Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
MATHEMATICS IN
EARLY CHILDHOOD
EDUCATION
Nik Noraini Nik Abu Bakar
Prof Dr Lim Tick Meng
INTRODUCTION
HBEC2503 Mathematics in Early Childhood Education is one of the courses
offered by Faculty of Education at Open University Malaysia (OUM). This course
is worth 3 credit hours and should be covered over eight to 15 weeks.
COURSE AUDIENCE
This course is offered to all learners undertaking the Bachelor in Childhood
Education with Honours. As an open and distance learner, you should be
acquainted with learning independently and being able to optimise the learning
modes and environment available to you. Before you begin this course, please
ensure that you have the right course material, and understand the course
requirements as well as how the course is conducted.
STUDY SCHEDULE
It is a standard OUM practice that learners accumulate 40 study hours for every
credit hour. As such, for a three-credit hour course, you are expected to spend
120 study hours. Table 1 gives an estimation of how the 120 study hours could be
accumulated.
Study
Study Activities
Hours
Briefly go through the course content and participate in initial discussion 3
Study the module 60
Attend 3 to 5 tutorial sessions 10
Online participation 12
Revision 15
Assignment(s), Test(s) and Examination(s) 20
TOTAL STUDY HOURS 120
COURSE OUTCOMES
By the end of this course, you should be able to:
1. Summarise the sequential development of mathematical concepts;
2. Describe how the development of mathematical concepts promotes childrens
thinking skills;
3. Develop strategies which promote thinking and problem-solving skills in
children;
4. Utilise observation and assessment as a basis for planning learning activities;
and
5. Create, evaluate and select developmentally appropriate materials,
equipment and environment to support the attainment of mathematical
concepts.
COURSE SYNOPSIS
This course is divided into 10 topics. The synopsis for each topic can be listed as
follows:
Topic 3 focuses on areas that pre-school children need to learn, such as,
matching, classifying and ordering. It also discusses carrying out assessments on
learning of matching, classifying and ordering. This topic also introduces
children to the understanding of sets, and grouping of numbers and items in
their categories.
Topic 4 covers the relationship between patterns and algebra, while identifying
the different types of patterns that pre-school children learn. Various activities
are created within this topic for teaching and learning of algebra among pre-
schoolers.
Topic 7 gives an overview on what is meant by data, how to organise data and
how to analyse data. This topic teaches children how to construct graphs using
the data obtained. The concept of probability taught in this topic enables children
to make logical thinking in their mathematical calculations
Topic 10 discusses the purpose of assessment and the basis and foundation of
assessment in relation to pupils age groups. It also identifies the role of
assessment in early childhood education. Besides knowing the different types of
assessment strategies that could be used by teachers in assisting teaching
methods, it is done in order to enhance the quality of pupils learning. Lastly this
topic discusses the evaluation of assessment results.
Learning Outcomes: This section refers to what you should achieve after you
have completely covered a topic. As you go through each topic, you should
frequently refer to these learning outcomes. By doing this, you can continuously
gauge your understanding of the topic.
Summary: You will find this component at the end of each topic. This component
helps you to recap the whole topic. By going through the summary, you should
be able to gauge your knowledge retention level. Should you find points in the
summary that you do not fully understand, it would be a good idea for you to
revisit the details in the module.
Key Terms: This component can be found at the end of each topic. You should go
through this component to remind yourself of important terms or jargon used
throughout the module. Should you find terms here that you are not able to
explain, you should look for the terms in the module.
PRIOR KNOWLEDGE
No prior knowledge required.
ASSESSMENT METHOD
Please refer to myVLE.
REFERENCES
Bobis, J. Mulligan & Lowrie, T. (2009). Mathematics for children: Challenging
children to think mathematically (3rd ed.). NSW. Pearson Education.
Davis, G.A. and Keller, J.D. (2009). Exploring science and mathematics in a
childs world (1st ed.). New Jersey: Pearson Education.
Smith, S. S. (2009). Early childhood mathematics (4th ed.). Boston: Pearson.
Charles, R. & Lind, K.K. (2007). Mathematics & science for young children (5th
ed.). Clifton Park, NY: Thompson Delmar Learning
Yelland, N. , Butler, D, & Diezmann, C. (1999). Early mathematical explorations.
Needham Heights, MA: Pearson Publishing Solutions.
INTRODUCTION
Early childhood mathematics education is an important aspect of early childhood
education. It plays an important role in shaping childrens future learning of
mathematics. But ironically, unlike other levels of mathematics education, the
development of early childhood mathematics curriculum and the
implementation of teaching and learning practices are still at the infancy stage. It
seems that there is inadequate effort to carry out proper control and monitoring
of early childhood education at kindergartens in the country. Kindergartens are
given the freedom to design their own early childhood mathematics programme.
Mathematics at early childhood may appear to be very easy for teachers,
educators and even parents. But the teaching of early childhood mathematics
should not be regarded as a simple task. It requires teachers who are well
equipped with pedagogical content knowledge and skills, coupled with the right
attitudes, in order to design effective learning activities for children.
Misconception 1
Mathematics is too tough a subject to learn for young children.
Misconception 2
In order to not burden the kids, we should only teach them basic numbers and
basic shapes.
Misconception 3
In early childhood, the learning of language is more important than the learning
of mathematics. Therefore our teaching should focus on language skills rather
than mathematical skills.
