Gas Turbine Engines PDF

Part2
GasTurbineEngines
BasicTheory,Principles
and lntakes
1.1 Introduction.
Gasturbineenginesat presentusedin aircraftaredividedinto two main

classes:
(a) The turbojet engine,which derivesits power from the reactionof
exhaustgasexpelledrearwards.
(b) The turboprop engine,which utilisesthe greaterpart of its power
output to drive a propeller,the residueaugmentingthe thrustby jet
reaction.
1.2 BasicPrinciple.
An aircraftthat is propelledby an air-breathingengine(asdistinctfrom
a rocket)obtainsits forward motion in exchangefor accelerating a mass
of air rearward.The differencebetweenpropellerand jet propulsionis
that the propelleracceleratesa relativelylargemassof air rearwardat
relativelylow speed,whereasthejet accelerates a much smallermassof
air but at a much greaterspeed.In eachcaseit is the reactionto the rate
of changeof momentumof the massof air that propelsthe aircraft.
1.3 Principle of Operation.

The principleof operationof thegasturbineengineis similarto thepiston
enginein that thereare induction,compression, ignition and expansion,
and exhaust.Howeverin the gasturbine theseare continuousprocesses
andnot intermittentasin thepistonengine.Figurel-l illustratestheprin-
cipleof operationfrom which it will be seen:
(a) that air is drawnin throughthe intake'A'by a compressor'B'which
is mountedon the main shaft'C'.
(b) The turbine'D'is mountedon the other end of the shaft.
137
C A ST U R B I NEEN C I N E S
(c) air drawn through the intake by the compressorwill increasein

pressure,temperatureand velocity as it passesthrough the
compressorstagesof the engine.
(d) air leavesthe compressorand passesto the diffuser 'E', which
convertsthe velocityenergyto pressureenergy.
(e) on leavingthe diffuserthe air passesinto the combustionchambers
'H'. Of the total massof air enteringthe combustionchambers
approximately25 per cent,known as primary air, entersthe flame
tubesthroughthe flametube orifice'G'.
(r) the remainderof the air, passes
alongthe outsideof theflametubes,
'J'
enteringthroughdilution holes in the sideof the tubes.
(e) eachcombustionchamberis providedwith a burner containinga
swirl type atomiserthroughwhich fuel is injectedunderpressureby
the fuel pump into the combustionchamber,whereit mixesas fine
dropletswith the incomingprimary air.
(h) thecombustiblemixturesoformedis ignited(on start-up)by igniters
in two or threeof the combustionchambers.On completionof the
startingcyclethe ignitersarecut off. At this stagethe engineis said
to 'light up' and from this point combustionis continuousand the
pressure in thecombustionchamberfor a givenfuelflow is constant.
(i) theremainingsecondary air, whichpasses throughthedilution holes
into the flame tube, mixeswith the main massof burning gasand
cools it sufficientlyto allow it to passthrough the turbine at a
temperaturewithin the safelimits of the turbinematerial.
0) within the combustionchamber,owingto the addedheatenergyof
the fuel, the gasnot only risesin temperaturebut alsoincreases
in
volume.
(k) after passingthroughthe combustionchambersthe hot gasesenter
'K'
the nozzleguidevanes which direct them at increasedvelocity
'D' to rotate and
on to the turbineblades,causingthe turbine disc
so drive the compressor.
0) of the total energygeneratedapproximately60 per cent is usedto
drivethecompressor, drop in gaspres-
sothat thereis a considerable
sureand temperatureacrossthe turbine.
(m) the 40 per cent of energyremainingafter driving the turbine and
compressoris usedto form a high speedjet, which hasa substantial
residualpressure;thisjet passes into the exhaustcone'L' to emerge
at atmosphericpressure at orifice'M'.
138
THEORY,
BASIC ANDINTAKES
PRINCIPLES
(n) thejet not only haskineticenergyowingto its velocitybut alsohas

considerable heatenergy.Theheatenergyis released to atmosphere,
however,and is consequently wasted.
l
i 1.4 Thrust and PropulsiveEfficiency.

'thrust', this force being
An aircraft is propelledby a force known as
necessary to accelerate the aircraft and balancethe drag. Pistonengines
arerated in horse power and turbojetenginesare ratedby the amountof
static thrust they produce. An aircraft that flies and is self propelled
acquires propulsion by displacing something- usuallya massof the
supporting medium - in the opposite direction.To makethis massmove
backwardsit is necessary to exert a rearwards acting push on it, conse-
quently,in accordancewith Newton's third law, an equaland opposite
forward reactionis setup. This forward acting force is 'thrust'.
The simplerelationshipbetweenthe forceappliedto a body, its mass,
and the resultingacceleration that it experiences can be statedas:
ForceMass x Acceleration
Consequentlythe thrust experiencedby an airctaft dependson the
massof air passingthroughthe propellerdiscor jet pipe in unit time and
the rate at which its velocityis changed.
It is alsoessentialto remember:
MASS
is usuallydefinedas the quantity of matter containedin a body and is
constant'
*EIGHT
is the gravitationalforceattractinga body towardsthe earth,and is not
constant,decreasingas distancefrom the earth'scentreincreases.
Thereforethe weightof a body is slightlylessat the equatorthan at the
poles.
Wherethe force of gravity is less,the acceleration due to gravitymust
alsobe proportionatelyless:i.e.the body will not gain speedso rapidly if
allowedto lall freely.Thus the weight of a body divided by the accelera-
tion dueto gravity (W/g) will always be constant, regardless of its position
on earth or in space.This is the mass,and for all normal purposesis
obtainedby dividing the weightby 32.2whenworking in ft lb/sec2 units.
x
Returningto ForceMass Acceleration, and applying it to a stationary
aircraftwithits enginerunningat high power,assumethat in onesecond
W lb of alr areaccelerated from restto Vrft/sec.The massof air handled
by the propeller or jet in that time (i.e. the mass flow) will be fr
w%-lb'
consequentlythe thrust actingon the aircraftwill be
139
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140
BASIC PRINCIPLES
THEORY, AND INTAKES
But as the aircraftcannotmove,all the energygivento the slipstream

or jet is wastedand the propulsiveefficiencyis zero.
If the aircraft is now permittedto move,it will take off and attain a
certainvelocity,V,ft/sec,i.e. the air about to passthroughthe propeller
disc or turbine hasa velocitytowardsthe aircraft of V,ftlsec.Assuming
that the resultantvelocityof this air relativeto the aircraftis still Vrftlsec,
the accelerationis only (Vr-V') ftlsecand if the massflow remainsthe
samethe thrust will be (VrV,Ub.
*V
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In otherwords,thrust falls off as speedincreases.
At this stagea factor which favours the turbine enginemakesitself
evident;air pressuretends to build up in front of any object moving
throughit, an effecthardlynoticeableat low speeds but considerable pres-
surewill build up in front of the objectasspeedis increased. This increase
in pressurebecomespronouncedat speedsaboveabout 250 knots, and
increases the massflow through the engine.This is known as ram effect.
The resultis shownin Fig. l-2 whereit can be seenthat up to about 250
knotsthrustfallssteadily,aswould beexpected from thedecreasing accel-
eration given to the air. Above this speed,however,the ram effect is
sufficientnot only to half the fall but to reversethe trend, until at 500
knots the static value has been regained.The rate of rise of thrust
decreases beyondMach One as a resultof the formation of shockwaves
in the entry duct unlessmeasures aretakento counterthe effectof shock
waveson or in the intake.
V. 2.
400 600 800 1
AIRCRAFTSPEEDIN KNOTS
Figure1-2 How RamAir Affectsthe Thrust.
141
Y-
C A ST U R B I N E N C I N E S
1.5 The Effectsof Ram,Densityand Temperature.

As altitude is increased,atmospheric pressure,density and temperature
decrease,and coupled with ram air effects,thesevariations have a consid-
erable effect on the performance of the gas turbine engine. At constant
rpm the pressure ratio of the compressor (the difference of pressure
betweenthe inlet and outlet of the compressor) and the temperature rise
across the compressor remain constant irrespective of height; however,
due to the drop in density, it is necessaryto reduce the fuel supply to
prevent high combustion temperaturesas a result of the excessfuel to air
mixture. As well as the drop in density there is also a drop in air temper-
ature, and consequently the temperature of the air entering the
compressor inlet will also be lower, and therefore the air entering
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the combustion chamberswill also be cooler. This reduced temperature
will allow a slightly greater quantity of fuel to be used than would be
possibleif a constant temperature were maintained.
The increase in temperature results from an increase in change of
momentum of the gas passingthrough the engine, so that one pound of
air now produces more thrust than at sealevel, this is becausethere is an
improved expansion ratio across the turbine, which increasesthe effi-
ciency. The total mass of air passing through the engine,reduceswith
increasedaltitude owing to the reduction in air density, and therefore if
the total mass airflow is lessthen the total mass weight will also be less.
It has been shown, however, that one pound of air produces more power
at height, so the power decreasesat a lower rate than the air density.
The power available from one pound of air is increasedif the air enters
the compressor at a lower temperature. If the air at sea level is cold the
density is higher. The thrust obtainable from a gas turbine engineis there-
fore greater on a cold day, not only due to the extra power obtained from
each pound ofair passingthrough the engine, but also becausethe total
weight of a given volume of air is greater due to its greater density.
Figure l-3 shows the effect of intake or inlet temperature on the power
delivered by a gas turbine.
It can be seenfrom the curve that the power increasesconsiderably as
the temperaturefalls: as much as 50 per cent increasein the sealevel power
is obtained at a temperature of 0 degreesF compared with the output
design temperature at 60 degreesF. With increased height and lower
temperature therefore, a considerable proportion of the power will be
regained by virtue of the lower temperature. As the aircraft gains height
the compressor load decreasesdue to the lower density and, unless the
fuel flow is reduced,the turbine overspeeds.This contingency is covered
by the use of a barometric unit which monitors the output of the fuel
pump and adjusts it accordingly. As altitude is increasedthe fuel output
for a given power setting will progressivelyreduce,and so fuel consump-
142
BASICTHEORY,
PRINCIPLES
AND INTAKES
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COMPRESSORINTAKE-AIRTEMPERATURE
deq. F
Figure1-3 Effects
of Air Temperature
on
PowerOutput.
tion progressively decreases.It shculdbe notedthereforethat an increase

in temperaturecausesa lossof power, sincean increasein temperature
resultsin reducedair densityand, therefore,the weightof the volumeof
air flowing throughthe enginereduces.
So far therehasbeena gain due to increaseddensityat low tempera-
ture and a lossdue to the lower densityat high temperatures. At altitude
the overallthrust is less,due to the reduceddensity,but alsodue to the
reduceddensitythetotal dragofthe aircraftis lessthanat sealevel,conse-
quently lesspower is requiredto propel the aircraft at a given true
airspeed.Thereductionin draghowever,is not proportionalto thereduc-
tion in air densitybecause,at altitude,theangleof attackof thewingmust
be increasedto provide the sameamount of lift, and this resultsin an
increasein induceddrag, so raising the total drag. Drag therefore
decreases with increasedaltitudeat a lower rate than the density.If the
Thrust HorsePowerof a jet aircraft decreases with increasedaltitudeat
the samerate as the decreasein total drag, then the True Air Speedis
constantat all heights,but at height the drag is lessand thereforethe
thrust requiredfrom the engineis proportionallyless;this reductionin
the requiredthrust is accompaniedby a reductionin fuel consumption.
If, however,power from the turbine decreases at a lower rate than the
reductionin drag, then the speedincreases with height.This givesa
further increasein efficiencyasa resultof the increasein speed,resulting
143
G A ST U R B I NEEN C I N E S
in an increasein propulsiveeff,rciency.
This increasein speedalsoresults
in greater ram effect, thus increasing the compressorefficiencywhich
thereforeabsorbs lesspower from the turbine to do the sameamountof
work on the air.
1.6 lntake Design.

The idealsubsonicaircraft gasturbine engineair intake,for air to flow
smoothlythroughthecompressor, shouldhavea velocityof about Mach
0.4 at the inlet, and an evenpressuredistributionacrossthe compressor
face;theseconditions,however,hold good not only for aircraft flying at
subsonicspeeds, but aircraftwhichfly at speeds of Mach 1.0.To
in excess
achievethis the intake must be designedto deceleratethe free stream
airflow to thecorrectinletvelocityoverthedesignedaircraftspeedrange,
and convert the kinetic energyof the flow into static pressurewith a
minimumof shockor functionallosses, that is to say,thecompressor inlet
pressureshouldbe as nearas possibleto the total headpressure. Total
headpressureis the pressureof the air whenit is decelerated or brought
to restin front of a wing or engineintake,it increases asthe aircraftspeed
increases. As the air acceleratesaway from the deceleration(or stagna-
tion) point, the pressuredecreases. Intakesare designedto avoid this
pressurelossand the efficiencyof an intake is measuredby its ability to
maintaincompressorinlet pressureat or nearits total headpressure.
"1.7 Intakesfor SupersonicFlight.
Downstreamof the normal shockwavethe flow is alwayssubsonicand,

as the supersonicMach Number increasesupstream,the subsonicMach
Number following the normal shockwavedecreases. The pressure
recoveryacrossa normal shockwaveis nearunity up to approximately
Mach 1.4 andso a simplefixed intakedesignis satisfactory.
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COWLING NORMALSHOCKWAVE
STREAMLINE
Figure1-4 Pitotor SimpleCowl Intake.
144
THEORY,
BASIC AND INTAKES
PRINCIPLES
An exampleof a fixed or pitot type, intake is shownin Fig. l-4. This

type of intale is satisfactoryat subsonic,transonicand low supersonic
speeds. At higherspeeds therecoveryacrossthenormalshockwavedrops
off rapidly anO it becomes necessary to find a more efficientdesignof
intake to capture the airflow and regain the total headofpressure.
The Macli Number downstream of an oblique shockwaveis supersonic
at nearlyall the possible combinations of upstream Mach Number and
shockangle,and the pressure recovery is closeto unity for all upstream
Mach Numberslessthan about mach 2.5. The deceleration of a super-
sonicfreestreamflow is thus most efficiently achieved by a sequence of
shockwaves,one or two obliques followed by one normal shock. For
flight conditionsaboveMach 1.4the intakemust be designedto produce
obliqueshockwavesand this functionmay be achievedby useof a centre
body intakeor a wedgetype.SeeFig. l-5.
CONICALOR CENTREBODYINTAKE
VARIABLEBLEEDOFF
OBLIQUE
SHOCK
NORMALSHOCK
,WEDGE
TYPEINTAKE,
MAY BE FIXEDOR VARIABLE
VARIABLEBLEEDOFF
OBLIQUESHOCK
NORMALSHOCK
WEDGEINLET
AIRCRAFTSURFACE
VARIABLEWEDGEANGLE
Figure1-5 CentreBodyand Wedge

Type lntakes.
145
1.8 IntakeShapes.
At subsonicspeedsa divergentintake duct is requiredto decelerate the
freestreamflow and increasethe pressure.SeeFig. l-6.
At supersonicspeedsa convergingintake duct is requiredto achieve
the sameobjectives.For aircraftwhich fly at high supersonicspeedsthe
convergingduct is usuallyfollowedby a divergingduct and the intersec-
tion betweenthesetwo ductsformsthe diffuser'throat'wherethe cross
sectionis at its minimum.SeeFigs.l-7 (a) and l-7 (b).
u' ,)
- DECREASING
VELOCITY
P R E S S U R-E I N C R E A S I N G
T E M P E R A T U R- E I N C R E A S I N G
Figure'l-6 A DivergentDuct.
)
V E L O C I T -Y I N C R E A S I N G
P R E S S U R-E D E C R E A S I N G
S T E M P E R A T U R_E D E C R E A S I N G
+-
Figure1-7 (a) A Convergent

Duct.
146
THEORY,
BASIC ANDINTAKES
PRINCIPLES
Maximum pressurerecovery,whichis theproductof theindividualshock

waverecoveries, is achievedwhen eachof the obliqueshockwavepres-
surelossesapproximatelyequalsthe remainingshockpressureloss.The
balancingof shockwavelossesis not possiblein a centrebody, or spike
inlet becausethe actualcontour of the spiketip cannotbe varied.
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FLOWINCREASES TO
SONICVELOCITY
AT VENTURI
AMBIENT
PRESSURE
MACH1
NOZZLE
CHOKED
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F i g u r e1 - 7 ( b ) .
1.9 CriticalConditions.
Three generaltypesof gasturbine intake operationare employedand
thoughlheycan6econsidered asbeingindependentof the locationof the
obliqueshockare dependenton the position of the normal shockwave
relativeto the intakeliP:
(a) Critical operationoccurswhen the normal shockwaveis near the
intakelip. This is the most desirablecondition becausemaximum
pressurerecoveryexists.Thereare no instabilitiesin the entering
flow and maximummassflow is captured.
(b) If a normal shockwaveoccursoutsidethe intake,sub-criticaloper--
ation existswith the shocksystemcompletelyexpelledupstreamof
the intakelip. The intakepressurerecoveryis lessthan in thecritical
conditiondueto the changesin the shocklocationwhichmay cause
'b.uzz'and resultin massspillageof flow. High dragis causedby the
air spilling around the intake lip but this can be reducedif the
spillageaii is exhaustedthrough a bleed-offbehindthe intakelip.
147
G A ST U R B I NEEN G I N E S
(c) If a normalshockwaveoccursinsidethe intakeit is saidto be oper-

Although near maximum flow is captured,
ating supercritically.
pressurerecoveryis lessthan during critical operation.
1.10 VariableIntakes.
Criticaloperationcanonly beachievedby continuouslyvaryingtheshape
of the intake to allow for changesin temperature(as experienced with
variationsin altitude)and engineairflow as well as by flight speed.The
oblique shockwave shouldbe positionedto occur at the intake lip just
like the normal shockwave,and bleed-offdoors may be usedboth to
divert any excessflow and to position the normal shockfor optimum
shockpatternsand pressurerecovery.The intake thereforetakesin the
full freeairstreamairflow without any streamlinedrag at the headof the
lip. A variablegeometryinlet is requiredto satisfythesedesirablecondi-
tions of shockwavelocation. 'r/i,,
CONICALSPIKE
INLET
WEDGEUNIT
TWO OBLIOUE
PLUSONENORMAL
SHOCK
ONEOBLIOUE
PLUSONENORMAL
SfMPLECOWL t SHOCK
TNLET--
ON NORMAL
SHOCK
BASICTHEORY, AND INTAKES
PRINCIPLES
V,,
CURVEFALLSEECAUSE
OF AIRTEMPERATURE
INCREASINGwlTH M No
MACHNUMSER
Ratioof a JetEngineVaryingwith Mach.No., and

Pressure
with DifferingTypesof Intakes.
\/'
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DOUELE;HOCK
CENTRE3ODY
I SINGLESHOCK
PITOTTYPE
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MACHNUMEER
Showshow Thrustis Affectedby lntakeDesign.
INFORMATIONFACTS
GENERAT
C A ST U R B I NE
EN C I N E S
Section1 TestYourself
BasicTheory,Principlesand Intakes
is:
L ThegasturbinecomPressor
(a) drivenbYtheairflow'
to a commonshaft.
(b) drivenby theturbinewhichis connected
(c) driven by the turbine which is mounted on a separatedrive shaft.
Ref. 1.3.
2. After the gas leavesthe combustion chambers it:

(a) is directed onto the turbine by the nozzle guide vanes'
(b) flows directly onto the turbine blades'
(c) is directed onto the turbine blades by variable guide vanes.
Ref. 1.3.
3. One pound of air at altitude:

(a) producesmore thrust than it would at sealevel'
(b) produceslessthrust than it would at sealevel'
(c) producesthe samethrust as it would at sealevel'
Ref. 1.5.
4. Air drawn through the compressorwill:

(a) maintainconstanttemperature.
(b) reducein Pressure'
(c) slightly increasein velocity.
Ref. 1.3.
5. Within the combustionchambersthe burned fuel/air mixture:

(a) increasesin volume.
(b) reducesin volume.
(c) maintains a constantvolume.
Ref. 1.3.
BASIC PRINCIPLES
THEORY, AND INTAKES
6. Somesecondaryair is directedthrough the dilution holesin the

to:
combustionchambers
(a) atomisethe fuel prior to combustion.
I (b) createa swirl effectof the mixture.
I
(c) cool the gasbeforeit reachesthe turbine.
t lt Ref. 1.3.
7. Igniters are fitted:
(a) in each combustion chamber.
(b) immediately aft of the combustion chambers.
(c) to just two or three combustion chambers.
Ref.1.3.
il I
I
8. As altitude is increased,compressorload:
(a) remainsconstant.
(b) decreases.
(c) increases.
Ref. 1.5.
9. At supersonicspeeds,the airflow at the gas turbine inlet:
(a) will be reducedto subsonicspeed.
(b) is increasedto Mach 1.4
(c) will be maintainedat the samespeed.
Ref. 1.6.
10.An intake designedfor transonicspeedswill be:
(a) a convergingduct.
(b) a diverging duct.
(c) a convergent/divergentduct.
Ref. 1.8.
151
Compressors
2.1 Introduction.
are usedin moderngasturbineengines,

Two basictypesof compressors
theyarethe:
(a) Centrifugaltype.
(b) Axial Flow type.
The centrifugalcompressoris similar in appearanceand principleof
operationto the superchargerimpellerof a piston engine.The airflow is
radial (outwards from the centre),and currentlythe centrifugaltype
is most commonlyusedon gasturbinesfor helicopters.
The axial flow type has an airflow path that flows parallelto the
compressorshaft.Axial compressors arethemostwidelyusedtype.A few
enginedesignsalso use a combinationof centrifugaland axial flow
compressors.
Eachtype hasits advantages

and disadvantages.
2.2 Design.
Compressordesignis mainly concernedwith aerodynamics, someprin-
ciple factorsaffectingthe performancebeingthe aerofoil sectionof the
blades,the bladepitch angles,and the length/chordratio of the blades.
Another important detailis the clearancebetweenthe bladetips and the
shroudaround them.Compressibilityeffectswithin the compressorcan
havea markedeffecton the performance.
To achievemaximumefficiencya compressor must satisfya numberof
requirements:
(a) It mustprovidethe requiredpressure
rise.
(b) Compressionmust be effectedwith the leastpossibleloss,as the
greaterthe lossthe greaterthe powerabsorbedby the turbine.
(c) stableover the operatingrangeof rpm.
It must be aerodynamically
152
COMPRESSORS
(d) The tip speedof the impeller,or rotors, should not approachtoo
closelyto sonicspeed,a maximumspeedof .9M at any point on the
radiusbeingpreferable.
Compressordesignin most enginesis a compromisebetweenhigh
performanceover a narrow band of rpm or moderateperformanceover
a wide band of rpm. Consequently, althoughit is possiblefor the
compressorto be designedso that very high efficiencyis obtainedat the
highestpower, any deviationfrom the designconditionsmay cause
seriouschangesin the aerodynamicflow conditionsand so a lossof effi-
ciencyand unstableconditionswithin the engine.As the flow varieswith
operatingconditionsit is usualto compromiseand designfor lower effi-
ciency,giving greaterflexibility of performanceand the retentionof the
highestpossibleperformanceover a wider rangeof rpm.
2.3 Centrifugal Compressors.

The singlestagecentrifugalcompressorconsistsof threeprimarycompo-
nents:the compressorcasing,which embodiesthe air inlet guidevanes
and outletports,thecompressor termedtheimpeller),and the
(sometimes
diffuser.
The main featuresof this unit are:
(a) For a given usefulcapacityand pressureratio it can be made
comparativelysmallin sizeand weight.
(b) As motion is purelyrotary, the impellercanbe accuratelybalanced'
(c) A reasonable efficiencycan be maintainedover a substantialrange
of operatingconditions.
(d) It is veryrobust.
(e) It is relativelysimpleto manufacture.
Figure2-l showsthe impellerof a singleentry compressor.Figute 2-2
showsthe essentialcomponentparts of a singleentry impelleror
compressorassembly.
2.4 Centrifugal CompressorAirflow.

Air enterstheair intakeat atmospheric pressure andtemperature passing
into the eye (centre)of the impeller, which is designed to admit the air
without excessive velocity.The air is picked up by the rotating vanes of
the impellerand, due to the centrifugalforce and the rotational speed,
leavesthe peripheryof the impellerat approximatelyright anglesto its
entry at an increased velocity.On leavingthe impellervanepassages, the
153
2-1 SingleEntrylmpeller.
Figure
air acquiresin addition to its radial velocity, a tangential velocity which

representsapproximately half the total energyacquired during its passage
throughthe impeller. -rt \
nrn*
ENTERS
N E A RH U B
IMPELLER DIFFUSER C O M P R E S S OM
RA N I F O L D
Compressor.
Figure2-2 SingleEntryCentrifugal
The air then passesthrough the diffuser where the velocity energy is
converted into pressureenergy, so that the velocity is reduced and the
pressureincreaied. Work is done by the compressor in compressing
ihe air, and, sincethe processof compressioninvolves adiabatic heating,
a rise in temperature results.
154
COMPRESSORS
Figure2-3 showsthe passageof air through a singleentry centrifugal

compressor. V)'
COMBUSTION
DIFFUSER CHAMBER
IMPELLER
AIR S I N G L ES H R O U D
INTAKE
Figure2-3 Passage
of Air ThroughCentrifugal
Compressor.
Apart from the losses,the temperaturerise acrossthe compressor

dependson the work done,and this in return dependsbroadlyon the tip
velocityof the impellerand the total air inlet temperature.The common
typesof centrifugalcompressorsin usetoday have a pressureratio of
approximately4.5to I with an adiabaticefficiencyin the regionof 80 per
cent.
It must be appreciatedthat with idealcompressionthereare no losses
but, as with most other typesof practicalmachines,thereare lossesdue
to friction,turbulence,and shock,and theseincreasewith the rateof flow
throughthe impeller.Consequently the effectivepressureriseis reduced,
and a constantpressure ratio with varyingflow is not obtainedfor a given
tip speed.Thereforeit follows:
(a) The pressureobtainedfrom an impelleris lessthan the theoretical
value,and dependson rpm and diameter,and varieswith the mass
of air flowing throughit.
(b) The work capacityof an impellerat a given speedis lessthan the
theoreticalvalue.
(c) The temperaturerise dependsmainly on the work capacityof the
impellerand on frictionallosses,but is independentof the pressure
rise.
155
I
1,",'
G A ST U R B I N E N C I N E S
I
(a) (b) (c)

S I N G L EE N T R Y D O U B L EE N T R Y S I N G L EE N T R Y
(SHROUDED)
Figure 2-4 Typesof Centrifugal lmpeller.

Compressor
2.5 CompressorDesignVariations.
There are two main types of centrifugal compressorsin use today, the
single entry, shown in Fig. 2-a@) and the double entry shown in Fig.
2-4(b).
A third basictype hasbeenusedin the past but is rarely seentoday, this
being the shrouded impeller, a sketch of which is shown in Fig. 2-4(c) for
information only.
(a) Single Entry Compressor.

The singleentry compressorconsistsof a disc having integral radially
disposedvanes.When the compressoris assembledin its casing(Fig.
2-5) thesevanesform divergentpassages,which turn the incoming air
so that it is dischargedradially from the compressor tip into the
diffuser vanes. At high tip speedsthe velocity of the air relative to
the vaneat entry approachesthe speedofsound, and it is essentialfor
maximum efficiencythat there is the minimum shock (compressibility
effects)at entry. On most compressorstherefore, the pick up (air
entry) portions of the vanes are curved and then blended into the
radial portions of the tip, the curvature being so adjusted that
the sectionsof the vanesin planesnormal to the axis of rotation are
156
COMPRESSORS
truly radial.Thereareconsequently no secondarybendingstresses in

thevanesfrom the effectsof rotation aloneand,from the stresspoint
of view,the loadsthat arisefrom impartingangularmotion to the air
arenegligible.
The-centrifugalcompressoris a highly stressedcomponent.A
majorproblemthat arisesis vibration.Vibrationprimarilyoccursdue
to the pressureconcentrationaround the leadingedgeof the vanes.
As eachvanepasses a diffusertip it receives an impulse,the frequency
of which is a product of the number of vanes and the rpm. If this
frequencyshould coincide with the natural frequency of a part of the
compressor, resonance occurs and vibration develops. Thereforea
prociss, which beginswith the failure of the internalstructure of the
material,may spread until centrifugal stresses arehigh enough to tear
the material,causingstructural failure.
Note: Early type centrifugalcompressorsgenerallyproduced20
percentof thecompression within theimpeller,and 80per centwithin
ihe diffure.. With more recentdesignsthe compressionof the air is
approximately50/50betweenthe impellerand the diffuser.
F i g u r e2 - 5 l m p e l l e irn
i t sC a s i n g .
(b) DoubleEntry Compressor.

