CONTENTS

CHAPTER 1 ................................................................................................................................... 1
TRANSPORT ECONOMICS.........................................................................................................................1
THE NEGATIVE EFFECT OF TRANSPORTATION ............................................................................1
MODE OF TRANSPORT ..............................................................................................................................2
CARRIAGE OF TOXIC AND DANGEROUS GOODS (MATERIALS) BY ROAD..........................4

CHAPTER 2 ................................................................................................................................... 8
WORKSHOP LAYOUT ..................................................................................................................................8
FACTORS FOR SELECTING WORKSHOP LAYOUT ..........................................................................8
WORKSHOP SERVICES REQUIRED .......................................................................................................8
HYDRAULIC CONTINUITY................................................................................................................... 10
PRESSURIZING AND MOVING THE FUEL .................................................................................... 11
ANCILLARY POWER NEEDS ................................................................................................................. 17
WAREHOUSING .......................................................................................................................................... 17
CHARACTERISTICS OF IDEAL WAREHOUSES .............................................................................. 19
FUNCTIONS OF WAREHOUSES ........................................................................................................... 19
THE WAREHOUSING PROCESS ........................................................................................................... 23

CHAPTER 3 .................................................................................................................................26
MECHANICAL WORKSHOP LAYOUT................................................................................................. 26
FITTING WORKSHOP LAYOUT ............................................................................................................ 26
MACHINE SHOP LAYOUT ....................................................................................................................... 26
LAYOUT OF FOUNDRY SHOP ............................................................................................................... 27
LAYOUT OF SMITHY AND FORGING SHOP .................................................................................... 28
MATERIAL HANDLING EQUIPMENT ................................................................................................ 28
MATERIAL HANDLING EQUIPMENT CATEGORIES .................................................................... 28
CRANES .......................................................................................................................................................... 41

CHAPTER 4 .................................................................................................................................53
BULK MATERIAL HANDLING ............................................................................................................... 53

CHAPTER 5 .................................................................................................................................75
FUEL STORAGE AND ISSUE
ANNUAL TEST (MOT) FOR LORRIES, BUSES AND TRAILERS ............................................... 86
TRANSPORTING HAZARDOUS OR DANGEROUS GOODS IN A TRUCK OR CAR .............. 88
WHAT ARE HAZARDOUS GOODS? ..................................................................................................... 88
DOMESTIC OR RECREATIONAL USE ............................................................................. 88
COMMERCIAL USE ......................................................................................................... 89
CARRYING SMALL QUANTITIES OF DANGEROUS GOODS ...................................................... 89
CARRYING LARGE QUANTITIES OF DANGEROUS GOODS ...................................................... 89
TECHNICAL INFORMATION ................................................................................................................. 89
PLACARDS, LABELLING AND SIGNAGE ........................................................................................... 90
GETTING A D ENDORSEMENT ON YOUR DRIVER LICENSE ................................................... 90
CHAPTER 6................................................................................................................................................... 91
THE VEHICLE CLASSIFICATION AND REGISTRATION REGULATIONS ............................. 91

ii
CHAPTER 1

TRANSPORT ECONOMICS
Transport Economics is the study of the movement of people and goods over space
and time. It is a branch of economics that deals with the allocation and management
of resources and infrastructures within the transport sector.

Why is transport economics important?

Transport economics is very essential for the smooth running of the economy:
If goods cannot reach their markets, then people cannot specialize and so overall
output and income would be lower.
If transport is expensive, then the price of goods will rise and demand will be
less. This will imply lower standards of living.
If people cannot move freely around the country their choices are restricted and
the quality of their life will be lower.
These are all reasons why we need a good transport system, but there is another way
to look at it.

THE NEGATIVE EFFECT OF TRANSPORTATION

Transport causes negative externalities such as: Loss of land, noise, pollution,
global warming, accidents and blight (disease).
Congestion is also a negative externality and lead to higher stress levels as
journey times take longer.
Demand for transport is rising as more and more people demand their own
independent means of transport. The system of roads cannot cope and public
transport is seen as an expensive, dirty and awkward alternative.

Transport, like any other sector of the economy, demands scarce resources to use.
The question is what is the efficient allocation of resources to transport? If we leave it
to the market, we are likely to see a misallocation due to the many negative
externalities. People want to travel more, however, and so the problem is acute as we
reach the limit of the transport system to cope and global warming becomes a more
immediate problem.

THE NATURE OF TRANSPORT

Elements of transport, we have two areas of concern, which includes
1. Transport infrastructure; 2. Transport type.
a. Transport infrastructure: This refers to the physical and immovable transport
routes such as roads, railways and canals. It also includes airports and sea ports as
the terminals of air routes and sea routes. The ability of households, firms or
government to consume transport services depends on the available
infrastructure.
b. Transport type: This refers to the mode of transport such as walking, bicycles,
motor cars, trains, aero planes, boats and ships.

Together these two factors meet the demand for transport services in the economy.
The availability of one does not mean that the transport service can be provided
efficiently, e.g. having a car does not help a lot when there are no roads. In most
cases the provision of infrastructure is left to the government because of the problem
of public goods and the externalities that transport systems cause, e.g. noise and

1
pollution. The private provision of transport infrastructure is becoming more
common, e.g. the channel tunnel, but usually involves government consent.
MODE OF TRANSPORT
Mode of transport is a term used to distinguish substantially different ways to
perform. The different modes of transport are air, water, and land transport, which
includes rail, road and off-road transport. Other modes also exist, including pipelines,
cable transport, and space transport. Human-powered transport and animal-
powered transport are sometimes regarded as their own mode, but these normally
also fall into the other categories. In general, transportation is used for the movement
of people, animals, and other things. Each mode of transport has a fundamentally
different technological solution, and some require a separate environment. Each
mode has its own infrastructure, vehicles, and operations.
AIR: A fixed-wing aircraft, typically airplane,
is a heavier-than-air flight vehicle, in which
the special geometry of the wing generates
lift. Fixed-wing aircraft ranges from small
trainers and recreational aircraft to large
airliners and military cargo aircraft.
For short distances or in places without runways
LAND TRANSPORTATION: Land transport covers all land-based transportation
systems that provide for the movement of people, goods and services. Land
transport plays a vital role in linking communities to each other. Land transport is
a key factor in urban planning. It consists of 2 kinds, rail and road.
RAIL: Rail transport is a means of conveyance
of passengers and goods by way of wheeled
vehicles running on rail track, known as a
railway or railroad. The rails are anchored
perpendicular to railroad train consists of one
or more connected vehicles that run on the
rails. Propulsion is commonly provided by a
locomotive that hauls a series of unpowered
cars that can carry passengers or freight.
The locomotive can be powered by steam, diesel or by electricity supplied by
trackside systems. Alternatively, some or all the cars can be powered, known as a
multiple unit. Also, a train can be powered by horses, cables, gravity, pneumatics
and gas turbines. Railed vehicles move with much less friction than rubber tires on
paved roads, making trains more energy efficient, though not as efficient as ships.
ROAD: A road is an identifiable route of travel, usually surfaced with gravel,
asphalt or concrete, and supporting land passage by foot or by a number of
vehicles. The most common road vehicle in the developed world is the automobile,
a wheeled passenger vehicle that carries its own motor. Other users of roads
include motorcars, motorcycles, buses, trucks, bicycles and pedestrians, and
special provisions are sometimes made for each of these. For example, the use of
bus lanes give priority for public transport, and cycle lanes provide special areas
of road for bicycles to use.
Motorcars offer high flexibility, but are deemed
with high energy and area use, and the main
source of noise and air pollution in cities; buses
allow for more efficient travel at the cost of
reduced flexibility. Road transport by truck is
often the initial and final stage of freight
transport.

2
 WATER: Water transport is the process of
transport that a watercraft, such as a barge,
boat, ship or sailboat, makes over a body of
water, such as a sea, ocean, lake, canal or
river. If a boat or other vessel can
successfully pass through a waterway it is
known as a navigable waterway.
The need for buoyancy unites watercraft, and makes the hull a dominant aspect of
its construction, maintenance and appearance. When a boat is floating on the
water the hull of the boat is pushing aside water where the hull now is, this is
known as displacement.
PIPELINE: Pipeline transport sends goods
through a pipe, most commonly liquid and
gases are sent, but pneumatic tubes can also
send solid capsules using compressed air. For
liquids/gases, any chemically stable liquid or
gas can be sent through a pipeline. Short-
distance systems exist for sewage, slurry water
and beer, while long-distance networks are
used for petroleum and natural gas.
CABLE: Cable transport is a broad mode where
vehicles are pulled by cables instead of an internal
power source. It is most commonly used at steep
gradient. Typical solutions include aerial tramway,
elevators, escalator and ski lifts; some of these are
also categorized as conveyor transport.

SPACE: Space transport is transport out of

Earth's atmosphere into outer space by means
of a spacecraft. While large amounts of research
have gone into technology, it is rarely used
except to put satellites into orbit, and conduct
scientific experiments. However, man has
landed on the moon, and probes have been sent
to all the planets of the Solar System.

HEAVY GOODS VEHICLES: Heavy vehicles are those with a total weight above
3,500 kg. (vehicle + load). Heavy goods vehicles are over-involved in fatal crashes,
since their high mass leads to severe consequences for other road users in crashes.
In view of this and the growth in heavy good vehicle traffic internationally over
the last twenty years, the safety of heavy goods vehicles continues to be strictly
regulated in the best performing countries in road safety and action by HGV
companies encouraged. Mandatory regulation at EU level has been limited to date
and though technical standards exist they tend to be optional. However, discussion
is underway to bring trucks and buses into the EU Whole Vehicle Type Approval
System alongside cars and motorcycles.

3
CARRIAGE OF TOXIC AND DANGEROUS GOODS (MATERIALS) BY ROAD

CONSIGNING
Consignors must ensure;
Classify goods are dangerous or not dangerous ADR Not applicable
prohibited
Contain/ package the dangerous goods
Label and mark packages (to identify the hazard and goods)
Produce a dangerous goods transport document
Ensure carrier is compet
competent to carry DG
Provide the carrier with information and documents

MAKING AND LABELING OF PACKAGES

4
Handling loading, unloading and stowage
Check goods are permitted for carriage
Protection of goods
Segregation/ mixed loading
No smoking
Cleaning after unloading

Loading and stowage

5
Dangerous goods safety advisor
Appoint a DGSA if activities are above small quantity loads.

ANCILLARY HANDLING EQUIPMENT

Pallet forks

Pallet forks have lifting capacity of 2tonnes. They are used for lifting palletized goods,
fully adjustable width and height, complete with safety net.
Mechanical Grab o or Block Grab

6
They are designed for bulk handling, rock handling, dredging, digging operations with
lifting capacity of 1.5tonnes. They are also designed to lift, move and release
numerous types of blocks, bricks, safely on a building site or yard.
MAN RIDING BASKET

The Man Riding Basket is designed to provide a safe method of lifting people on site.
The basket has varying sizes that are suited to every application such as 1 man, 2
man, 3 man, 4 man, 6 man 8 man options. Equally, there are round, square and
rectangular baskets to match your need.
These man riding baskets are to be used with cranes to assist with safe working at
height on a construction site, but there are options suitable for use with forklift
trucks if that is better suited to the vehicles you have on site.
ROUND CONCRETE SKIP

Concrete skip is designed to meet the specific needs of pouring concrete into
formwork. Also, for quick pouring of concrete in high volume.
They are of Half yard capacity. Design also allows accurate discharge of concrete,
ideal for shuttering applications.
ROLL OVER MUCK SKIP

They are of Half yard capacity and are designed for handling debris and loose
materials. Easy tilt and empty action.

7
CHAPTER 2

WORKSHOP LAYOUT
Workshop layouts are designed for the following:
Repair work
For servicing vehicles
For trucks sales and hire
For the sale of parts
FACTORS FOR SELECTING WORKSHOP LAYOUT
1. The starting capital
2. The Access road
3. The Land
4. The Planning permission
5. A solicitor (Lawyer)
6. An architect for building work.
If all the above requirements are met, then the layout of the site would be covered in
detail and would be required for planning purposes.

WORKSHOP SERVICES REQUIRED

The services required in a workshop are given below:
Lubrication
Washing, cleaning, polishing and vacuuming
Battery maintenance
Brake testing and adjustment
Complete car and commercial maintenance contract service
Decarburizing, valve grinding and engine running service
Cylinder reconditioning
Tire repairing and tire vulcanizing
Wheel alignment and balancing
Headlamp adjustment
Overhaul and repair of complete electrical equipment
Heavy repairs and breakdown salvage
Crash repair work
Body renovation and refinishing
Van and lorry hire service
The position of vehicle inspection pits should not be too close to boundary walls of
workshops, in order to allow the vehicle, drive over the pit with possibility to
withdraw half shafts or have enough room to work on wheel hubs. Vehicles pits
should be sunk in suitable ground that will give way to semi-permanent flooding. The
entrance doors should not be too narrow and too low.

SMALL WORKSHOP LAYOUT

A small workshop usually consists of the following:
1. A bench at the closed end of a workshop
2. One pit
3. A lift to enable work to be carried out underneath a vehicle
4. A modern workshop needs sophisticated equipment both to rapidly diagnose
faults and as a means of quality control.
5. Adequate floor space to keep vehicle moving.
8
BIG WORKSHOP LAYOUT
A big workshop usually consists of the following:
1. Big workshop requires work space of 50 meters by 30 meters.
2. Workshop areas with painted lines on a slope of 600 to make it easy to run in
and back out.
3. Benches with steel tops and a 150-mm jaw vice
4. A lift in the repair bay. A wheel-free lift is preferred to avoid the use of pits.
5. It is possible to avoid the use of pit to prevent accident, from accumulation of
fumes that causes serious poisoning.
6. Accidents can occur when petrol spilled into pits and gone unnoticed, only to be
ignited by naked flame to create serious problems to the mechanic working
underneath a vehicle in the pit. Therefore, if a pit is to be used, it should be wide
for easy access and exit points.
7. An every repair bay, there should be a power plug with 13 amp fuse
8. An air line connection.
9. An inter communications connect at the bench for speaking direct to the stores
for spare parts.
10. A low powered 24 volts socket is also needed for pressurized safety.
11. A good sizer drawer capable of holding tools belonging to mechanics should be
part of the bench. It should have a second space that can accommodate unit
parts, such as gearbox housing or cylinder blocks.
12. A lubrication center.
13. A crane of about 1000 kg to 2000 kg capacity or overhead hoists on beams for
lifting out engines and other heavy equipment.
14. Hydraulic trolley jacks of 2-ton capacity along with stands also of suitable
capacity should be readily accessible.
15. Jacks, stands, wheel braces, wheel pillars, special extractors stocks and dies
should be kept in a central position in the stores so that a mechanic can use
them and replace them after use.

BASIC AUTOMOTIVE WORKSHOP EQUIPMENT

Wheel free and other types of lifts
Comprehensive wheel alignment equipment
Air compressor
Combined dynamotor(an electrical machine having a single magnetic field and
two independent armature windings of which one acts as a motor and the other a
generator: used to convert direct current from a battery into alternating current)
and brake tester
Wheel balancer
Lifting jacks
Paraffin wax for tanks and degreasing plant
Hydraulic press
Battery charging unit with hydrometer, 0-20v voltmeter
Discharging tester
Steam cleaner or high pressure water cleaner
Electronic engine analyzer equipment
Power hacksaw
Comprehensive engine overhaul equipment comprising engine stands, cylinder
boring, grinding and valve seat grinding, and reseating equipment connecting rod
alignment jig, piston and piston ring service tools, valve spring compressor
various cylinder gauges, micrometer and venires.
Main bearing and by-end bearing boring equipment

9
 Tyre repair plant for tubes, valve vulcanizers, also include tyre removing jip, tyre
leavers, and welding equipment
Headlamp alignment equipment
Gas soldering ovens and irons with assorted bits
Lathe, 15 cm to 24 cm centres with various tools and attachment e.g. milling head
Power drills Bench pillar type with capacity up to 30 mm diameter drill. Portable
drills, capacity up to 15 mm diameter drill
Power shaping machine (small)
Breakdown and salvage plant usually a vehicle completely equipped with a crane,
winch and other trackle
Body Repair Equipment, it include jug for checking car dimensions, hydraulic push
and pull
Marking out equipment comprising surface plate, scribing block, steel squares,
surface gauge, dividers scribers
Fire fighting and first aid equipment
Bench grinding-machine with coarse and fine stones 20 cm diameter
Lathe tools, right and left hand assorted cutters, boring tools, screw cutting,
knurling and chaser tools
Hammers of various shapes and weight. Steel, leather, copper and rubber faced
Sledge hammers of 4 kg weight is a popular size
Oil cans large and small
Bolt cutters up to 20 mm capacity
Tyre pressure gauges
Sets of ring spanners
Socket spanners
Hacksaw with 20 mm to 30 mm frames
Extractors for bearing and bolts
Cold chisels, 5 mm to 30 mm width
Selection of equipment depend on the size of workshop and the amount of work
expected. No workshop will be efficient without adequate tools and equipment. The
service manager decides which equipment is necessary as an aid to efficiency and
profitability in a workshop.

BASIC FUEL DISPENSING EQUIPMENT

The fuel-dispensing system performs several inter related functions. The purpose of
some components is to maintain hydraulic continuity, to regulate the direction of
flow and fluid pressure. Others are responsible for pressurizing the fuel and moving
it through the system. Still others, ofcourse, are involved in metering the liquid fuel,
registering accurately the quantity delivered, and computing the price of the delivery.
Finally, some components serve to control the operation of the system, switching it
on and off, resetting the volume and price indicators, regulating the delivery, and
soon. We will proceed to look at the major components in each of these functional
areas.

HYDRAULIC CONTINUITY
Fuel-dispensing systems are designed to measure, register, and deliver accurately the

10
desired quantities of fuel product. The customer is paying for motor fuel, not air or
fuel vapor. So, these gases must be prevented from entering the dispenser's metering
device. In addition, in order to be able to lift the fuel efficiently from an underground
storage tank to the dispensers
dispensers-especially in a self--contained systemthe the pipelines
must be essentially free of air and vapor. The most practical means of eliminating
these gases is to keep the entire system-from the storage tank to the delivery nozzle-
nozzle
filled with liquid fuel at all times, even when the system is temporarily idle, as it is
between deliveries, or when the station is shutdown overnight. This could be
accomplished in a number of ways, but the most practical and efficient design
incorporates a simple automatic valve, called a check valve.. In the cutaway drawing,
you can see how one works. When fuel entering the valve inlet is under sufficient
pressure to push the valve off its seat against the resistance of a spring and the
pressure of liquid on the opposite side, the valve is opened, allowing liquid to flow
through the valve in the direction of the arrows.
When the source of pressure difference
ceases, flow wild is continue, and the force of
the spring will reseat the valve, preventing
liquid from flowing through the valve in the
opposite direction. In a fuel-dispensing
system, a check valve permits liquid fuel to
flow toward the delivery nozzle, but never
back toward the storage tank. A check valve is
located between the storage tank and the
dispenser (as shown in fig, 2.2),usually close
to the outlet of the storage tank, either at the
angle joint where the pipeline drops vertically
into the tank (self--contained systems), or
inside the discharge manifold thats its a top a
submerged pumping unit. Fig 2-1 Automatic check valve
(In some self-contained
contained systems, a foot valve,, located at the bottom of the intake pipe,
performs the function of the check valve.)

Fig 2.2 Location

ocation of system check valves
As we proceed through the system, you will see other automatic valves that operate
in much the same way as these system check valves, functioning to regulate the
direction of flow or fluid pressure of the product as it makes its way toward the
meter and discharge hose. You will also see how a similar valve, located at the
opposite end of the system, prevents fuel from draining from the discharge hose,
assuring delivery of the full metered amount of fuel.

PRESSURIZING AND MOVING THE FUEL

In retail fuel-dispensing
dispensing systems, a motor-driven
driven pump furnishes the hydraulic
pressure that moves fuel from the storage tank to the dispenser, through the
metering device, and to the discharge hose and nozzle. As you know, two basic types
11
of systems are in common use useself-contained
contained and remote pump systems. Most of
thesystemsyouwillencountertodaywillberemotepumpsystems.Theselendthemselvest
olargermultiple dispenser installations. However, let us take a look at eachtype.
Self-contained
contained Systems
In self-contained
contained systems, the pumping unit is located inside the dispenser. Its major
components are:
a pump
an electric motor
an air eliminator
flow regulating valves
Several manufacturers produce a self self-contained
contained unit, which includes the pump, air
eliminator, valves, and flow passages connecting them, all enclosed in a single casing,
as in fig. 2.3.. The electric motor is separate, and drives the pump by means of a belt
and pulleys.

Fig
ig. 2-3. Self-contained
contained pumping unit and motor
The operation of a typical self-contained pumping unit is illustrated in fig.2-4.When
.When
the dispenser's on-off
off switch is placed in the on position, the electric motor is
activated, and begins to turn the rotary
rotary-vane
vane pump(other pump types may be used).
As the pump turns(clockwise in fig. 2-4),it propels fuel forward from its outlet. This
displacement of the liquid creates a partial vacuum at the pump inlet.

Fig 2-4.
4. cutaway of typical self
self-contained
contained pumping unit
As long as the discharge nozzle remains closed, this vacuum is relieved by fuel
circulating continuously through the unityou'll see how in a moment. But when the
12
nozzle is opened, suction pressure is transferred instantaneously from the pump inlet
all the way back through the pipeline to the storage tank. There, atmospheric
pressure bearing on the surface of the fuel forces it to flow through the inlet pipe and
check valve we saw earlier, into the pipeline, and toward the dispenser. As it enters
the pumping unit, it passes through a strainer or filter, which removes any solid
contaminants, and is drawn into the pump inlet. Small quantities of trapped air and
fuel vapor must be removed from the fuel before it passes to the meter. So, as it flows
from the pump outlet, the fuel, now under pressure(typically18-25psi)enters the air
separator chamber. The shape of this chamber forces the rapidly flowing fuel to swirl,
with the result that the air and vapor, along with a small amount of liquid fuel, are
forced through an orifice into the atmospheric chamber. Here the fuel comes to rest
at atmospheric pressure. This allows the air and vapor to rise to the top portion of
the chamber, where they leave the dispenser through a vent tube. The level of the
liquid that remains in the bottom of the chamber rises until it raises the float, thereby
opening a valve that allows it to leave the chamber and be drawn along a passageway
back to the pump inlet.