Misconception 4
It is fine to teach a little mathematics, but it is irrelevant and unnecessary to carry
out assessment on young children.
Misconception 5
It is not suitable to teach young kids mathematics using the computer.
Some teachers think that the computer is a bad learning tool for young children.
They feel that the computer is an anti-social media. It is deemed as preventing
children from actively interacting with one another. It is true that wrong use of
the computer may hinder effective and healthy learning. But the problem does
not lie with the computer. It is the teacher who should be responsible for the
judicious use of the computer in helping children learn mathematics. The
computer is inherently a very powerful learning tool, particularly for learning
mathematics. If teachers are able to capitalise on the advantages of the computer
and use the tool appropriately, childrens learning of mathematics will certainly
be enhanced.
ACTIVITY 1.1
As a mathematics teacher, how would you educate the parents about
the misconceptions of mathematics education for pre-school kids?
SELF-CHECK 1.1
The four stages and their relationship to the learning of mathematics are briefly
explained as follows:
At this stage, children rely very much on their five senses (smell, taste, hear,
see and touch). They develop their understanding of ideas or concepts
through concrete experiences. They are usually egocentric and are only able
to see the world from their very own perspectives.
Stages of
Mathematics ability that can
Cognitive Characteristic
be taught
Development
egocentric; linking one object to
learn using 5 senses; another;
rely on concrete; linking numbers to
objects;
limited use of words; and
searching for hidden
Sensorimotor understand object objects;
(0 2 years ) permanence.
counting concrete
objects; and
reciting numbers (such
as 1 to 10).
egocentric; one-to-one
basic language skill; correspondence;
learn using 5 senses; and solve one-step
mathematical problems
rely on concrete using manipulative
experiences. materials;
Pre-Operations
classification, order and
(2 7 years) sequence;
basic addition and
subtraction; and
differentiate objects by
shapes and sizes.
logical thinking; advanced seriation and
Concrete classifying based on classification;
Operations features and multiple solutions to one
(7 12 years) characteristics; and problem;
concept of dimensions. basic functions; and
routine measurements.
reasoning, logical, abstract mathematical
abstract thinking; concepts; and
Formal Operations able to form hypothesis; comparing different
(above 12 years) and mathematical situations.
able to view things from
various perspectives.
ACTIVITY 1.2
Present Piagets Four Stages of Child Development and their
implications to learning of mathematics in the form of a mind map.
Based on Vygotskys Theory, it is thus clear that a teachers role is not just to
teach. What is more important is that teachers should try to make the classroom
to have a rich and an interactive learning community as much as possible.
Based on the Six Stage Theory, it is thus clear that initial learning of mathematics
could be carried out in a not-so-formal manner, with activities and games that
motivate children to play and learn.
The first two modes of representation, the enactive mode and the iconic mode
are confined to concrete experiences with objects that children can see or touch.
The symbolic mode deals with abstract concepts that may not be present
physically but only exist as ideas and can be expressed using appropriate
symbols such as language.
When children are ready to operate at the iconic mode, the use of suitable
pictures and images helps to enhance childrens understanding of mathematics.
Language and mathematics symbols play a very important role when children are
able to demonstrate the symbolic mode of representation. It is at this stage that
children begin to explore mathematical concepts which are somewhat abstract.
From the above discussion, it is thus clear that for effective learning of early
mathematics to take place, we must use suitable resources and employ the
correct teaching and learning approaches that are aligned with childrens
predominant mode of representation. The summary of the theories related to
Early Childhood Learning of Mathematics is illustrated in Table 1.2.
SELF-CHECK 1.2
1. Why is the understanding of learning theories important for early
childhood mathematics teachers?
2. What are the implications of Vygotskys Theory of Social
Development on the teaching and learning of early childhood
mathematics?
The two sets of recommendations listed above serve as good guiding principles
for teachers and educators who are involved in curriculum planning or teaching
in early childhood mathematics education.
Learning Standard
Focus Content Standard
4+ 5+
(ST 6.0) (ST 6.1) (ST 6.1.1) Matching
Pre-number Matching objects objects in pairs
experiences (ST 6.1) Matching not
similar objects in pairs,
such as cup and saucer.