Thedoubleentrycompressor, seeFig.2-6,issimilarto thesingleentry
type,but hasradial varreso.r both sidesof the disc.Air entersat each
side,and is deliveredradially to a common diffuser.Balanceis an
important operationin compressormanufacture,and any out of
bafanceforcesmust be eliminatedto preventthe seriousvibration
that might otherwisedevelopat high speeds.
157
C A ST U R B I N E N G I N E S
Whilst a singleentry centrifugalcompressorwould requireto be

laiger in diamiter to produceihe samevolume of airflow as the
doibte sided,double entry compressor,the doublesidedimpeller
suffersa loss of efficiencydue to heat transferthrough the d_ividing
disc or shroud. This primarily reducesthe compressionefficiency
within the impelleron the secondsideof the doublesidedimpeller.
\/t '"
lmPeller.
F i g u r e2 - 6 D o u b l eE n t r Y
2.6 DiffuserSystem.
Theobjectof thediffuseri'sto convertthevelocityenergyof theair leaving
the compressor to pressureenergybeforeit passes. into the combustion
chambeis.The diffuser may 6e formed as an integral part of the
compressor casing,or be bolted to it. It consists of a number of tangen-
tial vanes,the inier edges of which are parallel to the direction of the
resultantairflow from ihe rotating compressor, the passages between
thevanesbeingso proportionedthal the air pressureattlls the requisite
valueon entryto the combustionchambers. (SeeFig' 2-7')
The passages formed by the diffuser vanes are divergent,so that the
velocitydecreases and the pressure increases in the directionof the flow'
Thesepurrug., or ductsrequire very careful designing' as an excessive
angleof divirgencemay le-ad to a breakaway of the boundary layer,
carisinggenerafturbulenle and loss of pressure energy. The outside diam-
eter oI ih. tung.ntial portion of the diffuser variesconsiderably,
depending on wiether it completes the diffusionprocess or not. In some
.n'gin., frirtherdiffusiontakei place in the elbow leading to the combus-
tion chambers. The usualdesignof the diffuser passages is suchthat the
158
COMPRESSORS
area increasesvery gradually for the first 5 to l0cm from the throat,
therateof increasebeingsteppedup duringthe latterstagesof expansion.
The clearancebetweenthe tips of the diffuservanesand the compressor
tips is an importantfactor, becauseif placedtoo closetogether,ihe tips
may setup aerodynamicbuffetingimpulseswhich are communicatedto
the compressor, causingunsteadyflow and possiblyinitiatingdangerous
vibration.The usualclearanceis about 5cm.
THEORETICAL
FLOWLINES
ENTERING
DIFFUSER
A N G L EO F D I V E R G E N C E
Figure2-7 Diffuser.
2.7 Multi-StageCentrifugalCompressors.
This type consistsof two or more, singlecompressorsmounted in tandem
on the sameshaft. (SeeFig. 2-8.) The air compressedby the first stage,is
passedonto the secondstageat its point of entry near the hub. The second
stageprovides further compression before the air is diffused and passed
to the combustionchambers.
This type of arrangement is commonly used on modern helicopter free
turbine ensines.
r59
Figure2-8 Multi-Stage Compressor

l m p e l l eA
r ssembly.
2.8 Axial Flow Compressors.

The functionof an axialflow compressoris to convertkineticenergyinto
static pressureenergythrough the medium of rows of rotating blades
(rotors)which changethe whirl velocityof the air, and alternaterows of
stationarydiffusingvanes(stators)whichconvertthe kineticenergyinto
pressureenergy.Figure2-9 illustratesan examplecompressorunit.
{-\
ROTOR STATOR ASSEMBLY
Figure 2-9 Axial Flow Compressor Rotor and Stator Assembly.
The entry sectionof the compressorcontainsone or more inlet guide

vanes.Thesemay be fixed or adjustable,and if the latter are normally
termedvariableinletguidevanes.The inletguidevanesmay alsobecalled
swirl vanes.After the guideor swirl vanesthereareseveralrows of vanes
160
COMPRESSORS
of aerofoil shapewhich are alternatelymoving and fixed. The moving

vanesareattachedto oneor morediscsmountedon thecompressor shaft,
and the fixed vanesareattachedto the compressorcasing.At the rear of
the compressorthereis an exit sectionwhich housesa final row of stator
vanesand air straightener vanes.One or two additionalsetsof stator
vanesmay be fitted beforethe first row of compressorvanesto improve
entry conditionsand so raise the compressorefficiency.The above is
purelya generaldescriptionand may vary accordingto individualengine
type designrequirements.
2.9 CompressorRotor.
The rotor and statorvanesvary in lengthaccordingto the pressurestage,
the longestbeing at the low pressureor entry stage.To compressand
transferthe largeamount of air required,and to obtain a smoothflow
with the minimum of turbulenceand harmful characteristics, the vanes
are of aerofoilsection.
(a) VaneTwist.
The necessity for twist in the vanecanbe more readilyappreciatedif
two points on an untwistedvaneare considered,one nearthe tip of
the vaneand the othernearthe root. In an untwistedvanethe section
at both pointshasthe sameanglerelativeto a planethroughthe axis
of rotation,but theroot point hasa lowerrotationalspeedand there-
fore a differentangleof attack.To obtaintheoptimumangleof attack
at eachpoint over the whole lengthof the vane,the angleof the tip
sectionmust be reducedand that of the root sectionincreased.The
vane must thereforebe twistedso that the angleof incidenceof all
sectionsdecreases from root to tip giving a constantangleof attack
during rotation,aswith a propeller.
(b) VaneResearch.
Many yearsof researchand testinghaverevealedthe criticalfeatures
of compressordesignas:
(i) Surfaceeddieswhich appearas trailing edgevorticesat the
root and the tip of the vanes,causedby boundary-layer
effectsthroughthe stages.
(ii) Radialclearances
betweenthe vanetips and the compressor
casing.
(iii) Axial clearancebetweenrows of vanes.
(iv) Turbulenceof the wakesfrom precedingvanerows.
161
t
2.1O Airflow Throughan Axial Compressor.

throughguidevaneswhichensurea correct
Air entersthe compressor
angle of entry to the first row of rotating vanes,where it is picked up and
acceleratedduring its passageacross the moving vanes, leaving at a
greater velocity than at entry. Owing to the angle of incidence and the
rotation of the vanes the air leavesthe vanes at some new angle. The air
then flows over the first row of stator vanes,and is again changedin direc-
tion and velocity, ready for the next stageof rotating vanes.There is now
a fixed lift and drag force for each row of vanes.Increasing the lift is the
equivalent to turning the air through a greater angle and consequently
achieving greater changesofvelocity, and thus greater pressurechanges.
The increaseof lift is accompaniedby an increasein drag, which reduces
the velocity increase,and also the pressure at delivery. As the turning
angle of the air is limited by the maximum lift coefficient of the aerofoil
section used, it follows that the maximum compression ratio is also a
function of the lift coefficient.
Each row of stators acts as a diffuser for converting into pressurethe
kinetic energyof the air leavingthe precedingrotating row of vanes,and
also as nozzlesfor guiding the air into the next row of rotating vanes.
There is a limit to the amount of diffusion and the angle through which
the air can be turned, if this is exceeded,high lossesresult due to blade
stalling.
After passingthrough the final row of rotating vanes,the air passes
through a final stage of stator vanes and, in some engines,a row of
straightener vanes. These provide any further diffusion necessaryand
give the best conditions for entry of the air into the combustion cham-
bers.
Note: The compressionratio is the ratio betweenthe inlet and outlet
pressureof the compressor.
2.'11 ReverseFlow Compressors.

andproduced
Someaxialflow gasturbineshavebeendesigned with the
airflow through the compressor in a forward direction (towards the
front), parallel to the axis of the rotor. Figure 2-10 illustratesan example
airflow diagram of such an engine.
2."12 The Main Featuresof the Axial Flow Compressor.

The main features of the axial compressor are:
(a) High efficiency and therefore a lower fuel consumption at a given
power. A compressionratio of up to 7 to I without seriousloss of
162
COMPRESSORS
AIR INTAKE
COMBUSTION
CHAMBER
N O Z Z L EG U I D EV A N E S
E X H A U S TI N N E RC O N E
TURBINES
AIR INTAKE
Figure2-.10 Reverse
FlowCompressor
Design.
efficiencyis possiblewith this type of compressor.This compares

with a compressionratio of only 4.5 to I with a centrifugal
compressor.
(b) A smoothairflow into the combustionchambersis assured.
(c) As themotion is purelyrotary,the rotor canbe accuratelybalanced.
(d) As large massairflows can be cateredfor, an axial compressoris
more suitablefor usein high poweredengines.
2.13 CompressorSurging.
Surgingis instabilityof flow throughthe compressor.For the purposeof

a simplifiedexplanationof surgeassumethat a compressor is pumping
air into a container,and asa resultof someoutsideforcethereis a reduc-
tion of massflow into the inlet sideof the compressor. This causesthe
localpressurein thecompressorto fall, and the air or gasin thecontainer
tendsto blow back into the compressor.When this happens,the flow is
reducedand the pressurethereforetendsto rise.When or soon after
maximumpressure hasbeenreacheda surgemay begin,the air surging
to and fro through the passages of the compressorinsteadof supplying
thecontainerwith a steadyflow of air in one direction.The surgingcan
become strongenoughto producea vibration,whichis transmittedto the
aircraft.Surgeis evidentby rapid oscillationof delivery,accompanied by
audibleindicationsof instability,varyingfrom a muffled rumblingnoise
to an abruptloud bangor coughand vibration.
163
As hasbeenstated,a compressor is designedfor a certainrangeof flows

whichmay befairly broadat low pressureratiosbut reducedat high pres-
sures.
2.14 Axial CompressorSurging.

Themechanisms of surgingof an axialflow compressor arerathercompli-
cated,but it is generallyaccepted that therearetwo kindsof surge,one
at low speedand oneat high speed.
Surgingis causedby a decrease in the massairflow, accompaniedby a
decrease in the axialvelocityand the stallingof thecompletecompressor.
with an increasein the angleof attack of the vanes,the flow pattern
changesand becomesmore difficult for air to follow the contoui of the
vane,the air then breaksawayfrom the surfacebehindthe leadingedge
and the vanestallswith a suddendeteriorationin compressorefficiency.
with a reductionin massflow at low rpm, the angleof attack of the
first low pressurestagesis greaterthan that of the high pressurestages,
so that thelow pressure stagesarethe first to stall,the succeeding stages
not necessarily being affected.This is often indicatedbv an audible
rumblingand a higherthan normaljet pipetemperature. with a further
reductionin massflow,causedby eithera reductionin indicatedair speed
or an attemptto accelerate theengine,theremainingstages stallin succes-
sion, unlessthe first stagestall so disturbsthe airflow that a general
breakdownand surgewill occur.At high speedthe angleof attackof all
stagesis about the same,so that at stallingconditionsall stagesare
affectedsimultaneously and the enginesurgeswithoutany warning.The
vanesmay be unstalledby throttlingbackfully and slowly,and on some
occasions it may be necessary to stopthe engineand thenre-startit.
, As surging is caused by a reduction in massflow from the optimum
figure,similareffectsand subsequent stallmay be causedby a limitation
of massflow throughthecombustionchambers or turbine.This may be
a problemduringstartingas the suddenignitionof fuel tendsto causea
chokingeffect,which momentarilyreducesthe massflow and conse-
quentlysetsup stalledconditions.
Similarconditionsmay arisefollowing a suddenaccelerationfrom
idling speed.The tendencyto surgeis in generalovercomeby paying
carefulattentionto the compressor vanedesign,and by incorporating
devices suchasvariableincidence inletguidevanes,sometimes knownai
swirlvanes,andpressure operatedair release valves,or bleedvalves,situ-
atedin the compressor at certainstagesto bleedoff excess air. on most
moderngasturbinesa setof release valvesor bleedvalves,are situated
afterthecompressor stages but beforethecombustionchambers.
F i g u r e2 - l l s h o w st h e l o c a t i o no f t h e r e l e a s e
v a l v e si n a t y p i c a l
compressor assembly.
164
COMPRESSORS
A I R R E L E A S EO R BLEEDVALVES
Figure2-l 1 Air Release

or BleedValveLocation.
2.'15 Effectsof CompressorSurge.

The surging of the compressorimposesseverevibrations and excessive
temperatureson the engine and should be avoided or minimised. A surge
condition is also accompanied by a falling off of thrust (reducing rpm),
and an increasein fuel consumption. The surge condition can be readily
identified by the severevibrations associatedwith it; the more violent
conditions of surge are accompaniedby a loud cough or bang.
2.16 VariablePositionGuideVanes.
arefittedwith variablepositionguide
Manymoderngasturbineengines
vanes, more commonly referred to as variable inlet guide vanes, and
usually operatedautomatically.During enginestarting and low rpm the
guide vanesmove to the fully closedposition, but as rpm is increasedthey
either progressivelyor completely move to the fully open position.
In the closedposition the inlet guide vanesgive a swirl to the incoming
air so that the angle of attack of the low pressurebladesis kept moderate
and stalling is therefore avoided. In the open position they admit the
maximum quantity of air. Figure 2-12 shows an exampleof a variable
inlet guide vane assembly.
2.17 Air Release Valves(BleedValves).

permitair to be bledfrom critical
valvesautomatically
Theair release
points in the compressorand immediately after the compressorwhen
pressuresare at a particular level, thus allowing a higher mass flow
165
1.,' G
Figure2-12 VariableInletCuideVanes.
throughthecompressor, andreducingthemassflow throughthecombus-

tion chambersand turbine.This actionwill minimisethe tendencyto stall
or surge.
In some enginesthe air releasevalvesor bleed valvesoperatein
conjunctionwith the variableinlet guidevanes.
. Note: Someenginesare fitted with bleedvalvesto supplycompressed
air from the compressorto the air conditioning and-piessurisation
systems. Figure2-13showsthe locationof the bleedsupplypoints.
BLEED
SUPPLY v ."j
{
F i g u r e2 - 1 3 M a i n B l e e dS u p p l y .
COMPRESSORS v.'
HIGH
LOWPRESSURE PRESSURE
Figure2-14 Twin SpoolCompressor.
2."1 8 M u l t i - sp o o l E n g i n e s.
Many modern gas turbine enginesare fitted with multi-spool compres-
sors,that is to say, a singlespool comprisingperhapsfourteen stages.is
replacedwith two or three spoolsor compressorassemblies. Usually each
compressorspool is driven by a separateturbine.
Figure 2-14 showsa simplediagram of a twin or two spool compressor
englne.
Such a twin spool compressor is a further method of avoiding flow
troubles at high pressureratios. The low pressurespool runs at a lower
rpm than the high pressurespool and so the onsetof compressorstalling
ut lo* rpm is avoided.Further, the high pressurespool running at higher
rpm preventsthe last stagesoperating at large negativeanglesof attack.
Atttrough the low pressurecompressorruns at lower rpm than the high
pressrrreunit its speedincreaseswith the reduction of density with
increasedaltitude.As a result,the rate of decreasein thrust with increase
in altitude is lessthan that of a singlespool enginewith the samesealevel
output.
To further reducethe tendencyto stall, in particular at enginestarting,
the engineis startedby rotating the high pressurespool thus drawing air
through the low pressurespool and causing it to rotate. Intermediate
bleedialves are usually fitted betweenthe spools to further reduce the
tendencyto stall or surge.
lcing.
2.19 Compressor
Becauseof the high working rpm of the centrifugaltype compressorand
related high working temperatures,ice will not usually adhere to the
impeller in a quantity sufficient to affect the efficiency to any great extent,
167
and any largepiecesof icethat may form will normallypassthroughthe

compressorwithout causingseriousdamage.Any ice that forms on
the intake will usuallybreak up and dissolvewhen passingthrough the
compressor.For axial flow compressors, however,the formation of ice
can be a seriousproblem,becausethe delicatenatureof the vanesmakes
them susceptible to ice damageand, in addition, an appreciableloss of
powerand overheatingwill occurwhenthe intakesare partiallyblocked
by ice.To preventsuchdamagingresultsintakesare normallyheatedto
preventthe build up of ice. Such anti-icingand de-icingsystemsare
discussed in detaillater.
2.20 Comparison of Axial Flow and Centrifugal Flow

Engines.
Compressor
(a) Power.
For a given temperature of the air entering the turbine, the power
output of a gas turbine engine is a function of the quantity of air
handled. The axial flow engine can handle a greater mass of air per
unit offrontalarea than can the centrifugal type.
(b) Weight.
In terms of unit weight of structure for unit thrust, axial flow gas
turbines in generaldeliver a given thrust for a lower weight than does
the centrifugal type, that is to say, the axial has a better power/weight
ratro.
(c) Efficiency.
The efficiency of eachcomponent of a gas turbine engineis displayed
in the fuel consumption. The centrifugal compressor may reach an
efficiencyof 75 to 80 per cent up to pressureratios as high as 4:1.
Above this, efficiency drops off at a rate which is prohibitive. The
axial flow compressor,by contrast, can have an efficiency of 80 to 90
per cent over a wide range of compression ratios. The centrifugal
compressor is therefore not as economic as the axial flow type in
terms of fuel used per pound of thrust generated (specific fuel
consumption).
(d) Design.
As the centrifugal compressor is of considerably simpler structure
than the axial flow type, this factor dictated its usein the early history
of the gas turbine engine.Equally important, much more was known
at that time about the mathematics of the centrifugal impeller as a
result of its long use in superchargedpiston engines.
168
COMPRESSORS
In small units where high elficiency is not so critical, the centrifugal

type is still commonly used. It is simple and therefore cheaper to
minufacture, is lesssusceptibleto stall and/or compressorsurge,and
as a result is ideal for use on helicopterswhere turbulent airflow is
sometimesa problem acrossengineintakes.
' ' High Altitude OPeration.

(e)
Salisfactory combustion at altitudes of 50,000 to 70,000 feet is
normally only practicable with the high compression ratios only
availablefrom axial flow engines.
(f) Application.
tncreasing the power of the centrifugal engine is primarily confined
to increaiing t^hediameter of the impeller, or fitting a number of
impellersin iandem on the drive shaft. Increasingthe diameter will
..*lt in an increaseof drag due to the larger frontal area' Increasing
the number of impellers mounted in tandem on the drive shaft will
increasethe length of the engineand therefore nullify one of the major
advantagesof the centrifugal type: the compactnessof the-engine.As
a result,Tewcentrifugalcompressortypeshave beenfitted with more
than two imPellersin tandem.
The powei of the axial flow gas turbine, on the other hand, can be
increasedby using more stageJin the compressorwithout a marked
increasein diameter. For peiformance increasein modern high speed
aircraft, without incurring drag penalty, the axial type has major
advantages.
There-are,however,limitations: the greaterthe number of stages
the greater tire airflow problems incurred, hencethe increasinguse of
multi-spooledcomPressors.
Irrespectiveof ttri type of compressor,about l00bhp is requiredto
deliver one lb of air to the combustion chambers.Sincethis rate of
flow provides approximately 50 lb of thrust, the compressorof an
engine developing a thrusi of 5000 lb requires in the region of
10,000bhp to drive it.
169
t
1
Compressors
l. In a centrifugalcompressor.air enters:
(a) the centre of the impeller.
(b) the outer rim of the impeller.
(c) the diffuser.
Ref.
2. As air passesthrough the impeller of a centrifugal compressor:
(a) velocityremainsconstant.
(b) velocityincreases.
(c) velocity reduces.
Ref.
3. The compression
ratio is the:
(a) ratio betweenthe inlet to the engineand the exhaust
sure.
(b) ratio betweenthe pressureat the inlet to the compressorand the
outlet of the compressor.
(c) ratio between the entrance to the engine intake and compressor
outlet pressure.
Ref.2.l0.
4. Compressorsurgemay be indicatedby:
(a) a reduction in enginegas temperature.
(b) an increasein jet pipe temperature.
(c) a rapid increaseof power.
Ref.
5. Intermediatebleedvalvesare fitted:
(a) immediatelyafter the compressor.
(b) at the compressorinlet.
(c) at an intermediatestagewithin the compressor.
Ref.2.14.
170
COMPRESSORS
6. During compressorsurge,thrustwill:
(a) increase.
(b) remainconstant.
(c) reduce.
Ref.2.l5.
7. During enginestarting,variableinlet guidevaneswill be:
(a) fully closed.
(b) fully open.
(c) partiallyopen.
Ref.2.l6.
valves,or bleedvalves:
8. Air release
(a) haveno effecton massflow.
ft) increasemassflow.
(c) reducemassflow.
Ref.2.17
9. Compressorsurgemay be identifiedby:
(a) increasedenginerpm.
(b) a fall in enginegastemperature.
(c) an indicationof vibration.
Ref.2.l3.
engine
of thrustfrom a twin spoolcompressor
10.The rate of decrease
comparedwith a singlespoolengineasaltitudeincreases:
(a) is greater.
(b) is the same.
(c) is less.
Ref.2.18.
171
CombustionSystems
3.1 lntroduction.
The purpose of the combustionchamberis to burn a mixture of air and
fuel at a steadyrate and therebyproduce a continuous steadystream of
gas at a uniform temperature.The primary requirementsof the combus-
tion chamberare:
(a) high combustion efficiency.
(b) reliability.
(c) low pressureloss.
(d) low sensitivityto variationswithin a grade of fuel.
(e) ability to operate efficiently over the range of pressures,inlet
temperatures,and airlfuel ratios required.
(0 simplicity of control.
(g) easeand cheapnessof manufacture.
3.2
Figure 3-1 illustratesthe location of the combustion chamberswithin a
simpleaxial flow gas turbine engine.
3.3 BasicTypesof Combustion

Chambers.
Thereare threeprimary typesof combustionchamber(sometimes
called
combustioncans)usedin currenttypesof gasturbineengines:
(a) Multiple chambersarrangedaroundthecircumferenceof theengine
body and sometimescalled'cannular'combustionchambers.
(b) The singleannularchamber.
(c) Can-Annularor Tubo-Annular.
COMBUSTIONSYSTEMS
C O M B U S T I O NC H A M B E R S
Chambers'
Figure3-1 Locationof Combustion
Figures 3-2 and 3-4 show the basicconfigurationof the three main
typ.i of combustionchamber.Different manufacturerstend to call
tirf typesby differentnames,somealternativenamesare listedwith the
illustrations. u
Figure3-2 Showsa simplecannulararrangement on the left

a n da c a n a n n u l aarr r a n g e m eonnt t h e r i g h t '
Alternatively they may be called a multi-chambered burner and a tubo-

annular arrangement respectively.
173
3.4 MultipleCombustion
Chambers.
Althoughmultiplechambers,asfitted to numerousenginetypes,arebasi-
callysimilar,thereareconsiderablevariationsin detail,particularlyin the
methodsof mixing the fuel and air and obtainingthe desiredamount of
turbulence.Multiple combustionchambers,sometimes 6 to l4 in number,
may be arrangedfor direct or reverseflow accordingto designrequire-
ments.Theprincipaladvantageof the reverseflow typeis thetotal engine
lengthis reduced;this is sometimesvery usefulwhen appliedto an axial
compressorengine.An exampleof a reverseflow systemis shown in
ChapterTwo.
3.5 The Cannular Type Combustion Chamber.

The Cannularcombustionchamberusedin olderbut currentcombustion
chambersystems consistsof an air casingcarryinga torch igniterusedfor
starting,(normallyfitted only to two of thecans),an inter-connectorand
a fuel drain.
Figure3-3showsthe arrangementand detailof a cannularcombustion
chamber. v'f
SWIRL SECONDARY FLAME

VANES AIR AIR
TUBE CASING DILUTION
HOLES AIR HOLE{
PRIMARY
ZONE
CORRUGATED
JOINT
(A)CONSTRUCTTON
174
COMBUSTIONSYSTEMS
(C)CIRCULATION
TOSTABILISE
FLAME
Chamber.
Figure3-3 The CannularCombustion
In the air casing is a flame tube, located concentrically and consisting of

two parts: the primary portion and the main tube. The primary portion,
at the front end of the tube, is composedof an outer cap and a double end
plate (sometimescalled the colander), to which is fitted the swirl
assembly.The airflow from the compressor is separatedat the outer cap
into primary and secondaryairflows, the primary flow being concerned
with combustion and the secondaryflow with cooling. Approximately 80
per cent of the primary air flows over the outer cap and through the
annular spacebetweenthe flame tube and outer casing.The remaining 20
per cent flows through the central orifice of the outer cap, (known as the
snout), a small amount passesthrough the holes in the colander and then
helps to create a circulation effect to assist in stabilising the flame in
conjunction with the swirl vanes which generate a toroidal vortex. This
combined action produces a flow of low velocity to reduce any tendency
of Flame Out or Blow Out, ie the extinguishing of the flame.
175
Combustionis completedwithin theflrst one-thirdof thelengthof the

combustionchamber,known as thePrimaryZone,the remainderof the
volumeconstitutinga dilution and mixing chamber.The annularspace
betweenthe flametube and air casingmaintainsan insulatinglayerof
cool air betweenthe flametubeand the air casing.
Figure 3-3b showsthe flow of air through the variousparts of the
combustionchamber.Key pointsare:20oh of the air entersthe snout.At
the Fuel SprayNozzlethe mixtureratio of air to fuel is l5:l , 20o/o of the
total air entersthe Secondary Air Holeshelpingto createthe circulating
effectwithin the chamberand increasingthe overallair to fuel ratio from
4 5 t o I t o 1 3 0t o l .
A further 20ohair entersthe dilution holesto start the coolingof the
flameleaving40% solelyfor cooling.Overall,therefore,400/o is usedfor
combustionand600/o for coolingpurposes.At the centreof the flamethe
temperatureis in the order of 2000degreesC.
With multiple combustionchambers,only two ignitersare usually
fittedsincethechambers areinter-connected andignitionin onechamber
is propagated instantaneously to theothers.Theinter-connectors join the
adjacentair casingsand flame tubesso that in addition to propagating
the flametheyalsoequalisethe pressurein all chambers.
Figure 3-4 showsthe generalarrangementof the inter-connectors, or
astheyaresometimes known,pressure balancetubes.
t'i
,rn"
TUBES
P R E S S U RBEA L A N C E
C O M B U S T I OC
NH A M B E R S
Figure3-4 Pressure
BalanceTubes.
COMBUSTION
SYSTEMS
3.6 TheAnnularCombustionChamber.
Theannularcombustion (Fig.3-5)surrounds
chamber themainbodyof
the engineand is open at the forward end to the compressorand at the
rearwardend to the turbine.Within the annularchamberis an annular
flametube,similarin sectionto themultipletubetype.At thecompressor
end is a supportingplate for a seriesof burners,sometimesas many as
twenty, which inject the fuel downstreaminto the flame tube. In some
designsthe burnersare arrangedto inject the fuel up-stream;in these
typesthe sprayfrom the burnersis not diffusedin a wide angleas with
the down-streamtype, sincesomedegreeof penetrationof the incoming
air is required.The air is meteredand madeto swirl by suitablearranged
holesin the front plate.
) rt od t\
\o\
O 1 ,to
o l
t\o
o l llo
ilo
ol ilo
)
)
Figure3-5 An exampleof an Annular

Combustion
Chamber.
The annular chamber forms a continuous sheetof hot gas which flows
from the primary zone to the turbine; the design is similar to the multiple
chamber systemin that the primary air supports combustion in the high
temperatureturbulent zone, and the secondaryair and tertiary air cool
the flow of gas before entry into the turbine. The main advantagesof this
systemare:
(a) The total chamber area exposedto the gas is reduced,resultingin
reducedpressureloss.
177
(b) Insteadof a seriesof outletsto the nozzleguidevanes,a continuous

sheetof gasat uniform temperatureoverthewholeareais obtained,
resultingin betterpressureand flow distributioninto the nozzles.
(c) Easeof servicing.
(d) Simplicityof manufacture.
(e) Smalleroveralldiameterwhenusedwith an axial flow compressor,
and becausethe combustionchamberis alsomuchshortertherefore
allowsa shorterengineto be manufactured.
(r) As the total surfacearea of the annularcombustionchamberis
smaller,lesscoolingair is requiredand, therefore,more air is avail-
ablefor burnins.
3,7 Can-annular
or Tubo-annular
Combustion
Chamber.
The can-annular combustion chamber uses a seriesof individual flame
tubes within the main annular chamber. This hps the advantageof
providing more rigid control of the primary and other airflows. It should
be noted that althoughpoor distribution of the fuel and air was a common
defect of the original annular type combustion chamber arrangement, in
later typesthis has beenmuch improved.
Figure 3-2 showsan exampleof a cannular arrangement.
3.8 FuelInjectionand Vaporisation.

Two basicmethods have evolved for the injection and vaporisation of the
fuel, The first is based on the injection of a finely divided (atomised) fuel
into a turbulent streamof air, the mixture then beingvaporisedand burnt.
The other method employs the principle of pre-vaporisationand
mixing of the vaporised fuel with an airstream before entering the
combustionzone.
3.9 Atomisationof the Fuel.