At the same time, the main body of fuel, free of air and vapor, passes from the
separating chamber to the automatic control valve. This valve is similar in design to
the check valve we looked at earlier; it permits fuel to flow only in the direction of the
meter, never back toward the pump. It also regulates the pressure of the fuel as it
leaves the pumping unit and enters the meter, by closing when pressure on both
sides has equalized (when the dispenser has been turned on but the nozzle remains
closed, for example) preventing excess pressure from building in the meter and hose.
The control valve also has a built-in relief valve, which normally operates only when
the dispenser is shut off. It relieves excess pressure caused by expansion of fuel on
the discharge side of the valve by allowing a small amount to pass back through an
orifice in the center of the control valve in to the air separator chamber, where
pressure can be relieved into the atmospheric chamber if necessary. The relief valve
is very important, especially in warm-weather climates, because fuel expands when
heated, and this expansion could raise pressure sufficiently to cause seals to fail,
resulting in fuel leaks, or even burst the discharge hose if not relieved.

When the pump is operating (dispenser switch is in the on position) but the nozzle
remains closed, the control valve will also close, as soon as pressure is equalized. The
resulting increase in pressure in the separator chamber will open the bypass valve,
permitting fuel to flow back to the pump inlet, thus relieving suction pressure and
preventing additional fuel from being drawn from the storage tank. In some self-
contained systems, especially older ones, these components may be separate, and
they may be referred to by different names. (For example, the atmospheric chamber
of the self-contained unit, when separate, is usually called the sump.)But your basic
knowledge of the interrelated functions of the pumping components should make it
possible for you to recognize them, even when separated. In newer, larger fueling
facilities the use of self-contained systems is declining. Currently less than ten
percent of dispensers in new locations are self-contained. Remote pumping systems
and remote dispensers explained in the following sections are more of todays norm.

Remote pump (or remote dispenser) Systems

13
In this type of system, fuel is pressurized and propelled toward the dispenser by a
pumping unit located at or in the storage tank. The basic components of the pumping
system are:
a motor and pump assembly and discharge head,
an emergency shut
shut-off
off valve, located in each dispenser, and
a control valve, also located at each dispenser.
In rare cases, remote pumping systems employ a rotary vane pump like that used in
self-contained systems, which sits atop the storage tank. However most remote
systems employ a submerged pump pump. As its name suggests, the pump and motor
assembly are completely submerged in the storage tank. As you can see in Figure 3-5, 3
the pumpusually
usually a multi
multi-stage
stage vertical turbineis
turbine is at the very bottom of the
assembly. The intake of the submerged pump is locate located
d approximately four inches
from the bottom of the storage tank to reduce the possibility of pumping water or
sediment into the fuel system.
Fuel is drawn into it through a metal strainer and flows from the turbine around the
outside of the motor casing and through a section of pipe to the discharge manifold
(head),which usually sits on top of the tank. The system check valve and the air
eliminator are located inside the discharge head (manifold).

Fig. 3
3-5.
5. submerged pump and discharge head
The air eliminator functions in much the same way as its counterpart in a self- self
contained unit: air and vapor, along with a small quantity of fuel, are separated from
the main body of fuel and drawn through an orifice. But in this type of system, the
gases and fuel drain directly back into the storage tank; the tank itself functions as
the atmospheric chamber or sump does in a self
self-contained
contained unit.

In remote systems, several dispensers are often served by the same pump. When the
on-off switch at any of these dispensers is placed in the on position, the pumping unit
is activated, and all pipelines connected to the pump are pressurized (to24-28psi
28psi for
a typical unit).To prevent the discharge nozzles of all the dispensers from being
pressurized, each dispenser is equipped with its own control valve. This control
valve must not be confused with the control valve in a self self-contained
contained system: its
design and function are quite different. The control valve in a remote system is not
automatic: it is actuated by the dispenser's on on-off
off switch, or is controlled by the
electronic computer system. Figure 3 3-6
6 illustrates how a typical control valve works.

The control valve itself usually consists of a piston and cylinder (or diaphragm)and
)and a
spring, as shown in the cutaway drawing. A removable filter/strainer at the inlet to
the valve (or at the fuel inlet to the dispenser) traps solid contaminants in the fuel
14
flow before they enter the valve. When the piston is retracted, the valve is open and
product flows through it toward the meter; when the piston is seated, product cannot
pass through the valve.

Fig, 2.6. Remote-dispenser

dispenser control valve
In older systems, the control valve may be operated mechanically, by means of a
linkage between the valve and the dispenser on on-off
off switch. Today, however, a more
sophisticated electrical operator, including a solenoid and pilot valve, has been
incorporated in most designs, as depicted in fig. 2.6.
6. In some systems both the main
valve and the pilot valve are incorporated into the same valve body. The device
operates the valve by regulating the fluid pressure in the cylinder behind the piston
or diaphragm (the area marked B in the drawing). When the dispenser is not being
used (that is, the dispenser switch is in the off position),the solenoid is not
energized and the pilot valve rests in such a position as to connect fluid lines (1) and
(2). This maintains equal pressure on all sides of the valve piston, allowing the spring
to keep the valve tightly closed.

When the dispenser switch is turned on or when the electronic computer sends
power to the valve, the solenoid is energized, opening the pilot valve. This has the
effect of opening a passageway between lines (2) and (3), and simultaneously closing
off line (1). As long as the discharge nozzle remains closed, pressure remains the
same in regions (A), (B), and (C), and the control valve remains closed. However,
when the nozzle is opened, pressure at the outlet ((C)
C) falls, bleeding pressure from the
space behind the cylinder (B). Pressure is now higher at(A)than at(B),and pressure
on the head of the valve piston pushes it off its seat. When the dispenser is shut off,
the solenoid is once again de-energized, closing the pilot valve and there by shutting
off the connection between (2) and (3) and opening the connection between (1) and
(2). When pressure is once again equal at (A), (B), and (C), the spring (or diaphragm)
forces the piston onto its seat, closing the valve.

The control valve prevents a remote dispenser from delivering product unless it has
been switched on, and thus prevents accidental discharge under normal conditions.
However, if a remote dispenser were to be struck with sufficient force, as might
happen if a moving vehicle collided with it, even at relatively slow speed, piping in the
dispenser could quite easily be ruptured. Since the fuel entering the dispenser is
pressurized, this situation could cause fuel to flow uncontrollably from the ruptured
ruptu
pipe, creating an extreme safety hazard. To prevent this, every remote dispenser is
equipped with an automatic emergency shut-off valve, also called an impact valve or
shear valve because of its function, or a fire valve (as shown in fig.2.7).
15
 Fig, 2.7 Remote system emergency shut
shut-off
off (impact or fire) valve

This valve is located at the bottom of the dispenser, connected to the pipeline at the
point where it enters the unit. The operation of this valve is very simple. In the even
tof damaging impact, the top portion of the valve shears away, isolating the damaged
dispenser, and a spring valve automatically closes off the pipeline, preventing any
further flow of fuel from that source. If it has not been too severely damaged by the
collision, the control valve in the dispenser should then respond to the sudden drop
in system pressure and close automatically, keeping fuel loss from the dispenser also
to a minimum.

Self-contained
contained systems do not require an emergency shut
shut-off
off valve because fuel is
pressurized inside the dispenser. So, a damaging collision will not result in
uncontrolled flow from the storage tank pipeline, since suction pressure will cease
immediately when a severe rupture occurs.

Blended-product
product Dispensers (Blenders)
The components ts that pressurize and move product in a blended
blended-product
product system are
essentially the same as those described above. However, the control valves in a
blended-product system serve an additional function: they must be capable of
controlling the volume flow rate of product, so that the blend will contain the correct
proportions of component products. Such devices are commonly called metering or
proportioning valves, and are somewhat more complex in operation than the basic
on/off control valve described above. Blended- product dispensers have become
more common in recent years and their proliferation is expected in the future due to
environmental concerns with leaking underground storage tanks and associated
piping. With blenders are tail outlets can provide three or more products to the
consumer from only two underground storage tanks. Thus, the environmental hazard
is reduced by having fewer underground tanks. Generally, the blended product is
delivered to the customer through a single product hose. When taking a sample for
fuel quality (octane), special notice needs to be given to the flushing
recommendations made in EPO22.
16
Multi-product Dispensers
Prior discussion on pressurizing and moving fuel has concentrated on single and dual
product dispensers. Many, if not most, dispensers used in fuel outlets today are of the
multi-product design. Here three or more fuel products are available from a single
dispenser. Usually only one product at a time is available for delivery from each side
of the dispenser. Like the blended-product dispenser only one computer is provided
on each face of the multi-product dispenser. The multi-product dispenser may have a
hose and nozzle assembly for each product, or there may be only one hose per
dispenser side(face).In the case of the single hose multi-product dispenser the three
(or more)product discharge lines are manifold into one casting at or near the hose
outlet fitting. Special notice should be made of the requirements in EPO21 for
flushing the line before taking samples for fuel quality (octane) testing.

ANCILLARY POWER NEEDS

WHAT ARE ANCILLARY SERVICES?
Those services necessary to support the transmission of electric power from seller
to purchaser given the obligations of control areas and transmitting utilities within
those control areas to maintain reliable operations of the interconnected
transmission system.
Ancillary services help support basic electrical services:
Generating capacity
Energy supply
Power delivery
Essential for reliability and for commercial transactions

ANCILLARY SERVICES USAGE

Common examples of the need for ancillary services in the utility market include the
following:
Firm up renewable energy capacity (i.e. wind or solar)
Increase in power demand
Temporary out of service transmission
Any imbalance in the electricity market
ANCILLARY SERVICE MARKETS
Run hourly
Day-Ahead & Real-Time
Are more volatile than energy markets
Because they are based on energy opportunity costs
Show seasonal, weekly, and daily patterns
Because they are based on energy opportunity costs
Typically take months to settle after introduction but then
behave well

WAREHOUSING
NEED FOR WAREHOUSING
Warehousing is necessary due the following reasons.
1. Seasonal Production- You know that agricultural commodities are harvested
during certain seasons, but their consumption or use takes place throughout the
year. Therefore, there is a need for proper storage or warehousing for these
commodities, from where they can be supplied as and when required.
2. Seasonal Demand- There are certain goods, which are demanded seasonally, like
woollen garments in winters or umbrellas in the rainy season. The production of
these goods takes place throughout the year to meet the seasonal demand. So

17
 there is a need to store these goods in a warehouse to make them available at the
time of need.
3. Large-scale Production - In case of manufactured goods, now-a-days production
takes place to meet the existing as well as future demand of the products.
Manufacturers also produce goods in huge quantity to enjoy the benefits of large-
scale production, which is more economical. So the finished products, which are
produced on a large scale, need to be stored properly till they are cleared by sales.
4. Quick Supply - Both industrial as well as agricultural goods are produced at some
specific places but consumed throughout the country. Therefore, it is essential to
stock these goods near the place of consumption, so that without making any
delay these goods are made available to the consumers at the time of their need.
5. Continuous Production- Continuous production of goods in factories requires
adequate supply of raw materials. So there is a need to keep sufficient quantity of
stock of raw material in the warehouse to ensure continuous production.
6. Price Stabilization- To maintain a reasonable level of the price of the goods in the
market there is a need to keep sufficient stock in the warehouses. Scarcity in
supply of goods may increase their price in the market. Again, excess production
and supply may also lead to fall in prices of the product. By maintaining a balance
of supply of goods, warehousing leads to price stabilisation.

TYPES OF WAREHOUSES
After getting an idea about the need for warehousing, let us identify the different
types of warehouses. Warehouses are classified as follows.
i. Private Warehouses
ii. Public Warehouses
iii. Government Warehouses
iv. Bonded Warehouses
v. Co-operative Warehouses

DISCUSSION
1. Private Warehouses - The warehouses which are owned and managed by the
manufacturers or traders to store, exclusively, their own stock of goods are known
as private warehouses. Generally these warehouses are constructed by the
farmers near their fields, by wholesalers and retailers near their business centres
and by manufacturers near their factories. The design and the facilities provided
therein are according to the nature of products to be stored.
2. Public Warehouses - The warehouses which are run to store goods of the general
public are known as public warehouses. Anyone can store his goods in these
warehouses on payment of rent. An individual, a partnership firm or a company
may own these warehouses. To start such warehouses a license from the
government is required. The government also regulates the functions and
operations of these warehouses. Mostly these warehouses are used by
manufacturers, wholesalers, exporters, importers, government agencies, etc.
3. Government Warehouses -These warehouses are owned, managed and
controlled by central or state governments or public corporations or local
authorities. Both government and private enterprises may use these warehouses
to store their goods. Central Warehousing Corporation of India, State Warehousing
Corporation and Food Corporation of India are examples of agencies maintaining
government warehouses.
4. Bonded Warehouses - These warehouses are owned, managed and controlled by
government as well as private agencies. Private bonded warehouses have to
obtain license from the government. Bonded warehouses are used to store
imported goods for which import duty is yet to be paid. In case of imported goods
the importers are not allowed to take away the goods from the ports till such duty
18
 is paid. These warehouses are generally owned by dock authorities and found
near the ports.
5. Co-operative Warehouses - These warehouses are owned, managed and
controlled by co-operative societies. They provide warehousing facilities at the
most economical rates to the members of their society.

CHARACTERISTICS OF IDEAL WAREHOUSES

In the above section you have learnt about different types of warehouses. In each of
these warehouses adequate arrangements are made to keep the goods in proper
conditions. However, any warehouse is said be an ideal warehouse if it possesses
certain characteristics, which are given below:
i. Warehouse should be located at a convenient place near highways, railway
stations, airports and seaports where goods can be loaded and unloaded easily.
ii. Mechanical appliances should be there to loading and unloading the goods. This
reduces the wastages in handling and also minimises handling costs.
iii. Adequate space should be available inside the building to keep the goods in
proper order.
iv. Ware houses meant for preservation of perishable items like fruits, vegetables,
eggs and butter etc. should have cold storage facilities.
v. Proper arrangement should be there to protect the goods from sunlight, rain,
wind, dust, moisture and pests.
vi. Sufficient parking space should be there inside the premises to facilitate easy and
quick loading and unloading of goods.
vii. Round the clock security arrangement should be there to avoid theft of goods.
viii. The building should be fitted with latest fire-fighting equipments to avoid loss of
goods due to fire.

FUNCTIONS OF WAREHOUSES
You have learnt that warehouses preserve goods on a large-scale in a systematic and
orderly manner. They provide protection to goods against heat, wind, storm,
moisture, etc. and also cut down losses due to spoilage, wastage etc. This is the basic
function of every warehouse. In addition to this, warehouses now a days also perform
a variety of other functions. In this section let us learn about the various functions of
warehouses.
Warehouses perform the following functions:
i. Storage of goods
ii. Protection of goods
iii. Risk bearing
iv. Financing
v. Processing
vi. Grading and branding
vii. Transportation
i. Storage of goods- The basic function of warehouses is to store large stock of
goods. These goods are stored from the time of their production or purchase till
their consumption or use.
ii. Protection of goods- A warehouse provides protection to goods from loss or
damage due to heat, dust, wind and moisture, etc. It makes special
arrangements for different products according to their nature. It cuts down
losses due to spoilage and wastage during storage.
iii. Risk bearing - Warehouses take over the risks incidental to storage of goods.
Once goods are handed over to the warehouse-keeper for storage, the
responsibility of these goods passes on to the warehouse-keeper. Thus, the risk
of loss or damage to goods in storage is borne by the warehouse keeper. Since

19
 it is bound to return the goods in good condition, the warehouse becomes
responsible for any loss, theft or damage, etc. Thus, it takes all precautions to
prevent any mishap.
iv. Financing- When goods are deposited in any warehouse, the depositor gets a
receipt, which acts as a proof about the deposit of goods. The warehouses can
also issue a document in favour of the owner of the goods, which is called
warehouse-keepers warrant. This warrant is a document of title and can be
transferred by simple endorsement and delivery. So while the goods are in
custody of the warehouse-keeper, the businessmen can obtain loans from
banks and other financial institutions keeping this warrant as security. In some
cases, warehouses also give advances of money to the depositors for a short
period keeping their goods as security.
v. Processing - Certain commodities are not consumed in the form they are
produced. Processing is required to make them consumable. For example,
paddy is polished, timber is seasoned, and fruits are ripened, etc. Sometimes
warehouses also undertake these activities on behalf of the owners.
vi. Grading and branding- On request warehouses also perform the functions of
grading and branding of goods on behalf of the manufacturer, wholesaler or the
importer of goods. It also provides facilities for mixing, blending and packaging
of goods for the convenience of handling and sale.
vii. Transportation- In some cases warehouses provide transport arrangement to
the bulk depositors. It collects goods from the place of production and also
sends goods to the place of delivery on request of the depositors.

ADVANTAGES OF WAREHOUSING
Warehousing offers many advantages to the business community. Whether it is
industry or trade, it provides a number of benefits which are listed below.
i. Protection and Preservation of goods - Warehouse provides necessary
facilities to the businessmen for storing their goods when they are not required
for sale. It provides protection to the stocks, ensures their safety and prevents
wastage. It minimizes losses from breakage, deterioration in quality, spoilage
etc. Warehouses usually adopt latest technologies to avoid losses, as far as
possible.
ii. Regular flow of goods- Many commodities like rice, wheat etc. are produced
during a particular season but are consumed throughout the year.
Warehousing ensures regular supply of such seasonal commodities throughout
the year.
iii. Continuity in production- Warehouse enables the manufacturers to carry on
production continuously without bothering about the storage of raw materials.
It helps to provide seasonal raw material without any break, for production of
finished goods.
iv. Convenient location- Warehouses are generally located at convenient places
near road, rail or waterways to facilitate movement of goods. Convenient
location reduces the cost of transportation.
v. Easy handling- Modern warehouses are generally fitted with mechanical
appliances to handle the goods. Heavy and bulky goods can be loaded and
unloaded by using modern machines, which reduces cost of handling such
goods. Mechanical handling also minimizes wastage during loading and
unloading.

20
 vi. Useful for small businessmen- Construction of own warehouse requires
heavy capital investment, which small businessmen cannot afford. In this
situation, by paying a nominal amount as rent, they can preserve their raw
materials as well as finished products in public warehouses.
vii. Creation of employment - Warehouses create employment opportunities both
for skilled and unskilled workers in every part of the country. It is a source of
income for the people, to improve their standards of living.
viii. Facilitates sale of goods- Various steps necessary for sale of goods such as
inspection of goods by the prospective buyers, grading, branding, packaging
and labelling can be carried on by the warehouses. Ownership of goods can be
easily transferred to the buyer by transferring the warehouse keepers warrant.
ix. Availability of finance- Loans can be easily raised from banks and other
financial institutions against the security of the warehouse-keepers warrant. In
some cases warehouses also provide advance to the depositors of goods on
keeping the goods as security.
x. Reduces risk of loss - Goods in warehouses are well guarded and preserved.
The warehouses can economically employ security staff to avoid theft, use
insecticides for preservation and provide cold storage facility for perishable
items. They can install fire-fighting equipment to avoid fire. The goods stored
can also be insured for compensation in case of loss.
The primary purpose of a warehouse management system is to control the
movement and storage of materials within an operation and process the associated
transactions. The management of warehouse is changing with improved technology.
Initially, warehouse management was meant to control movement and storage of
materials within a warehouse only. Now the role of warehouse management system
has expanded to include light manufacturing, transportation management, order
management and complete accounting systems.

THE LAYOUT OF A WAREHOUSE

The layout of a warehouse consists of the following:
location of site
Warehouse design and construction
Material handling equipment.

MATERIAL HANDLING EQUIPMENT AND SERVICES IN WAREHOUSES

Safety equipment
Racking equipment
Lifting equipment
Tools
Maintenance
Storage procedure

CATEGORIZATION OF WAREHOUSE ACTIVITIES

The basic function of a warehouse is to receive customer orders, retrieve required
items, and finally prepare and ship those items. There are many ways to organize
these operations but the overall process in most warehouses shares the following
common phases (Frazelle,2002; Rouwenhorst et al., 2000):
21
 Receiving the process of unloading, checking quality and quantity, and
dissembling or repacking items for storage
Putaway defining the appropriate location for items and transferring them to
the specified storage location to wait for demand
Order picking retrieving items from their storage locations and transporting
them either to a sorting process or straight to the shipping area
Shipping inspecting, packing, palletizing and loading items into a carrier for
further delivery

WAREHOUSE LOCATION
Warehouses are mostly located in manufacturing environment for the purpose of
receiving, shipping and store of materials.
I) WAREHOUSE DESIGN:
Overall Structure;
Warehouse sizing and dimensioning;
Dock dimensioning;
Equipment selection;
Department layout;
Operation strategy;
Workforce dimensioning.
II) WAREHOUSE OPERATION:
Receiving and Shipping;
Storage;
Order picking.
III) PERFORMANCE EVALUATION.

Warehouse management includes;

1. Control of movement and storage of materials
2. Light manufacturing
3. Transportation management
4. Order management and complete accounting systems.
Warehouse layout includes;
1. Location of site
2. Designing of warehouse
3. Construction of the warehouse
4. Recommendation of the equipment

SAFETY OF THE WAREHOUSE COVERS THE FOLLOWING:

Workshop areas are;
1. All exits should be clear and accessible.
2. Toilets and showers must be provided and clean
3. Kitchen facilities must be provided and adequate
4. Adequate lightening must be provided
5. Fire extinguishers must be provided, maintained and accessible.
6. Compressors must be inspected and serviced regularly.
7. Power tools must be inspected and serviced regularly
8. No electrical equipment should be used in Net areas of workshop.

22
Chemicals
1. All dangerous goods/ hazardous substances must be stirred and labeled
appropriately.
2. Material safety data sheets, must be available for all chemicals
3. Dangerous goods/hazardous substance must be registered, kept and
maintained.
4. Appropriate personal protection of equipment/ training must be provided for
employees when using dangerous goods/ hazardous substances.
5. Waste oils and other products must be disposed appropriately.

Falls from heights;

1. Stairs must have hand
hand-rails and anti-ship
ship tread.
2. Work plat forms must be used to gain access to work at height.
3. Pit areas must be provided with fall protection.
4. Safety helmets must always be worn to protect the head from falling objects.

Policies and procedures;

1. Issues resolution procedures must be in place.
2. New employees and contractors induction programs must be in place.
3. Injury register must be provided and maintained
4. Emergency
ency contact numbers must be promptly displayed.
5. Standard Operating Procedures (SOPS) for workshop activities.
6. Approved first-aid
aid kit and eye
eye-wash
wash equipment available.

