloy: The manner in which solidification takes place can
influence fluidity. Moreover, fluidity is inversely proportional to the freezing range:

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The following casting parameters influence fluidity and also influence the fluid
flow and thermal characteristics of the system:

Mold Design: The design and dimensions of the sprue, runners, and risers all
influence fluidity.

Mold Material and its Surface Characteristics: The higher the thermal
conductivity of the mold and the rougher its surfaces, the lower the fluidity of the
molten metal.

Degree of Superheat: Superheat (defined as the increment of temperature of an

alloy above its melting point) improves fluidity by delaying solidification.

Rate of Pouring: The slower the rate of pouring molten metal into the mold, the
lower the fluidity because of the higher rate of cooling when poured slowly.

Heat Transfer: This factor directly affects the viscosity of the liquid metal
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Test for Fluidity

Several tests have been developed to quantify fluidity, although none is

accepted universally.
In one such common test, the molten metal is made to flow along a
channel that is at room temperature; the distance the metal flows before it
solidifies and stops flowing is a measure of its fluidity.

FIGURE: A test method for fluidity using a spiral

mold. The fluidity index is the length of the solidified
metal in the spiral passage. The greater the length of
the solidified metal, the greater is the metals fluidity.

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 Heat Transfer

Heat from the liquid metal is

given off through the mold wall
and to the surrounding air.

The temperature drop at the air-

mold and mold-metal interfaces
is caused by the presence of
boundary layers and imperfect
contact at these interfaces. The
shape of the curve depends on
the thermal properties of the
molten metal and the mold.

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Solidification time

The total solidification time is the time required for the casting to solidify
after pouring.
This time is dependent on the size and shape of the casting by an empirical
relationship known as Chvorinovs rule, which states:

V= volume of the casting, cm3 (in3);A = surface area of the casting, cm2 (in2); n is an
exponent usually taken to have a value = 2; and Cm is the mold constant.

Chvorinovs rule indicates that a casting with a higher volume-to-surface area ratio
will cool and solidify more slowly than one with a lower ratio.

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Problems @Solidification time

1. In the casting of steel under certain mold conditions, the mold constant in
Chvorinov's rule is known to be 4.0 min/cm2, based on previous experience. The
casting is a flat plate whose length = 30 cm, width = 10 cm, and thickness = 20 mm.
Determine how long it will take for the casting to solidify. (2.49 min)

2. Solve for total solidification time in the previous problem only using an exponent
value of 1.9 in Chvorinov's rule instead of 2.0. What adjustment must be made in the
units of the mold constant? (2.55 min)
3. In casting experiments performed using a certain alloy and type of sand mold, it took
155 sec for a cube-shaped casting to solidify. The cube was 50 mm on a side. (a)
Determine the value of the mold constant in Chvorinov's rule. (b) If the same alloy
and mold type were used, find the total solidification time for a cylindrical casting in
which the diameter = 30 mm and length = 50 mm. (2.232 s/mm2, 1.24 min)

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 Pattern Making
Pattern is a mould forming tool used to form the mould cavity in
which molten metal is poured.
A single pattern may be used for making many mould cavity.
Pattern making involves the study of materials used for making
patterns, various types of patterns and pattern allowances.
Pattern Material
Patterns can be made from wood, metals, alloys, plaster, rubber,
wax, etc.
The selection of a pattern material depends on the size and shape
of the casting, dimensional accuracy, the quantity of casting
required and the molding process.
Properties of Pattern Material

Easily shaped, worked, machined and

joined.
Resistant to wear and corrosion.
Resistant to chemical action.
Dimensionally stable and unaffected by
variations in temperature and humidity.
Availability and Economical.
Wood
Easily available.
Low weight.
Low cost.
It absorbs moisture and hence
dimensions will change.
Lower life.
Suitable for small quantity production
and very large size castings.
 Metal
Used for mass production
For maintaining closer dimensional
tolerances on casting.
More life when compared to wooden
patterns
Few of the material used include CI, Al, Fe,
Brass etc.
Aluminum is widely used.
Plastic

Low weight
Easier formability
Do not absorb moisture
Good corrosion resistance
Polystyrene
It is very easy to make pattern as it is soft.
Polystyrene changes gaseous state on
heating.
Used for prototype (single piece) castings.
Also known as Disposable patterns.
Types of Patterns
Solid Pattern
A pattern that is made without joints, parting or any loose pieces
in the construction is called a single piece or solid pattern.
It is not recommended except for limited production like large
and small size castings of simple shapes.
 Split Pattern
It is the most widely used type of pattern for intricate castings.
Used When -The depth of the casting is too high.
The pattern is split into two parts.
The two halves of the pattern should be aligned by making use of
the dowel pins.
Loose Piece Pattern
Used when
Withdrawal of pattern from mould is not possible.
Castings is having projections, undercuts and etc.
The obstructing part of the contour is held as loose piece by a wire.
After the molding is over, first the main part is removed and then
loose pieces are recovered through gap generated by the main
pattern.
Match Plate Pattern
Here the cope and drag halves of the pattern along with the gating system
and riser are mounted on a single matching plate on either side.
When match plate is removed after moulding, a complete mould with
gating system is obtained.
These patterns are used for rapid production of small and accurate casting.
The match plate may be of wood, steel, magnesium or aluminum.
 Gated Pattern
It is used for producing small sized cavities in one mould.
The gating and runner system are integral part of the gated pattern.
So a single runner is used for feeding all cavities and considerable
amount of the moulding time is saved.
Removable and Disposable pattern
A removable pattern is removed from the sand and is used for
producing multiple identical moulds.
In case of disposable patterns, the pattern is left in the mould
instead of being removed from sand.
The pattern material vaporizes when the molten metal is poured
cavity thus created is filled with molten metal. The method is also
known as full mould process or cavity less method.
Pattern Allowances
a) Patterns are not made the exact same size as the desired casting
due to metal shrinkage, draft, finish, distortion and rapping.
b) Therefore the allowances are given in the pattern to allow these
various factors.