Various methods of fuel atomising are employed by different engine
manufacturers. As an example of an atomising systemthe swirl type will
be considered.
Essentiallya swirl atomiser operatesin a similar manner to a water
sprinkler.Fuel is fed, under pressure,to a cylindricalor conicalcavity into
which a number of streams of fuel are arranged to enter almost tangen-
tially. Due to their direction of entry into the cavity, a vortex is setup and
the swirlingfuel leavesvia a singleorifice on the axisof the cavity in atom-
ised form. The underlying principle of vortex flow is that the tangential
178
COMBUSTION
SYSTEMS
velocity of the fuel increasestowards the centrewith a resultantpressure

drop; this results in the path that any particle tends to follow when it
leavesthe orifice being pecuhar to its position and different from every
one of its neighbours.The fuel tries to leavethe orifice in the form of a
hollow cone and, were it not for the restrainingeffectsof viscosityand
surfacetension,would resolveitself into a cloud of particlesof little more
t h a n m o l e c u l a r s i z e . V i s c o s i t y a n d s u r f a c et e n s i o n h o l d t h e l i q u i d
together,particularly at low pressures when the swirl energyavailablefor
disintegrationis small.
Figure 3-7 showswhat happensat the orifice of an exampleswirl atom-
iser as the pressureis increased.
At the lowest pressuresthe fuel leavesat a mere trickle,slightlymocii-
fied by its original tangentialentry. At a slightly higher pressurethe effect
of the tangentialvelocitycausesthe fuel to form a hollow coneon leaving
the orifice, but the viscositydraws the fuel togetheras a continuous film
which later comestogetheragain forming the so called 'bubble'.
At a still higher pressure,the film no longer reforms as a bubble, but
'tulip'.
starts to break up at the edges,forming what is called the As the
I pressureis increasedfurther the tulip shortens.atomisationoccurring
nearerand nearerto the orifice, and over the optimum working pressure
range the fuel emergesin the form of a large number of tiny droplets
I almostas soon as it leavesthe orifice. F \:,
ATOMISATION
R A G G EEDD G E COIVMENCES
BREAKINGDOWN SPRAY
TOATOMISATION CONE
ANGTE
B U B B L ES T A G E T U L I PS T A G E F U L L YD E V E L O P ESDT A G E
A B c
F i g u r e3 - 7 D e v e l o p m e n o
t f Atomisation
3.10 Burners.
The function of the burner is to inject fr-relin a readilyignitableform into
the flame tubesof the combustionchambers.Four basictvnesof burner
will be discussedhere:
179
(a) Lubbock.
(b) Simplex.
(c) Duplex.
(d) Spill.
LubbockTypeBurners.
Figur. 3-8 showsan exampleof a Lubbock burner.In this type the area
ofitr" tangentialslotsthroughwhich the fuel entersthe swirl chamberis
controlledlAs the pressurein the fuel line increases, the effectiveareaof
the slots,and thereioretheamountof fueldischarged, areboth increased'
ittir u.tion pressurises the fuel linesat low flows without raisingthe
maximum pressurerequirementsto any greatextent; and it givesgood
results.Sometroublehasbeenexperienced with this type, however, due
to sticking of thepistonthat operates thevariableareaslots, and in most
"aaoptlon
casesthe of a simpleswirl atomiserhasbeenthe generalsolu-
tion. But because of thesepioblemsand improvedalternativedesignsthe
Lubbockburner is virtually a thing of the past'
SimplexTypeBurner.
The^Simplliburn.r waswidelyusedon manyearlygasturbineengines.
type.It consistsof a chamber,which
a fixed areaatomisingorifice'This
higherfuel flow rates,that is, at the
lowever,its Performanceat the low
n'JJ: #1,';?"?
li; : #,
:'i lil'J;
f theburner'sperformance,occurred
quite often. The reasonfor the poor low pressurepe-rformance was
'squa.re
primarilydue to the basicprinciple_of its designbeingthat of a
iu*; Uu.ir..,that is,theflow throughtheburnerwasproportionalto the
squareof the pressure drop acrossit. This meantthat if the minimum
pi"$u.. for effectiveatomisationwas 25psithe pressureneededto give
maximumflow wouldbe 2500psi.Generallythe fuel pumpsavailableat
the timewereunableto deliversuchpressures.
Duplexor DupleBurners.
The Duple* burn.. employstwo fuel manifolds:the Primaryand the
Main manifold.The actualburneralsoutilisestwo orifices,the primary
(fed by the primary manifold) designedto deal with the low flows, and
ih" se"ondor main-orificewhichcopeswith the higherflowsastheburner
pressure increases.
rB0
COMBUSTIONSYSTEMS 1t
L E A K A G ES P I L LT O C H A M B E R
TANGENTIAL
PORTS
Figure3-B A LubbockBurner
Assembly.
r- r;:)
AIR FLOWTO PREVENT

FORMATION O FC A R B O N
O V E RO R I F I C E
PRESSURE
Efi eunNEn
C O M P R E S S OD
RE L I V E R Y
C A ST U R B I NEEN G I N E S
Spill Burner.
The spill burnercanbe describedasbeinga Simplexburnerwith an addi-
tional passage from the swirl chamberfor spillingfuel away.This makes
it possibleto supplyfuel to the swirl chamberat a continuoushigh pres-
sure.As thefuel flow ratedecreases with increaseof altitude,or reduction
in rpm, surplusfuel is spilledaway from the swirl chamber,leavingless
to passthroughthe atomisingorifice.Sincethe swirl chamberis designed
to convert the fuel pressureenergyinto the kinetic energyneededfor
atomisation,the constanthigh pressuresupplyto the spill burner (even
at very low flows into the combustionchamber)ensuresthereis atomi-
sationof the fuel at all times.When spill burnersare usedin an engine
meansare requiredto removethe spill flow under any particular set of
operatingconditions;this usuallytakesthe form of an additionalpump.
Figure3*10showsthe interiorarrangement of a spillburner.
F i g u r e3 - 10 S p i l lB u r n e r .
182
SYSTEMS
COMBUSTION
CombustionSystems
l. Theswirlassembly,or vanes,of a combustion chamberarefitted:
a rotarymotionto the mixturebeforeit entersthe
(a) to generate
combustionchamber.
a rotarymotionto theair in thesecondary
(b) to generate air flow.
(c) to generatea rotary motion to the air in the inlet to the primary
combustionzone.
Ref. 3.5.
2.The action of the swirl vanesin a combustion systemis to create:

(a) a smooth flow.
(b) a back flow.
(c) a straightenedflow.
Ref. 3.5.
3. Pressurein the individual combustion chambersis balanced:

(a) by the nozzleguide vane action at the outlet of the chambers.
(b) by pressurebalance tubes between each combustion chamber.
(c) through the inlet manifold.
Ref. 3.5.
4. The fuel is atomised:

(a) in the combustionzone.
(b) immediatelyafter the compressor"
(c) just prior to the combustion zone.
Ref. 3.9.
5. In a multiple combustionchamber system:

(a) eachchamberis fitted with an igniter.
(b) each alternate chamber is fitted with an igniter.
(c) two or sometimesthree igniters are fitted.
Ref. 3.5.
183
I
Turbines
4.1 Introduction.
The turbineelementof the moderngasturbineenginehaseitheror both

of the following primary functions;firstly to providethe powerto drive
thecompressor and accessoriesand secondly,in thecaseof engineswhich
do not makeusesolelyof ajet for propulsion,of providingpowerto drive
a shaftwhich in turn may drive a propelleror the rotors of a helicopter.
In the exampleof a purejet engine,the turbineextractsenergyfrom the
hot gasesreleasedby the combustionchambersand expandingthemto a
lowerpressureandtemperature. Very high stresses
areencountered in this
process astip speeds in excess
of 1350feetpersecondmay beexperienced
for efficientoperation.The continuousflow of gasto which the turbine
is exposedmay have an entry temperatureof between700 and 1200
degreescentigrade,and may reacha velocityof 2000feet per secondin
partsof theturbine.
To producethe requireddriving torque,the turbinemay consistof
severalstages, eachstageconsistingofone row ofstationarynozzleguide
vanesand onerow of movingbladesor turbinerotors.Figure4-l shows
an exampleof a turbineassemblyas fitted to a colrventionalgasturbine
englne.
N O Z Z L EG U I D EV A N E S
TURBINES
Figure4-1 Locationof NozzleCuideVanesand Turbines.
184
TURBINES
The numberof stagesis dependentupon whetherthe enginehas one

shaft or two, and on the amount of power requiredfrom the gasflow,
therotationalspeedat whichit mustbeproducedandthediameterof the
turbine permitted.In recentyearsthe tendencyhas beento increase
the numberof stagesto reducethe stageloading.
The operationalrequirementof the enginedictatesthe number of
shaftsandhencethenumberof turbinestages; modernhighpressure ratio
engines usually have two shafts, one driving the low pressure compressor,
or spool,theotherdrivingthehighpressure compressor. Therearturbine
drivesthe low pressure compressor at the front of the engineand is
normally termed the low pressure turbine, the front turbine drivesthe
high pressure compressor and is termed the high pressure turbine. The
t u r b i n e sw h i c h d r i v e t h e c o m p r e s s o r
o , r c o m p r e s s o r a
s ,r e t e r med
the powerturbines,e.g.thelow pressure power turbine etc.
Figure4-2showsan exampleof a twin spoolcompressor andits related
turbines. ?'./'
LOW P R E S S U R E
COMPRESSOR
ANDTURBINES
/ H I G HP R E S S U R E
COMPRESSOR
ANDTURBINE
in a Twin SpoolTurbojet.
Figure4-2 TurbineArrangement
4.2 TurbinePrincipleof Operation

The meanbladespeedof a turbine has a considerableeffecton the effi-
ciencyof the output for a giventurbinestage.This is primarily dueto the
gasvelocitythrough the nozzleguidevanes(situatedjust prior to the first
iurbine rotor assembly) and the turbinebladesbeingreducedasthe blade
speedincreases, and the lossof pressureis proportionalto the squareof
the gasspeed.Stressin the turbinedisc,alsoincreases asthe Squareof the
speedunlessthe sectionthickness,hencethe weight,is increaseddispro-
portionately.For this reasonthe designof the turbine has to be a
compromisebetweenefficiencyand weight.
185
The design of the nozzle guide vanes and turbine blade passagesis
primarily bised on aerodynamicconsiderationsand as suchthe majority
bf such iomponents are of aerofoil shape.The shapesemployed are such
that the turbine functionspartly under impulseand partly under reaction
conditions,that is to say, ihe turbine bladesexperiencean impulse force
due to the initial impact of the gas on the bladesand a reaction force as
a result of the expansionand accelerationof the gas through the blade
passages. Although blade designwill vary the proportion of each prin-
lipl. in.orporated in the turbine, in generalit is approximately50 per cent
impulseand 50 per cent reaction.
Figur. 4-3 shbws a comparison between an imprr.lse/reactionturbine
and i pure impulse turbine. V' | '
T U R B I N ED R I V E NB Y
T H EI M P U L S EO F T H E
G A S F L O WO N L Y
T U R B I N ED R I V E N
B Y T H EI M P U L S EO F
T H EG A S F L O W A N DI T SS U B S E O U E N T
REACTION A S I T A C C E L E R A T ETSH R O U G H
T H EC O N V E R G I N G B L A D EP A S S A G E
Figure4-3 lmpulse and ReactionBlades.
A gasturbinefunctionsby the transferof energybetweenthe combus-

tion gasesand the turbine blades.This transferis never 100per cent
becariseof thermodynamicand mechanicallosses,but current designs
achieveapproximately90 per cent'
when th. gu. is expindedby theprocessof combustionit is forcedfrom
the combusti,on chambersthrough the nozzlesprior to the rotor where,
dueto theirconvergent shape,itls acceleratedtojust belowthe speedof
ospin'
sound.on passingthroughThenozzleguidevanesthe gasis givena
'swirl' in tne directionof rotation of the turbine rotor blades.On
or
impactwith the bladesand during the subsequent reactionthroughthe
186
TURBINES
blades,energyis absorbedfrom the gascausingthe turbine to rotate at

high speedand so providethe torqueto the turbine shaftfor driving the
compressor.
As the gaspasses throughthe turbinestages will drop
the temperature
asthegasgivesup someof its energy,thepressurewill fall and thevelocity
will initiallyfall andthenincrease in thejet pipe.
Figure 4-4 showsthe gas flow pattern through the nozzleand turbine
blades.
! r . .
V E L O C I T YD E C R E A S E S
S T A T I CP, R E S S U R T
P R E S S U RIEN C R E A S E S
VELOCITY F R O MR O O TT O T I P
A C R O S SN O Z Z L E S
P R E S S U RAEN D
V E L O C I T YU N I F O R M
ON ENTERING
E X H A U S TS Y S T E M
Figure44 Cas Flow through Nozzle Cuide Vanes

a n d T u r b i n eB l a d e s .
The torque or turning power applied to the turbine is governedby the

rate ofgas flow and the energychangeof the gas betweenthe inlet and
outlet of the turbine blades.Therefore if the energy is absorbedefficiently
the whirl will be removed from the gas stream so that the flow from the
turbine exit will be virtually straightenedout to given an axial flow in
the exhaustsystem.Excessiveresidualwhirl reducesthe efficiencyof the
exhaustsystemand also producesvibration in the exhaustjet pipe.
It can be seenthat the nozzle and bladesof the turbine are manufac-
tured with a state of twist, producing a greater staggerangle at the tip
than that at the root. (SeeFig. 4-5.)
The reasonfor the twist is to make the gas flow from the combustion
chambersdo equalwork at all positionsalong the length of the bladeand
to ensure the gas flow enters the exhaustsystemwith a uniform axial
velocity. Referenceto Fig. 4-4 showsthis.
The degreeof reaction from the turbine blades varies from the root to
the tip of the blade,the reaction being greatestat the tip and leastat the
root with the mean sectionhaving a value of approximately 50 per cent.
187
S T A G G E RA N G L E
DIRECTION>
OF FLOW
S T A G G E RA N G L E
:igure4-5 BladeTwistand
Stagger
Angle.
4.3 TurbineLosses.
The overall efficiencyof the turbine is normally approximately90 to 95
per cent.The losseswhich preventthe turbine being 100per cent efficient
are due to a number of causes:a typical three stageturbine would suffer
a 3.5 to 4 per cent loss due to aerodynamiclossesin the turbine blades;a
further 4.5 per cent would be due to aerodynamic lossesin the nozzle
guide vanes,and the remainder to gas lossesover the rotor bladesand
through the exhaustsystem.
4.4 Construction.
The primarycomponents
of the turbineassembry
arethe nozzleguide
vanes,the turbine disc, and the turbine blades.
The rotating assembly,comprising the bladesmounted on their discs
and.the disc being mounted on the main shaft or shafts, is normally
carried in ball and/or roller bearings.The main turbine shaft may be
directly connected to the compressor at the front end of the engine, or it
may be coupledto the compressorvia a self-aligningcoupling.
IBB
TURBINES
(a) NozzleGuideVanes.
The aerofoil shapeof the nozzleguidevanesand the bladepassage
U.l*!." theadjaientvanesformsi "oru"rge.rtdggt ]h.ey arelocated
in the turbinecasingby oneof severalmethodsall of which allow for
expansion.
The nozzleguidevanesaresubjectedto very high thermalstresses
of
und gu, loads-andthey are utuiily hollow to allow the passage
coolingair deliveredfrom the enginecompressor' - -
figfr.4-6 displaysthe attachmintarrangementof thebladesto the
discand the coolingair flow.
I _.,
C O O L I N GA I R D I S P E L L E D
I N T OG A S F L O W
NOZZLE
G U I D EV A N E
T U R B I N EB L A D E
H.P.coOLlNG AtRINLET
/,
and BladeCooling'
Figure4-6 BladeAttachment
(b) TurbineDisc.
The turbinedisc is forgedand then machinedeitherwith an integral
It alsohas
Jaft or with a flangeJn to which the shaftmay be b9lt9!
piouirion for the aitachmentof the turbine blades.To limit the heat
a flow of cooling air
conductionfrom the turbinebladesto the disc,
is passedacrossboth sidesofeachdisc'
r89
'-'
L-
(c) Turbine Blades.

Turbine blades are made (forged) from nickel-based alloys that
provide great strength at very high temperatures,but it is their phys-
ical performance at high temperature that limits the performance of
the engine.
The turbine blades are basically of an aerofoil shape. Unlike the
compressor blades, the profiles do not follow a particular class of
aerofoil shape.The shapeof the turbine blade is designedto provide
passagesbetweenthe adjacent bladeswhich give a steadyacceleration
of the gasflow up to the'throat'where the areais leastand the velocity
reaches that required at exit to produce the required degree of
reaction.
The cross-sectionalarea of each blade is determined by the
permitted stressin the material used and by the size of cooling holes
or ducts. High efficiency demands thin edges trailing but the huge
temperaturevariations during engine starting and stopping would
inducecrackingin very thin edges,so a compromisehas to be struck.
The method employed for attaching the blades to the disc is of the
utmost importance. Various methods have been explored to
moderate the stressand high temperaturesexperiencedby the blades
and this also results in a limiting factor on the rim speed.
Fisure 4-7 shows three methods that have been used to attach the
bladesto the disc. Vt't i-
-t -,-,
D E L A V A LB U L B R O O T F I RT R E E B . M ..W .H O L L O WB L A D E
Methocrs
Figure4-7 BladeAttachment
190
TURBINES
The type of attachment most commonly used on modern gas turbines

'Fii Tree' method. This type of attachment involves very accurate
is the
machining to ensure that the loading is equally shared by all the serra-
tions. The-bladeis free in the serrationswhen the engine is stationary and
is stiffened in the root by centrifugal force when the turbine is rotating.
in Lossof Efficiency.
4.5 Reduction
Lossof efficiencyoccursacrossthebladetips of theturbineandto combat
this problemshioudsarefitted to the tips of the blades.The shroudsare
formedby forginga smallsegmentat the tip of each_individual bladeand
whenassembted on thediscform a continuous peripheral ring aroundthe
bladetips. Figure4-8 showsexamplesof turbine bladeshrouding.
i l
Figure4-B BladeShrouding.
The shroudingof someturbinebladesis achievedby themanufactureand

installationof tn" turbine bladesin groups of three or four blades,
completewith their respective shrouds.
More recentturbineasiemblydesignsemployActive ClearanceControl
whereair is bledfrom thecompressor to cool,andcontrol theoutercasing
expansionrate in thevicinity of the turbinetherebycontrollingthe clear-
ancebetweenthebladetips ind theinnerfaceof theenginecasing'Blades
usedin Active ClearanceControl systemsdo not haveshrouds,an abra-
siveliner is fitted to the inner faceof the enginecasingat the turbine to
maintainminimum clearance. Engineturbineefficiencywith this system
is considerably imProved.
r91
4.6 Compressor
and TurbineMatching.
It is veryimportantthat theflow characteristics
of theturbinebematched
with the compressorin order that the maximumefficiencymay be
obtainedand engineperformancemaximised.If the compressorand
turbinearenot matchedthiscouldresultin too high a flow whichwould
causethe compressorto chokeand a lossof efficiencywould occurvery
rapidly. Similarly,if the nozzleguide vaneswere allowedtoo low a
maximum flow then a back pressurecould build up causingthe
compressor to surge.
4.7 TurbineBladeCreep.
one of the major limiting factors to higher turbine entry temperaturesis
the effects of the gas temperature on the nozzle guide vanes and the
turbine blades,and the tensile stressimposed on the turbine disc and
bladesby the high rotational speeds.The high stresses on the component
parts of the turbine assemblymake it necessaryto restrict the turbine
entry temperature so that the various components may do their very
arduousjob, and to do it for a reasonableworking life.
The combination of high rotational speeds,setting up considerable
centrifugal force, coupled with very high temperaturesresult in the blades
beginning to 'creep'.In other words, 'creep' is the action of the
blades stretching due to the high temperaturesand centrifugal force.
If suchblade creepwereallowed to continue unchecked,the tips of the
blades would foul the outer casing, and/or stretch to the point when
the bladesfracture.
h ' l ; i
FRACTURE
PRIMARY
a {
I-CREEP
a
U
F
o r- SECONDARYCREEP ---l
L
u
u
1TERTIARY
CREEP{
Figure4-9 Stagesof
TIME BladeCreep.
192
TURBINES
During normal operationthe bladeswill glow red hot and must be

strongen-ough to withstandthecentrifugalforceon themat thehigh rota-
tionaispeedi,eg a bladeweighingonly two ouncesmay exerta load of
over two tons at maximumspeed.It must at the sametime withstandthe
high bendingloadsappliedby ttregasto producethe many thousandsof
tuibine horse-powetibd.iut the compressor.Bladesmust alsobe resis-
tant to fatigueind thermalshock,sotheywill not fail underthe influence
of high fre{uencyfluctuationsin the gasflow conditions,and finally they
mrrsibe resistantto corrosionand oxidation. 'creep'and
Figure 4-9 showsa graph of the three basic stagesof
ultimltely, if the bladesarenot changed,their subsequent fracture'
On manymodern gas turbine engines,air is usedto cool the turbineblades
in a similarmanner to that of the nozzle guide vanes' which along with
ocreep'.
modernmaterials, minimises
4.8 Free Turbines.

In freeturbineenginesthe turbineis mountedon a separatesetof ball or
roller beari.rgsand is not connectedto the compressorin any way. Its
principleof Jperationis basicallythesameasthemain or powerturbines'
fn..n..gy impartedinto thefreeturbinemay beu-sed to drivea propeller'
when it is more commonly known as a turboshaft or turboprop engine,
or as a freeturbinewhichmay be used to drive a helicopter rotor via the
appropriate
' gearboxes.
Flg"r.4-lb showsan examplehelicoptergasturbineof thefreeturbine
type.
AIR INTAKE i
F R E ET U R B I N E I
TURBINE
DRIVING
COMPRESSOR
Figure4-.10 FreeTurbineEngine
Section4 Test Yourself
Turbines
l. Nozzleguidevanes:
(a) tendto straighten
thegasflow.
(b) arefittedimmediately
aftertheturbineassembly.
(c) givethe gasa swirl.
Ref.4.2.
2. The nozzleguidevanesare normally:
(a) divergent.
(b) convergent.
(c) concave.
Ref.4.2.
3. Thegastemperature:
(a) increases
as it passesthrough the turbine.
(b) remainsconstantasit passes throughthe turbine.
(c) reducesas it passesthrough the turbine.
Ref.4.2.
4. The nozzlesand bladesof the turbine are manufactured with a state
of-
twist to:
(a) generatea stateof swirl as it passesthrough the assembly.
(b) enlur.e the gas flow enters the exhaust system at uniform
axial
velocity.
(c) increaseblade reaction.
Ref.4.2.
5. Lossof efficiencyof turbine bladetips areminimisedby:
(a) bladetip shrouds.
(b) fir treeattachments.
(c) air bleed.
Ref.4.5.
194
TURBINES
6. Turbineblade'creep'maybe reducedby:
(a) bladetip shrouds.
(b) materialand air cooling'
(c) creeprestrainers.
R e f . 4 . 7& 4 . 4 .
engineshaftis normallymountedon:
7. The main turbine/compressor
(a) needleroller bearings.
(b) ball bearingsonlY.
(c) ball or roller bearings.
Ref.4.4.
8. Modern gasturbineengineturbinebladesarenormally attachedby:

(a) the fir treemethod.
(b) the De LavalBulb Root.
(c) the BMW, Hollow Blade.
Ref.4.4.
9. A freeturbineis:
compressorof a two-spoolengine.
(a) connectedto the high pressure
(b) not connectedto the compressor.
(c) connectedto the low pressurecompressor'
Ref.4.8.
10.As the gasflow passesthrough the turbine assemblythe velocityof

the gasflow will:
(a) initially fall and then risein thejet pipe.
(b) remainrelativelYconstant.
(c) initiallyriseand thenfall in thejet pipe.
Ref.4.2.
195
4a
ExhaustSystem
4a."1 Introduction.
The exhaustsystemofthe gas turbine enginepassesthe dischargegases
to atmosphere.The gasleavesthe turbine and, on most subsonicaircraft,
the gasesfrom a turbojet engine, are directed at high velocity and pres-
sure to produce thrust. In a turboprop enginethe exhaustgas velocities
and pressuresare relatively low as most of the energy has been absorbed
in the turbinesto drive the compressorand also the propeller.
The designof the exhaustsystemexertsa considerableinfluenceon the
performance of the engine. The areas of the jet pipe and propelling, or
outlet, nozzle affect the turbine entry temperature, the mass airflow and
the velocity and pressureofthe exhaustjet.
The temperatureof the exhaust gasesentering the exhaust systemis
normally between550degC and 850degC accordingto the type of engine.
Turboprop and Bypassengineshave a much cooler exhaustgas temper-
ature. With the useof afterburning,or reheat,the temperaturesin the jet
pipe could be as high as l500deg C or higher, however,by virtue of the
pattern of the flame and the system of cooling the impact of the higher
temperatureis not felt by the walls of the jet pipe. A higher temperature
than normal will neverthelessdictate the use of materialsand a form of
constructionwhich will resistcracking and distortion and also minimise
the conduction of heat to the surrounding aircraft structure.The after-
burnerjet pipe alsorequiresa variableexhaust,or propelling,nozzle.This
may take the form of a simpletwo positionnozzleor a truly variableposi-
tionnozzle which can be positionedat any point betweenfully closedand
fully open. The purpose of such nozzlesisto give the enginethe capability
of matching the different volumes of gas flow which occur when after-
burning is on or off.
4a.2 The Basic ExhaustSystem.

Fig. 4a-1showsa basicexhaustsystem.
As the gasleavesthe turbineit hasa velocityin the order750to 1200
feetpersecond;however,asvelocitiesof thisorderproducehighfrictional
lossesthe speedof flow is decreased by diffusion.The slow down is
196
SYSTEM
EXHAUST
achievedby the useof a divergentduct formedbetweenthe exhaustpipe

and the exhaustcone,or exhaustunit. This hasthe effectof maintaining
a fairly constantgas streampressurefrom turbine to exhaustoutlet.
Temperaturewill iall very slightlyin the exhaustpipe a.19velocitywill
decriaseas the gaspassesthrough the turbine and will then slightly
increaseas it pissei from the turbine to the exhaustoutlet where,
dependingon the outlet nozzledesign,it will accelerate-
'':
I
E X H A U S TI N N E RC O N E
TURBINE
REARFACE
PROPELLING
NOZZLE
System.
Figure4a-1 A BasicExhaust
The exhaustcone,just aft of the turbine outlet, preventsthe exhaust

gasesfrom flowing u..ott the rear faceof the turbine disc.The velocity
It theexhaustunit outletis heldto aboutMach0.5,that is approximately
950feetper second.Lossesalsooccurdueto residualwhirl velocityin the
gasstreamfrom theturbine,and to reducetheseeffects,thesupportstruts
6f tn" exhaustconearedesignedto straightenout the gasflow asit leaves
the turbine.
The exhaustgasespassto atmosphere throughthe propellingnozzle
which,in a basil exhaustsystem,normallyforms a convergentduct, this
will in turn causethe gasvelocityto increase.In a turbojetenginethe exit
velocityof the exhaustgas is iubsoniconly at low thrust conditions'
During most operatingconditionsthe exit velocityreachesthe speedof
sound'(in relation to ihe exhaustgas temperature)and the propelling
nozzleisthensaidto be choked:that is no further increasein velocitycan
be obtainedunlessthe temperatureis increased.As the upstreamtotal
pressureis increasetiabovethe value at which the propellingnozzle
.hok.r, thestaticpressure of thegasesat exitincrease aboveatmospheric
197
pressure.This pressuredifferenceacrossthe propellingnozzle giveswhat

is known as pressure thrust and is effective over the nozzle exit area.
This is additional thmst to that obtained due to the momentum change
of the gas stream. It is important that the propelling nozzle is of the
correct sizein order to obtain the correct balanceof pressure,tempera-
ture and thrust. With a small nozzle thesevalues increase,but, there is
then a possibility of the engine surging, whilst with a large nozzle the
values obtained are too low. On some enginesvariable nozzlesare used
to increaseor decreasenozzle area to suit the conditions required. When
this type of nozzle is used, an increase in flow area through the nozzle
enableseasierstarting and reducesthe risk of surge, this being primarily
due to a reduction in the turbine back pressure.With a reduced nozzle
area the maximum thrust is increased.The variation in lhe nozzle area
also enableslow specificfuel consumption to be attained.
The bypass engine has two gas streams which are ejected through the
jet pipe to atmosphere, the cool bypass airflow and the hot turbine
discharge gases.Although the bypass airflow may be exhausted sepa-
rately, on someenginesit is the usual practice to mix the two flows before
they leavethe engine.This is done by a mixer unit which allows the bypass
air to flow into the exhaust sas flow in a manner which ensuresa thor-
ough mixing of the two flows.
Figure 4a-2 shows an example of a bypass air mixer unit.
tr COOLBY-PASSAIR
t HOT EXHAUSTGASES
Figure4a-2 B y - p a sAs i r M i x e rU n i t .
198
4b
Reheat/Afterburning
4b.1 Introduction.
Reheat,or afterburning,is a method employedon-someenginesto

""g*."t the basicthrusiio provideadditionalpowerfor take-off,and in
,oir".ur., accelerate to cruiie speed.Fewcivil aircraftusereheator after-
burning."alternative
The to reheatwould be to employ a larger and more
powerful engineat the expenseof increasedweight,larger frontal area
andfuelconsumption.As Juchpenaltiesarenot alwaysacceptable, reheat
is the usualalternative.
Reheatis a systemprimarily designedto augmentthrust for short
periodsof time and consistsof the introductionand burning of fuel
Letweenthe turbine and the jet pipe propelling nozzleutilising the
unspentoxygenremainingin the exhaustgasesto supportcombustion'
The resultanlincreasein the temperatureof the exhaustgasgivesan
increasedvelocityto the jet leavingthe propellingnozzleand thus
increasesthe enginethrust.
As the temperature of the reheat flame may be in excessof l700deg C,
the burnersare normally locatedso that the flame is concentratedaround
the axis of the jet pipe, thereby allowing a proportion of the turbine
Jischargegastohow ilotrg the wall of the jet pipe and therefore maintain
the wall of the jet pipe at a safe temperature value'
Figu.. ab-l showi tire location of an afterburner in a jet pipe assembly. -
"li
.
F L A M EH O L D E R S
ADJUSTABLENOZZLE_
SPRAYBARS
/
A F T E R B U R N EDRU C T
Unit.
Figure4b-1 Locationof Afterburner
199
Normally a reheatjet pipe assemblyis larger than a conventionaljet

pipe would be for the sameengine, in order to achievea reduced velocity
gas stream.To provide for operations under all conditions, a reheatjet
pipe is fitted either with a two position propelling nozzle or a variable
propelling nozzle. The nozzle is closed during non-reheat operation.
However, when reheatis selectedthe nozzle opensto provide a suitable
exit area for the increasedgas stream. This prevents an excessivebuild-
up 9f back pressurewhich would affect the normal operation of the
englne.
The thrust of an afterburning engineis slightly less,without afterburning,
than that of a similar enginewithout provision for afterburning,because
of the restrictions causedto the gas flow by the afterburner equipment in
the jet pipe. The overall weight of the engineis also increaseddue to the
additional equipmentand the larger and strongerjet pipe.
4b.2 Afterburner Operation.

