Whiskers

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"Whisker" redirects here. For other uses, see Whisker (disambiguation).

A Patagonian fox showing four major cranial groups of vibrissae: supraorbital (above the eye), mystacial
(where a moustache would be), genal (on the cheek, far left), and mandibular (pointing down, under the snout).

A pet rat clearly showing the grid-like arrangement of the macrovibrissae on the face, and the microvibrissae
under the nostrils. The supraorbital vibrissae above the right eye are also visible.

All the hairs of the manatee may be vibrissae.

 Macrovibrissae and supraorbital vibrissae of Phoca vitulina.

A chinchilla with large macrovibrissae.

Whiskers or vibrissae (/vabrsi/; singular: vibrissa; /vabrs/) are a type of mammalian hair that
are typically characterised, anatomically, by their large length, large and well-innervated hair follicle,
and by having an identifiable representation in the somatosensory cortex of the brain.[1]
They are specialised for tactile sensing (other types of hair operate as more crude tactile sensors).
Vibrissae grow in various places on most mammals, including all primates except humans.[2]
In medicine, the term vibrissae also refers to the thick hairs found inside human nostrils.[3]

Contents
[hide]

1Anatomy
o 1.1Vibrissal groups
o 1.2Vibrissae
2Operation
o 2.1Movement
o 2.2Function
2.2.1Marine mammals
3Lines of research
o 3.1Neuroscience
o 3.2Evolutionary biology
o 3.3Artificial whiskers
4In non-mammalian animals
o 4.1In birds
 o 4.2In fish
o 4.3In pterosaurs
5Gallery
6References
7External links

Anatomy[edit]
Vibrissal groups[edit]
Vibrissae (derived from the Latin "vibrio" meaning to vibrate) typically grow in groups in different
locations on an animal. These groups are relatively well conserved across land mammals, and
somewhat less well conserved between land and marine mammals (though commonalities are
certainly present). Species-specific differences are also found. Vibrissae of different groups may
vary in their anatomical parameters and in their operation, and it is generally assumed that they
serve different purposes in accordance with their different locations on the body.
Many land mammals, for example rats[4] and hamsters,[5] have an arrangement of cranial (of the
skull) vibrissae that includes the supraorbital (above the eyes), genal (of the cheeks), and mystacial
(where a moustache would be) vibrissae, as well as mandibular (of the jaw) vibrissae under the
snout.[6] These groups, all of which are visible in the accompanying image of the Patagonian fox, are
well conserved across land mammals though anatomical and functional details vary with the animal's
lifestyle.
Mystacial vibrissae are generally described as being further divided into two sub-groups: the large
macrovibrissae that protrude to the sides and the small microvibrissae below the nostrils that mostly
point downwards.[7] Most simply described, macrovibrissae are large, motile and used for spatial
sensing, whereas microvibrissae are small, immotile and used for object identification. These two
sub-groups can be identified in the accompanying image of the rat, but it can also be seen that there
is no clear physical boundary between them. This difficulty in delineating the sub-groups visually is
reflected by similarly weak boundaries between them in anatomical and functional parameters,
though the distinction is nonetheless referred to ubiquitously in scientific literature and is considered