Common customization activities in warehousing (van Hoek, 2000)

In the warehousing environment, activities can be grouped into following categories:

Operation Changing, creating, or adding something
Transportation Moving the subject from one place to another
Inspection Checking or verifying something without changing the subject in
itself
Delay Occurs when the subject is held up waiting for further action
Storage Occurs when something is put away until later time

THE WAREHOUSING PROCESS

In its current
nt form, the materials handling process can be divided according to the
four basic stages of warehousing: receiving, putout, order picking, and shipping. The
process flow described in fig. 2.8 shows the standard warehousing procedure during
a single order cycle.

23
 Fig. 2.8 Structure of warehousing process in the case company

THE ROLES OF WAREHOUSE CONTROL SYSTEMS COMMONLY INCLUDE:

Transmit information and manage automated equipment
Direct and schedule work processes (e.g. job sequencing, job verification)
Monitor and report performance (e.g. picking rates, error rates)
Simplify or provide a graphical user interface
Interface with other management information systems

WAREHOUSE RESOURCES:
Typical issues involved in designing and performing warehouse processes include
allocating resources in terms of costs and capacity. When looking at the value of a
product or service, the goal is to have the value of the end
end-product
product exceed the cost of
producing it. Identifying the value added act
activities
ivities inside the warehousing process is
an essential but demanding task. Basically, the value assessment is made by
examining each activity within the process and defining its criticality to operations.
The cost of the product or service 13 includes all resources used to produce it (e.g.
raw materials, labor, storage space, transportation, equipment).

THE RESOURCES ARE AS FOLLOWS:

Storage units Used for the storage of products e.g. pallets, trays, boxes
Storage systems May range from simple shelves up to automated cranes and
conveyors
Pick equipment Used for the retrieval of items from the storage system e.g.
standard forklifts, reach trucks, pallet trucks
24
 Auxiliaries Equipment, such as barcode scanners, that support warehouse
activities
Computer systems Enable computer control of processes
Material handling equipment Equipment for preparing retrieved items e.g.
sorter systems, palletizers, truck loaders
Personnel Human resources that operate and control all of the predescribed
Resources

25
CHAPTER 3

MECHANICAL WORK
WORKSHOP LAYOUT
Proper arrangement of tools and equipment to achieve the efficient use of machines,
equipment and to facilitate the processing of the product in most efficient and
economical manner is called the shop layout.
Plant Layout: Is the physical arrangement of equipment and facilities within a plant.
Workshop layout: Is proper arrangement of tools and equipment to achieve the
efficient use of machines, equipment and to facilitate the processing of produc
productsts in
most efficient and economical manner.

The criteria for a good plant layout are:

1. Maximum flexibility
2. Maximum co-ordination
ordination
3. Maximum use of volume
4. Maximum visibility
5. Maximum accessibility
6. Minimum distance
7. Minimum handling
8. Minimum discomfort
9. Inherent safety
10. Maximum security.

The Layouts of some of the important shops are discussed below:

FITTING WORKSHOP LAYOUT

Fitting shop is equipped with various hand tools like hand hacksaws, files, hammers,
scarpers, combination setsets,
s, calipers, drills, taps, surface plate etc. it is also equipped
with power hacksaw, drilling machines and grinding machines etc. the various
operations performed in a fitting shop are sawing, filling, scrapping, marking,
grinding, drilling, tapping etc.

Fig. 3.1 Layout of Fitting Shop.

The basic equipment found in a fitting hop are:

1. Grinder, 2.. Power Saw, Bench Drill
Drill, 4,5. Marking Tables with surface plate,
plate 6--13.
Working Tables with four Bench vice each 14. Inspection Table

MACHINE SHOP LAYOUT

Various machine tools used in this shop are lathes, shapers,
shapers, milling machines, drilling
machines, planer machines,
chines, grinding machines etc. Various operation performed in
this shop are turning, facing, knurling, threading, boring, planning, slot cutting,

26
shapping, grinding, gear cutting, spiral and helical milling etc. The layout of this shop
is shown in above.

11
3 2 1

4 7 8

12
5 9 10

6
Store

1-2. Shearing Machines 3. Bending Machine, 4. Power Press, 5. Buffing

andPolishing Machine, 6. Soldering Table, 7-10. Working Table 11. Inspection
Table 12. Supervisors Table
Layout of Sheet Metal
Fig. 3.2 Shop Fig. 3.2

LAYOUT TO CARPENTRY/ CUM PATTERN MAKING SHOP

This shop is equipped with wood working lathes, thicknesser, universal wood
working machine, band saw, circular saw, motiser, circular saw sharpener, work
benches etc.
10 1 2 12 13 14

11
3 4 15 16 17

Super
visor
room
5 6
18 19 20

7
Store
21 22 23
8 9

1-4. Wood Working Latnes 5. Thicknesser 6. Universal Wood Machine

7. Band Saw 8. Circular Saw 9. Circular Saw Sharpener 10. mortise 11.
Inspection Room 12-23. Work Benches
Fig. 3.3 Layout of Carpentry /Cum Pattern Making Shop

LAYOUT OF FOUNDRY SHOP

This shop is equipped with cupola, pit furnace, oil fired tilting furnace, drying oven,
core making tables, sand bed, inspection tables etc. The layout of this shop is shown
below:
1. Cupola
2 3 6 7
15 2. Fit Furnace
9 3. Oil Fired Tilting Furnace
1 8
4. Coke and Raw material
store
Superviso
10 11 12 13 r room 5. Sand Bed
6. Drying Oven
7. Core making Table
4 5 Store
8. 9. Felting and Finishing
Operation
D2
10-14.
27
LAYOUT OF SMITHY AND FORGING SHOP
This shop is equipped with smiths forge, anvils, pedestal grinders, power hammers,
swage blocks, pneumatic riveting machine, inspection table etc. the layout of this
shop is shown in fig 3.5 below
1 2 3 14
4

5 6 7 8

Supervisor
9 11 12 13 room

10 16 14 15 Store

D2

1-4. Smiths Forge 5-8. Anvils 9. Pedestal Grinder 10-11 Power Hammers 12-15.
Sewage Block 16. Pneumatic Riveting Machine 17. Inspection Table
Fig. 3.5 Layout of Smith and Forging Shop

MATERIAL HANDLING EQUIPMENT

Material handling (MH) involves short-distance movement that usually takes place
within the confines of a building such as a plant or a warehouse and between a
building and a transportation agency.1 It can be used to create time and place
utility through the handling, storage, and control of material, as distinct from
manufacturing (i.e., fabrication and assembly operations), which creates form
utility by changing the shape, form, and makeup of material.2
It is often said that MH only adds to the cost of a product, it does not add to the value
of a product. Although MH does not provide a product with form utility, the time and
place utility provided by MH can add real value to a product, i.e., the value of a
product can increase after MH has taken place; for example:
The value (to the customer) added by the overnight delivery of a package (e.g.,
Federal Express) is greater than or equal to the additional cost of the service as
compared to regular mail serviceotherwise regular mail would have been used.
The value added by having parts stored next to a bottleneck machine is the savings
associated with the increase in machine utilization minus the cost of storing the parts
at the machine.
Material handling equipment is an integral part of the warehouse and other industrial
facility because it provides the following;
1. Safety equipment
2. Racking equipment
3. Lifting equipment
4. Tools
5. Maintenance
6. Storage procedures

MATERIAL HANDLING EQUIPMENT CATEGORIES

The different types of MH equipment listed in Table 2 can be classified into the
following five major categories [Chu]:6
i. Transport Equipment. Equipment used to move material from one location to
another (e.g., between workplaces, between a loading dock and a storage area,
etc.). The major subcategories of transport equipment are conveyors, cranes,
and industrial trucks. Material can also be transported manually using no
equipment.
ii. Positioning Equipment. Equipment used to handle material at a single location
(e.g., to feed and/or manipulate materials so that are in the correct position for
28
 subsequent handling, machining, transport, or storage). Unlike transport
equipment, positioning equipment is usually used for handling at a single
workplace. Material can also be positioned manually using no equipment.
iii. Unit Load Formation Equipment
Equipment. Equipment used to restrict materials so that
they maintain ththeir
eir integrity when handled a single load during transport and
for storage. If materials are self
self-restraining
restraining (e.g., a single part or interlocking
parts), then they can be formed into a unit load with no equipment.
iv. Storage Equipment
Equipment. Equipment used for holding ding or buffering materials over a
period of time. Some storage equipment may include the transport of materials
(e.g., the S/R machines of an AS/RS, or storage carousels). If materials are block
stacked directly on the floor, then no storage equipment is required.
v. Identification and Control Equipment
Equipment. Equipment used to collect and
communicate the information that is used to coordinate the flow of materials
within a facility and between a facility and its suppliers and customers. The
identification of mate
materials
rials and associated control can be performed manually
with no specialized equipment.

29
 Load Formation Equipment
Unit load formation equipment is used to restrict materials so that they maintain
their integrity when handled a single load during transport and for storage. If
materials are self-restraining (e.g., a single part or interlocking parts), then they can
be formed into a unit load with no equipment.

Unit Load Formation Equipment

Self-restraining (no equipment) Bulk load containers

Pallets Crates
Skids Intermodal containers
Slip sheets Strapping/tape/glue
Totepans Shrink-wrap/stretch-wrap
Pallet boxes/skid boxes Palletizers
Bins/baskets/racks Manual palletizing
Cartons Robotic pick and place palletizers
Bags Conventional stripper platepalletizers

Self-restraining (no equipment)

One or more items that can maintain their integrity when handled as a single item
(e.g., a single part or interlocking parts)
Pallets
Platform with enough clearance beneath its top surface (or face) to enable the
insertion of forks for
subsequent lifting purposes
Materials: Wood (most common), paper, plastic, rubber, and metal
Size of pallet is specified by its depth (i.e., length of its stringers or stringer boards)
and its width (i.e., length its deckboards)pallet height (typically 5 in.) is usually
not specified

3. Skids
Platform (typically metal) with enough clearance beneath its
top surface to enable a platform truck to move underneath
for subsequent lifting purposes
Forks can also be used to handle skids since the clearance of
a skid is greater than that of a pallet Compared to a pallet, a
skid is usually used for heavier loads and when stacking is not required A metal skid
can lift heavier loads than an equal-weight metal pallet because it enables a
platform truck to be used for the lifting, with the platform providing a greater lifting
surface to support the skid as compared to the forks used to support the pallet
4. Slipsheets
Thick piece of paper, corrugated fiber, or plastic upon which a load
is placed.
Handling method: tabs on the sheet are grabbed by a special
push/pull lift truck attachment
Advantages: usually used in place of a pallet for long-distance shipping because their
cost is 10 30% of pallet costs and their weight and volume is 15% of a pallet
30
 Disadvantages: slower handling as compared to pallets; greater load damage within
the facility; special lift truck attachment reduces the vehicles load capacity
5. Totepans
Reusable container used to unitize and protect loose discrete items Typically used for
in-process handling
Returnable totes provide alternative to cartons for distribution Can be nested for
compact storage when not in use

Pallet/skid boxes
eusable containers used to unitize and protect loose items for fork/platform
truck handling Pallet box sometimes referred to as a bin pallet

Pallet box

10.
Cartons
Disposable container used to unitize and protect loose discrete items
Typically used for distribution
Dimensions always specified as sequence: Length
Width
Depth, where length is the larger, and width is the

Bags
Disposable container used to unitize and protect bulk
materials Typically used for distribution
Polymerized plastic (poly) bags available from light weight (1
mil.) to heavy weight (6 mil.) in flat and gusseted styles
Dimensions of bag specified as: Width Length, for flat bags,
and
Width Depth (half gusset) Length, for gusseted bags

Bulk load containers

Reusable container used to unitize and protect bulk materials
Includes barrels, cylinders, etc.
Used for both distribution and in-process handling

Crates
Disposable container used to protect discrete items Typically used for
distribution

31
Intermodalcontainers
Reusable container used to unitize and protect
loose discrete items
Enables a load to be handled as a single unit when
it is transferred between road, rail, and sea modes
of transport; e.g., the container can be unloaded
from a cargo ship and loaded onto a truck as a
single unit
It is not as common to use intermodal containers
for airfreight transport because of aircraft shape
and weight restrictions
Standard outside dimensions of intermodal
containers
iners are: 20 or 40 ft. in length; 8 ft. in width;
and 8, 8.5, or 9.5 ft. in height; less 8 in. of length, 5
in. of width, and 9.5 in. of height to determine the
inside dimensions
Typical sea transport costs per 40 40-ft.
ft. container are: $30004000
$3000 from Japan to the US
west coast, $400050005000 from Singapore to the US west coast, and $2500 $25003500
3500 from
Europe to the US east coast; transport costs for a 20 20-ft.
ft. container is 70% of the costs
of a 40-ft. container7

Strapping/tape/glue
Used for load stabilization Straps are either steel or
plastic
Plastic strapping that shrinks is used to keep loads from becoming loose during
shipment

Shrink-wrap/stretch
wrap/stretch-wrap
Used for load stabilization
Allows irregular loads to be stabilized
In shrink-wrapping,
wrapping, a film or bag is placed over the load
and then heat is applied to shrink the film or bag;
manual or automatic; most shrink
shrink-wrap
wrap applications
are being replaced by stretch
stretch-wrapping
In stretch-wrapping,
wrapping, a film is wound around the load
while the film is stretched; as compared to shrink
shrink-
wrapping, stretch- wrapping has lower material, labor,
and energy costs

Positioning Equipment
Positioning equipment (see Table 2)) is used to handle material at a single location. It
can be used at a workplace to feed, orient, load/unload, or otherwise manipulate
materials so that are in the correct position for subsequent handling, machining,
transport, or storage. In many cases, positioning equipmen
equipmentt is required for and can be
justified by the ergonomic requirements of a task. As compared to manual handling,
the use of positioning equipment can provide the following benefits:12
raise the productivity of each worker when tthe
he frequency of handling ishigh,
improve product quality and limit damage to materials and equipment when the
item handled is heavy or awkward to hold and damage is likely through human
error or in attention, and
reduce fatigue and injuries when the enviro
environment
nment is hazardous orinaccessible.

32
 Table 6. Positioning Equipment

Manual (noequipment) Hoist

Lift/tilt/turntable
Dockleveler
Ball transfertable
Rotary indextable
Partsfeeder
Air filmdevice
Balancer
Manipulator
Rigid-linkmanipulator
Articulated jib cranemanipulator
Vacuummanipulator
Industrialrobot

Manual (no equipment)

Under ideal circumstances, maximum recommended weight for manual lifting to
avoid back injuries is 51 lbs.
Recommendation based on NIOSH (National Institute for Occupational Safety and
Health) 1991

Lifting Equation, which uses six multipliers to reduce maximum recommended

weight for less
than
2. ideal liftingtable
Lift/tilt/turn tasks
Used when positioning involves the lifting, tilting, or
turning of a load.
Can be used to reduce or limit a workers lifting and/or
reaching motions.
Pallet load levelers are lift and turn tables used in manual
palletizing to reduce the amount of bending and
stooping
involved with manually loading a pallet by
combining a lifting and turning mechanism with a
device that lowers the table as each layer is

3. Dock leveler
Used at loading docks to compensate for height
differences between a truck bed and the dock

Ball transfertable
Used in conveyor systems to permit manual transfer to and from machines and
conveyors and between different sections of conveyors
Since loads are pushed on the table, ball friction limits the maximum load
weight to 600 lbs.

Rotary indextable
Used for the synchronous transfer of small parts from station to station in a
single work center. Circular table rotates in discrete intermittent steps to
advance parts between stations located along its perimeter. Since each part
moves between stations at the same time, it is difficult to put buffers between
stations
33
Since each part moves between stations at the same time,
it is difficult to put buffers between stations

Air film device

Used to enable precision positioning of heavy loads
Sometimes referred to as air pallets

Can be used in place of cranes and hoists

Thin film of compressed (1050 psi) air used to float
loads of up to 300,000 lbs. so that a horizontal push of 1
lb. can move 1000 lb. load; floating action enables load to
rotated or translated in any direction in the horizontal
plane
Requires a smooth floor surface against which air streams underneath the device can
push. Can be used in warehousing as the mechanism to convert stationary racks into
sliding racks

8. Hoist
Used for vertical translation (i.e., lifting and lowering) of loads
Frequently attached to cranes and monorails to provide vertical
translation capability
Can be operated manually, electrically, or pneumatically Uses
chain or wire rope as its lifting medium
Hoists are categorized into duty classes: H1infrequent, standby
duty use (1 or 2 lifts per month); H2light duty (avg. 75
start/stops per hour); H3 medium (max. 250 start/stops per
hour); H4heavy, and H5severe duty

Balancer
Mechanism used to support and control loads so that an
operator need only guide a balanced (weightless) load, thus
providing precision positioning can be use to support hand
tools to reduce changeover time Can also be attached to hoists
and manipulators

Manipulator
Used for vertical and horizontal translation and rotation of loads
Acting as muscle multipliers, manipulators counterbalance the
weight of a load so that an operator lifts a small portion (1%) of
the loads weight
Can be powered manually, electrically, or pneumatically
Manipulators end-effector can be equipped with mechanical
grippers, vacuum grippers, electromechanical grippers, or other
tooling
Manipulators fill the gap between hoists and industrial robots:
they can be used for a wider range of positioning tasks than
hoists and are more flexible than industrial robots due to their use
of manual control conveyors are used:

34
Conveyors
a. When material is to be moved frequently between specific points.
b. To move materials over a fixed path
c. When there is a sufficient flow volume to justify the fixed conveyor investment
Conveyors can be classified in different ways:
i. Type of product being handled: unit load or bulkload
ii. Location of the conveyor: in-floor, on-floor, oroverhead
iii. Whether loads can accumulate on the conveyor or no accumulation ispossible

Table 7. Conveyors

Chuteconveyor Verticalconveyor
Wheelconveyor Vertical liftconveyor
Rollerconveyor Reciprocating verticalconveyor
Gravity rollerconveyor Cart-on-trackconveyor
Live (powered) rollerconveyor Towconveyor
Chainconveyor Trolleyconveyor
Slatconveyor Power-and-freeconveyor
Flat beltconveyor Monorail
Magnetic beltconveyor Sortationconveyor
Troughed beltconveyor Diverters
Bucketconveyor Pop-updevices
Vibratingconveyor Sliding shoedevice
Screwconveyor Tiltingdevice
Pneumaticconveyor Cross-belt transferdevice
Dilute-phase pneumaticconveyor
Carrier-system pneumaticconveyor
1. Chute conveyor
Unit/Bulk + On-Floor + Accumulate Inexpensive
Used to link two handling devices
Used to provide accumulation in shipping areas Used to convey
items between floors
Difficult to control position of the items

2. Wheel conveyor
Unit + On-Floor + Accumulate
Uses a series of skatewheels mounted on a shaft (or axle)
Spacing of the wheels is dependent on the load being
transported Slope for gravity movement depends on load
weight
More economical than the roller conveyor For light-duty
applications
Flexible, expandable mobile versions available

3. Roller conveyor
Unit + On-Floor + Accumulate
May be powered (or live) or nonpowered (or gravity) Materials must have a rigid

35
riding surface Minimum of three rollers must support smallest loads at all times
Tapered rollers on curves used to maintain load orientation
Parallel roller configuration can be used as a (roller) pallet conveyor (more flexible
than a chain pallet conveyor because rollers can be used to accommodate are greater
variation of pallet widths)

3(a) Gravity roller conveyor

Alternative to wheel conveyor For heavy-duty applications
Slope (i.e., decline) for gravity movement depends on load weight
For accumulating loads

3(b) Live (powered) roller conveyor

Belt or chain driven
Force-sensitive transmission can be used to disengage
rollers for accumulation
For accumulating loads and merging/sorting operations
Provides limited incline movement capabilities

4. Chain conveyor
Unit + In-/On-Floor + No Accumulation
Uses one or more endless chains on which loads are carried
directly Parallel chain configuration used as (chain) pallet
conveyor or as a pop-up device for sortation (see Sortation
conveyor: Pop-up devices)
Vertical chain conveyor used for continuous high-frequency
vertical transfers, where material on horizontal platforms
attached to chain link (cf. vertical conveyor used for low-
frequency intermittent transfers)

5. Slat conveyor
Unit + In-/On-Floor + No Accumulation
Uses discretely spaced slats connected to a chain
Unit being transported retains its position (like a
belt conveyor). Orientation and placement of the
load is controlled Used for heavy loads or loads
that might damage a belt. Bottling and canning
plants use flat chain or slat conveyors because of
wet conditions, temperature, and cleanliness
requirements

Tilt slat conveyor used for sortation

36
 6. Flat belt conveyor
Unit + On-Floor + No Accumulation
For transporting light- and medium-weight loads
between operations, departments, levels, and buildings
When an incline or decline is required
Provides considerable control over the orientation and
placement of load
No smooth accumulation, merging, and sorting on the
belt
The belt is roller or slider bed supported; the slider bed
is used for small and irregularly shaped items
In 1957, B.F. Goodrich, Co. patented the Mbius strip
for conveying hot or abrasive substances in order to
have both sides wear equally Telescopic boom attachments are available for
trailer loading and unloading, and can include ventilation to pump conditioned
air into the trailer
7. Magnetic belt conveyor
Bulk + On-Floor
A steel belt and either a magnetic slider bed or a magnetic pulley is used
To transport ferrous materials vertically, upside down, and around corners

8. Troughed belt conveyor

Bulk + On-Floor
Used to transport bulk materials
When loaded, the belt conforms to the shape of the troughed rollers
and idlers
9. Bucket conveyor
Bulk + On-Floor
Used to move bulk materials in a vertical or inclined path Buckets
are attached to a cable, chain, or belt
Buckets are automatically unloaded at the end of the conveyor run

10. Vibrating conveyor

Bulk + On-Floor
Consists of a trough, bed, or tube
Vibrates at a relatively high frequency and small amplitude in order to convey
individual units of products or bulk material
Can be used to convey almost all granular, free-flowing materials
An Oscillating Conveyor is similar in construction, but vibrates at a lower
frequency and larger amplitude (not as gentle) in order to convey larger objects
such as hot castings

11. Screw conveyor

Bulk + On-Floor
Consists of a tube or U-shaped stationary trough through which a shaft-mounted
helix revolves to push loose material forward in a horizontal or inclined direction
One of the most widely used conveyors in the processing industry, with many
applications in agricultural and chemical processing. Straight-tube screw conveyor
37
sometimes referred to as an auger feed Water screw developed circa 250 BC by
Archimedes

12. Pneumatic conveyor

Bulk/Unit + Overhead
Can be used for both bulk and unit movement of materials
Air pressure is used to convey materials through a system of vertical and horizontal
tubes Material is completely enclosed and it is easy to implement turns and vertical
moves