(ST 6.1.3) Matching two
groups of objects:
(a) Similar; and
(b) Not similar
(matching equal and
unequal groups)
10)
(ST 7.3.3) Write 10-
20
(ST 7.4) Understand (ST 7.4.1) Counting
sequence 20, 30, 40 in 10s
and 50
(ST 8.0) (ST 8.1) Understand (ST 8.1.1) Able to
Mathematical addition operation state the sum of
operations within 10 numbers within 10
(ST 8.1.2) Counting
all and counting on
in addition
(ST 8.1.3) Addition
problem solving
(ST 8.1.4) Writing
mathematical
statement
(ST 8.1.5) Able to
say out
mathematical
statement
(ST 8.1.6) Solve
number stories
(ST 8.1.7) Tell
situation in every
life involving
addition
(ST 8.2) Understand (ST 8.2.1) Removing
operation in objects from the
substraction till 10 group and able to
count the balance
(ST 8.2.2) Use
everyday language
to state the
operation of
subtraction
(ST 8.2.3) Able to
write mathematical
statement
(ST 8.2.4) Able to
say mathematical
statement
(ST 8.2.5) Solve
number stories
(ST 8.2.6) Able to
tell situation using
subtraction
(ST 9.0) (ST 9.1) Able to (ST 9.1.1) Able to
Monetary value recognise different recognise different
values of money values of money
(ST 9.1.2) Able to
arrange value of
money in sequence
(ST 9.1.3) Able to
understand
monetary exchange
(ST 10.0) Time (ST 10.1) (ST 10.1.1) Arrange (ST 10.1.3) Able to
concept Understand time events with time state time
with reference to (ST 10.1.2) State the time (ST 10.1.4) Able to
daily activities for an activity state days in a week
(ST 10.1.5) Able to
tell events
(ST 10.1.6) Able to
state months and
days
(ST 11.0) Shape (ST 11.1) Position of (ST 11.1.1) Able to state (ST 11.1.2) Able to
and space object in space object in reference to recognise left and
environment (below, right
above...) (ST 11.1.3) Placing
object in the right
position
(ST 11.2) Able to (ST 11.2.1) Able to (ST 11.2.2) Able to
recognise shape in recognise circle, triangle recognise square,
the environment and rectangle in the triangle, rectangle
environment and circle
(ST 11.2.3) Able to
construct cuboid
from constructions
like lego
Table 1.5: Early Childhood Mathematics Learning Content and Strategies proposed by
NAEYC & NCTM
SELF-CHECK 1.3
1. What do we mean by content standard?
2. How are the early childhood mathematics content standards
adopted by other countries useful to us?
INTRODUCTION
Adults thinking about mathematics is very different from children. To most
adults, mathematics is about numbers, formulas and calculations. But to children,
mathematics is something (concepts and skills) that allows them to process and
to establish the connections between the different elements or objects that they
perceive with their senses. The use of mathematical concepts and skills such as
comparing, measuring, patterning and ordering helps children to understand
phenomena, appreciate design, and solve problems they face and to make
predictions.
his cot to his parents bed next to the cot. As children grow, they gradually move
from intuitive thinking to a more organised form of mathematical thinking.
Since mathematics is about thinking, not just about doing, it is important to stress
that leaving children alone playing and exploring with manipulatives such as
blocks or peg boards is not sufficient to develop childrens formal mathematical
thinking. To facilitate the move from intuitive thinking to formal mathematical
thinking, parents and teachers need to provide children with appropriate
vocabulary and dialogues that promote childrens understanding of and
reflection on mathematics. Thus language plays an important role in childrens
development of mathematical concepts and skills.
Babies and children rely on their five senses to learn about the world around
them. As they grow, they gradually acquire the concepts about language through
interactions with people around them; and at the same, they also gradually form
mathematical ideas and concepts long before they understand what the four
arithmetical operations are (addition, subtraction, multiplication and division).
The ability of children to communicate basic mathematical ideas and concepts
using proper mathematical language provides the strong basis for future learning
of mathematics.
Children learn best when they are at their natural setting. This is true for both the
learning of a language or for the learning of mathematics per se. Children in early
childhood are exposed to a world full of mathematical experiences. They are often
involved in activities like counting, sorting, comparing and selecting as they play
and interact. Throughout childrens play, language is used as a means for children
to express their mathematical thinking. It is therefore important for the teacher to
be able to teach at the right moment using the right language so as to help
children build the connection between daily experiences with mathematical
concepts and ideas. Appropriate use of language enhances childrens mathematical
There are various strategies that can be used to develop childrens mathematical
language skills. These include activities like drama, childrens literature, role play,
story-telling, singing songs or rhymes, and many others that you can think of.
In this kindergarten lesson, pupils may use the nursery rhyme "Baa Baa Black
Sheep" to practice non-locomotor skills by acting out the rhyme, or develop
number sense by participating in a number-matching activity.
Math nursery rhymes are an effective way for introducing mathematical ideas
and concepts simply because most young children enjoy listening to music or
songs with nice rhythm. Many nursery rhymes and songs for children are
designed to guide childrens learning in a step-by-step manner. Using songs to
learn mathematics makes learning more fun and interesting. Learning is not
deliberately taught but comes by naturally as children enjoy singing the nursery
rhymes and songs that teach mathematical ideas and concepts. In this way, it is
easier for children to remember numbers and how to count numbers.
Very often, the nursery rhymes or songs demonstrate how mathematics can be
applied in childrens daily activities and in this way, mathematics becomes less
abstract but more meaningful and more interesting to the young children.
The following tables show three popular songs or nursery rhymes and the
mathematical language, concepts and skills that can be taught using these songs
or rhymes:
Digits 1 to 10
Mathematical
Give a dog a bone
Language
On my (thumb, shoe, door and so on)
ACTIVITY 2.1
1. Search on the Web for childrens songs or nursery rhymes that can
be used to teach mathematical ideas or concepts related to:
(a) Shapes; and
(b) Measurement.
2. Discuss how would you use songs to teach the related mathematical
concepts with your coursemates.