The flow velocity of the gas stream leaving the turbine is in the order of
750 to 1200feet per second,but becausethis velocity is far too high for a
stable flame to be maintained, the flow is diffused before it enters the
afterburner combustion zone. The flow velocity is thereby reduced and
the pressureincreases.It must be noted however, that the speed of
burning of keroseneat normal mixture ratios is only a few feet per second
and any fuel lit, even in the diffused gas stream would quickly be ex-
tinguished. A flame stabiliser is therefore fitted downstream of the fuel
burnersto provide a region in which turbulent eddiesare formed to assist
combustion, and where the local gasvelocity is further reducedto a figure
at which flame stabilisationoccurswhilst combustion is in operation.
An atomised fuel spray is fed into the jet pipe through a number of
burners.The burnersare arrangedto provide an evendistribution of fuel
over the whole flame area.Combustion is initiated by an igniter plug ad-
jacent to the burner, or by a hot sheetof flame which originatesin the
enginecombustionchamber,this latter method is known as hot shot igni-
tion. Due to the increasedtemperature the gasesexpand and finally
acceleratethrough the propelling nozzleto provide additional thrust.
4b.3 ThrustIncreasewith Afterburning.

The amount of thrust increasefrom reheatdependssolelyupon the ratio
of the absolutejet pipe temperaturesbefore and after the extra fuel has
been burnt. Some minor lossesmay be incurred, due mainly to restric-
tions createdby the afterburning equipment in the jet pipe, and also by
sas flow momentum chanses.
200
SYSTEM
EXHAUST
4b.4 AfterburningControl.
The afterburner/reheat systemrequirestwo basic functions to be
controlled:the fuel flow and the propellingnozzle;it is important that
thesefunctions work perfectly in co-ordinationwith eachother.When
afterburningis selectid on, the propellingnozzlearea automatically
increases. The amount the propelling nozzleopenswill be dependent
upon the degreeof afterburningselected which,in turn, dictatesthe fuel
flbw to the ifterburners.When the nozzleareais increasedthe fuel flow
increases,andwhen thenozzleareais reducedthe fuel flow decreases. The
fuelflow sensing deviceensures that the pressureratio acrossthe turbine
remainsunchan-ged and that the engineii unaffectedby the operationof
the afterburning,regardless of the nozzleareaand fuel flow'
Due to the la-rgeluel flows requiredto supplythe afterburnerwhen it
ui additionalfueipumpis needed.
is in operatio.r, This pumpis normally
of a centrifugaltype and is energised automaticallywhen reheatis
selected.
201
4c
ThrustReversal
4c.1 Introduction.
The progressivedevelopment of the modern airliner has seena consider-
able increasein both aircraft weight and landing speed;as a result
constant researchhas sought meansof reducing the length of the landing
run. A major contribution has beenthe fitting of thrust reversalto the gai
turbine engine.Thrust reversalis normally fitted only to turbojet enginis,
arrd provides a simple method of rapidly slowing the aircraft by reversing
the direction of the exhaustgases,thus using enginepower as a decelera-
tion force. use of this method avoids overheating of wheel brakes, and
makeslanding on wet, or ice and snow coveredrunwaysmuch safer.Some
aircraft have been designedto use thrust reversal in flight to reduce
aircraft speed;this is not, however, the normal modern prictice.
Figure 4c-l shows examplesof the effects of use ol thrust reversal
againstwheelbrakesonly.
4c.2 TurbopropAircraft.
on turboproppoweredaircraft,thrustreversal is achieved
by reversing
thepitchof thepropellers,thismethodis widelyusedandis discussed
in
depthin Part3 of thisvolume.
4c.3. Principleof Operation.

There are severalmethods employed to achievethe controlled reversalof
thrust, but the principle is generallythe same,and it is onry the mechanism
usedthat tendsto differ. Two methodsare describedin this chapter.
(a) ClamshellDoor System.

Normally this type of arrangementis operatedpneumaticaily,that is,
compressedair is used to control the position of the doors. Normal
engine operation is not affected by the system becausethe reversing
ducts remain closedby the doors until reversethrust is selectedbv the
pilot.
202
\
THRUSTREVERSAL
-t
120 c
m
roof
c
z WET RUNWAY
80o L A N D I N GW E I G H T- 6 0 , O O O I b
a
ooil
on2
' - x
z
zo9
Figure4c-1 Effectsof ThrustReversalAgainst

Wheel BrakesOnlY.
the ducts
On selectionof reversethrust the doorsrotateto uncover
direct the
urJ "for. the normal gasstreamexit. Deflectorvanesthen
jet opposes
thrys-t the
nu, ,t..u* in a forwa"rddirectionso that the
the aircraft.Ideallythe gal shouldbe directed in
Fffi;ilil;;-;i
but thii is generallyimpracticable and
;;"fil"t.iyforwarddirection
; ;i;;til":angle of approximately 45-degrees is normally,chosen'
Reversethrust power is'normatty about halithe amount availablefor
forward proPulsion.
Thereareanumberofsafetyfeaturesincorporatedinthesystem
the engine
The pilot is preventedfrom selectingthrustreversalunless
throttle
ir-irriini.rgut u lo* power setting'bn selection'the engine
moveinto
.unnotbJopenedto u t'igttpoweisettingif thedoorsfail to
pressurefall
a full thrust reversepo"sition.Should the operating
during thrust reue.saliamechanical.lock holdi the doorsin the fully
ioi*u?0, or full thrust'reversal, position.This lock cannotbe released
until the air pressure is restored'
Fisure4c-2showsanexamplethrustreversalunitandFig.4
shorvsa moredetailedexampleof the clamshelltype'
203
=-----.---.f--
tl \ =-\ t t\
l \ :
V-.) V:
oPEN / RETRACTED
Figure4c-2 ExampleThrustReversalUnit'
(b) RetractableEiectorSYstem'
hydraulicallyand
The retractableelectorsystemrs normally both
door to reversethejet
pneumaticailyopirui.o und ur., a buckettype
stream.
Onselectionofreversethrust,hydraulicpressuremovestheejecto
rearwardsovertl;;;;;il*t norLl",thebucketsarethen rotatedby
in a forwarddirection.
a pneumati"u"t.,ut6,to deflJctthe gasstream
A number"f ,"f;;ti;;*i., ur" fittJ_to_providethe samebasicsafetv
type'
i"""tiont asthosefittedto the clamshelldoor
4c-4 Thrust ReverserPosition Indication'

is indicatedby a systemof lightswhich
The positionof thethrustreversers
variesfrom aircrafttYPeto tYPe'
4c-S Cold Stream ReverserSYstem'

enginesand utilises
This systemis employedprimarilyon High By-Pass
whichis thereforeCold Air'
theby-passair asttrein'u't "ut'*lmediim
air to passthroughthe
The system,in nor*uiloiward use,allowsby-pass the cold air
is selected
duct to the rear of the engine.when reverse-thrust shown in Fig
thrustas
is divertedby blocteidoSrs to producethe reverse is selected'is
thrust
4c-4.The normal fiot-Cut T^hrust,when reverse
spoilt.
204
THRUSTREVERSAL
FIXEDCASCADE
CASCADETURNING T U R N I N GV A N E S
VANES(OPEN) C L A M S H E L ILN
REVERSETHRUST
REVERSE THRUST
POSITION
CLAMSHELLSTOWED
CASCADEVANESCLOSED
FORWARDTHRUST
Figure4c-3 ClamshellTypeThrustReverser.
COLDSTREAMFEVERSER IN IN
COLDSTREAMREVERSER
FORWARDTHRUSTPOSITION BEVERSE POSITION
THRUST
Fisure4c-4 ColdAir ThrustReversal
205
TestYourself 4a, b & c

L Thesupportstrutsof theconein anexhaustsystem:
(a)aresometimesusedtostraightenouttheexhaustgases.
(b) givethe exhaustgasesa swirl effect'
(c) arefitted alwaysto supportthe coneonly'
Ref.4a.2.
engine,the by-passexhaustis:
2.ln a By-Pass
(a) alwaYsexhaustedseParatelY'
(b) alwaysmixedwith the normal exhaustgasin thejet pipe'
(c) sometimesmixedwith the normalexhaustgasesin thejet pipe.
Ref.4a.2.
engine
3. In an enginefitted with an afterburner,relativeto an identical
wittroutan"afterburner, under normal operation without reheatit:
(a) will producethe samePower'

(b) will ProducegreaterPower'
(c) will ProducelessPower.
Ref.4b.l.
when
4.ln a reheatsystem,with a variableposition propelling nozzle,
reheatis selected:
(a) the nozzlewill remainin the sameposition'
(b) thenozzlewill oPen.
(c) the nozzlewill close.
Ref.4b.1.
is selected,
5. In a clamshelldoor typethrustreversalsystem,whenreverse
theexhaustgasesare:
(a) discharged at approximately45 degrees'
(b) dischargedat 90 degrees.
(c) fullY reversed.
Ref. 4c.3.
206
FuelSystems
5.1 Introduction.
The primary function of an aircraft gas turbine fuel system is to supply
clean fuel, free from vapour, to the engine at the required pressureand
flow rates and under a wide variety of operating conditions. Generally
speaking, the fuel system is designed to satisfy the requirements of the
particular aircraft in which it is installed'
5.2 BasicFuelSystem.
The followingis a basicfuel systemto familiarisethe readerwith the
essentialcomponents and their function within the fuel system.
(a) Fuel Tank.

The fuel tank is the primary component in which the fuel is stored
within the airframe structure.The locations of the fuel tanks on larger
aircraft are varied. Figure 5-1 shows someof the typical locationsof
alarge fuel system.
(b) Fuel Tank Ty'pes.

Thereare threebasictypesof fuel tank usedon commercialaircraft.
(D Rigid.
Thls type of fuel tank is constructed from aluminium alloy,
or similar light alloy, and takes the form of a rigid structure
supported within a convenient spacewithin the airframe.
Figure 5-2 shows an example of a rigid fuel tank.
(ii) Flexible Fuel Tanks.

This type of fuel tank is normally manufactured from
syntheticrubber and is carried within a lightweight housing
specially shapedto contain it within the airframe structure.
Flexible tanks, sometimescalled bag tanks, may be manu-
factured in irregular shapes to make good use of every
207
FUELSYSTEMS
(c) General.
The fuel tank incorporates:
(i) A fuel contenis sensorwhich, through a transmitter, indi-
cates the fuel contents in the cockpit.
(ii) A filter at the outlet from the tank and sometimesa filter
is also fitted within the filler neck.
(iii) On many types a meansof pressurisingthe tank, usually
by bleedair from the enginecompressor,suitably cooled
and pressureregulated. The object of pressurisingthe
tank is to prevent the fuel bubbling at high altitude'
FILLERPOINT
FILTER
(d) Low PressureFuelPump.

'BoosterPump', is
The low pressurefuel pump, usuallycalledthe
normallyelectricallyoperatedand is oftenconnectedto theunderside
of the fuel tank. It is controlledby an on/off switchin the cockpit.Its
primary purposeis to maintain a low pressure(normallyat least
itmosphericpressure)in the fuel systembetweenthe pump itselfand
the main or enginedriven pump (High PressurePump) in order to
preventor minimisevapour locks occurringin the componentsand
pipelines.The BoosterPump is alsoprovidedwith a by-passso that
in-the event of its failure fuel can still be drawn through it by the
enginedrivenpump to maintaina fuel supplyto the engine.Adjacent
L O W P R E S S U R EO R
B O O S T E RP U M P
to theBoosterPumpselectorswitchis an indicatorlight which,when

the pump is switchedon, illuminatesuntil pressuretra'suultt up in the
systemto a specificvalue,whereuponthe iight extinguishes.
(e) Fuel ON/OFF Cock (Low pressureFuel Cock).

This is a simpleFueloN, FueloFF cockor vaive,whichmay beoper-
atedfrom thecockpitby anelectricactuator,or mechanically
through
a linkagefrom a lever mountedin the cockpit which is operatid
manually.
Somelarger aircraft have an emergencymechanicalsysremto
operatetheLow Pressure cockin theeventtheelectrical
systemfails.
(f) Low PressureFilter.

A filter is fitted in the low pressurefuel systemto ensurea clean supply
of fuel to the engine.The firter is normaily fitted with a relief valve or
9y-pus valveso that if the filter element(which removesdirt from the
fuel) becomesblocked, or clogged, a supply of unfiltered fuel will
continue to be pumped to the engine.piobtems can arise from ice
particlesforming in the fuel. water can accumulatein suspension
in
the fuel and, as the aircraft climbs to high altitude and the rempera_
ture falls,the water in thefuermay form i-e particles.Initially the filter
element will prevent such ice particles paising further into the fuel
systemand fuel will.continueto be suppliedto the engine.Eventually,
however,the ice will build up and bloik the elementind ulro the relief
or by-passvalve thereby leading to fuel starvation of the engine.It
should be noted that as long asthe water content of the fuel is iiliquid
form it presentsno seriousdangerto the engine,thereforeif the water
is prevented from forming into ice particles fuel starvation will be
avoided.To achievethis, the fuer is h-eatedprior to the filter, thereby
preventingthe formation of ice in the fuel and thereforeprecluding
the filter elementbecomingblocked by ice.The fuelmay be heatedb!
bleed air from the high pressur" toni of the "o-p..rror, or alterna-
tively may be heated by a heat exchangerutilising the oil from the
engine lubrication system,in which event the oit witt be cooled at
210
SYSTEMS
FUEL
the sametime. Temperaturecontrol is exercisedin both systemsto

maintaina specificfuel temperature.
tOW PRESSURE
FILTER
HEATEXCHANGER
"' High PressureFuelPump(Engine-Driven

(g) Pump)'
ih; majority of engine-driven pumpsareof the swashplatetype and
ur. "upuUt"of miintaining a constantpressureand varying the
volumi of fuel they deliverlccording to the demandsof the engine.
An operationaldiagramof a SwashPlatepump is shownin Fig. 5-3.
SwashPlateTypePumpPrincipleof Operation,
VariableVolumeTYPe.
PISTON BLOCK
CYLINDER
YOKE
Figure5-3 SectionalDiagramof SwashPlatePump'
211
This type of pump is similar in constructionto the fixed volume

pump of the samebasictype, but the cylinderblock and drive shaft
areco-axial.The pistonsare attachedto shoeswhich rotateagainsta
stationaryyoke, and the anglebetweenthe yoke and cylinderblock
is variedto increaseor decrease pump stroketo suit systemrequire-
ments.when pressurein the systemis low, aswould be thecasewhen
the throttle is opened,springpressureon the control pistonturns the
yoke to its maximum angle,and the pistons are at full stroke,
deliveringmaximum output to the system.when the actuator has
completedits stroke,pressurebuildsup until thecontrolpistonmoves
the yoke to the minimum strokepiston;in this positiorrasmallflow
throughthepump is maintained,to lubricatetheworkingparts,over-
come internal leakageand dissipateheat. On some pumps a
solenoid-operated depressurisingvalveis usedto block deliv-ery
to the
system,and to off-load the pump.
(h) FuelFIow Control System.

In most modern gas turbine fuel systemsthe principle of a Flow
Control Systemis used;earlierenginesoperatedwith a pressure
controlled fuel system.In the flow control systemthe fuel pump
deliverypressureis sensitiveto enginespeed,thereforeat low engine
rpm the fuel pump deliverypressureis quite low. The flow control
systemis very compactand with the exceptionof the enginespeed
governor,all other devicesare containedwithin one combinedfuel
control unit.
The High Pressure Fuel Pumpdeliverypressureis controlledby the
Fuel Control Unit and the rpm of the pump is controlledby the
Engine SpeedGovernor. The servo pressurein the pump (which
dictatesthe pistonstrokeand, therefore,the deliveryof the pump) is
suppliedby the Altitude SensingUnit, which is part of the Fuel
ControlUnit.
At any steadyrunning condition below governedspeed,the fuel
pump deliveryis controlledto a fixed valueby the Altitude Sensing
Unit. As the throttle is slowlyopenedthe pressurein the pump servo
pistonsupplyincreases, in turn the pump output increases.Any vari-
ation in engineair intakepressure, dueto a changein aircraftforward
speedor altitude,is sensedby a capsulein the Altitude SensingUnit,
causingthe unit to reducethe pump deliveryif the intake pressure
shouldreduce;and the oppositewill occurshouldthe intakepressure
increase.
During a rapidacceleration, therapidmovementof thethrottlewill
causean increasedsupplyof fuel to the combustionchamberswhich
will not be matched by an adequatesupply of air from the
compressor. The resultof this unbalancedfuel/airratio will be an
212
FUEL
SYSTEMS
increasein enginegastemperatureand possiblycompressorsurge.It

is essentialtherefore,to havean AccelerationControl Unit to givea
correspondinglag in the rateof fuel flow increase.
The componentsin the fuel control systemare very complexand
this descriptionis purely to givethe readera basicunderstandingof
theirpurpose.
(i) High PressureFuelCock (FuelShut-OffCock).

The High Pressurecock is essentially a sophisticated on/off cock.
They may be operatedmanually,as on many older aircraft types,or
automatically in conjunctionwith thethrottleaspart of an automatic
enginestart system.Normally the fuel is pressurisedbeforethe high
pressurecock is opened,and to ensurethe fuel flows smoothlythere
is a pressurisingvalveincorporatedwithin the assembly.On engine
shut-downthehighpressure cockis closedto starvetheengineof fuel.
On somemodernfuel systemsthe high pressurecock control in the
cockpittakestheform ofa circuitbreakerasopposedto a lever.
H I G HP R E S S U ROEF M A I N H I G HP R E S S U R E
E N G I N ED R I V E N
PUMP -,- cocK
F U E LF L O WC O N T R O LU N I T
5.3 EngineFuelManifold.
Fuelis suppliedfrom thefuelsupplysystemto theenginefuelmanifold
system. On most modern aircraft there are two manifolds: the main
burner manifold and the primary burner manifold, both of which are
explainedin the sectionon combustionchambers.
5.4 Water Injection.
(a) Introduction.
As with a piston engine,the maximum power output of a gas turbine
engine dependslargely upon the density of the airflow passing
through the engine.As altitude is increasedthe densityof the atmos-
phere reducesand as a result power declines.Equally power will be
lost, or a reductionin thrust will occur, when the ambient air temper-
ature increases.Under such conditions power output may be
213
restored,or in somecasesboostedfor takeoff, by coolingthe airflow

with water or water/methanol.If methanolis addedto the water it
givesanti-freezeproperties,and alsoprovidesan additionalsourcbof
fuel.
(b) Injection.
There are two basicmethodsof introducingthe coolant (water/
methanol)into the engineairflow:
(i) The coolant on someenginesis sprayeddirectly into the
intake, or compressorinlet. When the injectionsystemis
switchedon, water/methanolis pumped from a tank
mountedin the airframeto a control unit. The control unit
metersthe flow of mixtureto the compressorinlet through a
meteringvalvewhich is operatedby a servopiston. Engine
oil is usedas the mediumto operatethe servosystemand a
THRUSTCONTROLLED
BY POWERLIMITER
?*x
U)
l
I
r
tr
4 ^ ^
a
X
10
- Deg.C.
AIR TEMPERATURE
Figure5-5 Turbojetwith WaterInjection.
214
FUELSYSTEMS
servo valve controls the supply of engine oil. The degree of

servo valve opening is set by a control systemwhich is sensi-
tive to oil pressure,(propeller shaft torque in the case of
turboprops), to oil pressure,and to atmospheric pressure
acting on a capsule within the control unit assembly. Inlet
injection systems are normally used on centrifugal
compressorengmes.
(iil The alternative method of water/methanol injection is the
combustion chamber injection system, which is more suit-
able to axial flow compressor engines. On selecting
water/methanol injection, the coolant flows from the tank, in
the airframe, to an air driven turbine pump which delivers it
to the water flow sensingunit. The water, or water/methanol,
flows from the sensingunit down each burner feed arm and
is sprayed from jets onto the flame tube swirl vanes, thus
cooling the air passinginto the chamber combustion zone.
The coolant pressure between the sensing unit and the
dischargejets is sensedby the fuel control system, which
automatically resets the engine speed governor to give the
higher maximum engine speed required for boosted power
for certain take-off conditions, such as take-off in high
temperaturesituations.
The water flow sensingunit opens only when the correct
pressuredifference is obtained between compressor air
delivery pressureand water pressure.The systemis brought
into operation when the engine throttle lever is moved to
take-off position, causingmicroswitchesto operate and select
the air for the turbine pump. The sensingunit also forms a
non-return valve to prevent air pressure feeding back from
the dischargejets. Provision is also made for an indicator light
to illuminate when water, or water/methanol is flowing.
Figures 5-5 and 5-6 show the effects of coolant injection in a turbojet
engine and a turboprop engine.
G A ST U R B I N E N G I N E S
70
-30 -10 10
- Deg. C.
AIR TEMPERATURE
Figure 5-6 Effectsof Water lnjection in a Turboprop.
216
FUELSYSTEMS
FuelSystems
fuelPumP:
l. Thelowpressure
(a) is normallydrivenmechanicallyby the engine.
driven.
(b) is normallyelectrically
(c) is drivenhydraulicallyby the enginelubricationsystem'
Ref.5.2.
2. Thelow pressure from beingblockedby iceparticles

filteris prevented
in the fuel by:
(a) a by-passvalvebeingfittedto the filter.
(b) pre-heatingthe fuel.
(c) an ice guardmountedprior to the filter.
Ref.5.2.
fuelpumpis normallydriven:
3. The highpressure
(a) mechanicallybY the engine.
(b) hydraulicallY.
(c) electricallybY the engine.
Ref. 5.2.
4. The highpressure fuelcock:

(a) controlsfuel flow from the tank to the fuel flow control unit.
(b) is usedto controlfuelflow to the engine'
the fuel tank.
(c) is usedto pressurise
Ref. 5.2.
5. Fuel is fed to the enginefrom the supplysystemvia:

(a) the fuel manifold.
(b) thefuel injectionjets.
(c) the injectorcontrol unit.
Ref.5.2.
217
EngineStartingSystems
6.1 Introduction.
To start a gasturbine enginetwo systemsare required:ignition and fuel

feed,both discussed in depthin chapterthree.
The fuel systemprovidesatomisedfuel to the burnerslocatedin the
combustionchambers, and the ignitionsystemsuppliesa sparkto ignite
the fuel air mixtureon startup. Ignitionis alsoprovidedat othertimes
and these'willbe discussed laterin thischapter.
In orderto achievethecorrectairlfuelratio for ignition (in the orderof
l5:l to l8:l) a flow of air mustbe suppliedto thecombustionchambers,
andthisis normallyachievedby rotatingthecompressorat sufficientrpm
to producean adequateairflow.
Duringenginestartingthetwo systems, fuelandignition,mustoperate
simultaneously and this is co-ordinatedand controlledautomatically
afterinitiation of the start cycle,by an electricalcircuit.
It is importantto noteat this stagetheidealtheoreticalairlfuelratio is
in theorderof l5: l, howeverfor practicalpurposes an airlfuelratio in the
orderof l8:l is moredesirable in producinga combustiontemperature of
approximately1600to l800degC.
StartSequence.
The start sequenceis automaticallyco-ordinatedand controlled in most
modern systems,and is typically as follows:
(a) Start Selected.
The selectionof enginestart will initiate rotation of the compressor
in order to createthe necessaryairflow to sustainengineoperation.
The most common methods used to initiate rotation are by an elec-
trically operatedstarter motor or an air start system.
(b) As the start button is depressed,with electricalpower'on'the starter
motor or air systemrotates the engine, and at the sametime ignition
is also switched'on'.
(c) After a pre-settime delay,which willnormally correspondto a given
218
NG SYSTEMS
ENCINE STARTI
build up of enginerpm, the HP cock will open to admit fuel to the

combustionchambers.
Note: Some systemsrequire the HP cock to be openedmanually
when the required engine rpm are reached.
(d) Normally light-up occurs between 5 to 10 secondsafter start
sequenceis initiated, at which time the engineshould have reached
some20 per cent of the maximum enginerpm.
(e) If combustion is successfulthe engine should reach self sustaining
speedat 35 per cent of maximum engine rpm after a period of some
l5 to 20 secondsafter the commencementof the start sequence.
(0 The starter electrical circuit will normally cancel shortly after self
sustainingspeed.
(g) Idle rpm (some 55 to 60 per cent engine rpm), will be reached
approiimately 30 secondsafter the start button has beendepressed.
Note: The figuresstatedabove are approximate.
90
I D L ER . P . M .
PEAK
,.7
r
STA T I N GT .T
S E I.F-SUSTAN I N GS PE E D
I D L tT , G . T
E
i ? n a \
JTARTERCIRCUI
CANCELLED
t
t--
X
/
.J rrcHr-up /
/ l l
' H . PF
, U E LO N
I
10
(l
- l G N r T rNoO N
/ / l ?n
START 10 15 20 25 30
SELECTED
SECONDS
START SEOUENCE
219
6.3 Methodsof EngineStarting.
(a) Electrical Start System.

This system employs an electric motor coupled to the engine via a
reduction gear mechanismand a ratchet or clutch assembly.The elec-
tric motor is normally DC and, through the ratchet or clutch
mechanism, automatically disengagesafter the engine has started.
Depending on the systemadopted, the electrical supply may be of
a low or high voltage and is passedthrough a circuit of relays and
resistanceswhich permits the full voltage to be progressively
increasedas the starter gains speed and provides the power for the
ignition system.The electricalsupply is automatically cancelledwhen
the starter load is reduced,ie when the engine has successfullystarted
or when the time cycle is completed.
Figure 6-l showsa typical electricalstart system.
(b) Air Starting System.