12(a) Dilute-phase pneumatic conveyor

Moves a mixture of air and solid
Push (positive pressure) systems push material from one entry point to several
discharge points.
Pull (negative pressure or vacuum) systems move material from several entry points
to one discharge point.
Push-pull systems are combinations with multiple entry and discharge points

12(b) Carrier-system pneumatic conveyor

Carriers are used to transport items or paperwork
Examples: transporting money to/from drive-in stalls at banks and documents
between floors of a skyscraper

13. Vertical conveyor

Unit + On-Floor + No Accumulation
Used for low-frequency intermittent vertical transfers a load
to different floors and/or mezzanines (cf. vertical chain
conveyor can be used for continuous high-frequency vertical
transfers)
Differs from a freight elevator in that it is not designed or
certified to carry people
Can be manually or automatically loaded and/or controlled
and can interface with horizontal conveyors
Alternative to a chute conveyor for vertical drops when load
is fragile and/or space is limited

38
13(a) Vertical lift conveyor

CONVEYORS
Series of flexible conveyor-carriers rotate in a loop, where
empty carriers flex perpendicularly to provide access to
loaded carriers moving past them in opposite direction
13(b) Reciprocating vertical conveyor
Carrier used to raise or lower load
Can be powered (hydraulic or mechanical) or non-powered
Non-powered version only be used to lower a load, where
counterweight used to return empty carrier to top
14. Cart-on-track conveyor
Unit + In-Floor + Accumulate
Used to transport carts along a track Carts are transported
by a rotating tube
Drive wheel connected to each cart rests on tube and is
used to vary the speed of the cart (by varying angle of
contact between drive wheel and the tube)
Carts are independently controlled
Accumulation can be achieved by maintaining the drive
wheel parallel to the tube
15. Tow conveyor
Unit + In-Floor + Accumulate
Uses towline to provide power to wheeled carriers such as
trucks, dollies, or carts that move along the floor
Used for fixed-path travel of carriers (each has variable
path capabilities when disengaged from towline)
Although usually in the floor, the towline can be located
overhead or flush with the floor
Selector-pin or pusher-dog arrangements used to allow
automatic switching (power or spur lines) Generally used
when long distance and high frequency moves are required

16. Trolley conveyor

Unit + Overhead + No Accumulation
Uses a series of trolleys supported from or within an overhead track
Trolleys are equally spaced in a closed loop path and are suspended from a chain
Carriers are used to carry multiple units of product Does not provide for
accumulation Commonly used in processing, assembly, packaging, and storage
operations

17. Power-and-free conveyor

Unit + Overhead/On-Floor + Accumulate
Similar to trolley conveyor due to use of discretely spaced carriers transported by an
overhead chain; however, power-and-free conveyor uses two tracks: one powered
and the other nonpowered (or free) Carriers can be disengaged from the power
chain and accumulated or switched onto spurs Termed an Inverted Power-and-Free
Conveyor when tracks are located on the floor

39
18. Monorail
Unit + Overhead + Accumulate
Overhead single track (i.e., mono-rail) or track
network on which one or more carriers ride
Carriers: powered (electrically or
pneumatically) or nonpowered
Carrier can range
nge from a simple hook to a hoist
to an intelligent-vehicle
vehicle-like device
Single-carrier, single-track
track monora
monorail similar to
bridge or gantry crane
Multi-carrier,
carrier, track network monorail similar to
both a trolley conveyor, except that the carriers
operate independently and the track need not be in
a closed loop, and a fixed
fixed-path automatic guided
vehicle (AGV) system, except that it operates overhead
Termed an Automated Electrified Monorail (AEM) system
when it has similar control characteristics as an AGV system

19. Sortation conveyor

Unit + On-Floor/Overhead
Floor/Overhead
Sortation conveyors are used for merging, identifying, inducting, and separating
products to be conveyed to specific destinations. Sortation system throughput is
expressed in cartons per minute (CPM). A sortation system is composed of three
subsystems:
Merge subsystemitems
items transported from picking (storage) or receiving areas on
conveyors and consolidated for proper presentation at the induct area.
Induct subsystemdestination
destination of each item identified by visual inspection or
automatic identification system (e.g., ba
barr code scanner), then a proper gap between
items is generated using short variable speed conveyors as they are released to the
sort subsystem.
Sort subsystemitems
items are diverted to outbound conveyors to shipping, palletizing,
staging, and/or secondary sort subsystems.

Typical sortation system

There is a trend towards more use of mixed
mixed-item
item loads that eliminate the need for
sortation: instead of a producer sending pallet loads of a single item to a distribution
center for subsequent sortation or consolidat
consolidation
ion into multi-item
multi customer loads,
single pallets can be loaded at a producer with a different mix of items for each
customer. This also can enable greater use of cross docking.

19(a) Sortation conveyor: Diverters

Stationary or movable arms that deflect, push, or pull a product to desired
destination Since they do not come in contact with the conveyor, they can be used
with almost any flat surface conveyor

40
Usually hydraulically or pneumatically operated, but also can be motor driven Simple
and low cost

Deflector diverter Push diverter

19(b) Sortation conveyor: Pop-up devices

One or more rows of powered rollers or wheels or chains that pop up above surface
of conveyor to lift product and guide it off conveyor at an angle; wheels are lowered
when products not required to be diverted
Only capable of sorting flat-bottomed items
Pop-up rollers (not shown) are generally faster than pop-up wheels
Pop-up wheel device Pop-up chain device

19(c) Sortation conveyor: Sliding shoe sorter

Sliding shoe sorter (a.k.a. moving slat sorter) uses series of diverter slats that slide
across the horizontal surface to engage product and guide it off conveyor
Slats move from side to side as product flows in order to divert the product to either
side Gentle and gradual handling of products

CRANES
General characteristics of cranes:
Used to move loads over variable (horizontal and vertical) paths within a restricted
area
Used when there is insufficient (or intermittent) flow volume such that the use of a
conveyor cannot be justified
Provide more flexibility in movement than conveyors
Provide less flexibility in movement than industrial trucks
Loads handled are more varied with respect to their shape and weight than those
handled by a conveyor
Most cranes utilize hoists for vertical movement, although manipulators can be
used if precise positioning of the load is required

41
 Table 8. Cranes
1.Jibcrane
Horizontal boom (jib) supported from a stationary vertical
support. Hoist can move along the jib and can be used for
lifting Operates like an arm in a work area, where it can
function as a manipulator for positioning tasks Jib can also
be mounted on the wall Arm can rotate up to 360

2.Bridgecrane
Bridge mounted on tracks that are located on opposite walls of the facility
Enables three-dimensional handling
Top riding (heavier loads) or underhung (more
versatile) versions of the crane
Underhung crane can transfer loads and interface
with other MHS (e.g., monorail systems)

3.Gantrycrane
Single leg, double leg, and mobile types of gantry
cranes
Similar to a bridge crane except that it is floor supported at one or both ends instead
of overhead (wall) supported
Used to span a smaller portion of the work area as compared to a bridge crane The
supports can be fixed in position or they can travel on runways
Can be used outdoors when floor supported at both ends

Single-leg gantry Double-leg gantry Mobile gantry

4. Stacker crane
Similar to a bridge crane except that, instead
of a hoist, it uses a mast with forks or a
platform to handle unit loads
Considered fork trucks on a rail
Used for storing and retrieving unit loads
in storage racks, especially in high-rise
applications in which the racks are more
than 50 feet high
Can be controlled remotely or by an
operator in a cab on the mast
Can be rack supported

42
5. Industrial Trucks
Industrial trucks are trucks that are not licensed to travel on public roads
commercial trucks are licensed to travel on public roads. Industrial trucks are:
Used to move materials over variable (horizontal) paths with no restrictions on the
area covered (i.e., unrestrictedarea)
Provide vertical movement if the truck has liftingcapabilities
Used when there is insufficient (or intermittent) flow volume such that the use of a
conveyor cannot bejustified
Provide more flexibility in movement than conveyors andcranes

Table 9. Industrial Trucks

Handtruck Narrow-aisle straddletruck

Two-wheeled handtruck Narrow-aisle reachtruck
Dolly Turrettruck
Floor handtruck Operator-down turrettruck
Palletjack Operator-up turrettruck
Manual palletjack Orderpicker
Powered palletjack Sideloader
Walkiestacker Tractor-trailer
Manual walkiestacker Personnel and burdencarrier
Powered walkiestacker Automatic guided vehicle(AGV)
Pallettruck TowAGV
Platformtruck Unit loadAGV
Walkie platformtruck AssemblyAGV
Rider platformtruck Light loadAGV
Counterbalanced lifttruck ForkAGV
Sit-down counterbalanced lifttruck
Stand-up counterbalanced lifttruck
1. Handtruck
Non-Pallet + Walk + No Stack + Manual Simplest type of industrial truck

1(a) Two-wheeled hand truck

Load tilted during travel
Good for moving a load up or
down stairways

1(b) Dolly
Three or more wheeled hand truck with a flat platform in which, since it has no
handles, the load is used for pushing

1(c) Floor hand truck

Four or more wheeled hand truck
with handles for pushing or
hitches for pulling
Sometimes referred to as a cart
or (manual) platform truck

Tilt floor hand truck

2. Palletjack
Pallet + Walk + No Stack
43
Front wheels are mounted inside the end of the forks and extend to the floor as the
pallet is only lifted enough to clear the floor for subsequent travel
Pallet restrictions: reversible pallets cannot be used, double-faced nonreversible
pallets cannot have deckboards where the front wheels extend to the floor, and
enables only two-way entry into a four-way notched-stringer pallet because the forks
cannot be inserted into the notches
2(a) Manual pallet jack
Pallet + Walk + No Stack + Manual Manual lifting
and/or travel

2(b) Powered pallet jack

Pallet + Walk + No Stack + Powered Powered lifting
and/or travel
Powered pallet jack is sometimes referred to as a
(walkie) pallet truck

3. Walkiestacker
Pallet + Walk + Stack
Similar to a counterbalanced lift truck except the operator cannot ride on the truck
3(a) Manual walkie stacker
Pallet + Walk + Stack + Manual
Manual lifting and/or travel (and straddle load support)

3(b) Powered walkie stacker

Pallet + Walk + Stack + Powered

Powered lifting and/or travel (and either

counterbalance or straddle load support)

4. Pallettruck
Pallet + Ride + No Stack
Same pallet restrictions as a pallet jack
Control handle typically tilts to allow operator to walk
during loading/unloading
Powered pallet jack is sometimes referred to as a (walkie)
pallet truck
5. Platformtruck
Non-Pallet + Powered + No Stack
Platform used to provide support for nonpalletized loads
Used for skid handling; platform can lift skid several inches to allow it to clear the
floor Greater lifting capacity compared to fork trucks because the platform provides a
greater lifting surface to support a load
44
5(a) Walkie platform truck
Non-Pallet + Powered + No Stack + Walk Operator walks next to
truck
Floor hand truck is sometimes referred to as a (manual)
platform truck
5(b) Rider platform truck
Non-Pallet + Powered + No Stack
+ Ride Operator can ride on truck

6. Counterbalanced (CB) lifttruck

Pallet + Ride + Stack
Sometimes referred to as a fork truck (but other attachments besides forks can be
used)
Weight of vehicle (and operator) behind the front wheels of truck counterbalances
weight of the load (and weight of vehicle beyond front wheels); front wheels act as
fulcrum or pivot point
Rated capacity reduced for load centers greater than 24 in. and lift heights greater
than 13 ft.
Workhorses of material handling because of their flexibility: indoor/outdoor
operation over a variety of different surfaces; variety of load capacities available; and
variety of attachments availablefork attachments can replace the forks (e.g., carton
clamps) or enhance the capabilities of the forks (e.g., blades for slipsheets)

6(a) Sit-down counter balanced lift truck

Operator sits down
1213 ft. minimum aisle width requirement

6(b) Stand-up counterbalanced lift truck

Operator stands up, giving vehicle narrow-
aisle capability 911 ft. minimum aisle width
requirement
Faster loading/unloading time compared to NA straddle and
reach trucks

7. Narrow-aisle (NA) straddle truck

Similar to stand-up CB lift truck, except outrigger arms straddle a
load and are used to support the load instead of the
counterbalance of the truck
78 ft. minimum aisle width requirement
Less expensive than stand-up CB lift truck and NA reach truck
Since the load is straddled during stacking, clearance between
loads must be provided for the outrigger arms
45
 Arm clearance typically provided through the use of load-on-beam rack storage or
single-wing pallets for load-on-floor storage
8. Narrow-aisle (NA) reachtruck
Similar to both stand-up CB lift truck and NA straddle truck 810 ft. minimum aisle
width requirement. Load rests on the outrigger arms during transport, but a
pantograph (scissors) mechanism is used for reaching, thereby eliminating the need
to straddle the load during stacking. Reaching capability enables the use of shorter
outrigger arms (arms > load depth) as compared to NA straddle truck (arms = load
depth)
Counterbalance of the truck used to support the load when it extends beyond the
outrigger arms. Although the NA reach truck requires slightly wider aisles than a
NA straddle truck since its outrigger arms do not enter a rack during storage, it does
not require arm clearance between loads (arm clearance is still
required when the truck must enter a storage lane when block
stacking or drive-in or -through racks are used). Extended
reaching mechanisms are available to enable deep-reach storage

9. Turrettruck
Greater stacking height compared to other narrow-aisle trucks
(40 ft. vs. 25 ft.), but greater investment cost
Forks rotate to allow for side loading and, since truck itself does
not rotate during stacking, the body of the truck can be longer to
increase its counterbalance capability and to allow the operator to
sit. Can function like a side loader for transporting greater-than-
pallet-size load

9(a) Operator-down turret truck

Operator not lifted with the load
56 ft. minimum aisle width requirement
Termed a swingmast truck when, instead of just the forks, the
entire mast rotates (thus can store on only one side of a aisle
while in aisle)
9(b) Operator-up turret truck
Operator lifted with the load to allow precise stacking
and picking Also termed a hybrid storage/retrieval
vehicle

57 ft. minimum aisle width requirement

10. Orderpicker
Similar to NA straddle truck, except operator lifted with the
load to allow for less-than-unit-load picking
Typically has forks to allow the truck to be used for pallet
stacking and to support a pallet during less-than-pallet-load
picking Belly switch used for operator safety during picking

46
11. Sideloader
Forks mounted perpendicular to direction of travel to
allow for side loading and straddle load support
566 ft. minimum aisle width requirement
Can be used to handle greater
greater-than-pallet-size
size loads
(e.g., bar stock)

12. Tractor-trailer
Non-load-carrying
carrying tractor used to pull a train of trailers (i.e., dollies or floor
hand trucks)
Advantage: Enables a single operator to transport multiple floor hand trucks in
a single move
Disadvantage: Requires wide aisles or
open spaces to operate Tractor
sometimes termed a tugger
Manual version of a tow AGV
Typically used at airports for baggage
handling

Personnel and burdencarrier

Non-load-carrying
carrying vehicle used to transport personnel
within a facility (e.g., golf cart, bicycle, etc.)

Automatic guided vehicle(AGV)

AGVs do not require an operator
Good for high labor cost, hazardous, or environmentally sensitive conditions
(e.g., clean-room)
room) Also termed automated guided vehicle
AGVs good for low-to to-medium volume medium-to--long distance random
material flow operations (e.g., transport between work cells in a flexible
manufacturing system (FMS) environment)
Two means of guidance can be used for AGV systems:
Fixed path: Physical guide path (e.g., wire, tape, paint)
paint on the floor used for
guidance
Free-ranging: No physical guide path, thus easier to change vehicle path (in
software), but absolute position estimates (from, e.g., lasers) are needed to
correct dead-reckoning
reckoning error
14(a) Tow AGV
Used to pull a train of trailers Automated version
of a tractor trailer
Trailers usually loaded manually (early type of
AGV, not much used today)

14(b) Unit load AGV

Have decks that can be loaded manually or
automatically
Deck can include conveyor or lift/lower mechanism
for automatic
utomatic loading
Typically 4 by 4 feet and can carry 1
12,000
2,000 lb. loads
Typically less than 10 vehicles in AGV system

47
14(c) Assembly AGV
Used as assembly platforms (e.g., car chassis,
engines, appliances)
Greatest development activity during the 1980s
(alternative to AEMs)
Typically 50100
100 vehicles in AGV system

14(d) Light load AGV

Used for small loads (< 500 lbs.), e.g., components,
tools
Typically used in electronics assembly and office
environments (as mail and snack ca carriers)
14(e) Fork AGV
Counterbalanced, narrow
narrow-aisle straddle, and
sideloading versions available Typically have sensors
on forks (e.g., infrared sensors) for pallet interfacing

8. Storage Equipment
Storage equipment is used for holding or buffering materials over a period of time.
Some storage equipment may include the transport of materials (e.g., the S/R
machines of an AS/RS, or storage carousels). If materials are block stacked directly on
the floor, then no storage equipment is required. Storage racks are used to provide
support to a load and/or to make the load accessible.

Table 11. Storage Equipment

Block stacking (noequipment) Stackingframe

Selective palletrack Binshelving
Single-deeprack Storagedrawers
Double-deeprack Storagecarousel
Drive-inrack Vertical liftmodule
Drive-throughrack A-frame
Push-backrack Automatic storage/retrieval system(AS/RS)
Flow-throughrack Unit loadAS/RS
Carton-flowrack MiniloadAS/RS
Pallet-flowrack Man-on-boardAS/RS
boardAS/RS
Slidingrack Deep-laneAS/RS
Cantileverrack
1. Block stacking (no equipment)
Block stacking is the storage of loads on top of each other in stacks placed in lanes on
the floor (a.k.a. floor storage
storage)
Adv: Easy to implement and very flexible. Low investment cost since no storage
medium is required.
Disadv:
v: Honeycomb loss can be significant since, on average, half of one lane will be
empty for each item. In most cases, only LIFO retrieval is possible in each lane unless
there is an aisle at the back. Damage to loads might cause instable stacks.
Two to ten rows of storage typically used Width of each lane limited by vehicle width,
not load width

48
Storage racks are used when support and/or material accessibility is required
2. Selective pallet rack
Pallets are supported between load load-supporting
rting beams. Most popular type of
storage rack. Special attachments and decking can be used to make the racks
capable of supporting other types of unit loads besides pallets (e.g., coils, drums,
skids)
Load-on-beam
beam racks are used to provide clearance for sstraddles; load-on-floor
racks can be used when it is not necessary to use straddles.
2(a) Single-deep
deep rack
Single position (slot) per position
Adv: Provides complete and fast accessibility to all loads with no honeycomb
loss
Disadv: Can result in low cube utilization because of aisle space requirements,
which can be influenced by the lift truck used (e.g., a turret truck would increase
and a standard counterbalanced would decrease utilization)
2(b) Double-deep
deep rack
Two pallets stored per position Adv: Provi
Provides
des greater cube
utilization than single
single-deep
deep racks because more loads canbe accessed from the
same side of the rack
Disadv: In order to access rear load in rack, an extended reaching mechanism is
required on the lift truck
Typically used when the invento
inventory
ry level for an item is at least five or when loads
are stored and picked in multiples of two pallets
3. Drive-in rack
Loads are supported by rails attached to the upright beams. Lift trucks are
driven between the uprights be
beams.
Adv: Provides high density pallet storage.
Disadv: Requires uniform
uniform-size loads.
Lengthy storage and retrieval times due to care required by driver inside of the
4. Drive-through
through rack
Similar to drive-in
in rack, except openat both ends, allowing access from both
ends(FIFO)
Used for staging loads in a flow
flow-thru
thru fashion [Frazelle, WC WH and MH]

5. Sliding rack
Location of the aisle is changed by sliding rows of racks along guide rails in floor
(a.k.a. mobile rack)
Used when only single
single-deep
deep storage is possible and space is very limited or expensive
Adv: High cube utilization and complete accessibility to all loads
49
Disadv: More expensive compared to other storage racks. Lengthy storage and
retrieval times because one can only pick in one lane at a time.
Relies on having a reliable power source available.
Provides increased security for items compared to other racks
Typically found in library stacks, vaults, and climate-controlled (e.g., refrigerated)
storage rooms
6. Cantilever rack
Loads are supported by two or more cantilevered arms (i.e., horizontal beams
supported at only one end)
Similar to pallet racks, except the front upright and front shelf beams are eliminated
Used when there is a need for a full clear shelf that can be loaded from the front
without obstruction from rack support uprights
Typically used to store long loads (e.g., bar stock, pipes, lumber)
7. Stacking frame
Interlocking units that enable stacking of a load so that crushing does not occur
Can be disassembled and stored compactly when not in use Pallet frames can be used
to enable multilevel block stacking
Cost per frame: $100$300 (can be leased for short-term increases in inventory)

8. Bin shelving
Alternative to racks to store small, loose, nonpalletized items. Pieces placed either
directly on shelves or in bins or cartons.
Adv: Low cost.
Disadv: Can result in excessive travel for picker. Difficult to pick from top shelf
depending on the height of the picker and the weight of the unit. Replenishment can
interfere with picking.
Several levels of shelves (and storage drawers) on a mezzanine can be used to allow
multi-level picking (max 4 levels). A lift truck or vertical reciprocating conveyor, e.g.,
can be used to help with removing units from the top level.
9. Storage drawers
Drawers provide an alternative to bin shelving to store small, loose items
Adv: Drawers can provide increased security compared to bin shelving and is most
important when the demand for a specific item is low and infrequent. Easy to install
at point of use.
Disadv: Space is frequently underutilized unless there is an ongoing disciplined
approach to managing the location and usage of the units being stored.
Replenishment can interfere with picking. Cannot see inside the drawers, making
labeling an important issue.
10. Storage carousel
Carousel consists of a set of horizontally (pictured) or vertically revolving storage
baskets or bins.
Adv: Allows a large number of items to be picked at a high rate.
Disadv: Replenishment cannot occur during picking operations (typically,
replenishment takes place during a separate shift or is interleaved between peak
picking periods).
11.A-frame
Units are dispensed from parallel arrays of
vertical angled channels onto a belt conveyor
that carries them into a container.
Adv: Very high pick rate.
Disadv: Only feasible for small, rigid items of
uniform shape that are not fragile. Requires
manual replenishment..

