AN EXPLORATORY STUDY OF CHINESE CONSUMER

AESTHETIC ATTITUDES ON PRODUCT DESIGN

Yaonan Lin
Department of Business Administration,
Lunghwa University of Science and Technology
No.300,Sec.1,Wanshou Rd.,Guishan, Taoyuan County 33306,Taiwan (R.O.C.)
yaonan1208@hotmail.com

Chih-Chung Chu
Department of Business Administration,
Lunghwa University of Science and Technology
No.300,Sec.1,Wanshou Rd.,Guishan, Taoyuan County 33306,Taiwan (R.O.C.)
ccchu@mail.lhu.edu.tw

Ching-Yi Lai
Department of Psychology
Fu-Jen Catholic University
510 Chung Cheng Rd., Hsinchuang, Taipei County 24205, Taiwan (R.O.C.)
vinlucie@yahoo.com.tw

ABSTRACT

Aesthetic product design has been booming in recent years. It determines consumers
purchasing intention and behaviors today. This study attempts to build a conceptual
framework of Chinese consumer aesthetic attitudes. Ten participants with aesthetic
background had the deep interviews in this study. According to the data analysis from
the interview content, we found there are six dimensions, Utility, Conformity,
Simplicity, Feeling, Westernization and Novelty related to Chinese consumer
aesthetic attitudes. Furthermore, the six dimensions are divided into two different
cultural backgrounds, Chinese culture and Western culture. The finding demonstrates
that Chinese consumer aesthetic attitudes are influenced by the cross-cultural context.
Finally, this study provides the ground for analyzing Chinese consumer psychological
mechanisms on aesthetics and product design.

KeywordsAesthetics, Aesthetic attitude, Product design, Culture

I. INTRODUCTION

1
Consumer aesthetics, such as aesthetic responses are focused on both academic and
practical fields in recent years (e.g., Olson, 1981; Veryzer, 1995), Design industry is
popular in the universal. Take Taiwan as example, design marketing has been raised in
the past half decade increasingly. In 2003, the total number of workers in design
service industries is 1.3 thousands, and its sales amounted to 257 billions (Council for
Economic Planning and Development, 2007). Lash and Urry (1994) suggested
consumers aesthetic experiences with large symbols and experiences are created
under current intensive designs on products and services. For example, the design of
celebrated Alessi works inspires consumers imagination, pleasure and aesthetic
senses. While product design certainly is essential in competitive market. Its success
is dominated by a beholders attitude toward aesthetics mostly.

Peoples attitudes toward art and consumption goods decide their judgment on
product appearances. Attitude is defined as an individuals consistent view centering
on cognition, affection, and behaviors. Consumer scholars Holbrook and Hirschman
(1982) indicated consuming is always depending on subjective consumer aesthetic
attitudes, stem from various value and cultural background. Undoubtedly, culture
shapes individual enormously. Culture is refers to a series of cognitive and learning
systems shared by group members within the same environment and formulates an
individuals behaviors. The understanding of individual indifference about aesthetic
attitudes, captures consumers behavior and intention, which path the way of design,
developments, and marketing strategies for competitive advantages in either academic
circle or industries related to product design.

All the above suggests that: (1) consumer aesthetics is a core within the growing
design industry and (2) consumer aesthetics are led by their attitudes and cultural
backgrounds few Chinese research incline to aesthetics on fine art or practical design
field rather than to consumer psychology. Therefore, a research designed for
understanding consumer aesthetic attitudes toward product appearance is necessary.

The purpose of this research is to find the effect of Chinese consumer aesthetic
attitudes on product design. This paper is divided into two sections. The first section
will focus on the literatures describing aesthetic, aesthetic consumption, and cultural
values. Next, according to this theoretical definition and a series of deep interviews,
an initial conceptual framework of Chinese consumer aesthetic attitudes is developed.
Finally, the research will provide some suggestions for practical implications.