'
Air starting is usedon many modern civil aircraft becauseit is simple,
economical to use, and comparatively light in weight. The system
employs an air turbine motor which is coupled to the engine via a
clutch or ratchet assembly.
The starter turbine is supplied with air either from a ground source
or from the aircraft's auxiliary power unit, the air being fed to the
starterturbine causingit to rotate and, in turn, rotate the gasturbine
engine. Like the electricalstart system,the air start systemis auto-
matically controlled once the start sequencehas been initiated. An
electricallyoperatedair control valve is openedwhen enginestart is
selectedand is automaticallyclosedat a predeterminedstarterspeed.
The clutch also automaticallydisengages as the engineacceleratesup
to idling rpm and rotation of the starter ceases.
Figure 6-2 showsan exampleair start system.
Note: In starting a twin-spooledcompressorengine,the high pressure

compressoris spun up by the startermotor and the airflow createdrotates
the low pressurecompressor.The high pressurecompressoris startedfirst
to reducethe tendencvof surge.
6.4 lgnition.
As alreadystatedin para6.2,initiationof ignitionis an automaticfunc-
tion oncethe start sequence has beenselected, and it is alsocancelled
a u t o m a t i c a l l yH. o w e v e r ,i g n i t i o ni s n o t o n l y u s e dd u r i n g t h e s t a r t
sequence: it may alsobe usedduringtake-off,relightingtheengineafter
220
SYSTEMS
ENCINESTARTING
2 8 V O L TD , C S
, UPPLY
{
D I RELIGHT
".]ICATORLIGHT'ON'
\rlt/,
-. --lo. tZ:
CUT.OFF
TIMESWITCH
FULLCURRENT
TIMESWITCH
it;
'?B.J
iit
i!
SLOWSTART
MAIN RELAY RESISTOR
PLUG
IGNITER
MoroR
STARTER
srARTcrRcurr
RELIGHT
CIRCUIT
BLOWOUTCIRCUIT
Figure6-1 Low VoltageStartCircuit
221
weather
a'flame-out'hasoccurred,andcontinuousoperationin adverse
conditions.
(a) Relighting.
As cln be seenin Fig.6-1, provisionis madefor relightingthe
enginein the eventof a flame-out.
(b) On many aircraft provisionis alsomadeto sustainthe operationof

the ignition units during take-offor during flight in adverseweather
EXHAUST AIR INTAKE
P R E S S U RA
EI R
SUPPLY
VALVE
NON-RETURN
A.P.U.ELECTRIC
STARTER
NON-RETURN
VALVES
/
GROUND
START
SUPPLY
AIR STARTER
EXHAUSTAIR
Figure6-2 Air StarterSYstem.
222
S T A R T I NS
ENCINE GY S T E M S
conditions. In particular, during take-off, should a flame-out occur

due to compressorsurgeor stall,the ignitersmay immediatelyrelight,
or re-ignitethe airlfuelmixture and so avoid a much more serioussitu-
ation developing.Ignition is also switchedon during flights through
heavy tropical storms where, again, there is an increasedrisk of
flame-out.
6.s Relighting.
If a flame-out occursin flight the airflow passingthrough the enginewill
maintain a degreeof rotation of the compressorand turbine assembly.To
relight the engine all that is required is the operation of the ignition.
assumingan adequatefuel supply is available.Operation of the complete
start sequenceis not required,as the engineis still rotating (windmilling).
A separateswitch is provided in the ignition systemto permit the start
sequenceto be by-passedand ignition only provrded;this is termed the
relight switch.The ability of the engineto successfullyrelight varieswith
forward speed and altitude of the aircraft. Details relating to relight
proceduresare given in Engine Performanceand Handling.
Section6 TestYourselfEngineStartingSystems
l. In an automatic electricalstarting systemthe:
(a) ignition commencesten secondsafter the start button has been
pushed.
(b) ignition commencesat the sametime the starter motor engages.
(c) ignition commenceswhen fuel startsflowing into the combustion
system.
Ref. 6.2.
2.In an electricallyoperatedgas turbine start system,the electricmotor:
(a) must be manually disconnectedwhen the enginehas reachedthe
requiredrpm.
(b) is automatically switched off when the required rpm are reached.
(c) is automatically switched off after a specifiedperiod of time or the
engineis at sustainingrpm.
Ref. 6.3.
3. When relighting the enginedue to a flame-out:
(a) the full start sequencemust be used.
(b) the full start sequencemay be by-passedand use of the relight
button is made.
(c) auto ignition must be selected.
Ref. 6.5.
4. In an air start system:
(a) air is blown through the compressorinlet to rotate the engine.
(b) air is blown through the turbine to rotate the engine.
(c) air is suppliedto an air starter motor.
Ref. 6.3.
5. On a twin-spooledcompressorengine.on starting:
(a) both compressorelementsare rotated by the startermotor.
(b) the low pressurecompressoris startedby the motor.
(c) the high pressurecompressoris startedby the motor.
Ref. 6.3.
11 /1
7
Systems
Lubrication
7.1 Introduction.
The primary function of the gas turbine enginelubrication systemis to
srppiy oil to the main bearingsof the main drive shaft in order both to
prbuiAe adequatelubrication and also to cool the bearings.Figure 7-l
,ihowsthe location of the main bearingsin a typical gas turbine engine.
The number of main bearingsvariesdependingon enginetype, but gener-
ally thereare at leastfour or five and they are normally of a ball or roller
ty'pe.As well as lubricating the main bearingsoil is also fed to ancillary
drive gearboxeswhich drive such componentsas generators,hydraulic
pumpi and many other such items.In turboprop engines,the lubrication
iystem also provides oil to the reduction gearing of the propeller drive
mechanism.
The majority of gas turbine engine lubrication systemsare of a self
contained recirculatory type, that is a system with its own storage tank
from which a pump draws the lubricating oil and circulates it round the
system,lubricating and cooling the bearings, gears, drives and other
components,and then returns the oil to the tank.
7.2 RecirculatoryLubricationSystem.
(a) Tank.
The recirculatory type systemfirst requiresa storagetank which holds
a reserveof oil to compensatefor minor leakage,expansion of the oil
due to temperature increase,and also allows a spaceabove the oil in
the tank for frothing.
The tank usually incorporates a filter in the filler neck to prevent
any foreign objectsentering the tank and contaminating the oil. Some
tanks also have an additional filter at the outlet from the tank.
Figure 7-2 showsan exampleoil tank.
(b) Oil Pump.

The pump is normally a fixed, or constantvolume, type, delivering
the sameflow rate at constantenginerpm. The pump is driven by the
225
-a -
C A ST U R B I NE
EN C I N E S
uJ lYi
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(r
uJ
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I.IJ
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E
SYSTEMS
LUBRICATION
engineand thereforeits rpm, and of courseits output, is directly

r.lut"d to enginerpm. The pressurein the systemis not controlledby
the pump,but by a Pressure ReliefValvesituatedafterthe pump'
The majority of moderngasturbine lubricationsystemsare fitted
with morethan onepump and theyusuallyfall into two main types.
Therearenormallyiwo pressure pumpswhich supplythe oil to the
areasof theengineto belubricatedand a numberof scavenge pumps
which ensurefhe return oil is suckedfrom the bearings and other
components and returnedto the oil tank andmain pressure pumps.
Figure7-3 showsan examPlePumP'
AERATORTRAY S I G H TG L A S S
FILTER
INLET
6
oa
'c= FILTERASSEMBLY
G
co
.E
o
6
c
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G
T
f
9p
L
+
OUTLET
Figure7-3 FixedVolumeOil Pump.Pressure is

RelieiValve'
controlledby a Pressure
227
r
(c) Strainers.
In each return line a straineris fitted to remove any particlesof dirt,
metal, or other form of contamination to prevent their continuing
recirculation and the consequentdamage they may inflict on the
systemand its components.
(d) Bearing Oil Seals.

The main bearings,usually of a ball or roller type, are subjectedto
very high temperatures,and to mitigatethis the housingsof the bear-
ings and the bearings themselvesare primarily cooled by the
lubricatingoil. The oil is pumped through the bearinghousingsunder
pressureand as suchmust be sealedto preventthe oil leakingout into
the other areasof the engine. Even after the cooling effectsof the oil
the temperaturesremain very high, far too high to allow the use of
conventional rubber or nylon type seals.The type of sealingused,
therefore, takes the form of a combined groove or thread shape
backedup by air pressureto preventthe oil leakingout of its housing.
Figure 7-4 showssomeexamplesof air controlled seals.
CONTINUOUS
G R O O V ET Y P E A L T E R N A T I VCEO N T I N U O U S
GROOVE
THREADTYPEOIL SEAL R I N GT Y P EO I L S E A L
Figure7-4 Examples
of Air ControlledOil Seals.
228
SYSTEMS
LUBRICATION
(e) MagneticChip Detectors.

At strategicpbintsin the systemmagneticchip detectorsare located.
Theseare small plugs which are magneticand attract ferrite-based
metal particleswhich may be in the lubricatingoil. By examination
of theihip detectorand carefulexaminationof any particleson it, the
systemcin be healthmonitored.For example,certaintypesof
particlemay indicatethe pump bearingsare beginningto wearexces-
sively.
Figure7-5showsan exampleinstallationof chip detectors.
Figure7-5 ExampleChiP Detector.
7.3 LubricationSystem.
Expendable
The expendable, or total loss,lubricatingsystemis includedin this book
for comparisonpurposes.Generallythis type of systemwas used on
earliertypesof engineand is only seenon older operationalmachines.
Also theuseof thistypeof systemtendedto be confinedto smallengines.
The systemis light in weight,asit requiresno oil cooler,scavenge pumps
or filters,and thereforeis very simplein design.
primarilyof:
lubricatingsystemconsists
The expendable
(a) Oil Supply.

This may be achieved by oneof two methods,eitherby an oil pump
oil tank
the oil tank. In the caseof the pressurised
or by pressurising
method,this is automaticallyselected by the operationof the high
pressurefuelcockduringthe enginestartsequence.
229
-
-
(b) Oil Tank.

the
It must be remembered,once the oil has been used for lubricating
is made
."gir" u."rings it is then dumped overboard, and no attempt
enough to
toiecirculateihe oil. As a result the oil tank must be large
the flight
hold sufficient oil for the duration of the flight. Generally
consump-
duration of suchenginesis comparativelyshort. A typical
per hour'
iion rate of oil for sich an enginetype would be 1.2 litres
t-' Oil Metering Valve.

(c)
of oil of the
An oil meter*ingvalve is fitted to ensurea balanced supply
bearing. The rear bearing is normally
fiont bearing*and centre
been used to lubricate the front and main,
,"ppiiJ *ittioit that has
the rear bearing the oil is then
Li?rrt.., bearings. After lubricating
ejectedinto the engine gas flow from the exhaust'
system.
Figure 7-6 showsan exampleof an expendablelubrication
7.4 LubricatingOils.
gasturbineenginesusea.lowviscosity oil
(thin)lubricating
Generally mineral
whichis normallyr'ntnil. based,ie doesnot originatefrom
based
- crude oil-
properttes
c", turbine lubricating oils must retain their lubricating
remain resistant to oxida-
*nil" op"ruting at high temperaturesand also
There are many
co"nOitio-ns. types of synthetic oils used for
ii;;l"iuctr
manufactured to rigid speci-
nastu.bine enginesand they are necessarily
ffi;;J.'o;fth;;.commended
^'-i1'; for a particularenginemust be used'
to
g;r tuibine..rgin. is ableto uselow viscosityoils due mainly
heavy gearloadings. The
the ab#nce of reciprJcatingcomponentsand
startingthe
Dowerrequiremenii, tn.r."foreionsiderablyreducedand
prour"-, particularly at iow temperatures.Normal
;;;il ;;l;;;i;
at temperaturesas low as
;;;t;; siartscan be achievedwith gasturbines
-40degreesC.
230
SYSTEMS
LUBRICATION
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EN G I N E S
LubricationsSystems
oil pump:
1.Theoutputof theengine-driven
(a) varieswithengine
rpm.
(b) remainsconstantat all enginerpm values.
(c) varieswith enginedemand.
Ref.7.2.
2. Gasturbineenginemain bearingoil sealsarenormally:
(a) of the syntheticrubbertype.
(b) of the air controlledtype.
(c) of a nylon type.
Ref. 7.2.
3. Strainersarenormallyfitted:
(a) in the pressure
line.
(b) in the oil tank.
(c) in the return line.
Ref.7.2.
4. Oil meteringvalvesarenormallyfitted to theenginelubricationsystem
to ensure:
(a) an equalamountof oil is suppliedto eachbearing.
(b) a balancedsupplyof oil is providedfor the front bearing.
(c) a constantoil pressure
throughoutthe system.
Ref.7.3.
5. Gas turbine enginelubricating oils are normally:
(a) mineral based.
(b) naturalbased.
(c) synthetic based.
Ref.7.4.
232
B
FireProtection
8.1 lntroduction.
Gas turbine installations and their associatedequipment are designedand
constructedto minimise the occurrenceof an enginefire. It is essential,
ho*.u.., that if a failure does occur provision is made to detect and
*piorv extinguishany fire, and wherepossible,through the construction
oitfr. aircr#t airframe, coupled with the extinguishing systems,also
ensurethat the fire is prevented from spreading'
8.2 Fire Prevention.

The followingfeaturesaresomeof the practices adoptedby mostengine
anJ uir"raft iranufacturersto reducethe risk of fire and to preventthe
spreading
-'O"rirE of a fire shouldit occur.
tfredesignand manufactureof the enginegrealefforl is applied
to ensurJthat alllotential sourcesof flammableliquidsand fluids are
'hot end'of theengine.
isolatedfrom the
Externalfuel and oil pipelinesand componentsare usuallylocated
aroundthe compresror.iuingtand separated from the combustionand
turbineareasof the engineby fireproofbulkheadsor heat shields.The
areasaroundthejet pipe,or exhaust, areconstructed in a similarmanner.
Suchzones are usualiy ventilated to prevent the accumulation of fuel
vapours which could presenta fire risk.
ill pipelineswhichcarryfuel,lubricatingoils,andhydraulicfluidsare
madeir.e resistant, andalielectrical wiring,components andconnections
'flameproof that is to say,they are incapableof ignitingan
are made ,
inflammablevapourdueto internalsparking. Sparkingdueto.discharges
'Bonding', ie all electricaland other
of staticelectriiity is prevented by
component,a.. conn"ttedto eachotherto providecontinuityand,there-
ioi", pt.u.nt the build-up of staticelectricityin any one location which
could ultimatelyresultin a suddendischarge largeenoughto ignitefuel
vapoursor oth-ercombustible materials. The methodmost commonly
ur.d to bondcomponents together is via bonding leads'
The enginebays and cowlings are manufactured with adequate
drainageto remove overboard all flammable fuels or fluids both in flight
and on the ground.
z))
-
=-
To further reducethe build-up of vapours in the enginebays or pods,

air is sometimes bled from the boundary layer and ducted through the
enginebay and then out to atmosphere.usually such air bleed systems
"ui b. controlled by the pilot so that they can be shut off if a fire extin-
guisher is fired, or-selecfed.without such provis.ionthe.extinguishant
iould be removed from the enginebay by the ventilating airflow thereby
preventing it fulfilling its function of smothering the fire'
8.3 Fire Detection.

It is essentialthat, should a fire occur, it be rapidly detectedin order that
it can be extinguishedbefore it becomestoo large. It is also important
that the detectibn system is reliable and will not give false fire warnings
pres-
due to short circuiting from suchcausesas vibration, chafing or the
enceof moisture.
tt
The fire detectionsystemmay be of the continuous elementtype or
may consist of a l-rurnb"t of individually located detector units. Both
by
,n"ihod, operate on the principle that the presenceof.a fire is signalled
u firung. in the electricai impedance or the output voltage of the detector
in a
"li""it](n.member, temperatureincreasein electricalterms results
reductionin resistance.) fhe variation of resistanceor voltage will depend
fire
on the type of systemused.The changeof temperature, causedby the
an lmplifier operates the warning indi-
will creaie a signal which through
cator. Fire in-clicationis normally through a light and/or an audible
warning such as a bell, and the warning is cancelledonly when the temper-
ature returns to normal.
Test buttons or switches are normally provided to test the detection
warning light circuits prior to flight.
Figuie 8--l shows an example installation of a detector system.
8.4 FireContainment-
In the eventof a fire occurringin an aircraft engine,or in its respective
from
i 6uVo,.pod, it is vital to containthe fire in that areaand preventit
rpieaOingto otherpartsof the aircraft. The cowlings which surround the
;G;;;;. nor*uily manufactured from light alloy which would be
,rrr"ubl.to contain the fire when the aircraft is static on the ground- In
nigfrt however,the airflow around the cowlings provides sufficient
"o"oti"gto renderthem fireproof. Bulkheadswhich are designedto
'fireproof bulkheads'or 'firewalls'and
contaii a fire, normally termed
do not havethe benefifof airflow over them in flight, are usuallymanu-
facturedfrom steelor titanium.
234
FIREPROTECTION
CONNECTIONS
7 2
TO FIREINDICAT-OR //
/ / /
FIRESEAL
it //
OVERHEATDETECTOR
C O N N E C T I O NTSO
OVERHEATINDICATOR
_
r -i- zoNE2 *.
FigureB-1 FireDectectorSYstem.
SYstem.
8.5 FireExtinguishing
Normally when a fire is detected,in particular on multi-enginedaircraft,
it is usuaj to shut down the engineimmediately.If the causeof the fire is
a fuel leak, allowing the engineto continuerunning simply meansthe fire
willcontinue to be*fedby the engine'sfuel system.In shutting the engine
down the high pressurefuel coCk *ill be closed,starving the engineof
further fuel.-It is also essentialto isolate the fuel systemrelated to the
affectedengine by closing the low pressurefuel cock. Any fuel pumps or
other components within the isolated area of fuel supply should be
switched off.
The fire extinguishantsused most commonly for gas turbine engines
are methyl-bronide or one of the freon compounds. The fire extinguisher
is normaily cylindricalin shapeand is pressurised. Suchextinguishersare
'Fixed Fire Extinguishers',that is to say they are not portable as
termed
may be found clippedto the cockpit or cabin wall. Methyl-bromide extin-
guishers
" are normally coloured grey or blue.
Th. extinguisherii locatedouisidethe fire zonefor which it is intended'
Normally srichextinguisherswould be located in the wing or an area of
the airframe fairly close to its fire zone.
235
J-
The methyl-bromideextinguisheris operatedelectricallyby a push

button in the cockpit;as the button is depressed a smallcartridgein the
valveassemblyattiched to the extinguisheris fired, releasingthe extin-
guishantand iirecting it througtra pipe or tube !9 lh: fire zone.In the
fye zonethe extinguiihantis fed through tubeswhich havea numberof
holesin them,desi-gned to createa sprayof extinguishantover a specihc
areaof theengine oi engine bay.The sprayis highlyconcentrated and will
normally lasf for u p.-.iod oiO.S to 2.0 seconds. The system may !e
a 'single
J.signedwith a single fire extinguisher and is generally termed
'two-shotsystem-s' wheretwo extin-
shoi system.SomeJystemsarecllled
guishersareemployeO *ittr a selectorswitch which will give two shotsat
the susPected or indicated fire.
Figuie8-2showsan exampleof a two-shotsystem'
FIREPROOF P R E S S U RR
EE L I E F
BULKHEAD INDICATORS
SPRAYTUBE
BOTTLEFIRED
INDICATORS
FIRE
C O N T R O LH A N D L E
FIRINGUNITS
CARTRIDGE
System'
FigureB-2 Two-ShotFireExtinguisher
To guardagainstan extinguisheroverpressurising dueto excesstemper-

;;;, ; reliJfvalvein the u-^lu.utr.-bly opensto allow theextinguishant
lo.r.up" to atmosphere. A smalltube cu.iiesthe extinguishantfrom the
reliefvalveto a convenientport andthento atmosphere. In theend of the
p".i ir installeda smalldiscor diaphragmwhich may colouredred or
be
extinguishant will burstthe discon escaping to_atmosphere,
;;r.ihe the extin-
itr"i.Uyprovidin"gthe pilot with a quick externalcheck whether
guishei
" hasouerp.essurised and discharged'
Figrrr" 8-3 showsa methyl-bromideextinguisherand its relatedvalve
assembly.
270
FIREPROTECTION
8.6 Extinguisher.
Extinguishers vary in construction but normally comprise two main
comp6nents(i) the steelor copper container and (ii) the dischargeor oper-
atins head.A sectionedview olan extinguisherwidely usedin a two-shot
systJmis shown in Fig. 8-3.The containeris in the form of a steelcylinder
and has an externally threaded neck to which the dischargehead is
screwed and solderea. fne discharge head contains two annular
machined diaphragms, each bearing an externally-threadedspigot on
inner end
which a hollow plug is screwedto form an annulus betweenits'flash'
and its respectivedftphragm. Each annulusis connectedby a hole
to a port iontaining the appropriatecartridge unit. Below, and concen-
tric with each diaphragm-and charge plug, is an adjustablehollow
junction box fitted with i union to which an extinguisherdischargepipg
ls connected.The lower end of the junction box is closedby a cap which
embodiesa dischargeindicator pin.
A banjo coupling-is fitted in the main body of the operating head and
servesaJa connectionfor a pressuredischargeindicator'
CONTAINER
OPERATING
HEAD
BANJO
COUPLING
TO PRESSURE
DISCHARGE
INDICATORDISCS
F i g u r eB - J M e t h y l - B r o m i dEex t i n g u i s h e r
237
When either of the cartridge units are fired, sufficient pressure is

createdin the adjacent annulus to rupture the associateddiaphragm. The
spigot and chargeplug assemblyis thereby detachedand forced down the
hollow junction box beyond the outlet union and dischargepipe through
which the extinguishant then flows to the spray pipes, ring, and/or mani-
folds. (SeeFig 8-3.)
8.7 Directional Flow Valves.

These valves are a special form of non-return valve designedfor use in
two-shot systemsto allow the contents of one or severalextinguishersto
be directed into any one power plant. The methods of connection may
vary between different aircraft systems,but the one shown in Figure 8-2
is typical and also servesto illustrate the two-shot operating sequence
generally adopted. The extinguishersare controlled by individual firing
switcheseachhaving threepositions:No l, OFF and No 2. When the port
extinguisher switch is selectedto the No I position, the relevant cartridge
unit in the port extinguisheris fired and the extinguisher is dischargedto
the port power plant. If the fire has not beenextinguished,selectionof the
No 2 position then causesthe starboardextinguisherto be dischargedalso
into the port power plant via the crossfeedline and port directional flow
valve, the latter preventingextinguishantfrom enteringthe empty extin-
guisher of the port system.In order to extinguish a fire in the starboard
engine,the starboardextinguisherswitch is selectedto its No I position,
and the relevant cartridge unit is fired so that extinguishant is discharged
to the starboardpower plant. If selectionof the No 2 position of the star-
board extinguisher switch becomesnecessary,then the port extinguisher
will also be dischargedinto the starboardpower plant via the appropriate
crossfeedline and the starboard directional flow valve, which prevents
chargingthe empty starboardextinguisher.
Note: In sometypes of aircraft, the crossconnectingof selectedextin-
guishersbetween enginesis accomplished by means of transfer switches
which are additional to the normal firing switches.
z)o
FIREPROTECTION
SectionB Test Yourself
Fire Protection
1. The majority of fixed aircraft fire extinguishersystemsuse:
(a) Methyl-bromideextinguishant.
(b) COzextinguishant.
(c) CarbonTetraFluorideextinguishant.
Ref.8.5.
systemis activated:
in a fixedfire extinguisher
l. Theextinguisher
(a) manuallybY a mechanical valve.
(b) electrically.
(c) by COzgasPressure.
Ref.8.5.
outletof a fixedfire extinguisher
3. A burstred discat the atmospheric
system indicates:
(a) the systemhasbeenusedto extinguisha fire'
(b) the systemis unserviceable.
(c) the extinguisherhasoverpressurised.
Ref.8.5.
4. In flight, enginecowlingsarefireproofedby:
(a) the airflow.
(b) titanium.
lagging.
(c) asbestos
Ref.8.2.
5. Fire from electricalcomponentsdue to staticelectricitybuild-up is

minimisedby:
(a) ventilation.
(b) bonding.
(c) boundarYair cooling.
Ref. 8.2.
lce ProtectionSystems
9.1 Introduction.
Icing of gasturbineenginescan occurduring flight_whenflying through
"io"?r c6ntainingsupJrcooledwater droplets,and also during ground
operationsin conditionsof poor visibility with an air temperaturenear
-
freezing.
in. las turbine enginerequiresprotectionagainstthe formation and
brilJ-6 of ice in frJnt of tire etrginein the intake region, and on the
---eig,ir.edgesof air intakeducts.
leading
qll showstheareasof theengineand intakewhichareequipped
with ice protection devices.
g.2 Types of lce Protection Employed on Gas Turbine Engines.

two main typesof iceprotectionsystemcurrentlyin
Thereareessentially
use:
(a) Hot Air SYstems.
(b) ElectricalSYstems.
9.3 Hot Air SYstem.

The hot air systemis widely usedon turbojet enginesand works on the
pii""ipt. of ductinghot air, normallybled from the high pressureregion
of the'engine'scompressot,to heatthe skin surfacesat the engineintake
and the leadingedgeof the engineinlet.-.
Figure9-2showsa hot air systemand its components'
9.4 Hot Air SYstemOPeration.

Hot air is bledfrom the high pressurestagesof the compressor,oftenthe
iurt ,tug., and is then dictid via a pressu.eregulatingvalve which
controls-thepressurewithin the system.The airflow passesthrough light
aitly Ouctingto tfresurfacesrequiringprotection,and is capableof main-
tainine theiurface skin temperatureabove0degC. After the air has
240
SYSTEMS
ICEPROTECTION
INTAKELEADING INTAKESTRUTS
EDGE
I
F U E LH E A T
=l EXcHANGER
>!l*,q
:rY ff--"
t.y u-,eb -a
aT ,ror o,,-
7 PUMP'l
scnverucE
I r or ar n
6 ott-
@ etectatcat
OIL COOLER
Figure9-.1 lce ProtectionDevices.
NOSECOWLING
I N T A K EG U I D EV A N E S
PRESSURE
REGULATING
VALVE
TO NOSE
OUTLET
COWLING
Figure9-2 Hot Air De-icing.

241
r:
circulatedthrough the systemit is either dischargedback into the

compressor inletor isjust dumpedoverboard.
The pressureregulatorvalvesare normally electricallyactuatedby
eithermanualor automaticselection. The valvespreventexcessive pres-
suresbeingdeveloped in thesystemandalsolimit theamountof air taken
from the compressor, therebypreventingexcessivelossof performance,
particularlyat higherenginespeeds.
9.5 ElectricalSystem.
Electricalsystemsare more commonlyusedon turboprop engines
primarily because this form of iceprotectionis bestsuitedfor the protec-
iion of propellersagainst ice formation. Electricallyheated pad
assemblies aie bondedto air intakecowlings,the propellerbladesand
spinner (where applicable)and alsoon someinstallations the oil cooler
intakecowling.
The electricallyheatedpadsconsistof strip conductorssandwiched
betweenlayersof Neoprene,or glassfibrecloth impregnated with epoxy
resin.Someheatersare heated continuously, as an anti-icing system
preventing theformationof iceon theleading edges,whilstother elements
areheatedintermittently.
The latter type of elementis dividedinto sectionsby breakerstrips
whichareheatedcontinuouslY.
Figure9-3 showsan electricallyheatedelementassembly includingthe
breakerstriptypeof installation.
LAYERSOF GLASSCLOTH
ELECTRICAL
JUNCTION
BOX
E L E C T R I C AELL E M E N T S
u C O N T I N U O U S LH Y E A T E DE L E M E N I ' S
tr I N T E R M I T T E N T LHYE A T E DE L E M E N T S
HeatedElementAssembly.
Figure9-3 Electrically
242
SYSTEMS
ICEPROTECTION
9.6 Electricallce ProtectionOperation.

Electricalpower is suppliedby an AC generatorand to reducethe weight
and sizeof th. system,and in particular of the generator,the de-icingelec-
trical loads are cycledbetweenthe engine,propeller and, sometimes,the
airframe.Referring againto Fig. 9-3 it can be seenthat part of the cowling
is heatedcontinuouslyand part intermittently.This type of operationwill
assistin keepingthe weightand sizeof the generatorto a minimum.
In normai opiration, the continuouslyheatedelementspreventany ice
lorming and thus servean anti-icing function. By contrast,the intermit-
tently f,eated elements allow ice to form, during their heat-off cycle.
During the heat-oncycleice that has adheredto the areawill be removed,
or allowed to break off, through the heating action of the elements
coupledwith the action of the airflow over the area.
ONE COMPLETETIME SWITCH CYCLE-------+1
a
LU
AIR PROPELLER AIR
ITJ
o_
INTAKE AND INTAKE
cYcLtc SPINNER cYcLtc
AIR INTAKECONTINUOUS
SLOW SPEED O 60 15 165 180
FAST SPEED O 20 25 55 60
SECONDS
Figure9-4 CycleSequence.
The continuously heated breaker strips limit the size of the area on which
ice can form on the intermittently heated areas.
The cycling time of the intermittently heated elements is arranged to
ensuretlrat tfr'eenginewill not be seriouslyaffectedby the amount of ice
that may buil<l-upduring the heat-off period, and the heat-ontime is long
enough to "nruri that any ice which has formed will be freed from the
area.
A two-speedsystemis often used to accommodatethe propeller and
spinner requirements,a fast cycle at higher atmospheric ternperatures
when the water concentrationis usually greater,and a slow cycle when
lower atmospherictemperaturesprevail.
Figurc 9-4 showsan examplecycling sequencechart'
243
HEATINGELEMENTS
OR PADS
Heated
9-5 Electrically
Figure Propeller
lceProtectiorr.
Note: Most electricalice protection systemsare suppliedby frequency

wild generatorsin order to minimiseweight and size.
9.7 ElectricallyHeatedPropellerlce Protection.

The propellerice protection systemis part of the main engineice protec-
tion iystim. The heatedelementsthat are attachedto the leadingedgeof
the piopeller blades do not cover the full length of the blade for two
."urbnr, firstly, the forcesexperiencedtowards the blade tip are suchthat
to achievesaiisfactorybonding of the heating elementsto the blade is
almost impossible,and secondly,towards the tip of the propeller blade
an elemeniof dynamic heatingtendsto preventthe formation of ice.
Figure 9-5 shows the location of the heating elementsor pads on a
typical turboprop proPeller.
244
ICEPROTECTION
SYSTEMS
Ice ProtectionSystems
of iceprotection
I . Hot air for thepurpose is normallyobtained
systems
tiom:
(a) heaterelements.
(b) the low pressurestagesof the compressor.
(c) the high pressurestagesof the compressor.
Ref. 9.4.
L The air pressurein the heatedair systemof ice protection is:
(a) the sameas the enginecompressorpressure.
(b) controlled by a pressurerelief valve.
(c) controlled by a pressureregulator valve.
Ref. 9.4.
3. The electricallyheatedice protection system:
(a) heats air which is then ducted to specific areas.
(b) heatspads which are bonded to certain points.
(c) heatsoil which is ducted to certain points.
Ref. 9.5.
4. Ice is most likely to form:
(a) at low atmospherictemperatures.
(b) at high atmospherictemperatures.
(c) at any atmospherictemperature.
Ref.9.6.
5. Propellerice protection pads are:
(a) heatedby hot air.
(b) locatedtowards the blade tip.
(c) locatedtowards the blade root.
Ref. 9.7.
245
10
EnginePerformance
and Handling
10.1 lntroduction.
The handling requirementsof gasturbine enginesvary accordingto type,
and this chapteris a guideto someof the more generalfeaturesand prob-
lems.For specificdata the particular enginesmanualsmust be consulted.
10.2 Pre-Starting Precautions.