50
15. Automatic storage/retrieval systems (AS/RS)
Consists of integrated computer-controlled system that combines storage medium,
transport mechanism, and controls with various levels of automation for fast and
accurate random storage of products and materials
Storage/retrieval (S/R) machine in an AS/RS operates in narrow aisle, serving rack
slots on both sides of aisle; can travel in horizontal (along the aisle) and vertical (up
and down a rack) directions at same time
Adv: Fewer material handlers, better material control (including security), and more
efficient use of storage space
Disadv: Typically, high capital and maintenance costs, and more difficult to modify
Although AS/RS were originally developed for warehousing and distribution
operations, they are now also being used for in-process storage as part of an
automated job shop. In an automated job-shop, an AS/RS can be combined with an
automatic identification system and an automatic transportation system (e.g.,
automatic conveyors and/or an AGV system) to provide real-time material control
capabilities. The material stored in the AS/RS can include both finished goods and
work in process and even production tools and jigs.
Components:
Racks: A typical AS/RS utilizes high-rise storage racks, ranging in height between 40
and 80 feet or higher, for random storage. High-rise racks require tight rack
tolerances and level floors, all of which increase the cost of the racks as compared to
a basic storage rack. The racks in an AS/RS can be freestanding or uses to support the
building (RSSrack-supported structure).

PALLET HANDLING AND STORAGE SYSTEMS

Pallet racking

Pallet rack is a material handling storage aid system designed to storematerials on

pallets (or skids). Although there are many varieties of pallet racking, all types
allow for the storage of palletized materials in horizontal rows with multiple levels.
Forklift trucks are usually an integral part of any pallet rack system as they are
usually required to place the loaded pallets onto the racks for storage. Since the
Second World War, pallet racks have become an essential and ubiquitous element of
most modern warehouses, manufacturing facilities, retail centers, and other storage
and distribution facilities. All types of pallet racking increase storage density of the
stored goods. Costs associated with the racking increases with increasing storage
density.

51
 Selective pallet racking systems
Selective pallet racking is a common pallet racking system in use today.Selective
pallet racking systems typically come in one of two configurations: a roll formed, or
clip-in configuration, and a structural bolt-together configuration.
1. Roll formed selective rack is most commonly manufactured in a "teardrop" style
(so named as the holes on the column of the upright are shaped like a teardrop).
Pallets then rest on the horizontal load beams that are held in place by mounting
clips. Because the clips on teardrop configurations can be quickly moved, the shelves
can be easily adjusted to different heights to accommodate various load sizes. This is
convenient for a warehouse that needs to store a wide variety of product sizes.
2. Structural pallet rack systems are very similar to roll formed pallet rack systems
except the horizontal load beams are attached to the uprights with bolts and have
much greater weight-bearing capacity. The bolt fixings make this a form of adjustable
shelving - racks can be constructed, reconfigured, and dismantled and reused as
necessary. Structural pallet racking can be designed into the structure of the building
itself, so that the upright columns are simultaneously used to support the roof of the
storage facility, in which case the structural pallet rack uprights replace the storage
buildings vertical support I-beams. This system is a rack supported building.
Selective pallet rack systems provide easy accessibility to all products at all times -
important if the inventory is rapidly depleted and restocked (called quick turnover).
A selective pallet rack system is commonly used in a "big-box" distribution
application, as well as in retail store inventory rooms, cold storage
applications, wholesale stores, etc.

52
CHAPTER 4

BULK MATERIAL HANDLING

Bulk material handling is an engineering field that is centered on thedesign of
equipment used for the handling of dry materials such as ores, coal, cereals, wood
chips, sand, gravel and
nd stone in loose bulk form. It can also relate to the handling of
mixed wastes. Bulk material handling systems are typically composed of stationary
machinery such as conveyor belts
belts,, screw conveyors, tubular drag conveyors, moving
floors, top loaders,, stackers, reclaimers, bucket elevators, truck dumpers, railcar
rai
dumpers or wagongon tipplers, ship loaders,, hoppers and diverters and
and various mobile
equipment such as loaders, mobile hopper loaders / unloaders, various shuttles,
combined with storage facilities such as stockyards, storage silos or stockpiles.
Advanced bulk material ha handling
ling systems feature integrated bulk storage,
rage, conveying,
and discharge. The purpose of a bulk material handling facility may be to transport
material from one of several locati
locations (i.e. a source) to an ultimate destination or to
process material such as ore in concentrating
rating and smelting or handling materials for
manufacturing such as logs, wood chips and sawdust at sawmills an andd paper mills.
Other industries using bulk materials handling include flour mills and coal-fired fired
utility boilers. Providing storage and inventory control and possibly material
blending is usually part of a bulk material handling system.
In ports handling large quantities of bulk materials continuous ship unloaders are
replacing gantry cranes.

1) Bulk Bag Dischargers

Revolutionary design allows fast, easy and dust-free
free loading, untying, retying and
removal of bulk bags. It has bag lifting frame for forklift loading. It is also made of
cantilevered hoist and trolley for loading without a forklift.

2) Bulk Bag Conditioners

Bulk Bag Conditioners
ners loosen bulk solid materials
als that have solidified during storage
andd shipment, enabling bulk bag unloaders
aders to discharge the material through bag
spouts. Available as stand
stand-alone
alone units (shown) or integrated with Bulk Bag
Dischargers.

53
LOADING AND STOWING OF CARGO
The aim of ships officers and crewmembers on board should be to prevent damage
or deterioration whilst the cargo is under their care and to deliver it, as far as
possible, in as good condition and order as it was when received aboard. If
unacquainted with a certain type of cargo you should ascertain as to its nature and
any necessary precautions. Therefore, the Master and officers of all vessels require a
good working knowledge of the various kinds of cargo they are likely to carry:: their
peculiar characteristics, liability to damage, decay, or deterioration, their
measurement, and the usual methods of packing, loading and discharging, stowage, stowage
dunnaging, etc., as the Master is responsible for the safe loading of his vessel and the
proper stowage of the cargo.
The actual handling of the cargo in loading and discharging is done by stevedores,stevedores
who are experienced men appointed for this purpose when a vessel arrives at a port.
This does not release the Master from the responsibility for the safety of the ship and
cargo, and he must supervise the work of the stevedores for general safety.
Therefore, during stowage the first consideration must be given to safety,, i.e. the
cargo must be stowed so that the ship will be stabl stable and seaworthy, and it must be
secured in such a manner that it cannot shift if the vessel encounters bad w weather.
eather.
The type of vessel, the cubic capacity of her comp
compartments
artments destined for the cargo and
the appliances on board or on shore for loading or discharging, as well as the nature
of the cargo, affect the question of hohow
w to stow the cargo in the best possible manner.
The ship must be made neither stiff nor too tender.
tender The next consideration is for the
safety of the cargo it itself:
self: it must not be damaged by shifting; certain tain commodities
become easily tainted by others, water might find its way into the hold and
condensation or sweatsweating
ing must be prevented. Valuable cargo may be stolen or
broached.
Finally, the Chief Officer must bear in mind the various destinations of the goods
the ship carries, and arrange things, as far as he ccan,
an, to see that the cargo for a certain
place can be lifted out without distur
disturbing
bing the other cargo. The Chief Officer must
watch closely the ship's stability (i.e. what the ship's trim is or how she is sitting).
Since a ship is supported by fluid pressure she will incline in any directionaccording
to the positionn of the weights placed on her. The trim,trim, therefore, is the angle that a
ship is making,, fore and aft, with the water. The levels are read by numbers painted
on the ship's stem and stem. These are called draught marks. Another word is heel.
This means
eans a list or inclination from one side to another, caused by loading. The ChiefCh
Officer must watch the load lines. They are welded lded or punched on and then painted.
Loading, discharging, stowage, lashing, securing securing,, etc. are the operations and a
activities specific for each type of ship and cargo
cargo.
54
GENERAL CARGO

Before containerisation, apart from bulk, most cargoes were handled as general
cargoes. Even vehicles were handled as general cargo before the advent of vehicle
carriers and ro-ro vessels. Most ships had their own handling facilities in the form
of derricks. Now the majority of cargo is shipped in containers. Thus there in no need
for ships to have their own cargo handling gear and they rely entirely on shore
facilities. Much of the general cargo carried now is of a type that cannot be readily
packed into containers. General cargo is loaded from the dock by traditional
dockside cranes except where the weight precludes this. To speed up loading, much
of the cargo is unitised. The process of unitising consists of strapping together
individual items of cargo to form a single unit. Ships designed to carry heavy cargoes
usually have their own cargo handling gear in the form of heavy duty derricks or
cranes. Most cargo vessels used to have tween decks (in between decks) in the
holds but not many cargo ships are fitted with these now.

REFRIGERATED CARGO
Apples, pears, kiwis, grapes and stone fruit (peaches, cherries etc.) are traditionally
the main products that dominate this segment of reefer transportation. As many of
us know from our own gardens, deciduous fruits are highly seasonal. This makes the
deciduous trade very different from the banana trade, which is a 12-month business.
Optimum transit temperatures for deciduous fruit vary greatly per type and variety,
but mostly range between 1 and +4C. The ability of the fruit to resist pressure is
indicative of its ripeness and can be measured with a penetrometer.

Stowing bananas in the hold

In comparison with the previously mentioned groups of cargo, citrus fruit i.e.
oranges, lemons, grapefruit and mandarins, are a relatively simple cargo to carry. A
minor fluctuation in the hold temperature will not have disastrous effects. Successful
shipments have even been carried out using ventilation alone, without refrigeration.
Amongst the most familiar fungi affecting citrus fruit are green and blue penicillium
mould growth (shown to the right) which is accelerated by high storage
temperatures. Cargo vessels often carry timber, usually sawn construction material

55
such as deals, battens, planks and boards. Vertical timber side members, or
stanchions are used to secure the cargo either side. The cargo is often piled high
because timber is a relatively light cargo.

TIMBER CARRIER

Timber carrier
Vacuum clamps were primarily designed to lift newsprint, but are now also used
with other types of reeled paper. A frame carrying suction pads is lowered onto the
reels, and vacuum is applied. This allows the reels to be lifted without damage being
inflicted.

Vacuum clamps
Some cargoes are unitised. The process of unitising consists of strapping together
individual bales or bundles into a unit. Unitised commodities include paper, pulp,
plywood, hardboard, lumber, aluminium, lead, steel pipes and many more.

Pipe lifting frames are used to handle an increasing diversity of pipes. Various types
of pipe hooks are utilised to match the shippers requirements for the varied types of
pipe, some coated, some flanged, others strapped in bundles

56
Semi-Automatic Lifting Frames (beams) carry an air pressure system, operatingon
pneumatic release hooks. This means that once hooked up to the load, no further
intervention is required to release the hooks as the crane driver has a control system
in the crane cab. Used to lift a wide range of commodities including unitised pulp,
timber, plywood, aluminium, copper, and lead, as well as non-unitised commodities
such a slung timber, tissue reels and big bags of bulk commodities.

Lifting frame (beam)

Head clamps are used to lift reels of paper where the quality of paper does not
warrant the considerable investment in vacuum clamps, where local technology does
not support the maintenance of these complex machines, or where reels are not
suitable for core probe lifting.

CARGO STOWAGE PLAN

CONVENTIONAL CARGO VESSELS. Conventional cargo vessels are constructed with
several hatch openings on the weather deck into the holds below. In the deck
arrangement of a conventional cargo ship, cargo is lowered through the main deck
hatch opening into one of the between deck levels in the hold. It is landed in the hatch
square and moved forward, aft, or into the wings by machine or by hand, where it is
stowed. The hatches are numbered in order from bow to stern and the various deck
levels are normally designated as uppertween deck, lower tween deck, and hold.

57
 BREAK-BULK VESSEL STOWAGE PLANS. The break-bulk vessel cargo stowage plan
is a complete diagram of a vessel's cargo space showing the location (both on and
below deck) of all cargo aboard ship.
a) General. The stowage plan looks like a vessel when viewed from the side. It contains
information about cargo stowed in the vessel's hold, tween decks, and forecastle
deck. The cargo stowage plan is prepared by the loading terminal after the ship has
been loaded and is used to facilitate the subsequent loading and discharge of cargo at
all ports along the voyage.
The cargo stowage plan contains
_ A summary of cargo to be discharged at each port.
_ A summary and location of heavy lifts.
_ Information on the capacity and location of heavy lifts.
_ Information on the capacity and location of the ship's boom.
_ General information such as the location of special items of cargo
(protected, controlled, sensitive, mail, high-value, and so forth).

LIQUID BULK CARGO OIL TANKERS

Many tankers now load from oilfields at sea. To do this they moor up (usually bythe
bow) to a gantry, buoy or turret. Tankers on the North Sea run (often called shuttle
tankers) have been specially designed to load at the bow from a single point
mooring at sea. Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) are emitted when loading and
have to beremoved, this being done with equipment on deck. It is estimated that 4 to
7 million of tons of cargo is lost due to VOC emission yearly versus 25,000 tons
due to spillage. Economically as well environmentally it is unacceptable. Emissions
produced by venting during loading and transit are in the range of 0.1to 0.3 percent,
depending on tanker design and cargo characteristics. Losses can reach two percent
or more when the cargo has not been stripped of its most volatile components before
loading aboard the tanker. Double hull tankers may produce higher VOC emission
than single hull tankers, because of the insulationof the hot oil from the
surrounding cooler temperatures. VOCs are condensed in a process plant and stored
in separate tanks on the ship's deck.

Crude oil can be loaded into a tanker from a variety of offshore facilities or froma
conventional oil terminal through the midship manifold.M/T Navion Britannia
shown above is equipped with the most advanced loading systems, combining a Bow
Loading (BL) system and the ship's part of the Submerged Turret Loading (STL)
system.

58
 Submerged Turret Loading system
The basis of the Submerged Turret Loading system is the buoy moored to theseabed.
The buoy is pulled into and secured in a mating cone in the bottom of thevessel and
thus connecting the mooring system. Internal in the buoy is the turret connectionto
the mooring and riser systems. The outer buoy hull can rotate freely with the vessel
around the turret by means of internal turret bearings. Oil is transferred through an
in-line swivel via the loading manifold to the pipingsystem of the vessel.
Disconnected, the buoy will float in an equilibrium position ready for new
connection.
The Floating turret system enables the vessel to be easily moored at the bow and
oil transferred conventionally to the midship manifold.

single point mooring

Single anchor loading system

Floating production, storage and offloading systems (FPSO) can offer significant
advantages over fixed production platforms particularly in remote offshore locations
where deep water, strong ocean currents and harsh weather conditions may occur, or
where export pipelines are difficult to install or uneconomic to run. Single point
mooring and loading

Turret & buoy loading arm

59
Liquid cargo is nowadays usually transferred using an articulated arm
loading/discharge systems, and groups of arms are often found on a shore
refineries or on offshore loading facilities. It connects to the tankers manifold
usually located near the centre of the ship. As well as used for loading petroleum
products, these loading arms are also used to load a wide range of chemicals. Some
arms are designed to handle chemicals and gases at cryogenic temperatures such as
liquefied natural gas, ethylene, refrigerated anhydrous ammonia and refrigerated
LPG and LNG. The first marine loading arm came into operation in 1956, and before
that hoses were manually connected using derricks and cranes.

Cargo is offloaded at the manifold, usually located amidships. All the tanks are
connected to this point via valves. Modern vessels have the capability of
simultaneously off-loading several grades or types of cargo.

LNG loading arms.

Modern marine arm loading systems are computer controlled enabling theoperator
to have total control and indication of the arm parameters.

60
DRY BULK CARGO

Grab for coal and loose cargo Loading into hopper/bunker

Bulkcarrier - Sliding hatchcover

TYPES OF GRABS

Grab for iron ore Belt conveyor

To maximise the unloading process loose cargoes are often loaded from a stockpile
or stockyard into a hopper. This is useful when loading into rail cars and lorries
because the ship can continue unloading even though there may not always be a lorry
immediately available. Some hoppers have an elevator for depositing the cargo into
heaps on the quay side for later onward transportation. Likewise the same machinery
can be used in reverse to load cargo into the ships hold. Besides loading the cargo,
grabs can be used to even out the load. The ship was loaded using a conveyer which

61
leaves heaps
ps in the cargo. The tops of the heaps are removed and distributed around
the hold to give an even top to the load.

Removing powdered coal from the bottom of the hold.

BULK CARRIERS: LOADING CONSIDERATIONS

Sagging

Shearing

Hogging
As with any cargo ship it is important to load the cargo so that stresses in the ship
remain at a minimum or at least evenly distribu
distributed.
ted. This is especially so with large
bulk carriers. All ships are designed with limitations imposed upon their operability
to ensure that the structural inteintegrity
grity is maintained. Therefore, exceeding these
limitations may result in over
over-stressing
ressing of the ship's structure which may lead to
catastrophic failure. The ship's approved loading manual provides a description of
the operational loading
ading conditions upon which the design of the hull structure has
been based. Thee loading instrument provides a means to readily calculate the still
water shear forces and bending moments in any load or ballast condition, and
assess these values against the design limits. A ship's structure is designed to
withstand the static and dynamic loads likely to be experienced by the ship
throughout
out its service life. The loads acting on the hull structure when a ship is
floating in still (calm) water are static loads, one of the major ones being created by
the cargo.
rgo. The main hull stresses set up by the cargo are hogging, sagging and
shearing.

62
These can be minimised by evenly distributing the cargo - homogenous loading.
Dynamic loads are those additional loads exert
exerted
ed on the ship's hull structure through
the action of the waves and the effects of tthe
he resultant ship motions (i.e. acceleration
forces, slamming and sloshing loaloads).
ds). Hogging and sagging forces are at a maximum
when thee wave length is eequal
qual to the length of the ship. Sloshing loads may be
induced on the ship's internal structure through the movement of the fluids in
tanks/holds whilst
ilst slamming of the bottom shell structure forward may occur due to
emergence of the fore end of the ship from the sea in heavy weather. Cargo over- over
loading in individual hold spaces will increase the static stress levels in the ship's
structure and reduce the strength capability of the structure to sustain the dynamic
dynamic
loads exerted in adverse sea ea conditions. In harbour, where the ship is in sheltered
sheltered
water and is subjected to reduced dynamic loads, the hull is permitted to carry a
higher level of stress imposed by the static loads, so a certain amount of difference in
the loading of each hold is allowable.

Most modern bulkers have strain monitoring equipment sothat hull stresses that
cause hull fractures as above are minimized

LOADING & UNLOADING CONTAINERS

Gantry crane
The preferred method of loading container vessels is with a rail mounted
gantryCrane.The The main arm or derrick boom can be raised when the vessel departs
so as to clear the mast and superstructure.

63
Containers are secured by cross bracing, with turnbucklesand
turnbuckles lashing bars,, and
anchored to slots or fitting and eye-pads on the deck:

Improper stowage (containers stowed six

six-high)
high) or improper use of cargo handling
equipment can cause heavy damage or collapse of container stack due deformation of
bottom container.

The majority of reefer cargo is now transported by containers. Containers with their
own integral cooling system can be plugged into the ships electricity supply
(connection power points).

64
One of the most persistent problems experienced onboard containerships is bad
stowage.. This can take many different forms, but the most potentially damaging
example occurs when heavyweight containers find their way into the upper tiers of
container stacks on deck.
Loading with mobile crane is used at ports that dont have the cargo throughput to
justify a rail mounted gantry cran
cranee installation. It also has the advantage that it is not
restricted
estricted to container cargoes. Careful monitoring of the ships stability during
loading operations is required or else the ship might capsize:

Out of gauge cargo,, that is cargo which is slightly higher or wider than will fit
standard containers, can still be carried in open top, top open side or flat rack
containers. The latter type has higher payload ratings which is often important.

CONTAINER LASHING
Containers are locked together using twist locks.. They come in many variations but
their purpose is to lock the container stack together at the corner posts. With further
development in the industry during tthe he 1970s and 80s, the size of containerships
continued to grow, with 9-high stowage in holds and 4-high 4 stowage on deck
becoming commonplace and tthe he industry began to wake up to the fact that standards
in lashing were required. Ships were, at this stage, sstill supplied with loading
computers that continued to calculate a ship's stability,
stability shear forces, bending and,
occasionally, torsion moments
moments. Very y few had the capability to calculate dynamic
loads on container frames and lashing systems caused by ship motions and wind
forces. And so the lashings were still applied throughout the stow in accordance with
the manufacturer's manual.

65
Cargo used to be lost overboard even though a properly designed securing system
was in place and the cargo was correctly stowed. It became apparent that there was
a great deal of ignorance concerning the combined static and dynamic loads acting on
a securing system when adverse weather was causing severe ship motions,
particularly rolling. Today, large container ships are being built known as the 'post-
panamax' class (too large to transit the Panama Canal) - capable of carrying up to
8,500 TEUs (the most recent ones even up to 12,000), and small container ships
down to coaster/feeder vessels of a few hundred TEUs. But in general terms, by a
process of evolution, the lashing systems in use on both types of vessels are very
similar. Both have adopted the twistlock and lashing
bar/turnbuckle system.

CONTAINER POSITION NUMBERING

To enable the position of a container on a ship to be specified, a standard numbering
system is used. Container slot positions aboard ship are expressed by three co-
ordinates indicating:

BAY ----- ROW ----- TIER

BAYS: are numbered lengthwise from bow to stern with odd numbers for 20'
containers and even numbers for 40' containers. The even number between two 20'
containers is used to define 40' bays.
ROWS: are numbered from centreline to portside with even numbers and from
centreline to starboard with odd numbers. The container row stowed on the
centreline is marked 00.
TIERS: In under deck stows, containers are numbered vertically downwards with
even numbers from top to bottom. The bottom row will be 02, except where as a
result of the hull contour, the bottom of an adjacent row is at a higher level. In case of
two half heights the bottom ones are to be numbered by an odd number. On deck
stowage is indicated by code key 8 followed by an even number sequence.

CONTAINER LOADING AND STOWAGE

The securing and lashing of containers on ship's decks is a difficult operation
interms of the work environment. There are great problems during loading and
discharge of containers. The stevedores who carry out this work, known as riggers,
have to work on container stacks which often are 13 metres high or more above the
ship's deck. Safety arrangements are in some ports poor and the work frequently has
to be performed in the dark, under windy and rainy or sometimes icy conditions. The

66
difficulties are to a large extentdue to the lashing equipment. The immense diversity
of the devices used gives rise to great problems. Securing of containers is the
responsibility of the ship's master, which can mean that there are large differences in
the manner in which the operation is effected between individual vessels and
shipping companies. In the early years of containerization, existing general cargo
vessels were converted with the removal of tween decks and the addition of cell
guides into the cargo holds. On deck, the hatch covers were strengthened and fittings
added for lashings. However, the containers on deck were seldom stowed above one
high and so were secured to the vessel by 'traditional' cargo ship methods. Often seen
still trading today, are a few of the 'first generation' vessels built during the late
sixties and early seventies. These ships were the first to be designed and built as pure
container carriers. The holds and hatch covers were as wide as possible, and
container posts were fitted on deck to facilitate loading of deck-stowed containers
out to the ship's side.