useful in analysis.
Apart from cranial vibrissae, other groups are found elsewhere on the body. Many land mammals,
including domestic cats, also have carpal (of the wrist) vibrissae on the underside of the leg just
above the paws.[8] Whilst these five major groups (supraorbital, genal, mystacial, mandibular, carpal)
are often reported in studies of land mammals, several other groups have been reported more
occasionally (for instance, see [9]).
Marine mammals can have substantially different vibrissal arrangements. For instance, cetaceans
have lost the vibrissae around the snout and gained vibrissae around their blowholes,[10] whereas
every single one of the body hairs of the Florida manatee (see image) may be a vibrissa.[11] Other
marine mammals (such as seals and sea-lions) have cranial vibrissal groups that appear to
correspond closely to those described for land mammals (see the accompanying image of a seal),
although these groups function quite differently.
Vibrissae[edit]
The vibrissal hair is usually thicker and stiffer than other types of (pelagic) hair[12] but, like other hairs,
the shaft consists of an inert material (keratin) and contains no nerves.[12] However, vibrissae are
different from other hair structures because they grow from a special hair follicleincorporating
a capsule of blood called a blood sinus which is heavily innervated by sensory nerves.[13][14]
The mystacial macrovibrissae are shared by a large group of land and marine mammals (see
images), and it is this group that has received by far the most scientific study. The arrangement of
these whiskers is not random: they form an ordered grid of arcs (columns) and rows, with shorter
whiskers at the front and longer whiskers at the rear (see images).[7] In the mouse, gerbil, hamster,
rat, guinea pig, rabbit, and cat, each individual follicle is innervated by 100200 primary afferent
nerve cells.[13]These cells serve an even larger number of mechanoreceptors of at least eight distinct
types.[14] Accordingly, even small deflections of the vibrissal hair can evoke a sensory response in the
animal.[15] Rats and mice typically have approximately 30 macrovibrissae on each side of the face,
with whisker lengths up to around 50 mm in (laboratory) rats, 30 mm in (laboratory) mice, and a
slightly larger number of microvibrissae.[7] Thus, an estimate for the total number of sensory nerve
cells serving the mystacial vibrissal array on the face of a rat or mouse might be 25,000.
Rats and mice are considered to be "whisker specialists", but marine mammals may make even
greater investment in their vibrissal sensory system. Seal whiskers, which are similarly arrayed
across the mystacial region, are each served by around 10 times as many nerve fibres as those in
rats and mice, so that the total number of nerve cells innervating the mystacial vibrissae of a seal
has been estimated to be in excess of 300,000.[16] Manatees, remarkably, have around 600 vibrissae
on or around their lips.[10]
Whiskers can be very long in some species; the length of a chinchilla's whiskers can be more than a
third of its body length (see image).[17] Even in species with shorter whiskers, they can be very
prominent appendages (see images). Thus, whilst whiskers certainly could be described as
"proximal sensors" in contrast to, say, eyes, they offer a tactile sense with a sensing range that is
functionally very significant.