When possiblethe aircraft should be headed into wind during engine
starting or for ground running. The area around the aircraft should be
clear of all obstructions,loose equipment or any objects which could
be drawn into the intake or damagedby the jet exhaust.It is very impor-
tant that personnelin the vicinity of the aircraft are made aware of the
engine'sstarting and/or running and are advisedto keep clear.
10.3 Starting.
On most gas turbine aircraft the engine starting sequenceis automatic
once enginestart has beenselected.Prior to initiating the start sequence,
the low pressureand high pressurefuel cocksmust be turned ON, and the
low pressurefuel pumps must be turned ON to allow a fuel flow to the
engine-drivenhigh pressurefuel pumps. Normally the throttle should be
kept closed during the engine start sequence.On some installations
protection devicesprevent the start sequencebeing initiated unlessthe
throttle is in the closed position. Failure to ensurethat the throttle is
closed during the start sequencecan on some engines result in over-
fuelling of the engine.
With an electricalstarting systemthe start button should be pushedin
and held for two to three secondsand then released.The starter sequence
relaywill first supplya low voltagecurrent to drive the startermotor, then
current to the boostercoils for the ignition systemigniters,and linally a
high voltagecurrent to the startermotor which then accelerates the engine
at a great rate.
During the initial stagesof engineaccelerationthe fuel pressurerises;
'on
the high pressureor engine-drivenfuel pumps will have moved to the
load' or'on stroke' position when the enginewas previously shut down
246
E N C I NP AC
EE R F O R M A N DH A N D L I N C
NE
and will now be deliveringfuel underpressureto the engine.The fuel is

sprayedinto the combustionchambersfrom the burnersand ignited
;ither, on someolder type engines,by the torch igniters,or high energy
rgnitionunits.On someinstallations thefuelpressuremay_risetoo rapidly
a*ndfuel may be dischargedinto the combustion chambers before the
enginetp- u.. high enoughfor a satisfactorylight-upbec_a_useairlfuel
the
6iiture-will be incorrect.This situationmay resultin a'Hung' start.
A 'Hung Start'will be indicatedby the engineaccelerating to a figure
'Idle' rpm and failing to accelerateany higher.In otherwords,the
helow
rnixtureis too rich. If this situationshouldoccurwith a fully automatic
sequence start system,the enginemust be shutdown and a freshattempt
madeto restart.
Note:A'Hung Start'isalsoknownasa'Hot Start'.
On someengineinstallations, if a 'Hung Start';situationis liableto

occur,it is recommended that the high pressurecock shouldbe closed'or
partially closed, at the commencement of the start sequence. This will
minimiiethe risk of an incorrect fuel/air ratio at the low initial rpm, which
couldlead to overfuelling of the engine.
It shouldalso be notedthat at low enginerpm, an overfuellingsitua-
tion can alsolead to surgingand an excessive enginegastemperatureor
jet
" pipetemPerature.
'light up', the enginespeedincreases under the combinedinflu-
Afi"r
enceof thJ turbine and starter motor. After approximately 30 seconds,
thecurrentto the starter motor (electric startsystem) and igniter unitsor
plugs
^ is automatically cut off and the engine becomes self sustaining.
The starting sequenceshould neverbe interrupted,that is to say,
disconnected or switchedoff. Shouldthisbedonethenthe startsequence,
when re-connected, continuesfrom the point at which it was stopped.
This could resultin flooding the enginewith fuel and resultin failure to
startand,possibly,damage the startsystemand/orengine.
to
10.4 Failureof the Engineto Start.

If the enginefails to start, as soon as this becomesapparentthe high pres-
sure fuel cock should be closed. The action of closing the high pressure
fuel cock will reducethe fuel flooding of the engine.The most likely cause
of start failure is insufficient electrical power to rotate the engine at suffi-
cient rpm. After closing the high pressurecock the engine should be
allowedto run down andstop and sufficienttime thereafterallowedfor all
surplus fuel to drain through the fuel drain valves. Time must also
be illowed for the startermotor to cool beforeany attempt is made to re-
start the engine.
247
Note: Insufficient power on engine starting will also reduce the effec-
tivenessof the igniters.
10.5 Wet Start.

Should an engine fail to start, as in the previous paragraph, the interior
of the combustion chamberswill be wet with fuel, fuel will have drained
and collectedin the bottom of the engine, somefuel may also have passed
through the turbine and collected in the exhaust or jet pipe. In some
instancesthe fuel drain valves will not allow all fuel to drain out of the
engine.It is also possiblethat ignition during the first attempt to start did
not take place effectively, resulting in very little fuel actually being
burned. If a normal start is now attempted and the accumulaied fuel
ignites, an internal engine fire could result generating excessivetempera-
tures and possibly damage to the engine.
Thistype of internal enginefire is sometimestermed'torching'. Should
an engine fail to start and excessiveamounts of accumulated fuel are
suspected,before a further attempt is made to start the engine,a 'dry run'
should be carriedout. First ensurethe engineand startermotor havebeen
given adequate time to cool, and as much fuel as possible has drained
from the engine. The engine should then be turned over by the starter
motor with the high pressurecock, masterstarterswitch,ignition, and all
priming or booster pumps switched off. This will result in blowing air
through the engineand thereby drying some of the accumulatedfuel from
the components before a further attempt is made to start the engine.
When a dry run is carried out, the starter motor must be given adequate
time to cool before any further start sequenceis initiated.
Note: It may be necessaryto re-site the aircraft after an aborted 'wet

start' becausefuel that has drained from the aircraft will now constitute
a serious ftrehazard-
Although a dry run has been carried out to remove accumulations of
fuel from the engine, a degreeof 'torching' will sometimestake place at
the second attempt to start the engine. Flames will be seencoming from
the jet pipe; this will also be accompanied by a rise in engine gas temper-
ature. Usually, however,this will not be a seriousproblem pqovidedthe
enginegas temperatureremainswithin limits and no attemptiismade to
shut the engine down at this specific time.
10.6 EngineResonance.
During starting of the engine,resonancemay occur on light-up and can
be recognisedby a rumbling sound from the engine.This situationusually
occurs due to a degree of overfuelling, and may be overcome by partial
248
E N G I NP
EE R F O R M A N
ACNE
DH A N D L I N C
closingof thehigh pressure

fuelcock.As soonasthe resonance subsides
thehigh pressurefuelcockshouldbe moved to the fully openposition.
'1O.7 lmmediatelyAfter Starting.

Afterthestartingcycleis completed
theengineshouldbeallowedto idle
tor a briefperiodandthefollowingshouldbechecked:
(a) Pressure.
( b ) Burneror Fuel SystemPressure.
or JetPipeTemperature.
( c ) EngineGasTemperature
( d ) All ancillaryservices.
is operatingsatisfactorily.
That All RelevantInstrumentation
1 0 . 8 Warming Up the Engine.

The enginemust be allowed to warm up to its normal operating temper-
ature, which is carried out at ground idle rpm. Until the recommended
operatingtemperaturehasbeenreachedthe throttle shouldnot be moved.
If any throttle adjustmentis required then the throttle should be moved
smoothly and slowly.Any rapid movementsduring this period may cause
the engineto stall or surge.
10.9 Taxying.
Rapid and unnecessarilyfrequent opening and closing of the throttle
should be avoided while taxying, becauseit can lead to overfuelling
which, in turn, can causesurgingand resonance,and this in turn will lead
to increasedenginegas temperature.
The initial responseof the engine to throttle movement is generally
slow, and considerablepower may be required to start moving some
larger types of aircraft. Once the aircraft starts to move, however, the
power requiredduring taxying is relativelysmall.
Axial flow enginesare, as stated in previous chapters,susceptibleto
compressorstall and surge,particularly at low enginerpm, which can be
considerablyaggravatedin crosswind conditions. The combination of
low enginerpm and crosswindsis likely to occur during taxying and it
may be necessaryto use a slightly higher rpm to reducestall tendencies.
In extreme conditions the turning of the aircraft into wind to recover
from enginestall may be the only answer.It is therefore essentialto avoid
rapid throttle movements in such situations.Should the engine
stall, then the throttle must be closedslowly and then re-openedslowly to
249
re-establishsatisfactoryairflow conditionsthrough the engineand in

particularthe compressor.On very rare occasionsit may be necessary
to
shuttheenginedown and thenre-start.
10.10 Take-Off.
As in the caseof aircraft taxying in crosswindconditions and the conse-
quent danger of engine surge,the situation is even more critical during
take-off in crosswind conditions. Should engine stall or surge occur
during take-off, not only will engine power be lost at a critical time, the
surgeor stall could also leadto a 'flame-out'. Modern gasturbine engines
are equippedwith various aids to minimise the onset of enginestall and
its relatedconditions;even so, every precautionmust be taken to ensure
any such situation does not arise.The throttle must be moved smoothly
and slowly as engine rpm are increasedfor take-off, and the engine must
be monitored closelyto ensurethere is not the slightestindication of the
onset of surge or stall. Engine gas temperaturemust be correct, neither
too high nor indeed, too low. Monitor that such devices,discussedin
previous chapters are functioning correctly. For take-off Inlet Guide
Vanesmust be fully open, IntermediateBleedValvesoperatingcorrectly,
Variable Statorsoperatingcorrectly,and rear or main BleedValvesoper-
ating correctly.
Additionally, most modern aircraft require as further protection that
the Auxiliary Power Unit be running during take-off as an insurance
againstmain generatorsupply failure, and the igniter systemoperatingto
give instant re-light in the event of a flame-out occurring.
10.11 Climbing.
If the correct climbing speedsare not used,and particularly if the speed
is too low, the rate of climb is thereforereduced.At high altitudes,unless
the correct speedis used the aircraft will not climb at all. During climb
at the recommendedrpm and airspeed,a careful watch must be kept on
the engine gas temperature (which should not exceed the permitted
maximum), the throttle being closedslightly if necessary.
Under certain conditions some engines are prone to surge while
climbing at higher altitudes. With centrifugal compressor enginesthe
symptom of a surgeis a muffled detonation in the engineand to reduce
or rectify the situation, the throttle should be closed slightly and/or the
airspeedincreased.
With an axial flow enginethere may be indication of surgeby a loud
'cough' 'bang'
or from the engine or there may be no audible warning
beforethe surge,the first symptom being a lossof power or a 'flame-out'.
If a suddenlossof power occursthe throttle must be closedimmediately;
250
ENGINE
P E R F O R M A NA
CNED H A N D L I N C
if a flame-out has also occurred then the high pressurefuel cock must be
.-losedaswell asthe throttle. This type of surgenormally only occursif the
climbing speedis lower than normal. If the climbing speedfalls below
the correct figure at high altitude, power should be reduced below the
climb rpm while speedis restored by diving the aircraft until the correct
speedis obtained.
In spite of the Barometric PressureControl, the rpm for a given throttle
setting may tend to increasewith increaseof altitude. With increase of
altitude the atmospherebecomeslessdenseso reducingthe back pressure
on the engine and thereby causing the engine rpm to increasewhile the
thrust will reduce.
Therefore to maintain constant rpm the throttle should be progres-
sivelyclosed.The more modern types of gasturbine with improved engine
control systemshave a reducedtendencyfor rpm to vary with altitude for
a given power setting.
'10.12 GeneralHandling.
The principles of handling the gas turbine engine are determined by the
fact that it best operatesat a fixed throttle setting. The engine consistsof
a matched set of primary components which are designedto give an
optimum performance at a given throttle setting, therefore any deviation
from such matched settings, such as low fuel/air ratio, excessivelyhigh
massflow at intake, will be a deviation from normal engineoperation. By
the sametoken, movement of the throttle, from the optimum setting will
also constitute a deviation from normal operation. It must also be noted
that constant changesof the throttle setting will increasewear and there-
fore reduce the life of the engine.
Various devicessuch as variable inlet guide vanes (Swirl Vanes),
Barometric PressureControl, Automatic Control Unit, Bleed Valves and
others, are there to assistthe pilot in maintaining a balanced control of
the engine when changing the thrust condition. Even with such devices,
however, great care must be taken when operating the throttle. Should
any device suffer a malfunction, successfulcontrol of the engine can still
be maintained but even greater attention must be paid to throttle
handling and the preservation of a good flow in the compressor.
At high altitudes gas turbine engines become extremely sensitive to
throttle movement and the range of movement between idling and full
power may be very small due to:
(a) The lower limit which is dictated by the higher idling rpm required
to provide adequatefuel pressurefor combustion and/or cabin pres-
surisingrequirements.
251
(b) The upper limit dictated by the throttle position above which the
rpm and/or engine gas temperature limits are exceeded.
If the throttle is opened too rapidly this may result in a momentary
increasein enginegastemperaturefollowed by a flame-out.In this event,
or if the engine is intentionally stopped in flight, the high pressurefuel
cock should be closedimmediately.Note that when relighting an engine
at altitude the enginestarter motor systemshould not normally be used
as this may damage the engine; the airflow through the engine will
normally give adequaterpm for relighting.
10.13 Centrifugal Compressor Engines.

With this type of enginethereis little risk of flame extinctionprovided the
throttle is moved smoothly and not too rapidly. The higher the altitude
the higher the engine idling rpm, and the more sensitivethe engine to
throttle movement.
"10.14
Axial Flow Type Engines.
If, when the throttle is opened, the rpm remain constant and the engine
gastemperaturerisesto the maximum permitted level,the throttle should
be fully closed immediately:thesesymptoms indicate that surging or a
stalled compressor condition exists. After the throttle has been fully
closedit may be openedagainprovided that the throttle movementis kept
slow. At the sametime specialattention must be paid to the enginegas
temperatureto ensurethat it remainswithin limits and a repeatsurgeor
stall doesnot occur.
Low enginerpm should be avoided as much as possible;if, however,
the rpm has beenallowed to drop below the flight minimum value,when
the throttle settingis thereafterincreasedthe movement must be carried
out slowly, againdue to the possibilityof surgeor stall in the compressor.
Particular attention must be paid to this when on the approach with the
airspeedlow and the aircraft sinking in a nose-up attitude which may
causethe airflow to stall at the lips of the engineintakes. If the rpm are
kept at or above the recommendedvalue on the landing approach,until
the decisionactuallyto land has beenmade,suchsurgeor stall conditions
can be avoided.
Above 3000ftthe effectof the AccelerationControl Unit is reducedon
someengines,and any rapid accelerationof the enginecausesoverfuelling
which can then leadto stallingor surgingof the compressor.Engineaccel-
eration deteriorateswith increasedaltitude and care must therefore be
taken when increasingpower at high altitudes.For the samereasoncare
P E R F O R M A NA
ENCINE CNED H A N D L I N G
must also be taken to avoid excessiveengine gas temperature when

acceleratins.
10.15 High Altitude Surge.

Above30,00040,000feet,whenflying at a low indicatedAirspeedand
high rpm in very low temperatures, high altitudesurgemay occur.The
risk of this type of surgecan be avoidedby keepingthe rpm at the re-
commended valueand minus 100rpm for each5 degrees belowminus
,i5degC.
10.16 Variable PositionInlet Guide Vanes(VariablePosition

Swirl Vanes).
The actionof the variablepositioninlet guidevaneshasno noticeable
effecton enginerunning.Compressorefficiency,however,is reduced
unlessthe guidevanesmove to the fully open positionat the recom-
m e n d e de n g i n er p m . O n m o d e r n g a s t u r b i n e st h i s a c t i o n i s f u l l y
automatic.The lowestspecificfuelconsumption canbe obtainedonly by
operatingwith thevariableinletguidevanesfully open.Remember when
enginestarting,theguidevanesshouldbe in the fully closedposition.
10.17 MechanicalFailurein Flight.

In the event of mechanical failure of the enginein flight the immediate
action to be taken should be:
(a) Closethe throttleand HP cock.
by
(b) Switchoff the LP pumps,and if the failureis accompanied
stronsrisk of fire.closethe LP Fuelcocksalso.
(c) In twin-enginedaircraft, shed all non-essentialload and land the
aircraft as soon as possible.
1 0 . 1 8 En g i n el ci n g .
Centrifugalcompressorenginesdo not encounterseriousicing problems,
mainly becauseof the combination of centrifugalforce,temperaturerise
and ruggedconstructionfound in this type of gasturbine.The only condi-
tion which may presenta problem to this type is the occurrenceof severe
ambient icing.
Axial flow compressorsare seriously affectedby the sameatmospheric
conditionsthat causeairframe icing. Ice may form on the inlet guidevanes
253
C A ST U R B I NE
EN C I N E S
causinga restrictedand turbulent airflow with a consequentlossin thrust

and risein enginegas temperature.Heavy icing can causean excessive
enginegastemperatureleading to turbine and enginefailure.
10.19 Effect of RPM on Rate of lcing.

For a given icing intensity the closerthe spacingof the inlet guide vanes,
the more seriousthe effect of icing. For a given enginethe rate of ice accu-
mulation is roughly proportional to the icing intensity and the mass
airflow through the engine,ie to enginerpm. The rate of engineicing can
thereforebe reduced by decreasingthe engine rpm.
10.20 Effect of True Air Speed on the Rate of lcing.

The rateof icing for a given icing index is almost constantup to 250 knots
True Air Speed(TAS), but beyond this the rate of icing increasesrapidly
with increasingTAS. This is becausewhilst the rate of engine icing is
directly proportional to the liquid water content of the air gathered
into the air intakes,the water content of the air in the intakesis not neces-
sarily the sameas that in the free airstream.
At low speeds,air is drawn into the intakes and at high speedsthe air
is rammedin, the transition speed,at which the pressureand temperature
in the intake are atmospheric,is approximately 250 knots TAS. During
the suction period the concentration of water content is virtually
unchangedfrom that of the free airstream. At speedsabove 250 knots,
most of the suspendedwater droplets ahead of the projected area of the
intake, tend to pass into the intake while some of the air in this same
projected area is deflected round the intakes. The inertia of the droplets
preventsthem from being deflectedand so the water content of the air in
the intake is increased.A reduction of TAS to 250 knots will therefore
reducethe rate of icing.
The reduced pressurecaused by the compressor sucking air in the
intake is at its lowest at zero speed.The pressuredrop also increaseswith
raisein rpm. The pressuredrop is, of course,accompaniedby a temper-
ature drop. On the ground, or at very low speedsand high rpm, air at
ambient temperature will be reduced to sub freezing temperatures as it
entersthe intake, and any water content would therefore freezeonto the
inlet guide vanes.The suction temperaturedrop which occurs is of the
order of 5 to l0deg C. This temperaturedrop occursat high rpm at the
lowest altitudesand decreaseswith decreasingrpm or increasingTAS.
Under theseconditions visible moisture is neededto form icing, therefore
take-off in fog, at temperaturesslightly above freezing,may result in ice
formins.
P E R F O R M A NACNED H A N D L I N G
ENGINE
Anti-icing systemsand De-icing systemsare discussedin previous

','hapters.
1O.21 Approach and Landing, Turbojet Engines.

With turbojet engines,approach should be made under power to ensure
that a quick responsefor additional thrust is availableshould it become
necessary to adjust the glide path by useof the throttle. Minimum engine
rpm are recommendedfor approach configurations for specific aircraft.
The rpm should be kept at or above this figure until the decision to land
has been made and the runway can be seen.In the event of the landing
beingaborted and the decisionmade to go round again, any movement
of the throttle to maximum power should be made smoothly to avoid
surge.
If the decisionhas beenmade to go round again after touch-down and
the engine rpm has fallen below the recommendedapproach rpm, the
throttle must be opened very carefully until the minimum approach rpm
is reachedor the enginewill surge.When the throttle is openedup under
theseconditions the engine takes longer to accelerateto full power.
10.22 Stopping the Engine.

The enginemust not be shut down, or stopped,until the enginetempera-
ture has fallen to the recommendedfigure. Normally after touch-down,
and the aircraft having taxied in, the engineis cool enoughto be stopped.
Although slight variations in procedureexist with different engineand
aircrafttypes,generallythe throttle must be fully closedand the high pres-
sure fuel cock turned off. If, however, the temperatures are above the
recommendedvalues,the engineshould be run at approximatelytwicethe
idling rpm for a short period to allow it to cool. The throttle should then
be closedand the engineallowed to idle for approximately 30 seconds,
after which the high pressurecock can be turned off. The enginethereafter
continuesto run for severalminutesuntil combustion has ceasedand the
enginehasrun down. The low pressurefuel cock should not be turned off
until the enginehas stopped turning. If the low pressurecock is turned
off before the engine stops the high pressurefuel pump will be run dry
and air willbe drawn into the system,which will then needto be re-primed
with fuel and bled. It should also be noted that if the low pressurecock is
turned off beforethe high pressurecock, the run down time of the engine
will be increasedas well as the systembeing allowed to run dry.
255
10.23 Relighting
TurbojetEngines.
In the event of a flame-ou_toccurring in flight a relighting of the engine,
providing there is no.mechanical or system failure,ls noimally poriiut.
on modern gas turbine engines. with some engines relighting is
possibleup to 35,000feet, but in most casesmuchlower altiludes-are
recommendedand, generally,the lower the altitude the greaterthe degree
of success.
If flame-out occurs the following actions should be taken.:
(a) clo_se,thehigh pressurefuel cock immediately to prevent the accu-
mulation of fuel in the engine which wourd make relighting much
more difficult.
(b) Fly at the recommendedrelighting indicated air speedand altitude.
(c) Ensure that at least one low pressurefuer cock and booster pump
are on, that the fuel pressurewarning light is out, and that there is
enough fuel in the selectedfuel tanr<s.
(d) Switch on the relight and emergencybooster pump if fitted.
(e) Set the throttle to the recommended position. This will vary with
aircraft types, as experience has shown that, while some engines
relight more readily with the throttle in the fully closed posltion
others relight more effectively with the throttle paitially open.
(0 Ensurethat the master starting switch and ignition switch, if fitted,
are in the ON position.
(g) Pressthe relight button and open the high pressurefuel cock to the
fully open position.
(h) Immediately a rise in rpm or engine gas temperature is indicated,
releasethe relight button and closethe throttie. The engineshould
then accelerateto_idlingrpm for the altitude and may thei be opened
up slowly to the desired figure.
10.24 GasTurbineEngineRatings.
Introduction.
Generallyengines of theturbojettypeareratedin poundsof thrustdevel-
oped,and this in turn is divided into specificthrust ratingsfor specific
functions.Broadlytheyareasfollows:
(a) Take-offRatedThrust.
(b) MaximumContinuous.
256
E N C I NP AC
EE R F O R M A N NE
DH A N D L I N C
rc) MaximumClimb.
rd) MaximumCruise.
le) Idle.
For practicalpurposesthe enginerating is normally interpretedin terms
.-rfenginepressureratio (EPR) or on someengines,mostlymilitary, by a
specificthrottle setting.
(a) Take-offRatedThrust.
will normallybe obtainedat a throttle settingbelowthe full forward
positionand may be sub-divided into two categories:
Take-off(Wet)
This is the maximumtake-offthrustcertifiedfor enginesthat use
waterinjection.Theratingis selected by operatingthewaterinjec-
'Wet'
tion system and settingthe throttle to obtain the computed
Take-offThrustin termsof enginepressure ratio. This ratingis
restricted normally to take-off, is time limited, and has altitude
and ambientair or waterlimitations.
Take-off(Dry)
This is themaximumthrustcertifiedwithout waterinjection.The
rating is selectedby settingthe throttle to obtain the computed
Take-off (Dry) thrust in terms of enginepressureratio for the
prevailingconditionsof ambienttemperatureand barometric
pressure.The rating is time limited,and is usedonly for take-off,
and as required,for ReverseThrust whenlanding.
(b) Maximum Continuous.

This thrust rating is the maximumthrustcertifiedfor continuoususe
and is normally usedonly at the discretionof the pilot or to ensure
safeflight.
(c) Maximum Climb.

This is the maximumthrustapprovedfor normal climb.The rating is
obtainedby adjustingthe throttle to obtain a predeterminedengine
pressureratio. On some enginesMaximum Continuous and
Maximum Climb thrustsare the same.
(d) Maximum Cruise.

This is the maximumthrustapprovedfor cruiseflight conditionsand
is obtainedin the samemanneras Maximum Continuousand
Maximum Climb thrust.
257
(e) Groundldle.
Ground Idle is the minimum thrust at which the enginemust
be operatedat specifrcground or flight conditionswhen the
throttleleveris placedin the groundidle position.
Commercialenginesare part throttle engines,that is, rated thrust is
obtainedat lessthan full throttle position.Taking their namefrom the
shapeof the take-offthrustcurve,the so calledpart throttleenginesare
alsoknownas'FlatRated'engines.
Note: Detailsof the handlingof turbopropenginesare dealtwith in

PartThreeof thisvolume,"Propellers".
P E R F O R M A NA
ENGINE CNED H A N D L I N C
and Handling
EnginePerformance
l. A gasturbineengine,on starting,acceleratesto a figurebelowidle rpm
andfails to above
accelerate that value,this indicates:
(a) a wet start.
(b) a hungstart.
(c) a surgecondition.
Ref. 10.3.
L Whenthegasturbineengineis shutdown,thehigh pressurefuel pump:
(a) will moveto the off loadposition.
(b) will remainat the settingit is in at time of shut down.
(c) will moveto the on loadposition.
Ref. 10.3.
3. Prior to enginestarting,the throttle:
(a) mustbe setat groundidle.
(b) mustbe setat a valueabovegroundidle.
(c) mustbe closed'
Ref. 10.3.
4.If an enginefailsto start,the:
(a) highpressurecockshouldbeclosedwhentheenginehasstopped.
(b) highpressurecockshouldbeclosedassoonasignitionis switched
off.
(c) high pressurecock shouldbe closedas soon as failureto start
becomes apparent.
Ref. 10.4.
may be reduced,duringstartingby:
5. On someenginetypes,resonance
(a) increasing
thethrottlesetting.
(b) fully closingthehighpressure
cock.
(c) partiallyclosingthehigh pressure
cock.
Ref. 10.6.
259
6. Torchingis a term sometimes

usedto describe:
(a) thepointof ignitionon enginestarting.
(b) the re-light aftera flame-out.
(c) an internalenginefire.
Ref. 10.5.
7. Variableinletguidevanes:
(a) mustbe fully openon enginestarting.
(b) may be in any mid positionon enginestarting.
(c) mustbe fully closedon enginestarting.
R e f .1 0 . 1 6 .
8. If, whenstoppingthe gasturbine,the low pressure
fuel cockis closed
first:
(a) the enginerun down time will increase.
(b) the enginerun down time will be unaffected.
(c) the enginerun down time will be reduced.
Ref.10.22.
9. In the eventa surgeis suspected of a gasturbine
in the compressor
engine,the:
(a) throttlemustbe openedslowly.
(b) enginemust be shutdown.
(c) throttlemustbe closedslowly.
Ref. 10.14.
10.On mostaircraftfittedwith gasturbineengines,
prior to engineshut
down,if theenginetemperatures aretoo high:
(a) theenginemustbe run at idle rpm until it coolsdown.
(b) the enginemust be run at approximatelytwiceidle rpm until it
cools.
(c) the fuel/airmixturemust be movedto rich.
Ref. 10.22.
260
'11
GasTurbineControlsand Instrumentation
11.1 Introduction
This chapteris intendedto give the readera basicknowledgeof the
generalcockpit controls and instrumentsrelating to the gas turbine
enginein the averageaircraft. Controls and instrumentationvary from
oneaircrafttypeto another,but most of the primary controlsand instru-
mentsto be found are listedbelow.
1"1.2 Engineand EngineSystemControls.
(a) Throttle Lever.

Selectsthe engine fuel flow and hence controls the engine speed.
Normally mounted between the pilots' seats on the main control
quadrant.
(b) High PressureFuel Cock (HP Cock).

Sometimestermed the High PressureShut Off cock, provides a means
of stopping the enginein that it starvesthe engineof fuel when closed.
(c) Low PressureFuel Cock (LP Cock).

Normally controlled by an electric actuator which in turn is operated
by a switch in the cockpit. This is essentiallyan on/off control for the
fuel systemfrom the fuel tank, or tanks, to the High PressurePump.
Switches are also provided for transfer pumps to enable fuel to be
controlled betweentanks.
(d) Thrust Reversal.