II. LITERATURE BACKGROUND

2
Aesthetics and Aesthetic Experience
Chinese well-known aesthetician Zehou Li (1988) reviewed the local aesthetics,
mentioned that the Chinese character implies the cultural psychology. Mei
(beauty), formulated by the other two characters Yang (sheep) and Da (strong).
In Chinese Shuowen jiezi (The Explanation of Writing), a work introduces forms and
source of Chinese characters systemically, wrote that Yang da ze mei (A strong sheep
is beautiful). Li (1988) explained that there are two possible meanings of the phrase,
one is a direct association, which account for the reason that a strong sheep is looked
beautiful is due to its tasty. Here the beauty is related to sensation satisfaction.
Another interpretation is linked to the traditional dancing ritual, surrounded by
dancers with a head of sheep for adornment. Yang da(big sheep) indicated to the
decorations are looked magnificent. According to the above, the former represents
beauty equals to human sensibility, and the latter shows social and cultural meanings
convey with beautiful forms.

As for the term Meixue (Aesthetics), Li mentioned it borrowed from Japan, with
difficulties in definitions. Generally speaking, in China, The subject of Aesthetics
attempts to figure out beauty or is a kind of philosophy of art, centering on artistic
principles. Another Chinese aesthetician Guangquin Zhu (2003) mentioned that
aesthetics with features on abstraction and being far from practical needs, such as
physical satisfaction, presents to the scarcest value and human spirits in life.

Aesthetic Attitude within Experiences

Aesthetic experience is created by a beholders free will on an engaging object. As a
Chinese aesthetician Guangquin Zhu (2003) noted that the function of transference
often happens in aesthetic experience, which means that humans internal affection
projects on the external objects. He illustrated, When we are joyful, the land and the
earth seems to lift eyebrows and smile; when we are in sorrow, the wind, clouds,
flowers, and birds are signing and are melancholic. Clearly, the personification of
these objects reflects humans present mental state. The objects take up peoples
affection, imagination and will, and lead the unique aesthetic experience.

Along with aesthetic experience comes aesthetic judgment. As Winner (1982) noted
that the universal generality exists among human being has some degrees, yet some
individual difference are represented as well. He mentioned that the differences are
developed for intelligence, affection, acumen, and abilities. That above accounts
offers a cue that an art scholar has more understanding on art works rather than others.

3
While aesthetic experience appears as a beholder watching an object viewed aesthetic,
aesthetic attitude is involved. Martha and Iain (1995) indicated that attitude is a kind
of evaluation of objects, and is expressed by like/ dislike, approach/ avoid, and
good/bad linguistically. Levels of attitude depend on either cognition, such as
categorical systems in minds, or social communication, such as one label is
communicated within a group. Finally, attitude may drive intention and behavior as an
object or event he cares are controllable (Brehm, Kassin, & Fein, 2002).
Appreciation Shifts from Artworks to Products
There are some similarities between artwork pieces and product. Like an artwork, a
product has the same elements, including shape or forms, colors and quality. Also, a
product offers aesthetic experiences, stimulates personal affections, pleasant senses,
and meanings as an artwork does. The differences between the two may be the
functions in life and the ways of exposure.

For example, Mary Stokrocki (2001), the professor of art in Arizona State University,
adopted Duncums (1999) art educational idea, leading students to everyday fields,
including commercial or cultural sites, since there are filled with various aesthetic
materials, recorded an leaning tour about shopping mall with her high school students
in Go to the mall and get it all: Adolescents aesthetic values in the shopping mall.
Stokrocki gave commented on adolescents collections, such as CD, fanciful dolls,
and so on, Most aesthetic decisions involved nostalgia attachments, hero worship,
future investment, and some sensory and size curiosity, as well as acceptance,
reflects the meanings of a product with aesthetics may go beyond our imagination.