For this generation of vessel, two systems of securing the cargo were common.
One relied on the use of twistlocks in conjunction with lashing bars or chains, and
the second relied on the use of stacking cones and bridge pieces in conjunction
with lashing bars or chains. Gradually, due to the increased utilisation of differing
height containers, the second method became redundant and it became common
practice to use twist locks throughout the stow. This method normally allowed
containers to be stacked three high and, in some cases, four high if the fourth tier
was light in weight or empty. For first generation vessels, computer technology was
not available onboard to speedily calculate dynamic loads acting on container
lashings and frames. The shipboard computer (if any) was only used to calculate
stresses and stability for the ship itself. Therefore, the shipboard staff would ensure
the vessel was lashed according to a lashing plan taken from the lashing equipment
manufacturer's manual, which appeared to assume an ideal stow with respect to the
distribution of weight in each stack (the homogenous stack). On post-panamax
vessels - where among other features the vessel's large beam results in an
unavoidable, relatively large GM (metacentric height), and 6-highstowage on deck is
common - the modern practice is for the vessel to be fitted with a lashing bridge; a
substantial steel structure running athwartships between each forty foot container
bay. This allows the second and third tiers of containers to be secured to the bridge
using lashing rods and turnbuckles, whilst the whole stow is secured throughout with
twistlocks. The lashing bridge allows the anchoring points for each stack to be moved
higher up the stack, which allows the lashings to be more effective in reducing the
tipping moments acting on a stack when a vessel is rolling heavily.

However, the practice of fitting the bridges between forty foot bays means that the
twenty foot containers can only take advantage of the lashing bridges at one end. So,
in effect, the twenty foot stacks have to revert to the limits of a conventional lashing
system.. This is the case, because the practice of estimating the forces acting on a
stack divides the container weight equally between each end of the container. So the
weight in each twenty foot container is limited by the capacity of the lashing system
at the container end, which does not have the advantage of being secured by a lashing
bridge. On smaller vessels, the whole stow is also secured throughout with twistlocks,
and the lowest three tiers are secured to the hatch cover or support post using the
lashing bar/turnbuckle combination. However, since the mid 1980s, naval
architects have produced computer programs to calculate the dynamicloads acting
on container stacks. Such programs have been designed for use by ships' officers and
container planners. On modern vessels, 5-high and 6-high stowage on deck is
common; the use of onboard computers to check the dynamics of the stow in all
weather conditions is vitally important for the safe carriage of the cargo.

67
LOADING PROCEDURES.
The loading of hazardous cargo is performed in two phases:
1) transfer of the cargo from rail cars or trucks to the dock and
2) transfer from dock to ship.
a) Rail cars or trucks are subjected to visual inspections en route to the loading area
to ensure that the cargo has not been damaged in transit. After the rail car or truck
has been opened and its contents inspected, cargo is transferred by forklift truck
to designated spotting points for each hatch. When handling loading, or unloading
military explosives, cargo handlers should use equipment made especially for this
type of cargo.
b) Inspectors visually scan explosives positioned for hoisting to detect defects in
strapping or packaging. All metal strapping should be tight. The items that make
up the unit load should be undamaged. Broken or loose banding of explosives on
pallets requires that the defective pallet of explosives be removed, separated from
the others, and corrected before loading. Responsible personnel should
immediately report defects in banding to the supervising authority for evaluation
of the banding and possible on-site rebanding. If damage is evident, workers
should transfer the load immediately to an area away from normal loading activity
and wait for further instructions.
c) If any of the following conditions exist, cargo handlers should not load the
explosive item for transportation or stowage on board any vessel:
Container failure or evidence of leaking of liquid components.
Unusual appearance of the container, such as dampness, molds, or stains,
indicating internal defects in the absorbent material.
Defective ammunition and/or packaging.
d) Personnel must remove explosive cargo with any of these problems from the
loading area, isolate the cargo, and process it in accordance with safety
regulations.
e) At the spotting location, riggers/hook handlers place the appropriate sling on the
load and check pallet balance and construction for lift capability.
f) To eliminate excessive drift, responsible personnel should use slings that are as
short as possible when handling military ammunition or other explosives. A cargo
safety hook is used almost all the time for hoisting loads of military explosives
aboard merchant-type ships. Bomb slings (see Figure 9 -6) made of manila or wire
rope are used to hoist single bombs aboard the vessel. When the sling is attached
to the load and secured to the hook, the signalman signals the winch man to hoist
the load. Personnel should be careful not to exceed the weight limits when
hoisting drafts. They should lift drafts in a single, smooth motion, clearing the rail
and hatch coaming by at least 3 feet. If the activity within the hold restricts the
lowering of the load, personnel must return the load to the dock or lower it within
6 inches of the ship's deck until loading begins again.
g) Personnel move the load from the square of the hatch to the stowage position by
forklift. Wedge-point bar adjustments allow final positioning for a tight stow. Crew
members may use pallet trucks or transporters to stow loads in areas of difficult
access. Personnel must stow all loads right side up on their pallets or skids.
h) As the loading of each compartment is completed, the ship's master or his
authorized representative certifies the stowage using a cargo stowage inspection
record.

68
TYPES OF STOWAGE.
This aspect details the types of stowage specified for military explosives.
A. MAGAZINE - CLASS A. Responsible personnel should isolate magazines when
stowing cargo becau
becausese they are highly sensitive to shock and ignite very easily by
sparks or friction. Any class of ammunition requiring magazine stowage, Class A, is
not to be over stowed with any other kind of cargo.
cargo. The type of explosives stowed
in magazines must be co compatible.
mpatible. Personnel should stow portable magazines in a
hold or on deck.
B. AMMUNITION. Military explosives should be stowed in a cool location. The best
place is in a lower tween
tween-deck hold or lower hold. Personnel should use the same
priorities for selecting locations as those used for magazines.
C. CHEMICAL. Chemical agents also require a cool location for stowage; a deep tank
or lower holdld is preferred. Because of the hazards associated with leakage, cargo
handlers should take precautions during the dunnaging opera operation
tion to seal the
pump suctions, hatch covers, and ventilators.
D. SPECIAL. Responsible crew members should stow classes of military explosives
authorized for spec
special
ial stowage in ventilated space protected from the elements.
They will ensure that the space does not contain vessel stores, machiner machinery,
y, or
navigation equipment. The space should be located so that it can be closed off
from traffic while at sea. Personnel should avoid stowing in locations such ch as
deckhouses, mast houses, and mast lockers. Crew members should use dunnage to
protect the explosives
osives from contact damage with the ship's structure.
E. PYROTECHNIC. Cargo handlers should stow pyrotechnic ammunition the same
way as they stow ammunition and special stowage. It should be protected from
moisture and heat. Except where permitted, personnel should not stow
pyrotechnic
otechnic ammunition in holds or compartments with other military explosives.
F. DECK. Most classes of explosive cargo can be stowed on th thee weather deck. Typical
cargo stowed on deck includes the following:

Last-on, first-off
off loads which inte
interfere
rfere with access to the hatch. Items that are too
large to fit through the hatches, such as completely assembled missiles or rockets.
Items that are relatively bulky compared to their weight, such as bomb ffins ins and
empty incendiary bombs. Flammable liquids, solids, or oxidizing poisons, and
combustible liquids (including rocket engines containing a liquid propellant and fuels
in containers for guided mi missiles and rockets).
1. Cargo handlers should never stow dangerous items such as flammable or
combustible le liquids on deck above a hold containing ammunition.
2. The dockside handling procedures for cargo to be stowed on deck and the same
as those previously
usly desc
described for cargo towed in the hold. Often, crew members
position the cargo on deck with the hoisting gear and then manually stow it.

69
 Proper placement of cargo is as important for a tight stow on deck as it is in the
hold, and the unit loads should touch one another as much as possible.

Palletized unit load Single

Single-item load

STOWAGE GROUPS.
The explosives loaded aboard merchant ships are classed generally as rectangular or
round. For stowing and securing purposes, cargo handlers group loads as rectangular
unit loads which are items unitized on wood pallet, metal pallets, or skids, or as
round, single-item
item loads which are large items loaded individually. Explosives are
stowed below decks using either of th
the methods listed below.
below
1. Block Stowage. In block stowage, personnel stow loads in the form of tight blocks
between both sides
ides of the hold or confine the loads by other loads or wooden
bulkheads if the size permits. Block
Block-stow
stow techniques are best because
bec undesirable
esirable
empty areas within the stow are kept to a minimum (see below).

Typical block stowage, lower hold number 1

2. Sweat board-to-Sweat
Sweat board Stowage. Sweatboard-to-sweatboard
Sweatboard sweatboard stowage uses
the most space within a hold but results in agreater number of small empty spaces
than block stowage. These features become more pronoun
pronounced
ced in compartments
with severe hull curvature. In rectangular shape areas, the technique resembles
70
 block stowage. Using the sweatboard-to-sweatboard stowage method in
compartments with severe hull curvature requires considerably more manpower
and time than does a straight block stow. Stowage of breakbulk cargo general
cargo)
Many Carefully to Carry articles have mentioned, and given advice, on the stowage of
different commodities which could loosely be described as breakbulk cargo.
However, no article has yet dealt generally with the subject of stowage of breakbulk
cargo. In recent years there appears to have been a general decline of standards in
the stowage of breakbulk cargo resulting in cargo damage and claims.
The Committee considers there are various reasons for the decline of standards,
namely:
Use of bulk carriers for the carriage of breakbulk cargo.
Improper dunnaging.
Inadequate packing.
Inadequate stowage skills of ships officers.
BULK CARRIERS
The ideal ship to use for the stowage of breakbulk cargo, is a ship fitted with tween
decks. This type of ship is designed for the carriage of breakbulk cargo. The many
compartments facilitate the carriage of different commodities and make port rotation
easier, usually avoiding overstows. Provided care is taken over the stowage, cargo
damage, especially crushing damage, should be avoided. Unfortunately, tween deck
ships are in short supply and cannot compete economically with the medium sized
bulk carrier. Medium sized bulk carriers have therefore replaced, or are replacing,
tween deck ships on trades that have not been containerized or where, because of the
type of cargo, it is impossible to use containers. The bulk carriers two main
disadvantages, as compared with the tween deck ship, are the height of holds (about
twelve metres as compared with six metres for the lower hold of a tween decker),
and the sloping lower wing ballast tanks. As most breakbulk cargo is stowed by the
use of fork lift trucks, the sloping lower wing ballast tanks prevent the fork lift trucks
manoeuvring close to the side of the holds, making stowage difficult. The height of the
holds also prevents stowage from the tank top to the deck head using fork lift trucks.
These problems are usually overcome by loading the cargo in horizontal tiers on top
of which are placed steel plates on which fork lift trucks can manoeuvre to load the
next tier. It can readily be seen that crushing damage may occur, not just because of
the height of the stow, but due to the use of the steel plates and forklifts.

DUNNAGING
Dunnage - is the material to protect cargo, and ensure good stowage. Ceiling is
asurface of three-inch boards put on top of the tanks, below the lower hold, which is
called permanent dunnage. It is apparent that it is of paramount importance to use
proper and adequate dunnaging materials during the stowage of break-bulk cargo,
and this is especially true in the case of bulk carriers. Timber and timber products
such as plywood, are still the main type of dunnage materials in use, even though
timber products have risen in price over the past few years. Other cheaper materials
are sometimes used as a substitute, but are generally found to be inadequate.
Because of the price of timber, charterers, or whoever is paying for the dunnage, are
often reluctant to provide dunnage which is adequate both in quality and quantity.

DUNNAGE IS USED FOR THE FOLLOWING REASONS:

1. To spread the load over the surface area of the tank top, tween deck or deck and
also between horizontal tiers of cargo.
2. To increase friction between steel surfaces (tank top and cargo, etc.).
3. To tie the cargo together to prevent any movement in the stow.

71
4. To keep the cargo away from the tank top or deck and away from the steel
structure at the ships sides, thereby preventing contact with moisture formed on,
or running down or across steel surfaces and permitting the water to flow to the
bilges.
5. To block void spaces, brace and support cargo and block cargo to prevent
movement.
6. To create a divide, an auxiliary deck or level surface.
Dunnage is an absolute necessity for proper stowage of breakbulk cargo and, when
cargo damage occurs, the failure to use adequate or good quality dunnage may result
in allegations of bad stowage by cargo interests and liability for cargo claims being
difficult to refute. Because of the difficulties in the stowage of breakbulk cargo in bulk
carriers, proper and adequate use of dunnage is vital and although cost is a
consideration, this is usually minor in proportion to potential claims. When timber
dunnage is supplied, the master and the ships officers should check that the timber is
properly seasoned. Green or wet timber contains up to 35% of water. Shrinkage of
green timber results in the loosening of nails and could mean that any blocking or
bracing structure collapses. Timber should also be without dry rot, without
infestation, without splits (split timbers cannot be fastened properly and lack
strength) and of adequate scantling. Poor quality timber should be rejected and, as
the ships officers will probably have to sign for the timber supplied, they should
check that the amount supplied corresponds to the receipt they sign.

PACKING
One of the main causes of damage to breakbulk cargo is inadequate packing. Pallets,
boxes, crates and other forms of packing are usually designed for a single transit.
During the course of this transit the unit must survive initial storage, loading on to a
road or rail vehicle, transit to a port, handling at the port into temporary storage,
loading on to the ship and stowage, static and dynamic forces related to the ocean
passage, breaking out of stow and unloading, handling into temporary storage,
handling on to road or rail vehicle, transit to the receivers premises and handling at
the receivers premises. There are probably a minimum of ten handling operations
involved with every transit but, by far the most arduous, is the sea voyage. It is
therefore very important that packaging is taken into account when planning the
stowage of breakbulk cargo, particularly, when a stow could be as high as twelve
metres on a bulk carrier. Packaging should be inspected prior to loading and if
inadequate, the cargo should either be rejected or the bills of lading properly claused
in regard to the inadequacy of the packing. It is difficult to generalise on what should
be considered as inadequate packing, however, listed below are some examples:
1. Flimsy pallets which bend and break when lifted.
2. The cargo on the pallets is laterally greater than the surface area of the pallet
platform which results in the cargo projecting over the sides and becoming torn or
split on the pallet edges causing the load to become unstable.
3. The load on the pallet is only secured with shrink-wrapped plastic sheeting, which
is not acceptable as a securing material and leads to instability of the cargo on the
pallets.
4. Some of the bottom bags of the pallets leak their contents due to being pierced by
the forks of fork lift trucks which impairs the stability of the stow on the pallet.
5. Packages on pallets are not interlocked making the whole unit unstable. This is
especially true when the goods on the pallet are slippery.
6. Bundles of pipes secured with wire are wrongly arranged in the bundles causing
slackness in the bundles resulting in bending and end damage.
7. Heavy drums loaded on pallets which are only secured with flat metal strapping
bands which eventually become slack and the load becomes loose.

72
 Heavy drums that have broken loose from inadequate strapping
8. Wooden cases which have a strong base but with weak covers which lack rigidity
because they are not fitted with a frame. This can result in the cases collapsing in
stow and the stow collapsing. It is obviously difficult to see this weakness at the
time of shipment.

Wooden cases that lack structural rigidity

9. Plywood bundles that are packed in such a manner that the packing is too light for
the weight of the bundle and the bearers.

Plywood bundles that have broken out of packing that is

insufficient for the weight of the bundles and bearers

It should be realised that if the packing is inadequate and considered incapable of

withstanding the rigours of an ocean voyage, good stowage may not prevent the
cargo from sustaining damage. Furthermore, inadequate or weak packing can
undermine the stability of a stow and in extreme cases, lead to its eventual collapse.
Without proper supervision during loading, inadequate or weak packing is very often
only discovered at the discharge port when the cargo is unIoaded in a damaged
condition. It is difficult to determine at the discharge port or ports, whether the cargo
was damaged due to bad stowage or as a result of inadequate packing. Cargo claims

73
will eventually be directed to the ship-owner and may prove costly and impossible to
defend. Again, it should be pointed out that it is far more difficult to cater for stowage
of cargo with weak or inadequate packing on a bulk carrier as compared to ships with
tween decks. On a tween deck ship, top stowage either in the lower hold or tween
deck can be arranged for suspect or weak packing. However, top stowage on a bulk
carrier is far more limited, especially when there are many loading or discharge
ports. Even if packing is adequate, it is only designed to withstand certain pressures
and usually, these pressures are determined for static conditions. Packing crates and
cases of medium size should be able to withstand the superincumbent load of five
similar items stowed above. Properly designed palletised units of I,500kg should be
capable of supporting a 6,000kg load under static conditions, which would result in a
five tier pallet stow of about six metres in height. Steel drums are designed to survive
under a static load of three metres height of units of the same weight. Clearly, proper
stowage of these types of commodities can be arranged on a tween deck ship, but the
problem is far more difficult on a bulk carrier even if vast amounts of dunnage are
used to spread the loads evenly.
Various international and national organisations such as the IMDG Code, British
Standard, USA Packing Standard and the German Industry Standard (DIN), stipulate
strength and construction of packing. For example under German Standard (DIN)
cases have to withstand a static vertical pressure of 1.0mt/m2 during sea transit.
Ships officers cannot be expected to test packaging to see if it complies with these
standards, but they should be aware that standards do exist and that shippers are
under an obligation to comply with the rules and regulations of national and
international organisations. Also, packaging has to be properly marked especially if
there are special requirements for lifting or stowage.
Wordings or marks on the packages such as:
1. Stow away from heat.
2. Top stowage only.
3. Position of weight point.
4. Marks for lifting points.
5. Marks for forklift handling.
6. This way up arrows should all be complied with. If it is impossible to comply
with the instructions on the package especially in regard to stowage then that
particular package or parcel of cargo should not be loaded.

STOWAGE SKILLS
Before the containerization revolution, most ships deck officers were properly
trained during their career in the skills of loading and the proper stowage of break-
bulk cargo. These skills were mainly obtained through practical experience, but some
tuition was given in shore based colleges and institutions. Gradually these
skills have been lost with older deck officers and masters retiring or taking shore
employment. The result is that a master or chief officer on a medium sized bulk
carrier may have never seen a general cargo loaded or stowed, and he also may have
not received any tuition or training in a shore based establishment. If a bulk carrier is
chartered to load general cargo, the master and chief officer will probably rely on the
charterers super cargo, if any, to advise on stowage or on the stevedores expertise.
The result may be a series of expensive cargo claims.

74
CHAPTER 5

FUEL STORAGE AND ISSUE

What are other common issues with on farm fuel storage?
Storing fuel on the farm poses some interesting challenges to producers in order to
maintain the quality and quantity of the product. Changes in quality or composition
of the fuel due to contamination or deterioration can create a great deal of
aggravation for farmers. Fuel losses can occur from leaks and spills as well as
evaporation or theft. It is important to monitor for these losses so that the proper
action can be taken in the event of such problems.

Contamination
Common fuel contaminants may include:
Water
Sediment, rust, etc.
Thee major contaminant of stored fuel is water. It can enter the system through leaks,
condensation, from the fuel supplier or through vandalism. Minimal amounts of
water from condensation in underground and on on-ground
ground gasoline tanks can be dealt
with by adding the appropriate fuel de de-waterer.
waterer. In diesel tanks, use a quality diesel
fuel de-waterer.
waterer. There are also water
water-absorbing
absorbing fuel filters available in the market
place but these filters need to be changed regularly as the water
water-absorbing
absorbing polymers
that trap
p the water will restrict fuel flow when it is time to replace the filter element.
If a large amount of water exists, the only alternative may be to have the water
pumped out. Determining how the water entered the system is also important in
detecting possible
ible leaks. In overhead tanks, water can be drained by removing the
drain plug on the bottom of the tank. This is best done when the tank is almost empty.
Catch the contaminated water for proper disposal. Common sediments in the fuel
tank are minute partic
particles
les of rust caused by water contamination.
Other sediments are formed when fuels stored for a long period begin to break down.
Sediments can cause filter plugging, engine deposits, gumming and lacquering which
lead to component sticking and engine wear. At the very least, contamination of fuel
causes lost time and aggravation. Contamination of your engines fuel system can be
minimized by not refueling within 24 hours of a fuel delivery. This will allow any
small sediment particles to settle below the discharge
arge height.

Fuel filter
Overhead tanks should be checked annually for sediment. This is done by drawing off
a litre of fuel from the fuel nozzle into a clear glass jar. If the sample is contaminated,
ask your fuel supplier to co
co-operate
operate by removing the entire contents and cleaning the
tank. If the first sample is not contaminated, use a clean rod or stick to agitate the
tank through the fill cap and draw off a second sample. If the second sample is
contaminated, the tank should be cleaned at the first convenient opportunity.
75
Filters and sediment bowls on overhead tanks will minimize the chances of
contaminating equipment fuel systems. The filter should have enough capacity to
pass fuel at the usual rate of filling. The recommended size of filter is 10 microns.
microns. This
size is sufficient for removing microscopic particles of rust, sand, dirt, scale and lint.
Most fuel pumps are equipped with filter screens, which limit sediment
contamination but require regular cleaning. Other contamination occurs when fuel is
delivered improperly or equipment is not properly fuelled. For example, gas mixed
into diesel can cause extensive damage to diesel engines. Diesel fuel mixed into gas is
generally not as serious a problem for gas engines. Plastic tanks are not suitable for
above ground fuel storage. Sunlight going through translucent tank walls promotes
microbial growth and other fuel degradation. In addition, most plastic tanks are not
strong enough for safe fuel storage.

Deterioration
Fuel deterioration is minimized when fuel is stored at a cool, constant temperature.
The larger the temperature swings and the higher the temperature, the faster fuel
will deteriorate. Degraded fuel results in poor engine performance, less power,
harder starting and lower fuel economy.
Tips
ips to prevent deterioration:
Keep fuel at as cool and consistent a temperature as possible (for example, shade
tanks from the sun)
Limit fuel purchases to the volume required to seed and harvest one years crops
(not only to reduce deterioration, but to rreduce
educe risk and cost of leakage, fire and
theft)
Purchase diesel fuel in the season in which it is being used (summer diesel may gel
and cause engine problems if used at low temperatures)
In the event of a price war, there is always the temptation to purcha
purchasese as much fuel as
possible. Those with underground storage tanks are in the best position to take
advantage of low prices. Underground tanks provide the best long-term long term storage
capabilities. However, before purchasing fuel for long-termlong term storage, carefully
consider the risks, interest costs, tax implications and your ability to maintain the fuel
in good condition.