This normally takes the form of a separatelever which gives instinc-
tive control of enginepower during reversethrust operation.
(e) Reheat.
Reheat, or afterburning, is controlled by a lever in the cockpit. On
most modern aircraft the variable exhaust or propelling nozzle is
controlled automaticallv.
261
11.3 GasTurbineInstrumentation.
Although engineinstallationsmay differ, dependingupon the type of
aircraftand engine,gasturbineenginecontrol will usuallydependupon
use of the following instrumentation.Enginethrust indication will be
dealtwith separately.
(a) Tachometer - Enginerotor rpm may be sensedby a

mechanically-driventachometer generator,
permanentmagnet,or a pulse
mechanically-driven
pick-up which sensespassingcompressoror fan
blades,or passinggear teeth.The output signal
from anv of the abovesensorsis directedto an
appropriate indicator in the cockpit, calibrated to read directly in per cent
rpm. Dual axial flow compressor enginesare usually provided with two
tachometers,one indicating low pressurecompressor speed (Nr), the
other high pressurecompressorspeed(Nr).
For most axial flow compressor engines,the main purpose of the
tachometer is to monitor rpm during an engine start and to indicate an
overspeedcondition, should one occur. Although Pratt & Whitney does
not recommend the use of the tachometer for setting thrust on axial flow
compressorengines,the low pressurecompressor(Nr) tachometer on
EPR-controlled engines may be used as an approximate referencefor
setting engine thrust in transient and certain other flight conditions.
Wheneverthe Nr tachometeris usedto setenginethrust, the thrust setting
should be more accurately adjusted on engine pressure ratio as soon as
possible. On single compressor axial flow engines,it is strongly recom-
mended that engine speedis not used as a primary means of setting or
checking engine thrust. Refer to the discussionunder Engine Thrust
Indication which follows.
(b) Exhaust Gas Temperature Indicator - Turbine

engines may be instrumented for exhaust gas
temperature indication at locations before,
between,or behind the turbine stages.Exhaust gas
temperatureis an engineoperatinglimit, and is used
to monitor the mechanicalintegrity of the turbines,
as well as to check engineoperating conditions. Actually, the tempera-
ture at the turbine inlet is the important consideration,this beingthe most
critical of all of the enginevariables.However, as has been pointed out,
it is impracticalto measureturbine inlet lemperaturein most engines.
Consequently,thermocouplesare inserted at the turbine discharge
instead,this temperatureproviding a relative indication of that at the
inlet. Although the temperatureat this point is much lower than that at
262
CASTURBINE
CONTROLS
AND INSTRUMENTATION
the inlet, it enablesthe pilot to maintain surveillanceover engineinternal

operatingconditions.
Severalthermocouples are normally used, spacedat intervals around
the perimeter of the engineexhaustduct near the turbine exit. The exhaust
gastemperature indicator in the aircraft showsthe averageof the temper-
atures measuredby the individual thermocouples.The readingsof the
severalthermocouplescan usually also be obtained individually during
ground engine maintenance by the use of a selectiveswitch. The spread
between the lowest and the highest thermocouple reading is useful in
maintenancebecauseit servesto indicate the presenceof hot or cold spots
in the engine exhaust pattern which may mean that something is wrong
inside the engine.
(c)
FuelFlow Indicator- The fuel flow indicatorshows
the fuel flow to the fuel nozzlesin pounds(or kilo-
grams)per hour. Fuel flow is of fundamental
interestfor monitoring inflight fuel consumption,
for checkingengineperformance,and for inflight
cruisecontrol. The relationshipof abnormal fuel
flow to the readingsof the other instruments will provide one of the best
indications of the probable causeof an engine malfunction.
(d) Oil Pressure Indicator - To guard against engine
failures resulting from inadequate lubrication and
cooling of the various engineparts, the oil supply to
critical areas must be monitored. The oil pressure
indicator shows the pressurerelayed by the oil pres-
sure transmitter. On most installations, the oil
pressure
transmittertakesbreatherpressure relaying
into consideration,
drop acrossthe oil jets in the oil system.
thetruepressure
(e) Oil Inlet TemperatureIndicator - The ability of the
engine oil to perform its job of lubricating and
cooling is a function of the temperature of the oil, as
well as the amount of oil supplied to the critical
areas. An oil inlet temperature indicator is
frequently provided to show the temperature of the
oil as it entersthe enginebearing compartments. Oil
inlet temperature also servesas an indication of proper operation of the
engineoil cooler.
(0 Fuel Inlet PressureIndicator- Fuel systemcharac-
teristicsfrequentlymakeit advisableto monitor the
luelpumpinletpressure. In caseof fuelflow stoppage
in flight, it is desirableto determinewhethertrouble
has developedin the engineor in the aircraft fuel
263
system,so that prompt correctiveaction rnaybe taken.In addition,the

fuel pumpinlet pressurewill indicatepossiblecavitationat thefuel pump
inlet in flight, and will showduring enginegroundcheckswhetheror not
the fuel systemis operatingproperly.
(e) Air TemperatureIndicator - The air temperature
indicationscurrently usedin aircraft are free air
temperature(FAT), outside(OAT), ram (RAT),
total (TAT) and static air temperature(SAT).
Regardless of which temperatureis instrumentedin
a spticificaircraft model, the Flight Manual will
showhow to useit, in conjunctionwith applicablechartsor tables,to set
the EPR valueswhich provideratedthrustlevels.The EPR settingvaries
with the thrust level desiredand with the true total air temperature
existingat the front of the engine.(T,z).Someaircrafthaveinstrumenta-
tion which indicatesTtz valuesthat may be usedwithout correctionto
determineEPR settings.
Exceptfor an indicatorto measureenginethrust,the aboverepresents
the minimum instrumentationconsideredadequatefor control of the
engine.Someinstallationsmay haveadditionalinstruments.
(h) EngineThrust Indication

The subjectof the meansby which a pilot setsand monitors the thrust
producedby the enginesinstalledin his aircraft has beenmentioneda
numberof times in the foregoingtext. The following repeatswhat has
beensaidearlieraswell as discussinsthrust indicationin detail.
j""fiJ,,rffi'JJ,1?'J'irEf "i:
'lr:l c,,ril, \ .T
usedtogether
-on for indicating
andsetting
/ :i:,L 1i-,'
'f--=,
t*ffi i=i -* \v thrust un engineinsLiled in an
x{i.$/ &Liiy il:"Jlli'l#:X;,x':'#:#:ii?l:
obtainedby the pilot at 100per centrpm and a specifiedEGT. The speci-
fied EGT is establishedon a thrust-measuringground test stand by
varyingthe exhaustnozzleareaofthe engineas necessary
to achievethe
desiredtemperature.
On somecentrifugalcompressor engines,thrustis indi-

catedby rpm alone,and full ratedthrust for take-offis
obtainedwhenthe tachometerreads100per cent.
264
E O N T R O LASN D I N S T R U M E N T A T I O N
G A ST U R B I N C
Virtually all axial flow turbojets and turbofans, mili-

tary and commercial, use engine pressureratio (EPR)
as a measureof enginethrust. EPR indicators compare
the total turbine discharge pressureto the total pres-
sure of the air entering the compressor, then indicate
the ratio of thesepressures.Enginesinstrumentedfor
EPR havea fixedexhaustnozzlearea.Two fixed areasareusedon after-
burning engines,one for non-afterburningoperationand the other for
afterburningoperation.
For engineswith a fixed nozzlearea,the actualexhaustgastempera-
turesobtainedduring operationare usuallybelowthe prescribedlimits,
asshownby Fig. I I - I . Although it is permissible
for an engineto operate
at the temperaturelimit for any giventhrust rating, an enginethat does
somay havesomethingwrongwhichcausestheengineto run abnormally
hot.
TAKEOFF
THRUST
M A X I M U MC O N T I N U O U S
RATEDTHRUST
cc -
f
F = z
E 500
a
Ul
tr
I a
i! I l uJ
F -J
i UJ
2 4so l
an 1' z
tr
F uJ z o
a z
l 5 =
tr L
I L
X f
l
U u,J
l = = v
X
x F
E P E R A T I NCGO N D I T I O N
E N G I NO
CasTemperature
Figure11-1 Exhaust Limitsfor
TypicalCommercialEngine.
265
with the exception noted in para (a), engine rpm is considereda very
poor parameter for setting and checking engine thrust on axial flow
turbojet and turbofan-engineshaving fixed exhaust nozzle areas. Many
complications arise when rpm is utilised as the controlling variable on
such engines.The most important of theseare:
(i) Sincethe high pressurecompressorrpm on dual axiar flow engines,
or the rpm of the whole compressoron singlecompressorengines,
is governed by the fuel control, rpm does not provide an accurate
means of determining whether or not the complete engine is func-
tioning properly. As an example, rpm will not enabG an engine
operator to detect a damaged or dirty compressor unless rpm is
carefully used in conjunction with other engine variables suih as
fuel flow, exhaustgas temperature,and enginepressureratio.
(ii) Becausethe enginesare'trimmed'by a fuel contror adjustmentto
produce full rated thrust at a fixed throttle position on a standard
day, rpm for any given thrust condition will vary slightly among
individual engines, depending upon the engine trim speed. The
variation in rpm must be taken into considerationwheneverrpm
is used to measurethe thrust being developed by the engine. This
introduces a complication which cannot be torerated whenever
precisethrust settingsare necessaryduring flight.
(iii) on dual compressoraxial flow engines,one per cent variation in
rpm results in approximately four per cent variation in thrust at
the higher thrust settings for the low pressure compressor (N,),
and five per cent variation for the high pressurecompressor (Nr),
whereas one per cent variation in turbine discharge pressure or
enginepressureratio resultsin only one and one half per cent vari-
ation in thrust.The five per centvariation in thrust foi one per cent
variation in rpm also holds true for single compressor axiar flow
engines.
(iv) Rpm does not vary in direct proportion to the thrust being
produced by the engine over the entire thrust range.
For these reasons some manufacturers recommend that turbine
dischargepressure,or enginepressureratio, be used as the enginevari-
able for indicating thrust on axial flow engineswith fixed arei exhaust
nozzles.The use of either of theseis not only much simpler under most
conditions than the use of rpm for enginesof this type, but is consider-
ablv more accurateas well.
266
E O N T R O LASN D I N S T R U M E N T A T I O N
C A ST U R B I N C
for MeasuringThrust(andPowerfor
11.4 Instrumentation
Turboprops).
For enginesotherthan thoseusingfully variableexhaustnozzles,turbine
discharge pressureor enginepressure ratio can be usedto indicateor set
enginethrust becausetheyvary proportionallyto the thrust the engineis
developing.Most turbojet- and turbofan-poweredaircraft today are
instrumentedfor enginepressureratio, and this is the parametergener-
allyusedto setor measure enginethrustduringtake-off,climbandcruise.
For very accuratethrust measurement, suchas during groundtrimming
of an engine,turbinedischarge pressure is often employedto measure
is
thrust.In suchcases,it common practice temporarilyto connecta
turbinedischarge pressure indicatorto the enginefor thedurationof the
enginetrim run.
Thisis how thetwo methodsof enginepressure measurement function:
-
TurbineDischargePressureIndicator This instrumentindicatesthe
internalenginepressure upstreamof thejet nozzle,immediately aft of the
laststageof theturbine(P,,or P,r),andserves asan indicationof thepres-
sureavailableacrossI"henozzleto generatethrust. Turbine discharge
pressuremustbe usedin conjunctionwith T,, and P,r,aswill beexplained
later.
| 1.5 EnginePressureRatioIndicator.
This instrument indicatesthe
e n g i n e p r e s s u r er a t i o a s a
measure of the thrust being
developedby the engine.This
is the ratio of the turbine
dischargetotal pressureto the
equivalent of the compressor
inlet total pressure (P,r/P,, or
P,7/P,J.Values for P,, must be
corrected for inlet duct loss
on the enginepressureratio
curves or charts by the
aircraft manufacturer.
Therefore, both for static (ie take-off) and flight use, the actual value for
P,, will vary among different aircraft types and models becauseof instal-
lation effects.However, the relation of P,, at the engine face to both P.-
for static conditions and for Po- plus P, (the pressuredue to ram) in flight
is determined during early flight testing for each aircraft model, and is
used thereafter as the referencepressure for P,r/P,, or P,r/P,r.The true
(field) barometric pressureon the take-off runway is P.- and P"- plus P,
267
is equivalent to total pressureat, or near, the compressorinlet when

airborne. Becauseit is inadvisable to instrument the compressor inlet
directly for P,r, the P,, sensor for the pressure ratio indicator may be
placedat someother location on the aircraft, preferably as near the engine
air inlet as possible.When the appropriate corrections have beenmade to
the inflight charts in the aircraft Flight or Operation Manual, any rated
thrust, or percentageof rated thrust, in terms of enginepressureratio may
be set with the aircraft throttle as a function of the total air temperature
of T,r.
Becausethe thrust developedby the engineis indicated by the pressure
ratio between the pressureat the engine air inlet and the dischargepres-
sure at the jet nozzle, turbine dischargepressure,by itself, should not be
used directly as an accurateindication of the engine output. Compressor
inlet pressure(P,r) must be taken into account on curves or charts when-
ever turbine dischargepressurealone is instrumented on the aircraft. For
static engineoperation this will usually be accomplishedby showing baro-
metric pressure,corrected for inlet duct loss, rather than P,, valueson the
curves or charts. Inflight curves or tables will usually show airspeedand
altitude and this will eliminate the need for virtually delineatingP,, values
in the operatingdata. Engine pressureratio indicatorshave the P,r value
introducedinto the system,automaticallytaking this factor into account
on the observedinstrument readine.
Torquemeter (Turboprop Engines) - Becauseonly a

small part of the propulsive force produced by a
turboprop is due to jet thrust, neither turbine
dischargepressurenor enginepressureratio is usedto
indicate the power being produced by the engine.
Instead, a torquemeter is employed to measurethe
level of shaft power that the engineis developing both
on the ground and in flight. As the method of measuringtorque varies,
the engine Maintenance Manual should be consulted for a description of
the manner in which a particular torquemeter systemfunctions. In most
systems,however, torquemeter oil pressureis used to actuate a torque
indicating instrument in the aircraft. The torquemeter instrument
portrays torquemeteroil pressure(which is proportional to enginepower)
in pounds per squareinch (psi). Some torquemeterinstrumentsare cali-
brated to read in terms of pound-feet (lb-ft) of torque, and somemay read
in shaft horsepower(SHP), directly.
268
AND INSTRUMENTATION
CONTROLS
GASTURBINE
11.6 RelatedTerms.
Lpl Lv Specificheatsat constantpressureand volume
C Coefficient or constant
ESHP Equivalent shaft horsepower (turboprop)
ESFC Equivalent specific fuel consumption (turboprop)
Fs Gross thrust (lb)
Frr Net thrust (lb)
'J
D
Acceleration due to gravity, and mass conversion factor,
32.174
k,y Gamma - ratio of specifrcheats (co,c')
M Mach number (velocity of airspeeddivided by the speedof
sound at the appropriate air temperature)
N Compressor speed (rpm or per cent) for a single
compressorenglne
Nr Speed(rpm or per cent) of the low pressurecompressoroI
a dual compressor engine, or the compressor speed(rpm
or per cent) of a singlecompressorengine equipped with a
free turbine.
Nz Speed(rpm or per cent) of the high pressurecompressorof
a dual compressor engine, or the free turbine speed(rpm
or per cent) of a single compressorengine equipped with a
free turbine.
N; Free turbine speed(rpm or per cent) of a dual compressor
engine equipped with a free turbine.
NOTE: The symbols,N, and Nr, ?r0 sometimesusedto representrpm

for a free-turbinl-type,turbopropor turboshaftengine.N, is the symbol
for the speedof thebasicengine,or gasgenerator.Ni is the speedof the
freeturbine,or powerturbine,as it is often called.
- Absolutepressure(gaugepressureplus atmosphericpres-
sure- psia)
p - Gaugepressure (psig)
T - Absolutetemperature (oRor'K)
t - (oF
Temperature or'C)
V - Velocity(usuallyin ftlsec)
- Volume(in appropriateunits)
w - Weight(usuallyin lb)
w - RatJofflow (gas,suchasair,or liquid,suchasfuel,usually
in lb/secor lb/hr)
A (Delta) - Differenceor change(ie AP representsa pressurediffer-
ence,suchas one betweenthe two sidesof a fuel filter)
269
6 (Delta) Standardcorrectionfactor for pressure(relativeabsolute

pressure.)
q (Eta) - Efficiency
0 (Theta) - Standardcorrectionfactor for temperature(relative
absolutetemperature)
p (Rho) - Density
The subscriptsusedwith a number of the abovelettersand symbols

more accuratelydefinethe quantity in eachcase.The EngineStation
subscripts listedbelowsimplyshowat whatpointin theengineeachquan-
tity is beingtaken.For example,P,,meanstotal (t) absolutepressure
(P)
takenat Station7 in the ensine.
Key Points- GasTurbines

Theory
I Charles'Law statesthat a volume of a givenmassof gasat constant
pressureis proportional to its absolutetemperature.
If the volume of a mass of air is 546 cubic feet at l'C, it will be 2
cubic feet smaller at 0oC.
Adiabatic gas compressionmeans there is no external loss or gain
of heat.
A nozzle is choked when the sas flow throush it is sonic and can
give additional thrust.
A turbojet engine is smooth-running, because has no recipro-
cating parts.
6 Gas turbine efficiency increaseswith increasingaltitude.
The performance of the turbojet engine is measured by the thrust
produced at the propelling nozzle.
The power developedby a gas turbine engine dependson the mass
airflow through the engine.
The propulsive thrust of a gas turbine is produced by the reaction
to the accelerationof a stream of gas (Newton's Third Law).
l0 As aircraft speedincreases,propulsive efficiency increases,due to
ram effect. (Total head pressure).
ll As altitude increases,fuel flow is less becauseof decreasedair
densitv.
270
CASTURBINE AND INSTRUMENTATION
CONTROLS
On a cold day, the engineperformancewill producehigherthrust

and lower TGT than on a hot day.
l3 With the aircraftstationaryand full powerselected,
thrust is 100%
and propulsiveefhciencyis ZERO.
I4 Combustiontakesplaceat a constantpressure.
l5 During the working cycle,combustiontakesplacecontinuously.
l6 A by-passengineis an enginein which a proportion of the
compressorair is not usedfor combustionpurposes.
l1 Air enterstheenginethrougha divergentduct (air intake)wherethe
velocitydecreasesand the pressureincreases.
l8 A by-passratio of 0.7to I means0.7by-passair to I part passing
throughthe HP compressor.
t9 The sequenceof eventsin a gasturbineis induction,compression,
combustion,expansionand exhaust.
20 The power requiredto drive the compressorand componentsis
approximately60"/,of the energyavailableafter combustion.
2l if thevolumeof a gasis halved,thepres-
At a constanttemperature,
sureis doubled.
22 A by-passenginewill give improvedpropulsiveefficiencyand
c fuelconsumption.
specifi
z) High by-passratio engineshavea lower SFC, because thereis a
lowerjet pipe velocitywhich propulsive
increases efficiency.
Construction
Compressors/Intakes
I Compressionratio is the ratio betweencompressorinlet pressure
and compressoroutlet pressure.
2 Stator bladeson an axial flow compressorconvert kinetic energy to
pressureenergy.
3 Inlet guide vanes(IGVs) reducethe possibility of compressorstall,
by guiding the intake air on to the first stageof rotor bladesat the
correct angle.
4 Bleedvalvesare open at low rpm to bleedoff somecompressorair,
to reducethe possibilityof a surge.
In a twin-spool engine,the LP and HP compressorsare driven by

their respectiveturbines, the LP running at a lower speedthan the
HP.
Cascadevanes are used to change the direction of the airflow off
the centrifugal compressor/diffuserring into the combustion
chamber.
Air conditioning/pressurisationair and anti-icing air are taken
from the compressor.
In the duct betweenthe compressorand combustion chamber,the
velocity decreasesand pressureincreases(Highest pressurein
engine).
Compressorbladesare twisted to give the correct angle of incidence
along the blade in relation to its speed.
l0 Compressor blades become shorter towards the rear of the
compressor,to maintain axial velocity as the pressureincreases.
u The purpose of the rotating guide vanes on a centrifugal
compressoris to direct the air smoothly into the impeller.
t2 The most efficient engine air intake on subsonic or low supersonic
aircraft is the pitot type.
l3 Intakes are designedto deceleratethe free airstream flow.
'stage'
14 A complete of an axial flow com.pressorconsistsof one rotor
and one stator.
l5 Statorvanesareoftenshrouded,to minimisevibration.
l6 Vibrationmonitorsfilter out low frequencyvibration and measure
vibrationin RelativeAmplitude.
17 The vibration transducerfeedsdirectly into the gauge the
cockpit.
Assembly
Turbines/Exhaust
I Nozzle guide vanes(NGVs) are fitted to acceleratethe gas flow and
direct it onto the turbine at the correct angle of attack.
2 Across the turbines, velocity, pressureand temperature decrease.
3 Turbine blade creep is a product of heat and centrifugal force.
4 A tight fit between the turbine disc and blades is ensured by
centrifugalforce and blade compressionloads.
272
AND INSTRUMENTATION
CONTROLS
CASTURBINE
5 Turbine gas temperature (TGT) is measured as an indication of

turbine serviceability.
6 The top temperature control protects the turbine bladesfrom over-
heating, by reducing the fuel supply to the burners.
7 Afree turbine is one which is not connected to a compressor,only
an output drive.
8 The gas enters the jet pipe from the turbine at a velocity of 650 to
1,200ft/sec(Mach 0.5).
9 The effect of increasingthe area of the jet (propelling) nozzle would
be a decreasein thrust.
l0 In a turboprop engine,most of the energyextractedat the turbine
is used to drive the propeller, leaving only a small amount of
residualthrust.
II The jet pipe is insulated from the airframe by a combination of
cooling air and insulation material.
12 In a modular constructed engine, certain components can be
changed between overhauls, increasing time between overhauls,
therebyreducingmaintenanceand overhaul costs.
l3 Turbine blacietips often have shrouds fitted, to reducegas leakage
acrossthe blade tiPs.
14 If a thermocouplein the exhaustassemblygoesU/S, then the EGT
gaugewill read lower.
l5 Thermocouplesdo NbT needan electricalsupply.
CombustionChambers
I In the combustion chamber, the pressureremains constant and
combustionis self-suPPorting.
2 The chemicallycorrect mixture ratio of air to fuel is l5:1, but the
overallairlfuel ratio can vary between45:1and 130:I during normal
runningconditions.
3 The highest temperature, of approximately 2,000"C, is experienced
in the combustionzone.
4 Aswirl vane is fitted in the noseof the flame tube around the burner
head and its function is to anchor and stabilise the flame.
5 A toroidal vortex is a region in the combustion chamber of low
velocity recirculation which anchors and stabilisesthe flame.
273
6 Air is directedto the shroudaroundthe burner head,to minimise

carbonfbrmation.
7 Approximately20o/o of thecompressorair is takenby the snoutof
the flame tube.
Systems
Fuel Systems
I The LP cock isolatesthe airframefuel systemfrom the enginefuel
system,to enablemaintenance to be carriedout'
2 The LP cock shouldnot be usedto shut down the engine,because
the fuel pump and other fuel componentswould run dry'
3 The LP cockwould beturnedoff in theeventof a crash,to minimise
the possibilityof an enginehre.
4 The dangerof ice formation in the fuel systemfiltersis reducedby
usinga heatingsystemor a fuel cooledoil cooler.
5 When the engineis stopped,the fuel pump servo-pistonspringwill
put the pumPto maximumstroke.
6 If the swashplate(yoke) of the fuel pump is perpendicularto the
axisof the pump drive shaft,the flow will be minimum'
7 The maximumrpm of the engineis affectedby the specificgravity
of the fuel,ie, higherSG - lower max rpm.
8 The hydro-mechanical governorwhich controlsmaximumengine
rpm is unaffectedby the SG of the fuel.
9 The barometricpressurecontrol (BPC) variesthe fuel flow to the
burnersby meansof spill valveswhich are adjustedby changesin
aircraft speed,altitudeand throttle position.
l0 Attenuatorsarefitted in the flow control unit (FCU), to damp out
pressuresurges.
II The accelerator control unit (ACU) is fitted to limit the rate of fuel
flow increaseduring acceleration, to correspondwith massairflow
throughtheengine.
12 The ACU will preventstalling and surgingduring fast accelera-
tions.
l3 The pressurecontrol systemand the proportionalflow control
systemareboth hydro-mechanical.
274
AND INSTRUMENTATION
CONTROLS
CASTURBINE
l4 The combinedacceleration and speedcontrol systemand the pres-

sureratio control system both mechanicalsystems.
are
l5 The pressureratio control systemusesa geartype fuel pump'
l6 The gasturbineis stoppedby closingthe HP cock.
l l The top temperaturecontrol protectsthe turbine bladesby
reducingthe fuel flow to the burners when critical TGTs are
reached.
l8 The maximumenginerpm of a pressureratio control systemis
controlledby an iuxiliary throttle valve which partially closes,
openingthe pressuredrop spill valve,which reducesthe fuel flow
to the spraynozzles.
lg Governorcreepis indicatedduring a climb by increasingrpm.
l0 Idling rpm wouldbeloweron a cold day,because mass
of increased
airflJw, unlesscompensated by the fuel control unit (FCU)'
ll Flight idle rpm will be lower at low altitudeand higherat high alti-
tude,unlesscontrolledbY the FCU.
Lubrication,CoolingandSealing,ReverseThrust
I The type of oil usedin a gas turbine is synthetic,anti-freeze,low
viscosityand hasa high flashpoint'
2 The scavenge pumphasa greatercapacitythan thepressure pumps,
but the pressurepump providesa higher pressure'
3 filter.
The return oil is filteredby a scavenge
4 To give early warning of bearingfailure, magneticchip detectors
arefitted in scavenge lines.
5 Reversethrust is usedto reduceaircraft speedafter landing, by
changingthe directionof the exhaustgasflow.
6 to reduceairflow
Cascadevanesarefitted in reversethrust systems,
turbulenceand guidethe exhaustgasesforward'
7 Reversethrustshouldnot beengagedat low aircraftspeed,because
of the dangerof ingestionof hot exhaustgasesinto the intake.
8 Reversethrustcannotbe engagedunlessthe engineis at idle.
9 An interstagesealis used to form controlledrestrictionto the
passage of air or gas.
10 Oil is preventedfrom leakingby sealsand air pressure'
275
Starting and lgnition

I The starting sequenceof an electricenginestarter is normally termi-
nated by a time switch.
2 During the starting sequence,light-up should take place at 17.5o/o
rpm.
3 When light-up takesplace,interconnectors
spreadthe flame to
adjacentflametubes.
4 rpm is the lowestspeedat which the enginewill run
Self-sustaining
independentlyof externalhelp.
5 Iso-propyl-nitrate(AVPIN) is a mono-fuel.
6 Combustionis initiatedby igniterplugs.
7 The reasonfor igniterplug gapsbeinglargerthan thoseof conven-
tional sparkplugsis due to lower operatingpressures
in the flame
tube.
8 High energyignitionis usedto makerelightingat altitudemore reli-
able.
'crack' when the
9 To test a high energyigniter plug, listen for a
relightswitchis pressed.
l0 restartingan enginein flightafter
Theexpression'relighting'means
a flame-out.
II A chokeis fitted to an ignition unit to extendthe duration of the
electricaldischargeacrossthe plug.
12 The dischargeresistoris fitted to dissipateany residualstored
energyin the unit within one minute of the systembeingswitched
off.
l3 The highenergyignitionsystemprovidesignitionby usingcapaci-
torsin theunit.
14 During flight in heavyrain, ignitersare set to ON and give a low
capacitydischargeall the time.
l5 High energyigniter systemsreceivea low voltagewhich builds up
to givehigh energydischarge.
Ice Protection,ThrustAugmentationandFire Protection

I In an electricalsystemof ice protection,the heatingelements
operatepart-continuouslyand part-intermittently(turboprop).
276
GASTURBINE AND INSTRUMENTATION
CONTROLS
2 when thereis visible

The useof engineanti-icingis recommended
moistureand the OAT is below+l0oc.
3 Anti-icing air is normally taken from the compressorand, when
functioning,will increaseTGT.
-1 Water injectionis usedto restorethrust in high ambienttempera-
turesand/or at high altitudeairfields.
5 Water/methanolor water sprayedinto a gas turbine will restore
thrust by evaporatingand coolingthe air, thus increasingmass
airflow.
6 Methanol in the water/methanolinjection systemalso acts as an
anti-freeze.
7 In caseof fire, the cool zone of a gasturbine is maintainedat a
higherpressurethan the hot zone.
8 To indicatethe relievingof a fire extinguisherdue to excessive
thermalexpansion,plasticindicatorsin the fuselageskin would be
blown out.
9 A 'two-shot'fire extinguishing systemis one wheretwo fire ex-
tinguisherscan be dischargedinto an enginebay.
l0 The correctprocedurefor dealingwith an enginefire is: silencethe
warning bell, shut-downthe engineand operatethe fire extin-
guisher.
II For fire detection,the continuouswire type detectorusesthe prin-
ciple that, with an increasein temperature,the resistancewill
DECREASEuntil the circuitis madeand thewarninglight comes
on.
12 If capacitance in continuouswire type
is usedinsteadof resistance
detectors,thecapacitance will INCREASE with increase in temper-
ature.
l3 A manualtest of the enginefire warning systemwill give a steady
red light.
14 If the fire warninglight wereto comeon in flight, it would give a
continuousred light.
l5 Fire extinguisher lastsfrom .5 to 2 seconds.
discharge
16 Turbojetuseshot air for anti-icing.Turboprop useselectrical
de-icine.
277
GroundHandling
I Jetaircraftarepositionedinto wind for groundruns,to preventthe
re-entryof hot gasesinto the air intake.
2 Ifjet piperesonance is experienced on start-up,the HP.cockshould
Uepaitiattyclosedandthenopenedfully immediatelytheresonance
stops.
3 A 'hung' start occurswhen the enginelights up, but fails to accel-
erate.
4 When ground running at high rpm, the throttle shouldbe closed
slowlyind theengineallowedto idle beforeshuttingdown,to allow
the engineto cool down and relievethermalstresses.
.Run-down'time is the time taken for an engineto stop after the
5
HP cockis closed.
6 Gasturbinepressureratio (EPR) is the ratio of thejet pipepressure
to thecompressor inletPressure.
Reduction in engine efficiency could by causedby ice formation tn
the intake.
Compressor run-down time is dependent upon the freedom of the
compressor,turbines and engine-driven accessories.
Heavy tropical rain at high ambient temperaturesmay require the
use of ignitors during take-off.
l0 by a low fuel flow and a high EGT.
A,hung'start is accompanied
278
12
TheModernCasTurbineEngine
12.1 Introduction.
The progressivedemand for greater efficiency,economy and quieter
enginesf,as produceda number of variationsof the basic gas turbine
engine.
F.* "o--ercial aircraft are poweredby a conventionalturbojet as
discussedin previouschapters.The majority now useby-pas.s enginesor
turboprops. The following listed are
engines the main typesin useat the
presenttime:
12.2 Turbojet.
Axial FlowTurbojet.
Figure12-1 5ingle-Spool
The exampleshown is a single-spoolenginehaving one compressordriven

by a turbine via a singlecommon drive shaft. The compressoris therefore
rotating at exactly the samerpm as the turbine.
At l;w rpm this engine is very prone to stall and surge and generally
requiresdevicessuch as compressor bleeds(interstagebleeds) and dump
vafuesto avoid or reduce the compressor stall tendencies.
279
Turbojet(LowBy-pass).
12.3 Twin-SpoolBy-pass
The compressorof this engineis in two parts,a low pressurecompressor
consistingof four stagesat the front of the unit. These.are driven by the
rearmostset of turbines via a common drive shaft. Aft of the Low
Pressure is
compressoris the High Pressurecompressorwhich separately
driven by the high pressureturbine (locatedin front of the low pressure
turbine)via its own concentricdrive shaft.Each spool is able to rotate
independently of the other and therebyallowscompressorpressureto be
increasedat a much steadierrate so that stall tendenciesare much
reduced.
The low pressurecompressorof this enginesuppliesair to the core,or
hot engine,as well as to the by-passduct. This permitsa much lighter
constructionand producesa greaterpower-to-weightratio. The by-pass
ratio is I to l, ie the output of the low pressurecompressoris divided
equallybetweenthe by-passduct and the coreengine.
BY.PASS
DUCT
Turbojet(low by-passratio).
Figure12-2 Twin-SpoolBy-Pass
12.4 Triple-SpoolBy-passTurbojet(High By-pass)

is in threestages
This enginetypehasthreespools,that is, thecompressor
eachdrivenby its own dedicatedturbine assembly.
From front to rear of the enginesthe compressorsare: low pressure
compressor, intermediatecompressorand high pressurecompressor.
Low PressureCompressor.
This consistsof the Large Front Fan which,in generalterms,delivers5
partsof air throughthe by-passduct for everypart deliveredto the inter-
mediatecompressorand core, or hot, engine.The by-passratio of this
engineis thus5:1.
Most of the thrust producedby this engineis developedby the Low
Pressurecompressoror Large Front Fan. It shouldbe noted,however.
2BO
T H EM O D E R NC A ST U R B I N E N C I N E
LOWPRESSURE INTERMEDIATE
COMPRESSOR COMPRESSOB
DUCT
BY-PASS
TRIPLE-SPOOLFRONTFANTURBOJET
(HIGHBY-PASS
RATIO)
'l2-3.
Figure
that for a given massflow through the enginea pure turbojet (single
spool)will producemore thrust than a High by-passengine.Remember
Thrust= Mass x acceleration.
lntermediateandHigh PressureCompressors.
Thesecompressorassemblies further raisethe total coreenginepressure
process.
prior to thecombustion
Primary Advantagesof the High By-passTurboiet.