In the study, aesthetic attitude is applied to product design rather than artworks. In the
following, we will draw the features of the former. However, unlike an artwork,
product design needs to be examined contextually. First, the aesthetic appearance
comes with the characteristics of a product, relating to practical considerations.
Second, a product is taken in consideration on consuming or marketing field.
Petroski (2005) emphasized that design appeals both the functional and aesthetic
appeals, stressed, The design ideal should be totally integrated function and form,
and to call something a well-designed object should imply that it excels in both.
Interestingly, a product design with a reputation of timeless value would be displayed
like art works. That is why he noted that there are some design works as
masterpieces and classics in the museums.

Bloch (1995) indicated four contributions of product design: (1) evoking consumers

4
attention; (2) informing product attributes, brand identities and so on; (3) enhancing
quality of living; (4) bringing pleasing environment.

In sum, products are around our life, so their aesthetics moderate our moods and
emotions, and sensory strongly. As Petroski (2005) emphasized all well-designed
things embody within them the spirit of achievement and improvement that makes the
world and our experience in it more pleasant and enjoyable. We could say that design
is useful for our society.
Cultural Impacts on Aesthetic Attitudes
A culture circle may be formulated by the same race, who shares similar personalities
for genes. As Morse, Reis, Gruzen, and Wolff (1974) indicated that personalities may
bring into preference. On the other hand, since culture is a series of cognitive and
learning systems shared by group members within the same environment and
formulates an individuals behaviors, a nations aesthetic views are formulated under
their unique historical context.

Chinese scholar Li (1988) argued that Aesthetics should be researched by multi

views and ways to understand the whole system. Similarly, from Western
perspectives, Blocker (2001) noted, we need to ask ourselves whether Western forms
of knowledge are appropriate for understanding non-Western forms of culture; in
particular, whether Western aesthetics is appropriate for understanding and
appreciating non-Western art. Ecker (1998) also mentioned that the object/ event(X)
can be perceived as a work of art (Y) only in a cultural context (Z). He argued that
comprehension of arts from other countries is limited by a role of outsider. Taking
translating poem as example, he sated, Just as poems cannot be translated, their
interpreted meanings cannot be transmitted across cultures intact.

In short, a single vision on aesthetics is doubtable. Cultural differences should be

considered in the aesthetic field. Blocker (2001) argued that the term and the concept
of aesthetics, derived from the Western world may not apply to non-Western
cultures, such as Chinese, Indian, African, and other countries. Understanding local
aesthetics is necessary in consequence, and we are able to develop advanced
consumer researches based on the concepts.

III. Research Method

We will follow the above theoretical definitions and following deep interviews to

5
develop a framework of Chinese consumer aesthetic attitudes. We conducted a series
of deep semi-structured interviews. Ten people volunteered to participate in our study.
Six females and four males with aesthetic taste, were selecting from a community, and
consisted of a convenient sample; their ages are ranging from 25 to 55 years. Up to
80% have college or above degree, and most of their occupations are related to art or
design industries.

These interviews led by an interviewer, i.e. the authors in turn, whose role was to
evaluate the time when to start and clarify questions for interviewees. The interview
questions are semi-structured. For example, Could you describe the process of
appreciating product design? or What kind of products do you think is beautiful?
to figure out local consumers aesthetic attitudes. Also, the interviewees talked about
aesthetic experience in their real life and the content was not limited to answer in our
original question. However, it was something that we already saw as integral to
understanding what makes aesthetic attitudes meaningful. This conversation was also
audio-taped and transcribed to provide additional data.

Two researchers, one professor in marketing and one graduate student in psychology,
read through the data together. We began to identify categories based on the research
questions. These categories included context, defining and naming Chinese aesthetic
attitudes on product design, function of aesthetic perceptions, relationships, and text.
We transformed from recording data, and purify those data which is consistent with
the literatures, and made coding marks according to the key concepts, the resultant
dimensions are introduced in the next section. We identified several different
dimensions from participants aesthetic attitudes. As we identified each dimension, we
also wrote detailed explanations about what these dimension meant and continued
adding to these explanations and previous literatures as we made our way through the
interview data.