Number Sense and Concept of big, small, bigger, smaller, biggest, smallest,
Quantity many, too many, how many, few, fewer, too
few, enough, not enough, none, some more,
count, different, more, less, the same, less than,
greater than
Four Operations (+,, , ) sum, total, add, minus, take away, plus, times,
multiply, how many times, how many more,
how many left, share equally, divide
Patterns and Relationship between before, after, next, first, second, third, last,
Patterns above, below, between, biggest, match, list,
pattern, smallest, bigger, smaller, one more, ten
more, one less, ten less, arrange, same, different
Shapes and Space round, sides, corners, flat, box, carton, circle,
square, triangle, tube, stairs, room, container,
more, less, more than, less than
Measurement of Length and Distance long, short, longer, shorter, longer than, shorter
than, longest, shortest, height, width, high, low,
deep, shallow, thick, thin, tallest, , far, near
Measurement of Weight heavy, light, heavier, lighter, heaviest, lightest,
balance, weigh, weigh more, weigh less
Measurement of Time morning, afternoon, evening, day, night, today,
tomorrow, hours, minutes, seconds, long hand,
short hand, fast, slow, faster, slower, fastest,
slowest, long, short, longer, shorter, longest,
shortest, now, soon, early, late, old, older, oldest,
new, newer. newest, takes longer time, take less
time, clock, before, after
Measurement of Money money, coin, price, how much, buy, sell, spend,
pay, change, cheap, cheaper than
Words Used to Make Comparison high low
big small
large small
more less
loud soft
young old
tall short
heavy light
Generally, there are six categories of maths talk of which children are involved
in during their free play activities. These six categories are:
(a) Classification;
(b) Magnitude/size;
(c) Enumeration;
(d) Patterns and shapes;
(e) Spatial relations; and
(f) Concepts of part and whole.
(a) Classification
Classification refers to the arrangement of objects into different groups
according to their criteria. For example, children may sort wooden blocks
into groups according to their colours or shapes.
(b) Magnitude
Magnitude refers to making evaluation of items or making comparison
between items based on the magnitude. For example, a child may compare
two toys and claim that his toy is bigger than his friends toy.
Can you think of other terms that early childhood mathematics teachers can
use to convey the idea of magnitude to children?
(c) Enumeration
Enumeration here means making numerical judgment or quantification. For
example a child may be taught to say he is 5 years old. Another child may
express that he has more pencils than his friend who sits next to him by
saying I have two pencils. You have one!
Figure 2.4: Children may learn to arrange objects according to a certain pattern
Figure 2.5: Activity involving spatial relations includes playing with Lego bricks and
articulating maths talk.
Since play is childrens core activity, it would be better if teachers could design
play activities that integrate mathematics seamlessly into the play environment.
In other words, carrying out play activities may be a better approach for young
children. It needs, however, adequate knowledge and skills for teachers to be
able to create learning environment with appropriate tasks, challenges and
language to support effective understanding of mathematics. It also needs to be
noted that whatever the approach used, childrens play activities must be
designed to suit the ages of the children involved.
ACTIVITY 2.2
Design a play activity that involves children playing directly with
the following mathematical concepts:
(a) Magnitude; and
(b) Spatial Relations.
SELF-CHECK 2.1
1. Why is the use of mathematical language important for childrens
development of mathematical thinking?
2. Why is it that integrating mathematical concepts into childrens
play is more effective than teaching children mathematics as a
subject?
Teachers should identify useful words or terms that help children understand
mathematical concepts of various topics
" INTRODUCTION
Children build their conceptual understanding of mathematics in a sequential
manner with one concept built upon another. Initial learning is normally
Copyright Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 3 EARLY MATHEMATICS CONCEPTS: CLASSIFYING, 41
MATCHING, SORTING AND ORDERING
One of the earliest mathematical concepts that children develop is the concept of
attributes. The attributes that distinguish one material from another include
colour, size, shape, height, width, length, and weight. The understanding of the
concept of attributes forms the basis for the learning of many other higher
mathematical concepts. Piaget relates the learning of physical knowledge about
colour, size, shape and texture to childrens construction of logico-mathematical
knowledge which is the basic foundation of mathematical thinking.
3.1 CLASSIFICATION
One of the early mathematical concepts that children acquire through free or
guided exploration is the skill of classification. To perform the task of classifying
objects, children need to be able to discriminate, match, sort, group or categorise
objects based on their attributes. The knowledge about classification is the basic
foundation to understanding the concept of sets in mathematics. Children need
to use their senses to observe the various sets of objects, and also to identify the
similarities and differences between these objects. Classification requires children
to group objects with one or more common features or attributes.
The following Table 3.1 shows a list of attributes and the attributed values at the
qualitative level.
Table 3.1: List of Attributes and their Qualitative Values
In the process of developing the concepts and skills of classification, a child needs
to go through the following logical or Piagetian sequence of learning:
(a)" Learning to discriminate, that is, to decide whether the two items given to
him are the same or different;
(b)" Learning to match and group items based on a specific attribute; and
(c)" Learning to classify or categorise items based on a combination of two or
more attributes.
A Venn diagram can be used to group objects into sets and subsets (Figure 3.2),
as well as to describe the intersections and unions of sets.
Given two sets A and B, the intersection is the set that contains elements or
objects that belong both to A and to B. For example, set A is the set that contains
all pupils in class Alpha who bring food to school, and set B is the set that
contains all pupils in class Alpha who bring money to school. Then the
intersection of A and B contains pupils from class Alpha who bring both food
and money to school.