Operation[edit]
Movement[edit]
Main article: Whisking in animals

A yawning cat shows how the mystacial macrovibrissae can be swept forward.

The follicles of some groups of vibrissae in some species are motile. Generally, the supraorbital,
genal and macrovibrissae are motile,[5]whereas the microvibrissae are not. This is reflected in
anatomical reports that have identified musculature associated with the macrovibrissae that is
absent for the microvibrissae.[18] A small muscle 'sling' is attached to each macrovibrissa and can
move it more-or-less independently of the others, whilst larger muscles in the surrounding tissue
move many or all of the macrovibrissae together.[18][19]
Amongst those species with motile macrovibrissae, some (rats, mice, flying squirrels, gerbils,
chincillas, hamsters, shrews, porcupines, opossums) move them back and forth periodically in a
movement known as whisking,[20] while other species (cats, dogs, racoons, pandas) do not appear
to.[1] The distribution of mechanoreceptor types in the whisker follicle differs between rats and cats,
which may correspond to this difference in the way they are used.[14] Whisking movements are
amongst the fastest produced by mammals.[21] In all whisking animals in which it has so far been
measured, these whisking movements are rapidly controlled in response to behavioural and
environmental conditions.[1] The whisking movements occur in bouts of variable duration, and at
rates between 3 and 25 whisks/second. Movements of the whiskers are closely co-ordinated with
those of the head and body.[1]
Function[edit]
Generally, vibrissae are considered to mediate a tactile sense, complementary to that of skin. This is
presumed to be advantageous in particular to animals that cannot always rely on sight to navigate or
to find food, for example, nocturnal animals or animals which forage in muddy waters. Sensory
function aside, movements of the vibrissae may also indicate something of the state of mind of the
animal,[22] and the whiskers play a role in social behaviour of rats.[23]
The sensory function of vibrissae is an active research areaexperiments to establish the
capabilities of whiskers use a variety of techniques, including temporary deprivation either of the
whisker sense or of other senses. Animals can be deprived of their whisker sense for a period of
weeks by whisker trimming (they soon grow back), or for the duration of an experimental trial by
restraining the whiskers with a flexible cover like a mask (the latter technique is used, in particular, in
studies of marine mammals[24]). Such experiments have shown that whiskers are required for, or
contribute to: object localization,[25][26] orienting of the snout, detection of movement, texture
discrimination, shape discrimination, exploration, thigmotaxis, locomotion, maintenance of
equilibrium, maze learning, swimming, locating food pellets, locating food animals, and fighting, as
well as nipple attachment and huddling in rat pups.[1]
Whiskingthe periodic movement of the whiskersis also presumed to serve tactile sensing in
some way. However, exactly why an animal might be driven "to beat the night with sticks", as one
researcher once put it,[27] is a matter of debate, and the answer is probably multi-faceted.
Scholarpedia[1] offers:
"Since rapid movement of the vibrissae consumes energy, and has required the evolution of
specialised musculature, it can be assumed that whisking must convey some sensory advantages to
the animal. Likely benefits are that it provides more degrees of freedom for sensor positioning, that it
allows the animal to sample a larger volume of space with a given density of whiskers, and that it
allows control over the velocity with which the whiskers contact surfaces."
Animals that do not whisk, but have motile whiskers, presumably also gain some advantage from the
investment in musculature. Dorothy Souza, in her book Look What Whiskers Can Do[28] reports some
whisker movement during prey capture (in cats, in this case):
"Whiskers bend forward as the cat pounces. Teeth grasp the mouse tightly around its neck. The cat
holds on until the prey stops wriggling."
Anecdotally, it is often stated that cats use their whiskers to gauge whether an opening is wide
enough for their body to pass through.[29][30] This is sometimes supported by the statement that the
whiskers of individual cats extend out to about the same width as the cat's body, but at least two
informal reports indicate that whisker length is genetically determined and does not vary as the cat
grows thinner or fatter.[22][31] In the laboratory, rats are able to accurately (within 5-10%) discriminate
the size of an opening,[32] so it seems likely that cats can use their whiskers for this purpose.
However, reports of cats, particularly kittens, with their heads firmly stuck in some discarded
receptacle are commonplace[33]indicating that if a cat has this information available, it doesn't always
make best use of it.
Marine mammals[edit]
Pinnipeds have well-developed tactile senses. Their mystacial vibrissae have ten times
the innervation of terrestrial mammals, allowing them to effectively detect vibrations in the
water.[34] These vibrations are generated, for example, when a fish swims through water. Detecting
vibrations is useful when the animals are foraging and may add to or even replace vision, particularly
in darkness.[35]
The upper, smooth whisker belongs to a California sea lion. The lower undulated whisker belongs to a harbor
seal.

Harbor seals have been observed following varying paths of another seal that swam ahead several
minutes before, similar to a dog following a scent trail,[24][36] and even to discriminate the species and
the size of the fish responsible for the trail.[37] Blind ringed seals have even been observed
successfully hunting on their own in Lake Saimaa, likely relying on their vibrissae to gain sensory
information and catch prey.[38] Unlike terrestrial mammals, such as rodents, pinnipeds do not move
their vibrissae over an object when examining it but instead extend their moveable whiskers and
keep them in the same position.[35] By holding their vibrissae steady, pinnipeds are able to maximize
their detection ability.[39] The vibrissae of seals are undulated and wavy while sea
lion and walrus vibrissae are smooth.[40] Research is ongoing to determine the function, if any, of
these shapes on detection ability. The vibrissa's angle relative to the flow, not the shape, however,
seems to be the most important factor.[39]