IV. Dimensional Relations

Utilitarian
Utilitarian consumer behavior has been described as ergic, task-related, and rational
(Batr & Ahtola, 1991; Engel, Blackwell, & Miniard, 1993; Sherry, 1990b). Utilitarian
always think a product shopping is purchased in a deliberant and efficient manner
(Babin, 1994). Babin et al. introduced two kinds of shopping value, one is utilitarian
as work, and the other is hedonic as fun. Interestingly, the distinction between the two
is not so absolutely. Some shoppers experienced both. For instance, a consumer may

6
get a bargain easily, so hunting is fun and achievement equals to work at the same
time. Similarly, products may have both functional and aesthetic levels. The meanings
of functions or utility may refer to quality, implying the utility rate of the goods.
In our interview, several Chinese consumers expressed a beautiful product must
satisfy their practical needs rather than other needs, especially in hedonic needs. For
instance, one young female noted:

The goods must be durable. I anticipate how long I will use before buying a product. It must be
used for the time I expect in advance. It can not be used for only two monthsand then be
broken. [A05W11]

Some consumers emphasized directly the functions of a beautiful goods is

important for them:
I like the chairit makes us feel comfortable even though it is prettyIt is pretty but is filled with
amazing functions. [A05W12]

The other consumer expressed in the same way:

Some goods do not have ergonomics. It is hard to operate, so that I will not buy it. It is not a real
pretty thing! [A04W07]

Therefore, Chinese consumers focus on practical value within product appreciation.

Maybe it is because the saving value is rooted in the Chinese culture. As Lin and
Lai (2007) indicated that Chinese society was undeveloped previously, so that
peoples practical values grew. For example, they may spend more time to seek to
cheap products. On the other hand, Chinese aesthetic highlights spirituality, the
consumers may consider products as artworks with their own feelings consequently.
The above explains why Chinese do not mind taking much time on searching an ideal
product, but also keep it carefully. It is because that they have appreciated the
products with aesthetic views deeply, the outcome is they will treasure the products all
their lives. In other words, such thoughts have been developing in the living
environment historically, and formed as a pre-comprehension, (i.e. a leading way of
peoples understandings) which even suppresses the desire to be beauty. In this way,
a beautiful product is considered from a practical view.

Simplicity
Simplicity may be popular in the current world. Zhan (2005) suggested that simple
style, such as minimalism, was originated from Bauhaus school in German in the
early 20th century. These scholars asserted that form follows function, expressing

7
simple principle. The reason that promoted was because they believed the way of
manufacturing industry products or architectures was faster and cheaper, and would
benefit more people. Zhan analyzed that unlike the reflection from individualists in
Bauhaus spirits, the present popularity of simple style conveys an invitation of
aesthetic freedom, which refers to the philosophy of products with few decorations
allows consumers create their own aesthetics in the left space. On the other hand,
under the reflection of environmental protection and refusal of complex styles in post-
modernism, simple style is emphasized in current Taiwan, from dishes to interior
design (Feng, 2007). In our study, several consumers in the interviews emphasized
their preference of simple style:

Under the consideration of aesthetic shapes (of products), I will select those with simple lines. It is
not probably so shiny ones, but more unobvious and has not delicate lines, patterns, decorations
and so on. [A01M05]

My style is simpler. If a products patterns are vulgar, even though it is luxury, I do not like them.
Some people like to wear dresses with laces or complex lines, in which I would not appreciate.
[A04W08]

I like to simple and clean style. Without any decorations or patterns would be better and pretty.
[A05W11]

Even though an individual with high aesthetic abilities may preference of complex
styles because such visual perception leading challenging cognition dealing (Winner ,
1982), the aesthetic preference for simplicity in Chinese area may reflect deeper
connation rather than interpretation for a picture but their spirits, which are
developed in the basis of the ethnical personalities and external environment. As Lin
and Lai (2007) stated that Chinese thoughts involve Dao and Zen, that promotes
simple life for seeking spirits in higher level. Thus, the cultural background may
brings the result that can not be translated form Western interpretations.