ACTIVITY 3.1
Collect pictures of 5 different childrens toys that can be used to help
children learn classification based on attributes. Write down clearly
what kind of learning can be acquired for each toy you identify.
SELF-CHECK 3.1
3.2 MATCHING
Matching is the concept of one-to-one correspondence. It is an important concept
because it forms the basis for understanding our number system, noting that we
give meaning to each number (1, 2, 3, ) by matching the number to the quantity
of items represented by that number. Table 3.2 shows some examples of the
activities that can be used to help children learn about matching.
Table 3.2: Samples of Learning Activities to Help Children Learn about Matching
Learning Activity Children are asked to place each of the coloured cards provided
into the right hole on the wooden board
Skills Learned 1. Identifying shapes that are similar and shapes that are
different
2. Matching shapes which are identical
Learning Aids
Figure 3.4
Learning Activity Children are asked to move the rectangular strips provided to
the right position of the drawing
Concepts and Skills 1. Identifying identical shapes based on length and width
Learned 2. Matching shapes of the same colour
3. Matching shapes which are identical
4. Recognising shapes and colours
Learning Aids
Figure 3.5
Mathematics Ideas 1." One-to-one correspondence
and Concepts 2." Geometrical shapes
3." Length and width
Figure 3.6: The items to be matched are identical but not symmetrical
Figure 3.8: The two sets to be matched do not have equal number of items
Figure 3.9: The two items or objects to be matched are not identical. Children need to
understand the relationship between the two items to be matched
ACTIVITY 3.2
Describe how you would measure the different levels of achievement of
children in performing a matching task. Write your answer in the
myVLE forum.
Figure 3.10
Mathematical Ideas 1." Concept of sets
and Concepts 2." Organising data and displaying data
Since ordering involves arranging three or more objects, it is a more difficult task
than just making a comparison between two objects. A very young child below
two years old might not be able to seriate or arrange objects at all. Normally, a
two to four year old child who might not be able to see the pattern of order could
make some effort to arrange the objects in a random manner. But a five year old
child might be able to arrange objects in a certain pattern or order through trial
and error. Children of six years or above could possibly be able to arrange objects
through a systematic way. Such changing ability of a typical child is in alignment
with the stages of cognitive development put forward by Piaget.
Activities designed for learning about ordering or seriation can range from basic
seriation involving ordering one set of objects, to double seriation involving
ordering two sets of objects, or reverse seriation which involves reversing the
order of arrangement.
SELF-CHECK 3.2
Figure 3.11
Mathematical Ideas 1." Concept of size
and Concepts 2." Concept of order of size
5." The teacher asks the children to place the boxes one
top of the another in order of size, from small to big
(concept of reverse seriation)
Skills Learned 1." Identifying objects of different sizes
2." Differentiating and selecting objects according to size
of big, medium-size and small
Learning Aids
Figure 3.12
(Similar objects with different sizes)
Mathematical Ideas 1." Concept of size
and Concepts 2." Concept of order of size
3." Concept of reverse seriation
Preschool teachers are always concerned about effective assessments that can be
carried out to assess childrens understanding of mathematics. There are two
suggestions.
Table 3.6: Checklist for Preschool Early Mathematical Concepts: Matching and
One-to-one Correspondence
Table 3.8: Checklist for Preschool Early Mathematical Concepts: Order or Seriation
1st 2nd 3rd
Concepts/Stages of Development Assessment Assessment Assessment
Date Date Date
1." Comparing opposites (e.g.,
long/short, big/small,
heavy/light, etc)
2." Ordering three objects in
random order
3." Ordering three objects by trial
and error
4." Performing reverse seriation
5." Performing double seriation
6." Describing or explaining what
has been done when carrying
out tasks like comparing and
ordering
The activities designed by a teacher for the purpose of assessment need to match
the knowledge and skills to be assessed. With appropriate activities, the use of
the checklist will then be able to help determine as well as monitor childrens
progress and performance.
" The concept of attributes forms the basis for the learning of many other
higher mathematical concepts.
" The ability to carry out the task of classifying, matching, sorting and ordering
is an important foundation for future learning of algebraic concepts.
" The learning of mathematical concepts and skills for children follows a
sequential manner, which is in line with Piagets stages of cognitive
development.
" Assessment can be carried out in both a formal and an informal manner.
" INTRODUCTION
Algebra is a branch of mathematics that uses mathematical statements to describe
relationships. When pupils in the secondary schools are taught algebra, they
learn to use letters to represent numbers as well as to show relationships between
numbers. For example, 5 + 2 is equal to 7 and 2 + 5 is also equal to 7, then the
following mathematics statement can be formed:
5+2=2+5
Similarly,
3 + 4 = 4 + 3;
2 + 6 = 6 + 2;
1 + 2 = 2 + 1; and so on
If pupils are able to observe the above pattern, they will be able to understand
that a + b = b + a where the letters a and b can be used to represent any two
different numbers.
Thus, it can be seen that the basic idea of algebra is all about patterns and
relationships. Knowing that, it is then not difficult for us to understand why we
need to teach young children about patterns and relationships if we want to
expose them to early algebraic concepts.