(a) Becausethe compressionratios are lower, the compressorassem-
bliescan be mademuch lighter in weight.Enginefor enginea High
by-passenginemay be as much as l0% lighter and thereforehas a
betterpower-to-weight
ratio.
(b) Whilst the air massvelocityis lower it is, however,producedacross
a muchwider area.
(c) Fuel co.nsumptionis much improved, so the engineis more
economlc.
(d) As massvelocityis less,the engineis much quieter.
)
281
The accompanying graph plots the comparisons.

(LOWBY-PASSRATIO)
F 8 0
z
U.l
o
(r
U
L 6 0
O
z
g
tr,^
U
IlJ
izo
(r
I
o 2oo 8oo looo

;:r..ri,T,
At aircraftspeeds belowapproximately450milesper hour, the purejet

engine is lessefficientthan a propeller-typeengine,sinceits propulsive
efficiencydepends largely on its forward speed;the pure turbojetengine
is, therefore, most suitable for high forward speeds.Propellerefftciency,
however,decreases rapidly above350 milesper hour due to the distur-
banceof the airflow caused by the high tip speedsof the propeller.These
characteristics have led to some departurefrom the useof pure turbojet
propulsionin favour of the turbopropcombinationsof propellerand gas
turbinewhereaircraftoperateat mediumspeeds.
The advantages of the propeller/turbine combinationhave to some
extent beenoffset by the introduction of the by-pass,ducted fan and
propfanengines. These engines deal with larger comparative airflowsand
jet
iower velocities than the pure jet engine, thus havinga propulsive effi-
ciency which is comparable to that of the turboprop and at the sametime
permittinghigherflight speeds.
In a high by-passgasturbine enginewhen the EngineIndication and
CrewAlerting Systemis used,the following abbreviationsareemployed:
Lancn FnoNr FeN (Low Pnr,ssuReCovrnrsson) NI

INrspvreotere CovtpRESSoR N2
Hrcs Pnsssuns CotupnEssoR N3
Note: Cold air thrustreversalis usedby this typeof engineasdescribed

earlier.
282
N A ST U R B I NEEN C I N E
T H EM O D E R G
12.5 Twin-spoolturboshaft(With FreePowerTurbine)

Thistypeof enginemaybeusedasa smallturbopropor, morecommonly,
ro power helicopters.There are a number of interestingpoints to note
aboutthis engine:
COMBUSTION
LOWPRESSURE CENTRIFUGAL REVERSE
COMPRESSOR COMPRESSOR CHAMBER
Figure12-4 Twin-SpoolTurbo-Shaft
(with free-powerturbine).
Firstly, the second,or high pressure,compressor is of centrifugal type

thereforeenabling the air from the low pressurecompressor to be turned
through 90' whilst increasing the pressure. Secondly, the air is then
*Jirectedinto the combustion chamber where it again reversesits flow
*Jirectionbefore once more turning through 180' to passthrough the high
and low pressureturbines. This reverseflow through the combustion
stageenablesthe engine to be much shorter.
The number of spools employed in an engine will vary to suit design
requirements.Layout of componentswill also vary. The engineschosen
in this chapter are intended only as examples and are based mostly on
Rolls-Roycedesigns.
12.6 Engine Indication and Crew Alerting System (EICAS).

This modern electronic form of indicating engine and other automatic
system information is covered in the Elscrnlcs volume of this series
(Volume 3), together with the ECAM system. Both of these systems
provide engine performance information.
In general Boeing aircraft are equipped with EICAS and Airbus
aircraft with ECAM. The following is a basic EICAS systemas used in
Boeing757 and767 aircraft.
283
12.7 EICAS - Primary andSecondaryEngineDisplays.
I General
EICAS hasbeendesignedto categorizealertsand displaysaccording
to function and use.This has resultedin threemodesof display:
Operational,Statusand Maintenance.
2 OperationalMode
The OperationalMode displaysthoseengineparametersand crew
alertsrequiredin flight, and providescontinuousmonitoring of
aircraftand enginesystems.
The upperdisplayis dedicatedto primary engineparameters,and
crewalertsfor monitoringby the crew.The lower displayis showing
secondaryengineparameters.
At power-up all engine parameters appear automatically.
Status Mode
The status mode displays data needed by the crew to determine the
readinessof the airplane for dispatch, and is closely associatedwith
the minimum equipment list (MEL). The status mode displays
control surface position, selectedsub-system parameters, and
systems/equipmentstatus messages.The status mode is manually
selectedand shown on the lower display.
MaintenanceModes
The maintenancemodes display maintenance information to aid the
ground crew in troubleshooting and verification testing of the major
subsystems.The maintenance modes are manually selected and
shown on the lower display.
Cathode Ray Tube Display Features

Cathode ray tube displays sevencolours defined as follows:
White - Generalcolour usedfor all scales,normal operating

rangeof pointersdigital readouts,digital readout
boxes.
Red - Usedfor warning messages, redlinelimit on scales,
exceedance conditionfor pointers,digital readouts,
and digitalreadoutboxes.
Green - Use for thrust mode readout and EPR/N I target
cursor.
Blue - Not usedfor any EICAS displays,(displayedduring
EICAS testonly.)
284
T H EM O D E R C
Yellow - Used for caution and advisorymessages, yellow

band on scales,yellow band condition for pointer,
digital readouts,and digital readoutboxes.
Magenta
(Pink) - Usedfor in flight startenvelope,windmillingcursor,
and crossbleedmessages.
Cyan
(Blue) - Usedfor all parameternames,statuscue,and total
air temperaturename.
Backgroundcolour is black.
L C R
HYDoTY0.99 1,00 0.98
ApuEGr rt40RPM103 CABINALTAUTO't
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Mode DisPlaY'
EICAS-status
12.8 EICAS - StatusMode DisPlaY
I General
Statusmodedisplaysprovidesdata neededby the crewto determine
the readines of th. aircraft for dispatchand are closelyassociated
with the Minimum EquipmentList (MEL).
2Bs
12.9 Display
The statusmodecanbe displayedon the lower CRT and is manually
selectedby the crewusingthe displayselectpanelstatusswitch.The
displayshowscontrol surfaceposition,selectedsubsystems parame-
ters,and system/equipment statusmessages.This is donemanually on
the ground,as part of pre-flightcheckof dispatchitems.Use of the
statusmode in flight can be usefulin anticipatingpossibleground
maintenance actions.For thispurpose,a STATUScueis providedon
the upper left cornerof the lower CRT whenevera changeis status
messages occursand the STATUS pageis not displayed.
The systems statusmessage(s) aredisplayedon theright sectionof the
page.
TAT+12
eo.r 131 eo.l
EICASDISPLAY
, lffit 7"@
&/,{U/
r @ L @
70 orlPREss65
v),",w 428 rer 428
105 oTLTEMP100 95 ru, 95
18 orlorY 12 12.4 eoJ12.4
2.1ru, vrB 1.9pr
ECSMSO
FLT
DR FwD An FWDEQUIPFAN1
30 28 17 ZONETEMPBITE
DUCTTEMP
TRTMVALVE
0.780.800.00
PAcHouT 2 3
DUcT
PREss 40 42
PAoH
FLow 62 64
TEMPVALVE0.75 0.80
rNDooR 0.82
RAM 0.71
EICASDisplay- MaintenanceMode- ECS/MSG

Formatin RealTime.
286
T H EM O D E R G
12.10EICAS - Maintenance
Mode Display- ECS/MSGFormatin
R.ealTime
I General
The maintenance modedisplaysaredesignedto providea flight deck
displayof maintenance informationfor theconvenience
of flight crew
whenmakingpost-flightlogbookentries,and to aid the groundcrew
in troubleshootingand verificationtestingof the major subsystems.
They are alsousedto recordsystemparametersat the time of an in-
flight fault, for later readouton the ground.Theseformats are not
availableto thecrewin flight unlessa by-passswitchoption is selected
by the airlines,to allow monitoringof the maintenancemodedisplay
on non-revenue flights.
2 Environmental ControlSystems/Messages - Display

The ECS/MSGpageformat is oneof five maintenance modedisplays
that can be selectedon the maintenancecontrol paneland displayed
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TWIN-SPOOL
and Secondary
EICAS-Primary EngineDisplay.
287
on the lower CRT, in place of the secondary engine parameters or

status display. This format provides parameters of the aircycle
cooling pack and the zone temperature control system. It also
provides maintenancemessagesfor all aircraft systemson the upper
right corner of the display.
Any time a maintenancepage is displayed,the upper CRT operates
in compact full format.
MaintenanceMessages
All the maintenance messages(M) can appear on the ECS/MSG
format page only when this format is selected.Thesemessages,white
in colour, are for most casesa repeat of the status messagesdisplayed
on the statusformat.
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ry?)^ TT
TRIPLE-SPOOL
At power-up,all engineparameters
appearautomatically.
2BB
EngineIndicator(SEl).
EICAS-Standby
2.ll StandbyEngineIndicator(SEI)
General
The StandbyEngineIndicator displaysin digital readoutall critical
engineparameters.
The valueson the left and right of the displayare safelimit decals.
EICAS - DisplaySelectPanel- Controls

Primaryunit for both pilots to control EICAS functionsand displays.
All the controlson this panelcan be usedin flight and on the ground.
I EngineDisplaySwitch
A momentarypush switch usedto removeor display secondary
engineparameterson the lower displayunit.
2 StatusDisplaySwitch
A momeniarypushswitchusedto display(on the lower displayunit)
control surfacepositions,hydraulicfluid quantity;crewoxygenpres-
sure,APU enginegastemperature,and statusmessages relateditems
requiringcrew awareness prior to dispatchor in flight.
289
EventRecordSwitch
A momentarypushswitchwhenusedwith the aircraftin the air or on
the ground recordsall environmentalcontrol system,electrical,
powerunit parameterdata for
hydraulic,and performance/auxiliary
storagein the manualeventnon-volatilememory.
ComputerSelectSwitch
A three-positionrotary switchfor selectingdisplaysignalsource.In
AUTO position,left computeris primarysignalsource.Automatic
switchingto right computeroccurswhen left computerbecomes
invalid. In the L (left) position,the left computeris supplyingthe
displaysignals,and in the R (right) position,the right computeris
supplyingdisplaysignals.
DisplayUnits BrightnessControl
Dual concentriccontrolswith the innercontrol increasingbrightness
of both displayunits when rotated in the clockwisedirection.The
the brightnessof the upper displayunit and
outer control increases
decreasesthe brightnessof the lower displayunit when rotatedin a
clockwisedirection.Rotatingthe outer control counterclockwisehas
the oppositeeffect.
Thrust ReferenceIndex Set Controls

A dual concentricrotary switchcombinedwith a two way push-pull
switch.The innercontrol is continuouslyrotatingwith twelvedetents
per revolution.When initially set (pulled out), the readout,corre-
spondingto the engineselectorswitchposition,defaultsto 1.55EPR
(104%Nl). Clockwiserotation of the control increases the corre-
spondingreadoutwith a rotationsensitivityof 0.01EPR (0'l% Nl)
per detent.Oncea readouthasbeenmodifiedmanually,its last input
datawill be retainedregardless of the engineselectorswitchposition,
until theinnercontrol is reset(pushedin). The outercontrol is a three-
position rotary switch usedto selectthe L (left), Both, or R (right)
engine(s)indicator.
MaximumIndicatorResetSwitch
A momentarypush switchusedto clearmaximumexceedance read-
outs from the displayunit. Only that data for which the exceedance
no lonserexistsis cleared.
290
T H EM O D E R NG A ST U R B I N E N C I N E
EICASDISPLAYBRIGHTNESS
CONTROL MANUALTHRUST SET KNOB
. INNEHKNOBCONTROLS . PULLINGAND ROTATINGTHE INNERKNOB
BRIGHTNESS
INTENSITY THE REFCURSORON THETHRUST
POSITIONS
. OUTERKNOBCONTROLSBRIGHTNESS (EPROR Nl) FORTHEENGINE(S)
INDICATOR
BALANCEBETWEENDISPLAYS SELECTEDBY THE OUTERKNOB
COMPUTER \ BRT\ THRUST REFSET

\.BRT \
ENGTNESTATUS AITO o"t,-
. SVelt ,
-\A/ o \ooru \, R MAXtNt
:::::=--T-]IBECORD ,/-x \ )rtr( BESET
DISPLAYSWITCH MAXIMUMINDICATOR
RESETSWITCH
S DISPLAYSWITCH
S'I''ATU . RESETS
. PRESSING THEENGINEOR OVERLIMIT
WILLSELECT
SWITCH READOUTS
STATUS
THATFORMAT ONTHELOWER EICAS SELECT
COMPUTER KNOB
DISPLAY - SEI.ECTS
. AUTO THEPRIMARY COMPUTER (L)
Z PRESSINGTHE SAMESWITCH A SWITCHES
ANDAUTOMATICALLY TO
SECONDTIMEWILL BLANKTHE THEOTHER COMPUTERUPONA
LOWERDISPLAY FAILURE
RECORD SWITCH MANUALLY A SPECIFIC
SELECTS
EVENT
. RECORDSMAINTENANCE DATAEVENT COMPUTER
INNON.VOLATILEMEMORYFORTHE
EGS,ELEC/HYDR,ANDPERF/APU
PARAMETERS- SIMULTAN
EOUSLY
12.12EICAS- Operational
Format
I PowerUp
At power-up,all engineparametersappearautomatically.
I StatusSwitch
Pressingthe Statusswitch,the lower CRT changesto the Status
mode.
3 Engine Switch
Pressingthe Engine switch returns the secondary engine parameters
to the lower CRT.
To return to the Statusmode, pressStatusswitch again.
-l Lower CRT-Blank
The lower CRT can be turned to normal blank mode either by press-
ing the Statusswitchif the Statuspageis displayed,or by pressingthe
Engine switch if the secondaryengine parameters are displayed'
291
5 Lower CRT from Blank to Engine or Status Display

When the lower display is BLANK, pressing the Engine switch
displays Secondaryengine parameters;pressing the Status switch
displaysStatusmode.
12.f3 EICAS - Alert Messages- Interface
I General
The EICAS Systemmonitors over 400 inputs from engineand system
sensorsfor the generationof alert, status,and maintenancemessages,
depending on the urgency of the detected abnormality. Alert
messagesare displayed in red and yellow, and Status and
Maintenance messasesin white.
2 Aleft Messages
There are threelevelsof Alert Message:warnings,cautionsand advi-
soriesthat are displayed on the left side of the upper CRT depending
upon the urgency of the malfunction, and are displayed in parallel
with individual lights in the flight compartment.
Up to I I messagescan appear on the upper CRT. If an overflow
condition exists,page I notation replacesthe eleventh line.
The following graphics explain the various Alert messagesand the
cancel/recallcapability.
3 Status and MaintenanceMessages

Thesemessages, in white, are displayedon the lower CRT on status,
or maintenanceECS/MSG page format respectively.Thesemessages
will be coveredunder statusand LCS/MSG formats.
EICAS - Alert MessageLevels- Definitions
(trgll))
EICAS-Level A Warning Messageand

Associatedlndications.
292
A,. Level A Warnings

These warnings require immediate crew corrective action. They
are displayedin red on a CRT, and in red on master warning lights
and panel lights. Their associatedaurals sounds are: fire bell, and
Europeansoundingsiren.
EICAS-Level B Caution Messageand

Associatedlndications.
Level B Cautions
w
These cautions require immediate crew awarenessand future
crew action. They are displayedin yellow on a CRT, and in amber
on master caution lights, and panel lights. Their associatedaural
sound is a caution aural repeatedtwice.
C . Level C Advisories
These advisoriesrequire crew awareness.They are displayedin
yellow on CRT and amber on panel lights.
No master caution liehts and no aural tones are associatedwith
this level.
. NOAURALTONES
. NO MASTER
LIGHTS
EICAS-LevelC AdvisoryMessage.
293
WARNINGS
CAUTIONS
ADVISORIES
EICAS-AlertMessages
Overview.
n.lA BICAS - Master Caution Lights/Canceland Recall Switches
I Master Caution Lights

Single action light switch displays an amber messageCAUTION
when illuminated by EICAS computer in conjunction with a caution
messagedisplayed on the upper CRT.
Pressingeither light switch turns both lights off.
Lamp replacedby removing lens cover.
2 Cancel and Recall Switches

These switches are associatedwith the alert messages(caution and
advisory only) that can be displayed on the upper CRT.
A. Cancel Switch
Momentary push, singlepole, singlethrow switch.
When activatedprovides lessthan +3v dc to EICAS computer and
removes caution and advisory messagescurrently displayed, or
pagingcapability to display thosestoredin memory that are in excess
of the elevenmessagecombinations currently displayed.
Warnings are not cancellable.
B. Recall Switch
Momentary push, singlepole, singlethrow switch.
When activatedprovideslessthan +3v dc to EICAS computer.
Re-displaysthe caution and advisory messagesremoved by cancel
switch.
294
PracticePaper1
l. On leavingthe compressor,the air:
(a) passesinto the primary zone of the combustion chamber.
(b) passesthrough the diffuser.
(c) passesinto the primary and secondary zone of the combustion
chamber.
(d) passesinto the swirl assemblyof the combustion chamber.
Ref. 1.3
l. Fuel, on enteringthe combustionchamber,is primarily atomisedby:
(a) the swirl vanes.
(b) the diffuser.
(c) the dilution holes.
(d) the burner feed.
Ref. 1.3
3. The diffuser after the compressor:
(a) converts the velocity energy into pressureenergy.
(b) converts the pressureenergy into velocity energy.
(c) straightensthe airflow.
(d) createsa swirl effect in the airflow.
Ref. 1.3
4.lna basicturbojet engine,of the total energyproduced,approximately:
(a) 60%oleavesthe engine as thrust.
(b) 400%leavesthe engine as thrust.
(c) 90% leavesthe engine as thrust.
(d) 2|0/oleavesthe engine as thrust.
Ref. 1.3
295
a turbojet enginerequires:
5. At subsonicspeeds,
(a) a convergentintake.
I
(b) a variableintake.
(c) a convergent/divergent
intake.
(d) a divergentintake.
Ref. 1.8
6. The compressoris:
(a) rotatedby freestreamair.
(b) drivenby the inlet guidevanes.
(c) drivenby an electricmotor.
(d) drivenby the turbine.
Ref. 1.3
generallyproducesa pressureratio of:
7. A basiccentrifugalcompressor,
(a) 4 to 4.5to one.
(b) 30 to one
(c) 130to one.
(d) 15to one.
Ref. 2.4
producea balanceof air compression
8. Moderncentrifugalcompressors
betweenthat done by the impeller,and that done by the diffuser as
approximately:
(a) 20o/oto80%.
(b) 40%to 600 .
(c) 50%to 50%.
(d) r0%to90%.
Ref. 2.5
296
9 Double sided, Double entry centrifugal compressors:

(a) have additional efficiencyloss due to heat transfersthrough the
disc or shroud.
(b) are more difficult to balance.
(c) are lessefficientdue to limited rpm.
(d) have additional efficiency loss due to reduced operating.
Ref. 2.5
l,D.The compressorblades of an axial flow compressor are curved

throughout their length and:
(a) their angleof incidenceincreasesfrom root to tip.
(b) their angle of incidencereducesfrom root to tip.
(c) their angle of attack reducesfrom root to tip.
(d) their angleof attack increasesfrom root to tip.
Ref.2.9
I 1. The compressionratio of the compressor:

(a) is the measureof air pressurebetween each stage.
(b) is the measure of air pressurebetween the diffuser and combus-
tion chambers.
(c) is the measure of air pressure between compressor inlet and
compressoroutlet.
(d) is the measure of air pressurebetween free stream pressureand
compressoroutlet.
Ref. 2.10
12.Compressorsurgemay be minimised by use of:

(a) fixed inlet guide vanes.
(b) compressorbleed.
(c) turbo-fans.
(d) swirl vanes.
Ref. 2.14
297
13.Air releasevalves,in the compressorof a gasturbine,are opened:

(a) automatically.
(b) rnanuallyby the pilot. l
I
(c) only to supplycabinconditioningwhenrequired.

(d) only after the engineis abovegroundidle rpm.
Ref.2.l7
14.Whenstartinga twin-spoolcompressor
engine:
(a) both spoolsare rotatedto avoid surge.
(b) the low pressurespoolis rotatedfirst to avoid surge.
(c) the high pressurespoolis rotatedfirst to avoid surge.
(d) the freeturbineonly is rotatedto avoid surge.
Ref.2.l8
15.Turbinebladetip turbulence:
(a) may be reducedby bladecreep.
(b) may be reducedby discshrouding.
(c) may be reducedby bladetip shrouding.
(d) may be reducedby fir treeshrouding.
Ref. 4.5
16.Bladecreepis:
(a) reducedby tip shrouding.
(b) a permanentlengtheningof the blade.
(c) a temporarylengtheningof the blade.
(d) reducedby discshrouding.
Ref.4.7
17.The main bearingsof thecompressor/turbine
drive shaftaremounted
vla:
(a) needleroller bearings.
(b) nylon bearings.
(c) ball bearings.
(d) ball or roller bearings.
Ref.4.4
298
T H EM O D E R C
thrustpoweravailableis:
18.Reverse
(a) 90%.
(b) 100%.
(c) 50%.
(d) 2s%.
Ref. 4c.3
thrustis directed:
19.Reverse
(a) completely
in the oppositedirectionto normalflow.
(b) at 90 degrees
to the relativeairflow.
(c) at 45 degrees
(d) at l5 degrees
Ref. 4c.3
10.Iceis prevented
from:
(a) blockingthe HP filter by pre heatingthe fuel.
(b) blockingthe LP filter by pre heatingthe fuel.
(c) forming in the fuel by pre heatingthe fuel tank.
(d) blockingthe LP filter by pre heatingthe filter element.
Ref. 5.2
299

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Part2

Gasturbineenginesat presentusedin aircraftaredividedinto two main

1.3 Principle of Operation.

(c) air drawn through the intake by the compressorwill increasein

(n) thejet not only haskineticenergyowingto its velocitybut alsohas

i 1.4 Thrust and PropulsiveEfficiency.

But as the aircraftcannotmove,all the energygivento the slipstream

400 600 800 1

Figure1-2 How RamAir Affectsthe Thrust.

1.5 The Effectsof Ram,Densityand Temperature.

tion progressively decreases.It shculdbe notedthereforethat an increase

1.6 lntake Design.

"1.7 Intakesfor SupersonicFlight.

Downstreamof the normal shockwavethe flow is alwayssubsonicand,

Figure1-4 Pitotor SimpleCowl Intake.

An exampleof a fixed or pitot type, intake is shownin Fig. l-4. This

Figure1-5 CentreBodyand Wedge

Figure1-7 (a) A Convergent

Maximum pressurerecovery,whichis theproductof theindividualshock

(c) If a normalshockwaveoccursinsidethe intakeit is saidto be oper-

Ratioof a JetEngineVaryingwith Mach.No., and

Showshow Thrustis Affectedby lntakeDesign.

2. After the gas leavesthe combustion chambers it:

3. One pound of air at altitude:

4. Air drawn through the compressorwill:

5. Within the combustionchambersthe burned fuel/air mixture:

6. Somesecondaryair is directedthrough the dilution holesin the

are usedin moderngasturbineengines,

Eachtype hasits advantages

2.3 Centrifugal Compressors.

2.4 Centrifugal CompressorAirflow.

air acquiresin addition to its radial velocity, a tangential velocity which

Figure2-3 showsthe passageof air through a singleentry centrifugal

Apart from the losses,the temperaturerise acrossthe compressor

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 2-4 Typesof Centrifugal lmpeller.

(a) Single Entry Compressor.

truly radial.Thereareconsequently no secondarybendingstresses in

(b) DoubleEntry Compressor.

Whilst a singleentry centrifugalcompressorwould requireto be

Figure2-8 Multi-Stage Compressor

2.8 Axial Flow Compressors.

ROTOR STATOR ASSEMBLY

Figure 2-9 Axial Flow Compressor Rotor and Stator Assembly.

The entry sectionof the compressorcontainsone or more inlet guide

of aerofoil shapewhich are alternatelymoving and fixed. The moving

2.1O Airflow Throughan Axial Compressor.

2.'11 ReverseFlow Compressors.

2."12 The Main Featuresof the Axial Flow Compressor.

efficiencyis possiblewith this type of compressor.This compares

Surgingis instabilityof flow throughthe compressor.For the purposeof

As hasbeenstated,a compressor is designedfor a certainrangeof flows

2.14 Axial CompressorSurging.

Figure2-l 1 Air Release

2.'15 Effectsof CompressorSurge.

2.17 Air Release Valves(BleedValves).

throughthecompressor, andreducingthemassflow throughthecombus-

Figure2-14 Twin SpoolCompressor.

and any largepiecesof icethat may form will normallypassthroughthe

2.20 Comparison of Axial Flow and Centrifugal Flow

In small units where high elficiency is not so critical, the centrifugal

' ' High Altitude OPeration.

3.3 BasicTypesof Combustion