Conformity
Conformity exists in the collectivism cultural of the Chinese society. Hofestede
(1980) claimed that Chinese culture emphasizes collectivism. It includes a persons
duties to family, clan, and state. Conversely, American culture supports the individual
personality. Conformity is an individual intending to have the same perception or
behavior as general public. In the Chinese society, conformity is significant for the
interpersonal relationship which is called GuanXi in Chinese. The issue is popular

8
in business and management field (e.g. Fock & Woo, 1998; Park & Luo, 2001). An
article title, In China, 'Guanxi Is Everything (Fox, 1987), even expressed
straightforwardly. GuanXi refers to interpersonal relationship, in which people
satisfy each others needs. An individuals net of GuanXi offers resources and leads
a better life (Lee & James, 1996). Thus, the effect of GuanXi is existing in China,
of course, Chinese aesthetic attitude is related to the cultural characteristic. For
example, one interview member expressed his friends views on product leads his
aesthetic judgments:

If my friends are using any products, I feel they (products) are looked wonderful gradually and then
go to buy (the same ones). [A06M03]

Also, the closeness of relationship strengthen Chinese preferences. Pitta, Fung, and
Isberg (1999) mentioned that relatives, classmates, friends, and other relationships
derived form them are all Chinese important GuanXi. Fei (1948) noted that Chinese
relationship network is like a concentric circles, the centre is self, and the further of
the centre, the weaker the relationship is. The description conveys Chinese has a clear
mind map about GuanXi. An interview member expressed similar meaning:

The closer the relationship is, the further the influence isfor example, if I go shopping with my
best friend, I would value their point of views. Their opinions may even replace my judgement
to decide the thing is beautiful or not. [A01M13]

In addition, when a product strong prompted on TV commercials and emphasize most

people appreciate it rather than other products. Chinese consumers are always
persuaded easily due to conformity tendency. One male interviewee noted:
I purchase those are in promotion for curiosity. The more the advertising (of the products)
promotes, the better it looks. [A06M04]

According to the above descriptions, Chinese easily consider others views on

product appearance. Following the public judgments makes them feel a sense of
security. They feel family members or friends are reliable, including their opinions on
aesthetic of products. Besides, product on media makes Chinese appreciate because
they may like to own objects which most people share. In other words, there is a
invisible rule between Chinese society, that makes most people follow, even on their
aesthetic tastes.

Feeling

9
Hedonic affection is an essence of Chinese aesthetics, allowing individuals
imagination represents subjectively. Pan (1994) argued that American culture
emphasizes external experiences and the world of things. Chinese culture emphasizes
inner experiences of meaning and feeling, such as stability and harmony. For instance,
Li (1988) described that day and night are able to be presented without shifting
lightings in the Chinese traditional opera stage, and the time and space can be
transcended in Chinese paintings and verses. One male consumer illustrated his
association with product images:

I am attracted by an ornament because of its form or quality. Maybe it has some characteristics
or patterns that I appreciate. For instance, I once bought a necklace, which pendant is a metal
picker. I am a rock bug, so the picker is associated with rock. Also, the picker is looked ancient
for attaching a color of dark brass, which makes me feel more mature. [A01M08]

As for another female consumer, she even noted the attraction of a product design is a
kind of Yuan (predestination; Karma), a common but abstract idea all over China.
For example, Chinese often mentions if we are destined to meet we will meet though
a thousand miles separate us; if we are not destined we will not meet though we be
face to face.

For instance, the blouse I wear now, you see it is very simple and its color is mild. Some
products may have some little features which is serendipity. [A04W07]

In this way, appreciation is a sensual activity for Chinese. They must not be affected
unless they feel an object is really charming. And once they are attracted by an object
or product, they will involve deep because they easily attach self to the objects, even
since they are meant to meet.