Lines of research[edit]
Neuroscience[edit]
A large part of the brain of whisker-specialist mammals is involved in the processing of nerve
impulses from vibrissae, a fact that presumably corresponds to the important position the sense
occupies for the animal. Information from the vibrissae arrives in the brain via the trigeminal
nerve and is delivered first into the trigeminal sensory complex of brainstem. From there, the most
studied pathways are those leading up through parts of thalamus and into barrel cortex,[41] though
other major pathways through the superior colliculus in midbrain (a major visual structure in visual
animals) and the cerebellum, to name but a couple, are increasingly coming under
scrutiny.[42] Neuroscientists, and other researchers, studying sensory systems favour the whisker
system for a number of reasons (see Barrel cortex), not least the simple fact that laboratory rats and
mice are whisker, rather than visual, specialists.
Evolutionary biology[edit]
The presence of mystacial vibrissae in distinct lineages (Rodentia, Afrotheria, marsupials) with
remarkable conservation of operation suggests that they may be an old feature present in a common
ancestor of all therian mammals.[43] Indeed, some humans even still develop vestigial vibrissal
muscles in the upper lip,[44] consistent with the hypothesis that previous members of the human
lineage had mystacial vibrissae. Thus, it is possible that the development of the whisker sensory
system played an important role in mammalian development, more generally.[43]
Artificial whiskers[edit]
Researchers have begun to build artificial whiskers of a variety of types, both to help them
understand how biological whiskers work and as a tactile sense for robots. These efforts range from
the abstract,[45] through feature-specific models,[46][47] to attempts to reproduce complete whiskered
animals in robot form (ScratchBot[48] and ShrewBot,[49][50][51] both robots by Bristol Robotics
Laboratory). An upcoming article at Scholarpedia will discuss the history of whiskered Robots in
detail.[52]

In non-mammalian animals[edit]

"Whiskers" on a whiskered auklet

A range of non-mammalian animals possess structures which resemble or function similarly to

mammalian whiskers.
In birds[edit]

The "whiskers" around the beak of a kakapo.

Some birds possess specialized hair-like feathers called rictal bristles around the base of the beak
which are sometimes referred to as whiskers.
The whiskered auklet (Aethia pygmaea) has striking, stiff white feathers protruding from above and
below the eyes of the otherwise slate-grey bird, and a dark plume which swoops forward from the
top of its head. Whiskered auklets sent through a maze of tunnels with their feathers taped back
bumped their heads more than twice as often as they did when their feathers were free, indicating
they use their feathers in a similar way to cats.[53]
Other birds that have obvious "whiskers" are flycatchers, swallows, nightjars, whip-poor-wills,
the kakapo and the long-whiskered owlet (Xenoglaux loweryi).
In fish[edit]
"Whiskers" on a catfish

Some fish have slender, pendulous tactile organs near the mouth. These are often referred to as
"whiskers", although they are more correctly termed barbels. Fish that have barbels include the
catfish, carp, goatfish, hagfish, sturgeon, zebrafish and some species of shark.
The Pimelodidae are a family of catfishes (order Siluriformes) commonly known as the long-
whiskered catfishes.
In pterosaurs[edit]
Anurognathid pterosaurs have a rugose (wrinkled) jaw texture that has been interpreted as the
attachment sites for vibrissae,[54] though actual vibrissae have not been recorded.[55]

Gallery[edit]

Directional sunlight highlights facial vibrissae of a cat.

An otter with facial whiskers.

Macrovibrissae of a Hooded Lister laboratory rat.



A cat's prominent macrovibrissae.

Micrograph cross section of an equine vibrissa.

Macrovibrissae of a tiger.

Laboratory mouse (C57BL/6) showing macrovibrissae.

Prominent immotile vibrissae on a horse's muzzle.



Supraorbital vibrissae and mystacial macrovibrissae of a house cat.

Whiskers of the Brown Thrasher near the head.

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