Patterns are ways for young children to recognise order and to recognise their
world and are important in all aspects of mathematics at that level. Pre-schoolers
recognise patterns in their environment and, through experiences in school,
should become more skilled in noticing patterns in arrangements of objects,
shapes and numbers, and in patterns to predict what comes next in an
arrangement (NCTM 2000, p. 91)
Patterns exist everywhere around us. Patterns exist in various forms. One
example is the use of regular geometric shapes to form repeated patterns or
tessellations for tiling purposes (refer to Figure 4.1)
Other examples are the use of numbers or attributes such as colours to form
patterns (refer to Figure 4.2)
Before children are introduced to the concepts of patterns, they are exposed to
activities like classifying, matching, sorting and ordering. These activities,
together with patterning, form the basis for analytical and logical thinking, which
are the essence of mathematical thinking.
Figure 4.5: Another repeating pattern with a core unit of three elements
ACTIVITY 4.1
Prepare an activity sheet with exercises for children to extend each of
the following patterns:
(a)" Repeating pattern;
(b)" Growing pattern; and
(c)" Shrinking pattern
Figure 4.11
Some examples of actions and movements that form patterns are as illustrated in
Figure 4.12.
Figure 4.12
Alternatively, we can create cards of various attributes (size, colour, shape, etc.)
to form pattern cards.
Let us look at the following childrens songs and try to analyse how the songs
can be used to help children develop the understanding of patterns (refer to
Figure 4.15 and 4.16).
ACTIVITY 4.2
Search the Web for two other songs that can be used to teach children
about patterns. Then, design a learning activity that uses the two songs
for learning about patterns.
The following are examples of art patterns that children can form with the guide
of the teacher:
Figure 4.18: Art pattern formed with a single shape but two colours
Figure 4.19: Art pattern formed using two geometric shapes, each with two colours
Figure 4.20: Another art pattern formed using shapes of octagons and squares
Tessellations are patterns formed when we cover a surface with flat shapes such
that there are no overlaps or gaps. The creation of complicated tessellations
requires a good knowledge and understanding of geometric principles and
properties. Therefore, involving children in such art pattern activities represent a
useful early exposure of geometry to children.
For example, when preschool children are guided in counting 1 to 10, the focus is
on the order of the numbers, that is, the number 2 is after 1, and the number 3 is
after 2, and so on. It is similar to childrens understanding that the letter B is after
the letter A, and that the letter C is after the letter B, and so on. Children can only
understand the relationship between numbers in a number pattern if they
acquired the understanding of number sense and the basic operations such as
basic additions and subtractions.
After children have acquired some knowledge and skills about classifying,
matching, sorting and ordering, they can actually be guided to apply such
knowledge and skills in investigating and understanding the concept of patterns.
Following that, children may then be guided to create patterns of their own.
Before asking to create their own patterns, it may be good to ask children to
extend patterns that we have started. In starting a pattern, we need to follow the
following basic tips:
Children need to be given the opportunity to read or tell others the pattern
that they have discovered or formed. They should also learn to tell others the
relationship between patterns and relationship between objects within patterns
that they have discovered. It is necessary to always encourage verbalising their
thought through dialogue with peers as well as with the teacher. This, to the
children, is an initial step towards concretising their mathematical thinking.
SELF-CHECK 4.1
ACTIVITY 4.3
Prepare an assessment checklist to assess childrens understanding
of repeating patterns.
Activities like sorting, classifying, ordering and patterning form the basis for
analytical and logical thinking, which are instrumental for mathematical
thinking.
There are three types of patterns that young children can learn: i) repeating
patterns, ii) growing patterns and iii) shrinking patterns.
Children learn to form patterns using people, pattern cards, concrete objects,
sound, songs, music and art.
NCTM (2000). Principles and standards for school mathematics. Reston, Va.:
National Council of Teachers of Mathematics.
LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this course, you should be able to:
1." Explain what is meant by number sense;
2." Recognise activities that could be done daily by children that involve
numbers;
3." Explain the concept of base ten and its application;
4." Describe the use of place value in multiplication and addition; and
5." Demonstrate how to teach multiplication, subtraction and addition in
2-digit numbers as well as in multi-digit numbers.
" INTRODUCTION
The foundation and basis of teaching mathematics to young children is knowing
the concepts of number sense. Understanding number sense is critical in
developing mathematical problem-solving skills. These involve counting skills,
knowledge of numbers, estimation and the ability to use mathematical problem-
solving strategies.
(h) Children normally will start counting down the number of days to their
holiday trip promised by their father or mother.
Having a developed number sense gives a person the ability to use and
understand numbers such as:
(a)" Knowing their relative values;
(b)" Knowing how to use them to make judgments;
(c)" Knowing how to use them in flexible ways when adding, subtracting,
multiplying or dividing; and
(d)" Knowing how to develop useful strategies when counting, measuring or
estimating.
A 10 year old pupil is 1.5 metre tall. How tall will he be when he is 20 years old?
Many children would answer 3 metres even though logically the tallest man on
earth is found to be 2.51m tall (Guinness World Records, 2011). The reason
children give such an answer is probably because:
(a)" The children have less experience or none at all with the metre ruler; or
(b)" The children do not have the chance to learn while in the classroom and are
not given the chance to ask questions.
Number sense is very much related to problem solving. Children that are
encouraged to use them daily and given the opportunities to play with numbers
will gradually develop mathematical thinking and an enthusiasm for mathematics.
Number sense involves the knowledge on quantity and place value. Let us look at
two different representations of the quantity of eight. Figure 5.1 shows eight boxes
placed side by side.