Westernization
Yie and Qiu (1996) indicated that Chinese tend to admire Western images, since the
Western countries are well-developed. Therefore, the brands of the Western countries
are viewed as a symbol of spiritual materialism, which is associated with welfare
and positions. Some members in the interview strongly express the Western product
design is superior:

Personally speaking, I quite worship the Western designBecause the quality and appearance (of
products) is better than local ones. Their fashion industry is progressed for a long time
[A04W05]

10
 Mostly, products designed by foreigners move me than local ones. After all, few Taiwanese
products do not design well[A05W13]

He and Chen (2005) proposed that globalization leads Chinese to Western lifestyles
and international brands. And in their study, they also found that one Chinese segment
is social status, which implies Chineses pursuit of the advanced and modern image
from Western country. Chinese design industry also reflects such phenomenon. Feng
(2007) argued that Chinese designers should be more confident with themselves and
show their national characteristics on works.

Novelty
Hekkert et al. (2003) considered novelty as objects with more stimuli, and which is
contract from typically. Petroski (2005) described the seeking of novelty is natural
for human being, Designers are forever seeking to improve and go beyond what is. It
is a human trait that is felt most strongly in creative people, which designers certainly
are. The Chinese inhabitants in Taiwan were immigrated historically, have been
shaped their attitudes of tolerance. On the other hand, Taiwanese society is democratic
and more Westernized, which allows various new ideas to present. Their aesthetic
creativity and novelty are encouraged. For example, in recent years, Taiwanese
government has promoted Cultural and Creative Industry, and Creative Life
Industries, including fields of food, cloth, residence, transport, recreation, and
entertainment. We found Chinese begin to emphasize external experiences and the
world of new and unique things. As a female consumer stated that:

I like unusual products! it is because of my personalities. For instance, I bought a fluorescent scarf. I
thought that if I wear in black and white and also with the scarf. It is quite cool[A07W05]

In terms of individual, Chinese cognitive styles are also considered flexible and
innovative (Martinsons & Martinsons, 1996), which may extend to aesthetics in their
life. For example, a young consumer in the interview said,

I pursuit of uniqueness. For instance, in the shopping mall, there are often more than dozens of
the same products are displayed, so that I can make sure that at least there are dozens of people
have the same products. However, if I go a designers shop or a boutique, almost every product is
few[A08M12]

The above background points out that Chinese begin to appreciate creative products,

11
and believe that these products are beautiful, while they keep eyes on their original
aesthetic tradition. In other words, for historical reason, Chinese insist on aesthetic for
spirit; for modern reason, seek to novel aesthetics satisfy their minds to external
worlds as Western people.

Finally, according to above descriptions, we further found the six dimensions seem to
be drawn into two different cultural categories, Chinese culture and Western culture.
Utility, Conformity, Simplicity, and Feeling are derived from the Chinese
traditional value. Conversely, Westernization and Novelty are from the Western
culture influences. Because of communication technologies, such as Internet, and
huge global economic systems, like WTO, every cultures old traditional value system
is changing. Like many cross-cultural phenomenon in rituals, cultural artifacts, and
human cognitions, the Chinese culture and Western culture have different concepts of
traditional values but the values are mixed under the cultural melt (Gudykunst, Ting-
Toomey, & Nishida, 1996).

V. Conclusion

Consumer aesthetic attitudes are varied in different cultural contexts. Nevertheless,

the critical issue has not been well illuminated in past research. The intention of the
research was to conceptualize and develop a framework about the Chinese consumer
aesthetic attitudes on product design. After reviewing and analyzing literatures and
deep interviews in Chinese aesthetic consumptions, we found that consumer aesthetic
value and preference are related to their cultural values. Figure 1 presents the
conceptual framework of Chinese aesthetic attitude:

Utility
AESTHETIC
VALUES
Conformity ity
CHINESE
Traditional
CONSUMER
Simplicity Chinese value
ity
AESTHETIC
ATTITUDES
Feeling
ity Western
culture value
Westernization
ity