Types of Allowances
Shrinkage Allowance
Machining Allowance
Draft or Taper Allowance
Distortion Allowance
Rapping or Shake Allowance
Shrinkage Allowance
Provided to compensate for shrinkage of metal during
solid contraction.
Pattern is made slightly bigger.
Amount of allowance depends upon type of the material
used, its composition, pouring temperature etc.
Note: The contraction of the metals is always volumetric,
but the shrinkage allowances are always expressed as
linear measures.
Machining Allowance
Provided to compensate for machining on casting.
Pattern is made slightly bigger in size.
Amount of allowance depends upon size and shape of
casting, type of material, machining process to be used,
degree of accuracy and surface finish required.
Draft or Taper Allowance
It is given on all the vertical surfaces to facilitate easy
withdrawal of the pattern.
The factors influencing this allowance are the design of the
pattern, its vertical height and the method of molding.
It can be expressed either in degrees or in terms of linear
measures.
Typically it ranges from 1 degree to 3 degree for wooden
patterns.
Distortion Allowance

Casting which has an irregular shape and some such design that the
contraction is not uniform throughout will distort during cooling.
To eliminate this defect an opposite distortion is provided in the
pattern so that the effect is neutralized and the correct casting is
obtained.
This can be done in trial and error basis to get the distortion
amount.
Rapping or Shake Allowance

When a pattern is to be withdrawn from the mould, it is first rapped or

shaken, by striking over it from side to side, so that its surface may be
free of the adjoining sand wall of the mould.
As a result of this the size of the mould cavity increases a little and a
negative allowance is to be provided in the pattern to compensate it.
It is negligible in small and medium sized castings.
Casting Defects
(a) Misruns, which are castings that solidify before completely filling the mold cavity.
Typical causes include (1) fluidity of the molten metal is insufficient, (2) pouring
temperature is too low, (3) pouring is done too slowly, and/or (4) cross-section of the
mold cavity is too thin.
(b) Cold Shuts, which occur when two portions of the metal flow together but there is a
lack of fusion between them due to premature freezing. Its causes are similar to those
of a misrun.
(c) Cold shots, which result from splattering during pouring, causing the formation of solid
globules of metal that become entrapped in the casting. Pouring procedures and gating
system designs that avoid splattering can prevent this defect.

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 Casting Defects
(d) Shrinkage cavity is a depression in the surface or an internal void in the casting, caused by
solidification shrinkage that restricts the amount of molten metal available in the last region
to freeze. It often occurs near the top of the casting, in which case it is referred to as a
pipe. The problem can often be solved by proper riser design.
(e) Microporosity consists of a network of small voids distributed throughout the casting
caused by localized solidification shrinkage of the final molten metal in the dendritic
structure.
(f) Hot tearing, also called hot cracking, occurs when the casting is restrained from contraction
by an unyielding mold during the final stages of solidification or early stages of cooling
after solidification. The defect is manifested as a separation of the metal (hence, the terms
tearing and cracking) at a point of high tensile stress caused by the metals inability to
shrink naturally.

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 Casting Defects
Some defects are related to the use of sand molds, and therefore they occur only in sand castings.
(a) Sand blow is a defect consisting of a balloon-shaped gas cavity caused by release of mold
gases during pouring. It occurs at or below the casting surface near the top of the casting.
Low permeability, poor venting, and high moisture content of the sand mold are the usual
causes.
(b) Pinholes, also caused by release of gases during pouring, consist of many small gas cavities
formed at or slightly below the surface of the casting.
(c) Sand wash, which is an irregularity in the surface of the casting that results from erosion of
the sand mold during pouring, and the contour of the erosion is formed in the surface of the
final cast part.
(d) Scabs are rough areas on the surface of the casting due to encrustations of sand and metal. It
is caused by portions of the mold surface flaking off during solidification and becoming
imbedded in the casting surface.

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Casting Defects
(e) Penetration refers to a surface defect that occurs when the fluidity of the liquid metal is
high, and it penetrates into the sand mold or sand core. Upon freezing, the casting surface
consists of a mixture of sand grains and metal. Harder packing of the sand mold helps to
alleviate this condition.
(f) Mold shift refers to a defect caused by a sidewise displacement of the mold cope relative
to the drag, the result of which is a step in the cast product at the parting line.
(g) Core shift is similar to mold shift, but it is the core that is displaced, and the displacement
is usually vertical. Core shift and mold shift are caused by buoyancy of the molten metal.
(h) Mold crack occurs when mold strength is insufficient, and a crack develops, into which
liquid metal can seep to form a fin on the final casting.

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 Problems
1. A cubic casting of 50 mm side undergoes volumetric solidification shrinkage and volumetric
solid contraction of 4% and 6% respectively. No riser is used. Assume uniform cooling in all
directions. The side of the cube after solidification and contraction is (GATE 2011)
(A) 48.32 mm (B) 49.90 mm (C) 49.94 mm (D) 49.96 mm

2. While cooling, a cubical casting of side 40 mm undergoes 3%, 4% and 5% volume shrinkage
during the liquid state, phase transition and solid state, respectively. The volume of metal
compensated from the riser is (GATE 2008)
(A) 2% (B) 7% (C) 8% (D) 9%

3. Gray cast iron blocks 20010010 mm are to be cast in sand moulds. Shrinkage allowance
for pattern making is 1%. The ratio of the volume of pattern to that of the casting will be
(GATE 2004)
(A) 0.97 (B) 0.99 (C) 1.01 (D) 1.03

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