One pupil may say, "There are eight boxes because I started counting from left to
right and I count from 1 to 8 and stop.".
Figure 5.2 shows 8 circles placed in 2 rows. A more advanced pupil would
exclaim;
There are eight circles. The upper row has five circles and the bottom row has
three. When I add 5 to 3, it gives me 8. If I have another 2 more circles than there
will be 10 circles altogether. I also saw 6 circles in the first three columns and 2
more circles in the last two columns making them 8 circles altogether.
The children also learn that they can count objects in sequence either from top to
bottom, left to right or vice versa, in a circle or in a straight line. What is important is
as long as no objects are added or reduced, the number remains the same.
ACTIVITY 5.1
1." Discuss with your friends how children use and practice numbers in
their everyday lives. Do they memorise numbers or use objects in
translating mathematical concepts of numbers?
2." Outline an activity that makes use of 2 or 3 pieces of board that had
been divided into 10 equal squares on each board. Discuss and create
an activity that will help children to be more proficient with numbers
of either two digits or multi-digits.
This may seem to be a simple concept, but for a child to absorb the concept of place
value in numbers, it might take more effort for the teachers to explain to them.
Practically, Base 10 refers to the number system being used together. Let us take
a number, 475 as an example. In the base 10 system, 5 refers to base one (unit), 7
is in place value ten (10s), while 4 is in place value hundred (100s). Every number
is always ten times to the number next to the right of it.
Materials needed:
Marker pens and a few pieces of paper with different numbers between 10 and 19.
Activity:
(a)" Ask pupils to make dots on the paper to represent numbers.
(b)" (11 dots, 12 dots, 13 dots, 14 dots or 19 dots).
(c)" Then ask them to circle every 10 dots as shown in Figure 5.5.
(d)" Pupils will find that 16 is comprised of a group of 10 and 6, while 15 is
comprised of a group of 10 and 5.
Example:
432 = 4(102) + 3(10) + 2.
(iii) The total value of the number is the sum of its parts of the value
assigned to each figure.
(iv) We use this system to make all the basic computation using a
procedure referred to as algorithms. This operation consists of the
operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication and division. Base
10 decimal system is well used in the metric system for measuring.
Materials needed:
5 transparent plastic bag measuring approximately 15 cm 10 cm.
A bowl of any big sized beans (about 60 beans).
Teachers instruction:
Pupils must do the activity by using the materials provided to count the number
of beans.
Childrens solution:
Children put 10 beans in all five plastic bags with 10 beans each.
Children count that there are 50 beans from the plastic bag, which is 10 +10 +10
+10 +10.
Children count the 6 beans extra outside the plastic bag and add to the total of 50.
Children find out that Dania has a total of 56 seeds.
ACTIVITY 5.2
Discuss strategies that could be used in the classroom to explain the
concept of Base Ten and Place Value with your classmates in myVLE.
SELF-CHECK 5.1
Fuson et al. (1997) have reported their findings and concluded that, there are five
concepts in 2-digit numbers that children use.
The ability of children to solve problems depends on their ability to write and
understand the concept of numbers when solving mathematical problems. There
are two ways children could calculate the value in addition, subtraction,
multiplication and division. They are through:
(a) The traditional approach; and
(b) The childs own creativity.
Table 5.1 shows the mathematical problems involving two-digit numbers using
the traditional approach and the creativity of a child.
Table 5.2 shows the operation of addition using multi-digit numbers using the
traditional approach and the creativity of a pupil.
Table 5.2: Addition of Multi-digit Numbers
753 = 700 + 50 + 3
261 = 200 + 60 + 1
If children are given the freedom to choose their own working strategy and
approach to solve mathematical problems, they will be more confident and will
make a more accurate calculation when dealing with large numbers. Carrol and
Porter (1998) felt that children should be given the opportunity to calculate the
use of alternative approaches and create their own way. Children should be
encouraged to count without over reliance on the calculator.
SELF-CHECK 5.2
What are the 5 concepts that children could use in a 2-digit number and
how can these concepts be used in the multi-digit number?
" The ability to understand and use the number system is a very important
asset in the development of numbers. Place value determines the value of a
digit and the position of the number. The place value can be hundreds, tens
and unit. As children proceed to a higher level in their education, they will
encounter place values such as thousands, hundred thousands, millions and
so on. Each one is 10 times greater than the next starting from the unit value.
" The concept of base-10 blocks teaches the pupils to make a collection in
groups of ten. For example, 15 is composed of 10 and 5, 25 is made up of two
tens and five (10 + 10 + 5). Childrens calculation will be faster and more
efficient with a much more sound knowledge of the base-10 concept.
Furthermore, the place value also uses the base-10 concept.
Bideaud. J., Meljac, C., & Fischer, J.P. (2013). Pathways to number: Children's
developing numerical abilities.
Guinness World Records (2011). Tallest Man Living. Retrieved from:
http://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/world-records/size/tallest-man-
living
" INTRODUCTION
Solving problems is part of the thinking process which is the foundation of
young childrens learning. Regarded as the most complex intellectual function,
problem solving has been defined as a high-level cognitive process that requires
the modulation and control skills which are more routine or fundamental
(Goldstein & Levin, 1987). Problem solving is a form of relief method involving
certain processes that young children should learn in their early years of
education. Thus, it must be valued, promoted, provided for and sustained in the
early childhood classroom.