Originality
ity

12
 Figure 1: The Framework of Chinese Consumer Aesthetic Attitudes

As the above Figure 1, Chinese consumers aesthetic attitudes are influenced by their
traditional Chinese values and the Western culture at the same time. The mixed effects
make them have different aesthetic views on product design or appearance.
Traditional Chinese value makes people depend on product utility, simple context,
intuitional feeling, and public opinions to judge the product design. On the other hand,
the strong invading Western culture, westernization and novelty, also influences
Chinese aesthetic attitudes. Finally, as mentioned above, the Chinese culture and
Western culture have different concepts of traditional values but the values are mixed
in the Chinese society.

VI. Suggestion and Contribution

According to above process here are some expected findings and contributions, First,
our findings represented that Chinese consumer aesthetic attitudes are deeply
influenced by its unique cultural background, since the concepts derived from
different regions may be various, Our framework of the research offers a well-
organized scale for understand Chinese consumer aesthetic attitudes. Second, our
finding guides further researches on psychological process, for instance, in terms of
culture, consumers may have different aesthetic experience on products, and their
responses such as liking purchasing intention, and purchase behavior are in different
ways. Therefore, the result of the research offers a ground for analyzing Chinese
consumer psychological mechanisms on aesthetic products. Third, the results of the
paper contributes to global marketing field, since consumer aesthetic attitudes on
colors, shapes, labels and packages of a product, is the essence at target, and
consumer basic assumptions are different culture by culture. In this way, investigating
Chinese consumer attitudes contributes the insights of local consumers, and has
practical implication in marketing as well.

References

Babin, B. J., Darden, W. R., & Griffin, M. (1994). Work and/or Fun: Measuring
Hedonic and Utilitarian Shopping Value. Journal of Consumer Research. 20, 644
56.
Bloch, P. H. (1995). Seeking the Ideal Form: Product Design and Consumer
Response. Journal of Marketing, 59, 16-29.

13
Blocker, H. G. (2001). Non-western aesthetics as a colonial invention. Journal of
Aesthetic Education. 35 (4), 3-20.
Council for Economic Planning and Development (November 15, 2004). January 30,
2008, from http://www.cepd.gov.tw/encontent/.
Ecker, D.W. (1998). Navigating global cultures: A phenomenological aesthetics for
well-being in the twenty-first century. Journal of Aesthetic Education. 32(1).
Engel, J. F., Blackwell, R.D., & Miniard, P. W. (1993). Consumer Behavior, Chicago:
Dryden.
Falk, Pasi. 1994. The Consuming Body. London: Sage.
Fei, X. T. (1948).Provincial China and Reconstruction of Home Town. Shanghai:
Guan-cha-she.
Feng, Y. H. (2007). Modernization of Chinese Style Design and its Trend in the Early
21th Century. Proceedings of the International Conference of Eastern Design
Style, 31-50.
Fock, H. K. Y., & Woo, K. S. (1998).The China market: Strategic implications of
Guanxi. Business Strategy Review. 9 (3), 33-44.
Fox, M. (1987). Marketing/Advertising Research: In China, 'Guanxi Is Everything.'
Advertising Age (Midwest region edition). 58, Iss. 47.
Grunert, S.C., & Scherlorn, G. (1990). Consumer values in West Germany underlying
dimensions and cross-cultural comparison with North America. Journal of
Business Research.20, 97-107.
Gudykunst, W. B., Stella Ting-Toomey, and Tsukasa Nishida. (1996). Communication
in Personal Relationships Across Cultures. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage
Publications.
He, Z., & Chen, X. (2005). Understanding the Structure of China's Consumer
Electronics Market: An Empirical Investigation of Its Consumer Segments.
Multinational Business Review. 13(2), 43-61.
Hekkert, P., Snelders, D., & van Wieringen, P. C.W. (2003). ''Most advanced, yet
acceptable'': typicality and novelty as joint predictors of aesthetic preference in
industrial design. British Journal of Psychology,94, 111-124.
Heller, Steven (March 08, 2005). Henry Petroski: Most Advanced Yet Acceptable.
January 30, 2008, from http://www.aiga.org/content.cfm/henry-petroski-most-
advanced-yet-acceptable.
Hofstede, Geert.(1980). Culture's consequences: International Differences in Work
Related Values. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage Publications.
Holbrook, M. B., & Hirschman, E. C. (1982). The experiential aspects of
consumption: Consumer fantasies, feelings, and fun. Journal of Consumer
Research. 9 (2), 132-140.