Evaporation
Evaporative losses vary with the type of storage, type of fuel and steps taken to
prevent evaporation. Losses range from minimal in underground tanks to easily
measurable in poorly located and maintained overhead tanks. The greater the
variations in temperature of the fuel, the greater the potential loss and the larger the
risk of contamination due to condensation.
Table below and Figure
ure illustrate this variance in evaporative losses.
Evaporative loses from 1200 litres (265 gallons) above ground gasoline storage tanks

76
Steps to reducing evaporation losses:
By painting the tank a reflective paint (silver or white), evaporation losses can be
reduced by up to 40% over a dark tank
Using a pressure--ventilated
ventilated cap can reduce evaporation losses a further 50%
Direct venting of the tank fumes is restricted until a slight pressure has built up in
the tank. Having a painted and pressure vvented
ented tank has a 75% evaporation loss
reduction compared to a dark tank
tank.
Placing a painted and pressure vented tank in the shade will further reduce the
evaporation losses by over 40%. The roof also helps reduce weathering of hoses
and valves
Evaporative losses
osses are not a major concern in underground tanks and are only of
minor concern in larger, onon-ground
ground tanks. The large volume of fuel and air helps to
maintain a more even temperature. Owners should ensure that proper pressure- pressure
vacuum relief valves are inst
installed on tanks. These valves will reduce evaporation
while allowing vapours to escape before tank pressures become excessive.

Theft
Theft is a frustrating and difficult situation to deal with. Theft of fuel can vary from a
nuisance factor to a substantial financial cost. Being an easy target for fuel theft can
lead to further theft and vandalism on the farm, and larger losses. Keep track of fuel
purchases and usage to know if there is an unexplained disappearance

Tips for theft protection include:

Locate tanks in a well lit area away from buildings and not visible from roads but
still visible from your house
Close and lock the valves on all on
on-ground
ground and overhead tank outlets when not in
use
Lock fuel caps on underground tanks
Turn off power to pumps (have switch in a locked building)
Consider using hoses that are fitted with cam lock fittings and removed when not
in use
Some producers have used lockable nozzle racks as well as locking valves

Cam lock fitting

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Transportation
According to the Transportation of Dangerous Goods (TDG) Regulation, the following
precautions must be taken when transporting fuel tanks. No documentation or
training is required when the following conditions are met:
Summary of requirements for various sizes of portable tanks for gasoline and diesel

The total capacity of all containers on the vehicle must not be more than 2,000 litres.
For containers exceeding this capacity, full compliance is required
For example, for a portable tank containing gasoline, the UN number is 1203 and
the shipping name is gas or gasoline. Also keep in mind your local fire authority
may have regulations on parking in town with portable fuel tanks, and they vary by
municipality. Parking of vehicles with slip tanks is not permitted in residential areas.

Placards showing flammable symbol class, UN number and shipping name

Portable tank with proper signage etc.

It is recommended that both dangerous goods placards and WHMIS labels be used
when transporting fuels. These labels and placards can be purchased through fuel
suppliers or at safety supply stores.
Safety Tip:: When refueling from slip tanks, remember the dangers of static
electricity. You can prevent this by grounding your tank. Also, if your tank is
equipped with a 12-voltvolt pump, be careful to keep all electrical systems properly
maintained to prevent sparks.
The TDG Regulations do not apply to dangerous goods in a quantity less than or equal
to 1,500 kg gross mass in ttransport
ransport on a licensed farm road vehicle if:
The dangerous goods are transported on land for a distance less than or equal to
100 km,
The dangerous goods will be used or have been used for agricultural purposes,
and
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The dangerous goods do not include:
Explosives
Flammable gases in a cylinder with a capacity greater than 46 litres
Toxic gases
Infectious substances, or
Radioactive materials.
Even though the transport of most fuel in slip tanks for farm use would be exempt
from the TDG Regulation as described above, it also provides a reasonable set of
guidelines for farmers to use in order to reduce their risk.

MOTOR VEHICLE ACCIDENTS

At the Scene of the Accident
Drivers involved in an accident always need to exchange names. addresses, telephone
numbers and vehicle registration numbers. You should also ask whether the other
vehicle is insured, and if so, with which company.
If there are any witnesses, it is essential that you also write down their names,
addresses and telephone numbers. You only need to report the accident to the police
id someone has been injured, if the other driver has left without exchanging their
details with you, or if damage is done to property belonging to a person who is not at
the scene of the accident.
Never admit that the accident was your fault. You may not know what actually caused
the accident at this time. Write down the exact details of the accident as soon as
possible.

The First Step

Regardless of whether or not either driver is insured, or whose fault it was, getting a
quote is the first step that you need to take. A quote is a written statement, made by a
mechanic or panel beater, of the damage done and the amount that it will cost for
your vehicle to be fixed. A quote should be obtained as soon as possible after the
accident. Take your damaged vehicle to a mechanic or panel beater, who will inspect
it and write out a quote. Getting a quote should not cost you anything. You only have
to get one quote. But you also have to show that this quote is reasonable and fair. The
best way to do this is to get two independent quotes. The lesser of the two amounts is
the one you can claim.

YOU SHOULD NOT HAVE YOUR VEHICLE REPAIRED AT THIS STAGE

Do I Have to Repair my Vehicle?
You are under no obligation to repair your vehicle. If the accident was not your Fault,
you may be entitled to the cost of the repairs, but once you get the money it is up to
you how it is spent.
Can I Come to an Agreement with the Other Party?
If no insurance companies are involved you are free to negotiate a settlement with
the other party on any terms that you both agree upon. If you believe that the other
driver is at fault and you do not wish to claim on your own insurance, or if you have
none, then write a letter to the other driver demanding payment for the damage to
your vehicle. Include your quotes and ask for a proposal, within ten days, for the
payment of your claim. You should also offer an inspection of your vehicle and
suggest a reasonable instalment plan should the other driver have financial
difficulties. But also let the other driver know that if you have not reached an
agreement within ten days, you will be forced to consider issuing legal proceedings
against him or her.
If the accident was your fault and you have received a letter demanding payment,
respond immediately by telling the other driver whether you are insured and
whether you can afford to pay for the repairs to his or her vehicle. You should also
arrange to inspect the other driver's vehicle, to ensure that the quote actually reflects
79
the damage done to the vehicle. If you cannot pay in one lump sum, then you can
suggest a plan to pa, weekly or monthly installments. You should also disclose your
income and list you, living expenses and your assets to show the other driver that you
are not in a position to offer a higher amount.
If you are not insured and cannot pay the cost of repairs at all, you must show the
other driver why, by disclosing your income and listing your living expenses and
assets.

Should I See a Solicitor?

You only have to see a solicitor if:
you cannot reach an agreement about who caused the accident or about the cost of
the repairs
the other driver is at fault and refuses to pay for damage to your vehicle
the other driver is at fault and refuses to claim on his or her insurance
the other driver believes the accident was your fault and threatens to sue you
One option that your solicitor may suggest is that you sue the other driver.

Suing The Other Driver

Going to Court can be an expensive exercise without any guarantee of success. If you
are successful, you may be reimbursed for most of your cost. However, if you are
unsuccessful, in addition to paying your own costs, you will have to pay the other
driver's claim, as well as legal costs, as assessed by the Court. It is also possible that
the costs of calling witnesses to give evidence would be added to this.
The smaller your claim, the less value there is in suing. When legal costs are taken
into account, they may outweigh the amount that you seek to recover. If your claim is
less than $500, you may not be able to get any of your legal costs reimbursed to you.
Therefore it is very important that you carefully consider your options before
deciding to sue the other driver.

What if Have Insurance?

No matter who caused the accident or whether or not you want to make an insurance
claim, you should still inform your insurance company of the accident as soon as
possible.
Ask them to send you a claim Form -fill this in and return it, even if you are not
going to make a claim
If you DO want to make a claim: The insurance company will then take over the
matter on your behalf when they get your claim form. You will usually have to pay
the excess at this stage
If you DO NOT want to claim: Mark the top of each page of the claim form with
REPORT ONLY. Then your insurer will simply file it away - there will be no
increase in premiums or change to your rating
If you change your mind and want to make a claim later, you can still do so, and
your insurer will still have all your details
Also, if the other party contacts your insurance company, they will have your
version of the accident on file and they can decide whether or not to pay for the
damages
Insurance Made Easy
There are different types of insurance and you should check which sort of insurance
you have and what type of insurance the other vehicle may have.
Compulsory Third Party Insurance
This insurance is paid each year with your registration. It pays for any injuries which
arise out of an accident involving all registered vehicles, trains and trams. If you have
been injured as a result of the accident, the first thing to do is to consult a solicitor to
80
have your rights to compensation explained to you. You should then, within 28 days
of the accident, complete and lodge a claim form with the Transport Accident
Commission (TAC), 222 Exhibition Street, Melbourne, telephone 663 7500. Claim
forms are available from the TAC, as well as most public hospitals, Vic Roads offices
police stations and some doctors.
Regardless of who caused the accident, you may be entitled to hospital and medical
expenses, up to 80% of your pre-accident weekly earnings id you are unable to work,
and impairment benefits determined by the TAC you have suffered any permanent
physical injury. If you have been injured as a result of another driver's negligence you
also may be entitled to sue for damages. But the details of your entitlement to
compensation are complex. It is for this reason that we suggest you seek the help and
advice of a solicitor.

Third Party Property

(or Third Party Fire and Theft Insurance)
This insurance does not pay for any damage done to your own vehicle but covers
damage done to other peoples 'vehicles and property as a result of an accident that is
your fault. You can obtain extended cover which will also insure your own vehicle
against fire and theft.

Comprehensive Insurance
This insurance covers damage done to your property that may have been damaged in
the accident.
If you have comprehensive insurance and the accident was not your fault, then you
are not responsible for the damage caused. All you have to do is fill in a claim form
and describe the details of the accident. Also give the name and address of the person
who caused the accident. Once the claim is processed, the insurance company will
pay for you to have the vehicle fixed. Most insurance companies will not charge you
excess or increase your insurance premiums why the accident was not your fault, and
you can provide the name of the person who caused the accident. But you should
always check this before making a claim.
If you have comprehensive insurance and the accident was your fault, then your
insurance company will pay for damage to your vehicle and any other vehicles or
property damaged, if you make a claim. However, most insurance companies will
charge you excess and your insurance premiums will increase (usually for two years).

Should I Claim on my Insurance?

If you have insurance and you want to make a claim, then you should fad out how
much excess you will have to pay, whether or not your premium will increase, and if
so, by how much. Insurance companies usually charge their customers excess, which
means that if you are asking them to pay for damage, you have to pay, say, the first
$300 of the cost to repair the damage.
For example, if the damage bill is $400, you would pay $300 and the insurance
company would pay the other $100. Insurance companies also charge drivers an
insurance premium according to how many years they have had insurance and how
many insurance claims they have made. Each time you make a claim your "rating "
may go down and you may pay a higher premium.
When deciding whether or not to claim, the most important thing to consider is
whether the cost of repairs to the other vehicle is more or less than any excess that
you may have to pay or any increase in your insurance premiums. For example, if you
have a $300 excess and your premium will increase by $200 if you make a claim, then
it will cost you $500 to make the claim.
In some cases it will cost you more to make a claim than to pay for the repairs. In
these cases it is not worthwhile claiming on your insurance.

81
Don't forget, though, that if you do not claim on your insurance and try to handle the
matter yourself, your insurance company may not allow you to claim at a later date.

What am I Entitled to Claim?

Whether you are insured or not, you are only entitled to tee restored to the financial
position that you were in prior to the accident. You are entitled to claim the cost of
returning your vehicle to its pre-accident condition. If your vehicle was already
damaged you are not entitled to have this damage repaired.
You are also entitled to claim other expenses incurred as a direct result of the
accident. Expenses such as towing, storage or damage to personal items in the vehicle
may be covered under some insurance policies. If your vehicle has been "written off",
this means that the damage would cost more to repair than the vehicle is worth. In
this case, you are entitled to claim the difference between the pre-accident value of
your vehicle and the salvage value of the wreck. The person who regularly services
your vehicle or a professional assessor can estimate the pre-accident value of your
vehicle.
You should not repair or dispose of your vehicle before the other driver has had a
chance to inspect the damage. If your vehicle has already been repaired you are still
entitled to the cost of repairs, so long as they are reasonable. If you have disposed of
the vehicle, you are entitled to the difference between the preaccident value and the
sale or 'trade-in 'price. But always remember, it is your responsibility to do
everything that you can to minimise the cost to the other driver. You cannot build up
unnecessary expenses and expect the other driver to pay for them.

REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. What do you understand by plant layout? Discuss various factors involved in
plant layout.
2. What are the objectives of plant layout?
3. What are the advantage of a good plant layout:
4. Describe the various types of plant layout and the situation in which each type
is use
5. Compare process layout and product layout.
6. Prepare a layout for fitting shop and machine shop.
7. List out the equipment required for a sheet metal shop, carpentry shop,
foundry shop and smithy and forging shop. draw also the layouts of the above
shops.
8. To which type of industry, does the process layout suit? Justify.

TRANSPORT MANAGEMENT
WORKSHOP ADMINISTRATION
Workshop administration covers the following:
1. Planning,
2. Organizing,
3. Co-Ordination,
4. Directing and
5. Staffing
WORKSHOP MANAGEMENT HIERARCHY
1. Service Manager
2. Account Manager
3. Parts Manager
4. Store Manager/Keeper

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 DUTIES PERFORMED BY WORKSHOP MANAGERS
a) Inter personal duty
b) Information duty
c) Decision making duty

Good managers must possess the following qualities:

Must have good understanding of the work to be performed
Must have good understanding of the organized set of behaviors to be
performed
Must master the skills involved in performing the job
Must ensure that the job is distributed equally
Must ensure that jobs/task are completed at stipulated time

COMMON DUTIES OF A SERVICE MANAGER

1) Daily work
A Service Manger must check to ensure all staff are present and work is
distributed through the foreman.
Must deal with correspondence from customers manufacturer equipment
suppliers.
Must also deal with workshop and staff problems as they arise.
Must deal with warranty claims and complains.
Must ensure that, training schemes are progressing satisfactory check invoice.

2) Weekly work
Must Inspect premises to see if any maintenance work is required e.g. windows
broken, toilet clean and working, dirty workshop floor or corners require tidying,
white parking lines need re-painting lighting in good order, lighting equipment
and tools satisfactory.
Must check all work received to see adequate work load and that all repairs and
services are ongoing and complete weekly labour analysis chart.

3) Monthly work
Must check to ensure profit and loss statement covering repairs and services are
taking care of every second week of the month.
The Manager must send out special service letters to remind customers that
their cars are due for services.
Also, carry out battery and lighting checks
Appraise current advertising and service promotion ideas.
Must take inventory of equipment being used and check to ensure it is in good
order or whether maintenance is required
Must check to ensure that the work premises are well kept.
4) Twice monthly work
Must do service follow up and reminder for customers who has booked for
services.
Must setup and call for Sales and works meeting at a regular time to ensure
workers are co-operating and work running smoothly and to tackle challenges
and disputes
5) Yearly work
Must check the yearly financial report work to improve on unhealthy aspects.
6) Twice-Yearly check
The Manager must always check the performance all workers to know workers
that requires retraining to bring them up-to-date and organize a roster for
workers to go on such courses.

83
 The Manager must ensure that all factories regulations reports for lifting
equipment, compressors, boiler, petrol are completed accordingly.

HOW TO DO JOB COSTING

Steps in job-order costing process
In a job-order costing system, jobs are accounted for using the job-order cost sheet.
The process involves the following steps:
1. Identification of the job
2. Tracing direct costs to the job
3. Identifying the indirect costs i.e. manufacturing overheads and finding the cost
allocation base for each cost.
4. Applying the indirect costs to the job using the pre-determined allocation rate.
5. Finding total cost by summing up all the cost components.
6. Closing the under/over-applied manufacturing overheads to cost of goods
sold/income statement.
7. Calculating revenue and profit.

The follow should be considered when costing for job

The wages of the mechanics
Materials for cleaning
Work materials
Workshop rent
Cost of purchase of land/building
Cost of lighting

Overhead =
Having calculated the overhead, it is built into the cost of every job to ensure that
there is suitable profit margin.
The actual costing is complete by a cost clerk. Although, certain repeated jobs will
have standard prices. If there is need to modigy standard prices due to change in cost
of materials and taxes, this should be done and passed on to customer to avoid
haphazard costing which can result I different prices for the same job. Example of
costing. After costing the following procedure is following

Job No.26 Description of work Cost

Labour N20,000
Removing and N 5,000
dismantling steering
box, clean and
examination part
Replace can and peg N 7,00 0
mechanism thrust race,
reassemble and adjust
Refit steering box, refill N 9,000
with oil, test
VAT5% of total amount N 41,000

INVOICING
The invoicing or bill is a statement of work done and should clearly state the actual
work done. In the event of a dispute with a customer, the invoice is an essential part
of service station evidence.

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INVOICING PROCEDURE
1) The reception Engineer makes out the work required on the top copy of the
invoice, which is also recorded on second and third copy.
2) The customer signs the form approving the work to be done this is the
customers invoice.
3) The account/cost office receive the second copy and the third copy goes to the
workshop
4) This copy is used by the workshop to make out a job card and record parts used
and is filled at reception for use as a service follow-up
5) On the back of this copy, is printed the job card used by the foreman and
mechanic
6) The quality control inspects the job and approved
7) The foreman make requisition note to the store with it for spare parts and from
the store to the accounting/costing section

So finally, one copy is retained at reception,

Two copies are retained at account/costing
One copy is retained by the service manager
One copy is the invoice for the customer

Types of invoices are;

1. Self-billing invoices: Is when the buyer issues the invoice to himself.
2. Time sheet: Invoices for hourly services consultants often pull data from a time
sheet.
3. Collective invoicing: Is also known as monthly invoicing. This type of invoicing
is normally processed on monthly basis in order to save the administration
work.
4. Electronic invoicing: This invoices are no longer paper based but rather
transmitted electronically over the internet.
5. Progress billing: Used to obtain partial payment on extended contracts,
particularly in the construction industry.

The items that makes up the certificate of road worthiness are:

1. Registration number
2. Serial number
3. Vehicle color
4. VIN
5. Test date
6. Expiry date
7. Vehicle make/ model
8. Odometer
9. Tester I.D
10. Test I.D

The items that can be found on a vehicle receipt are;

1. The model number
2. The make of the care
3. VIN
4. The year
5. Engine number
6. Mileage
7. Sale date
8. License plate number
9. Buyer signature and date
10. Sellers signature and date
85
ACCIDENT OF OTHER REPAIRS
TRANSPORT SERVICE OPERATION
It is necessary that workshop manager have good knowledge on acts covering fuel
storage and other related issue. These acts include the following.
1. No petrol is to be served in containers other than steel cans printed red and
marked clearly with the word petrol
2. A master switch inaccessible to the public should be provided in a suitable
place.
Most accident repair work is usually covered by insurance. All vehicles must have a
minimum of third party covered while a large amount of vehicles have fully
comprehensive insurance cover. This means that work coming into a body repair
shop is paid for either by the customer direct or by an insurance company,
consequently, when a vehicle arrives for repair work, the first thing a workshop
manager must do is to determine who is going to pay the bill. If a customer is to pay
the bill, then a estimate is prepare for the customer.
Where a vehicle is involved in a collision, the insured that is the customer will make
out an accident claim form obtained from his insurance company. This will detail
the nature of the accident and where the vehicle has been taken for repairs. Some
company authorizes work to proceed immediately but it is better to have a written
authority before commencing work on the damaged vehicle.
To get the approval for repair from the insurance company, the following procedure
is taken.
1. Estimate for the damage
2. Contact the insurance company, so that their assessor, or engineer can visit the
workshop to examine the damaged vehicle and consider the estimate
3. If the estimate given is more that what the insurance company can pay, an
approval to proceed on the work will be obtained from the customer. (He is to
pay the extra cost).
4. After completion, the vehicle is brought to the customer or insurance company
for inspection and acceptance. A completion note is prepared and signed by the
customer if not insured of insurance company if vehicle was insured

In a manufacturing organization, a job to be manufactured spends most of the time in

moving and waiting. For reduction of this moving and waiting time of jobs/parts, it is
necessary to have proper layout and proper scheduling procedure. Plant layout
specifies the position of the overall arrangement of the various facilities such as
equipments, material, manpower, materials handling, service facilities, and passage
required to facilitate efficient operation of production system of the plant within the
area of the site selected previously. Workshop layout in manufacturing plant also
forms an integral part of factory planning or plant layout. Plant layout begins with the
design the position of the factory building and goes up to the location and movement
of a work table of the machine. All the manufacturing facilities such as equipments,
raw materials, machinery, tools, fixtures, workers, etc. are given a proper place in
each workshop of the manufacturing plant.

ANNUAL TEST (MOT) FOR LORRIES, BUSES AND TRAILERS

1. Vehicles that must take the 'annual test'
2. Book your test
3. Fees
4. At the test station
1. Vehicles that must take the 'annual test'
The annual test is for:
o goods vehicles with a gross weight of more than 3,500 kilograms (kg)
o vehicles that are built or have been adapted to form part of an articulated vehicle

86
o semi-trailers
o horseboxes with a gross weight of more than 3,500kg
o A frame trailers and converter dollies manufactured on or after 1 January 1979
o trailers with an unladen weight of more than 1,020kg with powered braking
systems (instead of standard overrun brakes and as well as the required parking
brake)
o all public service vehicles with more than 8 passenger seats - not including the
drivers seat
Check Form V112/G for a list of vehicles that are exempt from the annual test. You
might still need to get an MOT for the vehicle.

About the test

Lorries and buses (including coaches) must be tested each year. The first test should
be 12 months after the vehicle was first registered with DVLA (Driver and Vehicle
Licensing Agency). Trailers must be tested one year after they were first sold or
supplied. The test can be done at a Driver and Vehicle Standards Agency (DVSA) test
station or a privately owned Authorised Testing Facility (ATF). Both use DVSA staff
and the same test standards.

Before the test

You can get your vehicle checked by a qualified mechanic to prepare for the test.
Get testing manuals for different vehicles.
You can also download a guide on how to check the roadworthiness of
4. At the test station
Bring the following documents to the test station:
o your appointment letter if you have one
o the vehicles last annual test certificate
o the vehicles plating certificate
o if your vehicle is exempt - a tachograph exemption form
Youll need to drive your own vehicle during the test unless otherwise asked.
Horseboxes
You should load the horsebox with heavy items like bags of feed, fertiliser or straw
bales. This is so that the centre can check the brakes work properly.
Tell the test station about any changes youve made to the horsebox since its last test.
There is more information about testing standards for horseboxes in the guide for
horsebox and trailer owners.
Repairs
If an inspector thinks minor repairs are needed to your vehicle and they can be done
quickly and safely you may be allowed to do so, but only if it doesnt delay the testing
of other vehicles. Driver and Vehicle Standards Agency (DVSA) staff cant provide
tools or materials or help with repairs.