14
Industrial Development Bureau, Ministry of Economic (2005). January 30, 2008,
from http://www.creativelife.org.tw/creative/focus_e1.php
Lash, S. & Urry, J. (1994). Economies of Signs and Space. LondonSage.
Li, Z. H. (1988). Four Lectures on Aesthetics. Taipei: Ren-jian.
Lin, Y. N., & Lai, C.Y. (2007). Consumers Aesthetic Perceptions on Products in
Chinese Cultural Context: Main Issues and Research Propositions.
Proceedings of the International Conference of Eastern Design Style, 70-83.
Liu, W.G. (2006).The lifestyle society: Taipei: Tian-xia.
Lowe, A. C T. & Corkindale, D.R. ( 1998). Differences in cultural values and their
effects on responses to marketing stimuli. European Journal of Marketing, 32(5),
843-867.
Martinsons, M.G., & Martinsons, A.B.(1996). Conquering cultural constraints to
cultivate Chinese management creativity and innovation. The Journal of
Management Development. 15(9),18.
McCort, D. J., & Malhotra, N. K. (1993). Culture and consumer behavior: toward an
understanding of cross-cultural consumer behavior in international marketing.
Journal of International Consumer Marketing, 6(2), 91-127.
McCracken, G. (1989). Who is the celebrity endorser? Cultural foundations of the
endorsement process. Journal of Consumer Research, 16(3), 310-321.
Morse, S. J., Reis, H. T., Gruzen, J., & Wolff, E. (1974). The "eye of the beholder":
Determinants of physical attractiveness judgments in the U.S. and South Africa.
Journal of Personality,42, 528-542.
Park, S.H., & Luo, Y. (2001).Guanxi and organizational dynamics: Organizational
networking in Chinese firms. Strategic Management Journal. 22 (5), 455-477.
Pitta, D. A., Fung, H.G., & Isberg, S. (1999). Ethical issues across cultures: managing
the differing perspectives of China and the USA. The Journal of Consumer
Marketing, 16(3), 240.
Stokrocki , M.(2001).Go to the mall and get it all: Adolescentsaesthetic values in the
shopping mall. Art Education. 54 (2), 18-23.
Tansuhaj, P., Patriya, J.W., John, J., Manzer, L.L., & Cho, B.J. (1991). A cross-
national examination of innovation resistance. International Marketing Review,
8(3), 7-20.
Tu , J.C., & Cheng, S.M. (2004).A Study of the Relationship between Chinese
Philosophy and Design Thinking Journal of Da-Yeh University. 13 (2),61-68.
Veryzer, R.W. (1995). The place of product design and aesthetics in consumer
research. Advances in consumer research. 22, 641.
Winner, E. (1982). Invented WorldsThe Psychology of the Arts. Harvard University
Press.

15
Ye,Y. Q., & Qiu, W. B. (2003). Culture of Coffee or Culture of worshiping
Westernization: Starbucks Coffee Chain Stores as a case. Proceedings of the
Conference of Management of Sustainability on Tourism, Leisure and
Hospitability Industry.563-574.
Zhu, G. Q. (2003). Discursive of Arts. Ming-tian
Zhan, W.X. (2005). Aesthetic Economy: 60 Micro-observation of Taiwan Society.
Taipei: Feng-ge-she.

16