Failing the test

If your vehicle fails the annual test youll have to take it away and get the faults fixed.
Unlike with an MOT, most centres wont be able to make the repairs for you. Once
theyre made youll have to book another test and pay a retest fee.
Major faults
Some faults are so serious that the vehicle cant be allowed on the road. In this case,
the inspector may allow on-site emergency repairs.
Appeals
You can appeal if you dont agree with the test result. Ask the test inspector for
details of the appeals process.
You need to submit an appeal form within 14 days of the test:
87
o form VTG17 for HGV and trailer annual tests
o form VTP17 for PSV annual tests
Send the appeal to the address on the form or to the test station that carried out the
test.
Youll also need to pay an appeal fee
Types of vehicles to test are;
1. Goods vehicles over 3500kg grass vehicle weight (GVW)
2. Goods trailers over 3500kg (GVW)
3. Buses with more than eight passenger seats.
4. Ambulances
The testing processes;
1. Customers must show the vehicle registration documents at the test Centre.
The tester matches the vehicle registration with the make and model of the
vehicle.
2. Test take between 45 and 120 minutes depending on the type of vehicle being
tested and the number of vehicles.
3. Following the test, the Centre issues either a pass or fail statement.
4. If the vehicle passes, the driver receives a pass statement to take to the motor
tax office where a road worthiness certificate is issued for an additional fee.
5. If a vehicle fails, and returns for testing within 21 days and has travelled fewer
than 400 kilometers since it was tested, the vehicle does not have to repeat the
full test.
6. The road worthiness certificate is not displayed on the vehicle, but it must
accompany the Motor tax application form.
Both invoices and receipts are ways of tracking purchase of goods and service.
Invoices differs from receipts in that, it serves to notify customers of payments
owed, whereas, receipts serve as proof of completed payment.

TRANSPORTING HAZARDOUS OR DANGEROUS GOODS IN A TRUCK OR CAR

This article explains what hazardous goods are, how to transport them, whether you
need a D endorsement on your drivers licence to do so, and how to get a D
endorsement.

WHAT ARE HAZARDOUS GOODS?

Hazardous or dangerous goods are goods that are corrosive, flammable, explosive,
toxic, infectious or environmentally hazardous, or containers that have held these
types of goods. New Zealands Land Transport Rule: Dangerous Goods 2005 is based
on the United Nations Recommendations on the transport of dangerous goods and
outlines in detail what you are allowed to carry and how it must be carried. You can
read the full specifications here.

DOMESTIC OR RECREATIONAL USE

If you are transporting dangerous goods for domestic or recreational use then you
dont need a D endorsement, but you still need to comply with safe practices for
moving the goods themselves.
You (the driver) must:
ensure that all goods are properly packaged and identified so that in the case of an
accident you dont put emergency services at risk
segregate incompatible dangerous goods so that you dont cause any leakage or
chemical reaction
secure the load on or in the vehicle so that there is no danger of it falling off when
moving.

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COMMERCIAL USE
If you are transporting dangerous goods for commercial purposes i.e. tools-of-trade,
agriculture, transport or another commercial purpose then you may need a D
endorsement if the quantities are more than the limits in schedule 1 of the rule. Some
sample limits before you need a D endorsement are:
up to 250kg of cartridges and small arms
up to 100 litres of UN1977 nitrogen refrigerated liquid
up to 5kg of solids/powders or 5 litres of organic peroxides Type B.

CARRYING SMALL QUANTITIES OF DANGEROUS GOODS

If you dont carry the goods for hire or reward, and the quantity carried is under the
limits in schedule 1 of the rule then the driver is responsible for:
Securing the load on the vehicle a spillage can be extremely dangerous for
people and the environment
Ensuring that all dangerous goods are properly packaged and identified so that in
an emergency, emergency services are aware of what they are dealing with and
can take appropriate measures to contain any spill or reaction, and to clear
by standers out of the way
Carrying emergency response information
Adhering to and ensuring safe handling practices and emergency procedures,
including segregating incompatible goods to avoid punctures, spillages, leakages
and chemical reactions.
If you carry goods for hire or reward (i.e. you are a courier or transport services
operator) then there are specific restrictions and responsibilities set out in the rule:
Dangerous goods in limited quantities and consumer commodities: these are
low- and medium-danger goods in small primary containers packed specifically for
transport in strong outer packaging. Some of the controls are relaxed and are set out
in section 2 of the rule.
Small packages of dangerous goods in limited quantities or consumer
commodities: See clause 2.4 in the rule for a definition of small packages. If the total
quantity does not exceed 50kg they may be transported without a dangerous goods
declaration, placards or signage on the vehicle or drivers having a D (dangerous
goods) endorsement on their licence. Some dangerous goods are not allowed to be
transported as small packages. Check the rule for further clarification.
An amendment to the rule in 2010 introduced new provisions for dangerous goods in
excepted quantities. For example, low-danger products in small quantities, such as
30ml of perfume.

CARRYING LARGE QUANTITIES OF DANGEROUS GOODS

If you carry goods in quantities more than set out in schedule 1 of the rule then you
must comply with the rules requirements for driver licence endorsement,
placarding/signage, documentation, packaging and identification, emergency
response and segregation of incompatible hazardous goods.
Even if you are carrying the goods for recreational purposes, if the quantities are
above the limits, you must comply with the rules requirements.

TECHNICAL INFORMATION
The list of hazardous goods supplied by NZTA is:
ammunition and fireworks
aerosol canisters
LPG cylinders
oxyacetylene cylinders
compressed air cylinders for scuba diving
flammable liquids such as petrol, kerosene, methylated spirits, turpentine,
thinners, solvent based paints and epoxy resin
89
 hardener for epoxy resin
some swimming pool chemicals
some commercial and household cleaning products, such as dishwasher
detergents
some garden care products
diesel.

This list isnt exhaustive

austive and there are a great many chemicals and other products
that fall under the hazardous or dangerous goods category, as specified in the rule.
If you are an importer, manufacturer or distributor you may need to understand and
provide information on tthe he classification of the dangerous goods, how to package
them, specifications for labelling, and the list of UN numbers and proper shipping
names.
A UN number is a 4-digit
digit number that specif
specifies
ies a hazardous substance.

PLACARDS, LABELLING AND SIGNAGE

All packages containing dangerous goods must be marked or labelled with the
appropriate signs to inform those who handle them what precautions must be taken.
These placards may also have to appear on the outside of the vehicle as well as the
packaging.

You can see more examples of placards here.

The goods will also be identified by a UN number and possibly other labels or marks.
For example, products toxic to aquatic life have a diamond
diamond-shaped label with a
symboll of a dead fish and tree. For transporting radioactive goods, refer to this page.
page

GETTING A D ENDORSEMENT ON YOUR DRIVER LICENSE

If you transport dangerous goods for hire or reward, or you transport them in greater
quantities than the limits set out in the rule, you need a D endorsement.
You dont need a D endorsement if you transport hazardous goods for recreational or
domestic purposes, the quantities are under the limits set out in the rule, or if the
goods you are carrying are classified UN 3077 or UN 3082.

90
CHAPTER 6

THE VEHICLE CLASSIFICATION AND REGISTRATION

REGULATIONS

VEHICLE CLASSIFICIATION AND REGISTRATION

Class A
A class of vehicles to be called Class A is hereby established consisting of vehicles to
be used for the following purposes:
(a) as a personal conveyance;
(b) for the transportation of:
(i) passengers without compensation;
(ii) any commodity;
(iii) the registered owner of the vehicle and employees of the employer of the
registered owner for the purposes of the business of the employer;
(iv) passengers pursuant to a private car pool;

Class C
A class of vehicles to be called Class C is hereby established consisting of vehicles to
be used for the following purposes:
(a) as a personal conveyance;
(b) for the transportation of:
(i) passengers without compensation;
(ii) goods owned by the registered owner of the vehicle within an area having a
radius of 55 kilometres from the corporate limits of the city, town, village or hamlet
shown in certificate of registration for the vehicle as the address of the registered
owner;
(iii) goods owned by the registered owner of the vehicle, where that owner is a
farmer and the goods are used in the operation of a farm that is owned or leased by
the farmer or is being purchased by him or her under an agreement for sale;
(iv) road construction machinery and equipment and repair parts for that machinery
and equipment where the owner of the machinery or equipment is:
(A) the registered owner of the vehicle; and
(B) a road construction contractor;
(v) brush-breaking or land-clearing equipment owned by the registered owner of the
vehicle where that owner is a brush-breaking or land-clearing contractor;
(vi) any commodity within the corporate limits of, and within an area having a radius
of 10 kilometres from the corporate limits of, the city, town, village or hamlet shown
in the certificate of registration for the vehicle as the address of the registered owner;
(vii) recreational equipment, where that transportation is not in connection with any
business, employment or commercial enterprise;
(viii) crude oil within an area having a radius of 55 kilometres from the oil well at
which the crude oil is loaded; and
(ix) goods owned by the employer of the registered owner of the vehicle or goods
owned by a person using the services of the employer of the registered owner where
the: vehicle is registered with a gross vehicle weight of 5000 kilograms or less;

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Class D
(1) A class of vehicles to be called Class D is hereby established consisting of
vehicles to be used for the following purposes:
(a) as a personal conveyance;
(b) for the transportation of:
(i) discarded material being transported for recycling except:
(A) containers being transported for refilling; or
(B) the by-products of manufacturing;
(ii) goods owned by the registered owner of the vehicle;
(iii) passengers without compensation;
(iii.1) up to 8 passengers
(iv) crude oil from an oil well;
(v) any commodity within the corporate limits of, and within an area having a radius
of 10 kilometres from the corporate limits of the city, town, village or hamlet shown
in the certificate of registration for the vehicle as the address of the registered owner;
(vi) recreational equipment, where that transportation is not in connection with any
business, employment or commercial enterprise;
(vii) goods owned by a lessee of the vehicle where the vehicle:
(A) is a two-axle truck;
(B) is leased from the registered owner of the vehicle pursuant to a written
agreement for the exclusive use by the lessee of the vehicle;
(C) during the term of the lease mentioned in paragraph (B) and pursuant to that
lease the vehicle is not operated by the registered owner or any employee of that
owner;
(viii) goods owned by the employer of the registered owner of the vehicle or goods
owned by a person using the services of the employer of the registered owner where
the:
(A) vehicle is registered with a gross weight of 5000 kilograms or less;
(B) transportation of the goods is in the course of or incidental to the employment or
business of the registered owner of the vehicle;
(ix) the registered owner of the vehicle and other employees of the employer of the
registered owner for the purposes of the business of the employer;
(x) household effects, without compensation, to and from a private residence where
the transportation is undertaken with a motor vehicle registered with a gross vehicle
weight of 5 000 kilograms or less and the transportation is not in the course of any
employment or business undertaking;
(c) for the towing of damaged or disabled vehicles;

Class F
(1) A class of vehicles to be called Class F is hereby established consisting of
vehicles to be used for the following purposes:
(a) as a personal conveyance;
(b) for the transportation of:
(i) passengers without compensation;
(ii) recreational vehicles except where that transportation is:
(A) in connection with any employment or commercial or business undertaking; or
(B) undertaken for compensation using a vehicle with more than two axles

92
(iii) the registered owner of the vehicle and other employees of the employer of the
registered owner for the purposes of the business of the employer;
(iv) passengers pursuant to a private car pool;
(v) household effects, without compensation, to and from a private residence where
the transportation is undertaken with a motor vehicle registered with a gross vehicle
weight of 5 000 kilograms or less and the transportation is not in the course of any
employment or business undertaking;
(c) in the operation of a farm owned, leased or purchased under an agreement for
sale by the registered owner of the vehicle;
(d) for the transportation of primary farm products in their initial movement to or
from a farm:
(i) with or without compensation, where that transportation is undertaken using a
two-axle truck which has a registered gross vehicle weight of not more than 14 600
kilograms; or
(ii) without compensation, where that transportation is undertaken using a three-
axle truck or a truck which has a registered gross vehicle weight of more than 14 600
kilograms and not more than 24 300 kilograms; whether or not that truck is used in
combination with any other vehicle or vehicles;
Class PB
A class of vehicles to be called Class PB is hereby established consisting of vehicles
to be used for the transportation of passengers or passengers and express.

Class PV
(1) A class of vehicles to be called Class PV is hereby established consisting of
vehicles to be used for the following purposes:
(a) as a personal conveyance;
(b) for the transportation of:
(i) passengers without compensation;
(ii) goods owned by the registered owner of the vehicle;
(iii) any commodity within the corporate limits of, and within an area having a radius
of 10 kilometres from the corporate limits of, the city, town, village or hamlet shown
in the certificate of registration as the address of the registered owner of the vehicle;
(iv) recreational equipment where that transportation is not in connection with any
employment or commercial or business enterprise;
(v) the registered owner of the vehicle and the employees of the registered owner;
(vi) the registered owner of the vehicle and other employees of the employer of the
registered owner for the purposes of the business of the employer;
(vii) passengers pursuant to a private car pool;
(viii) household effects, without compensation, to and from a private residence
where the transportation is undertaken with a motor vehicle registered with a gross
vehicle weight of 5 000 kilograms or less where the transportation is not in the
course of any employment or business undertaking;
(ix) goods owned by the employer of the registered owner of the vehicle
(x) newspapers, currency, liability items, negotiable instruments and related banking
documents;
(xi) clothing, drapes, rugs and furs that are being carried to a dry cleaner for the
purposes of dry cleaning;

93
Class PC
(1) A class of vehicles to be called Class PC is hereby established consisting of
vehicles to be used for the transportation of passengers:
(a) within the corporate limits of, and within an area having a radius of 25 kilometres
from the corporate limits of, the city, town, village or hamlet shown in the certificate
of registration for the vehicle as the address of the registered owner of the vehicle; or
(b) if the vehicle is used to transport individuals with a disability and any individuals
travelling with those individuals.
(2) No person shall apply to register in Class PC a vehicle that has a seating capacity
of fewer than 10 passengers but this restriction shall not apply where the vehicle to
be registered is to be used for the purpose mentioned in clause (1)(b).

Class PT
(1) A class of vehicles to be called Class PT is hereby established consisting of
vehicles to be used for the following purposes:
(a) as a personal conveyance;
(b) for the transportation of:
(i) passengers;
(ii) goods owned by the registered owner of the vehicle;
(iii) any commodity:
(A) if the vehicles registered weight is no more than 5 000 kilograms; and
(B) if the combined weight of the vehicle and the load is no more than 5 000
kilograms;
(c) for rental as a U-Drive vehicle.
(2) No person shall use a vehicle registered in Class PT for the transportation of
passengers on a regular pre-arranged route or time schedule outside an area having a
radius of 25 kilometres from the corporate limits of the city, town, village or hamlet
shown in the certificate of registration for the vehicle as the address of the registered
owner of the vehicle.
(3) No person shall apply to register in Class PT a vehicle that has a seating capacity
of more than nine passengers.
(4) No three-wheeled vehicle shall be registered in Class PT.

Class PS
(1) A class of vehicles to be called Class PS is hereby established consisting of
vehicles to be used for the following purposes:
(a) as a personal conveyance;
(a.1) for the transportation of firefighters and their equipment if there is a current
agreement in place between the Ministry of Environment and the vehicles registered
owner to provide transportation in these circumstances;
(b) for the transportation of:
(i) students to and from school;
(ii) students under the administration of a school board to and from academic, social
or athletic events connected with the programs of the school board;
(iii) teachers, educational officers and other persons employed by a school board
supervising students mentioned in subclause (ii) or for any other purpose connected
with the performance of their duties;

94
(iv) any person who has been authorized by the school board to accompany and
supervise students being transported as described in subclause (i) or (ii);
(iv.1) any persons authorized by the school board pursuant to this subclause where
the transportation is provided without compensation and where no more than four of
those persons are passengers in the bus at any one time;
(v) any ill or injured person to a place where medical services can be obtained if
authorized by the school board and where there is no other transportation available;
(vi) goods owned by the registered owner;
(vii) Her Majestys mail.
(2) No person shall apply to register a vehicle, and no vehicle shall be registered, in
Class PS unless the person to be named in the certificate of registration is a:
(a) school board; or
(b) person under contract with a school board to transport more than eight students
to and from a school.
(3) A multi-function school activity bus that is registered in Class PS shall not be used
to transport more than 8 students to and from school.

Class T
(1) A class of vehicles to be called Class T is established.
(2) Trailers, semi-trailers or mobile homes may be registered in Class T.
(3) A trailer, semi-trailer or mobile home registered in Class T may not be used for a
commercial or business purpose.

Class L
(1) A class of vehicles to be called Class L is established consisting of vehicles that
are:
(a) registered pursuant to section 68 of the Act;
(b) owned by a dealer or consigned to a dealer through a written agreement; and
(c) available for sale by that dealer.
(2) A vehicle registered in Class L may be used for the following purposes:
(a) subject to the weight restriction mentioned in subclause (b)(iii), as a personal
conveyance;
(b) for the transportation of:
(i) passengers without compensation;
(ii) recreational equipment without compensation where that transportation is not in
the course of any employment or business undertaking;
(iii) goods other than those mentioned in subclause (ii) that are owned by any person
driving the vehicle pursuant to subsection (3), where the weight of the goods does
not exceed 445 kilograms;
(iv) special weights or loads, not for delivery to any customer or consignee, when
demonstrating the performance of the vehicle, where the vehicle is accompanied by
the dealer or any of the dealers employees and the prospective purchaser;
(v) notwithstanding the restrictions imposed by subclauses (b)(ii), (iii) and (iv),
vehicles, whether driven, towed, carried or saddlemounted, where a dealer number
plate is displayed on each vehicle being driven, towed, carried or saddlemounted.
(3) A vehicle registered in Class L may be driven by the following:
(a) the dealer;
(b) the employees of the dealer;

95
(c) the spouse or child of the dealer or the dealers employee if the spouse or child
shares the same residence as the dealer or the employee;

Class LT
(1) A class of vehicles to be called Class LT is hereby established consisting of
trailers and semi-trailers registered pursuant to section 68 of the Act.
(2) A trailer or semi-trailer registered in Class LT may be used for the transportation
of:
(a) trailers owned by a trailer dealer or trailer manufacturer;
(b) goods owned by a trailer dealer or trailer manufacturer if the weight of the goods
does not exceed 445 kilograms;
(c) any commodity of a prospective purchaser of the trailer or semi-trailer for the
purpose of demonstration for a period not exceeding 7 days;
(d) equipment permanently mounted on the trailer; or
(e) boats of any weight owned by a trailer dealer or trailer manufacturer if
transported on a boat trailer.
(3) No dealer shall accept compensation for the use of a trailer or semi-trailer while
displaying a Class LT registration owned by the dealer.
(4) In the circumstances mentioned in clause (2)(c), written approval from the dealer
must be carried by the driver of the towing vehicle and must include:
(a) the name and address of the dealer and of the customer;
(b) the trailers year, make and vehicle identification number; and
(c) the start date and end date of the demonstration period.

Class LV
(1) A class of vehicles to be called Class LV is established consisting of vehicles to
be used for the following purposes:
(a) as a personal conveyance;
(b) for the transportation of:
(i) passengers without compensation;
(i.1) up to 8 passengers if transported by a guide or outfitter licensed pursuant to The
Outfitter and Guide Regulations, 2004;
(ii) employees of the employer of the registered owner of the vehicle for the purpose
of the business of the employer;
(iii) any commodity;
(iv) passengers pursuant to a private car pool arrangement;
(v) subject to the limitation prescribed in section 20, for the transportation of
passengers pursuant to a student transport agreement; or
(vi) for the purposes described in subclause 10(1)(b)(xiv);
(c) as a hearse;
(c.1) for the transportation of passengers by a licensed funeral home for the purpose
of providing funeral services;
(d) as an ambulance if the vehicle is used as part of an ambulance service for which
the owner of the vehicle has a valid ambulance licence issued pursuant to The
Ambulance Act.
(2) Subject to subsections (3) to (6), the following vehicles must be registered in
Class LV:
96
(a) a motorcycle;
(a.1) a three-wheeled vehicle;
(b) a car;
(c) an industrial tracked vehicle;
(d) a motorhome or bus with a gross vehicle weight of 15 000 kilograms or less;
(e) any of the following vehicles if the vehicle has a manufacturers gross vehicle
weight rating one ton or less:
(i) a sport utility vehicle;
(ii) a vehicle with a body style of a truck; or
(iii) a van.
(3) A vehicle used for the transportation of passengers for compensation must be
registered in one of Class PC, PB or PT as the circumstances require.
(4) A vehicle registered to the Government of Canada or one of its agencies,
departments, boards or commissions must be registered in Class GC.
(5) A vehicle registered to a school board transporting more than eight school
children to school must be registered in Class PS.

Class GC
(1) A class of vehicles to be called Class GC is hereby established consisting of
vehicles used by the Government or one of its agencies, departments, boards or
commissions for purposes authorized by laws of the Government.
(2) Every motorcycle of the Government or one of its agencies, departments, boards
or commissions to be registered is to be registered in Class GC.
(3) No person shall apply to register a vehicle, and no vehicle shall be registered, in
Class GC unless the vehicle is owned by or leased to the Government or one of its
agencies, departments, boards or commissions.

Class TS
(1) A class of vehicles to be called Class TS is hereby established.
(2) A vehicle belonging to Class TS may be used for any purpose that the vehicle
towing it may be used for.

Class MT
(1) A class of vehicles to be called Class MT is hereby established.
(2) A vehicle belonging to Class MT may be used for any purpose except the
transportation of passengers for compensation.

Use of vehicles for certain purposes

Any vehicle registered in any of the vehicle classifications established by these
regulations may be used for the transportation of any goods or passengers that may
be necessary or reasonably incidental to and for the carrying out of the official duties
and responsibilities of a police officer, fireman or member of an emergency measures
organization.

97
 PROHIBITIONS
Use of certain vehicles for transporting students
(1) In this section, student means an individual attending school in kindergarten or
any of grades 1 to 12.
(2) No person shall use a vehicle other than one registered in Class PB, Class PS or
Class PC for the purpose of transporting more than 8 students to or from a school.

Operation for compensation

Any vehicle may be operated for compensation unless the operation of the vehicle for
compensation is prohibited by the Act or these regulations or any other law.

COMING INTO FORCE

Coming into force
These regulations come into force on the day on which they are filed with the
Registrar of Regulations.

98
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