ACTIVITY 6.1
Nurturing a child to become a great problem solver is not difficult. There are four
strategies that may be used as guidance for teachers to foster problem solving skills
in children:
(a)" Help children see mathematical problems around them, not only in the form
of numbers, but also in the form of picture arrangements and cross-word
Copyright Open University Malaysia (OUM)
90 TOPIK 6 THE PROCESS OF PROBLEM SOLVING
ACTIVITY 6.2
Among the four problem solving strategies, which do you think is
most effective and why?
Teachers usually choose the questions that challenge the minds of pupils.
However, teachers must also not forget to wisely choose the questions that
interest the children. When they read the question, children will feel excited to
try and resolve the problem either by themselves or in groups. Avoid making
Copyright Open University Malaysia (OUM)
92 TOPIK 6 THE PROCESS OF PROBLEM SOLVING
questions that are stereotypes because children are easily bored if asked to do the
same thing.
Knowing these characteristics can help teachers gather information about what is
contemplated by the children while they attempt to provide answers to
mathematical problems.
It should be noted that the identity element for subtraction is 0 (zero). There are
two ways to prove the role of zero value in subtraction: 50=5 and 55=0.
Children should be widely exposed to the identity element to avoid confusion
during the later years of their math learning.
For example, if I have 5 pieces of biscuits and I ate 0 pieces, I still have 5 pieces of
biscuits. If I have 5 pieces of biscuits and I ate all 5 biscuits, I am left with 0
biscuits. Obviously 0 (zero) plays a dual role in this subtraction problem.
SELF-CHECK 6.1
What is meant by problem solving and how can a teacher teaching the
pre-schoolers in early childhood learning nurture and encourage the
pupils to excel in problem solving in mathematics?
For example, one class has 33 pupils, the teacher asks the pupils to form the class
into 3 equal groups. Pupils will begin to line up in three rows and each leader
will count the number in each row. When there is a surplus in a row of pupils,
the surplus pupil will be asked to move and occupy the row which is short of
pupils. In mathematical learning amongst pre-schoolers, children will
understand things much easier when it is done hands-on.
Multiplication is the operation used to obtain results when two factors are
known, example, (2 x 4) = 8. The operation is shown in diagrammatic form in
Figure 6.1
Children benefit from the experience in classifying objects such as buttons or sea
shells. For example, teacher may give this problem to pupils:
I have a bowl of blue buttons. In my bowl I have 6 blue buttons. If there
are 3 bowls which contain as many buttons as mine, how many buttons
do I have altogether?
Interaction between teachers and pupils will make pupils become excited and
learning becomes fun.
In Figure 6.2, 8 buttons are being divided into 4 groups where each group
contains 2 buttons.
Each child thinks differently to solve a problem even when they are given a
similar problem. Here is an example of some mathematics problems and the
types of solutions:
Each bag contains 7 oranges. How many oranges are there in 6 bags?
(a) Direct model: The children use direct calculation by counting from 1
onwards until all items are counted.
The child counts 7 oranges. Next the child starts counting from the first
set until all the 6 sets are completed with a total of 42 oranges.
(c) Derived facts: The child uses multiplication factor that he/she already
knows to solve the problem.
I know that 75 is 35 therefore I just add another 7 oranges to give me a
total of 42 oranges altogether, whereby 76=42.
(d) Standard mathematics facts: Children are able to use the facts given in a
very efficient manner and are able to explain how the problem of a certain
fact is interpreted. (Anghileri, 1989; Carpenter, Ansell, Franke, Fennema, &
Weisbeck, 1993; Carpenter, Fennema, Franke, Levi, & Empson, 1999;
Kouba, 1989)
"I know 76 is 42, so if there are 6 bags and each bag has 7 oranges, then
the amount of oranges in all the 7 bags is 42", explained a child who
uses a standard method of multiplication.
The thinking of a child is different for every child even of the same age. The level
of intelligence of a child is subjective and difficult to measure, until they begin to
enter a real school. At this stage of development the mind is evolving and
growing. The latest technology has helped and played a key role in children's
cognitive development. At an early age of 1 years old children have already
been exposed to iPads. The era of technology allows the impossible to be made
possible and real.
Table 6.2 describes the characteristics of mathematics and how it is being used by
children. Mathematical properties include (i) identity of element (ii) commutative
property (iii) associative property and (iv) distributive property
Table 6.2: Mathematical Characteristics and Pupils Rational
SELF-CHECK 6.2
" Mathematical solutions which occur in many classrooms are meant to teach
children to think critically and logically.
" Various strategies and methods are used in solving mathematical problems in
preschool, depending on the suitability of the pupils themselves and their
level of understanding. There are pupils who are more comfortable using
fingers to count and there are those who use blocks and objects to solve
mathematics problems.
" When the children are well versed in the problems involving multiplication,
the children will be able to solve division problems. Knowledge in
multiplication and division operations provide many advantages for teachers
to teach mathematics to solve problems.
Addition Division
Associate property Identity element
Clear order Mathematical standard facts
Cognitive process Mixed order
Commutative property Multiplication
Counting strategy Subtraction
Direct model Transitivity of equality
Distributive property Variables
" INTRODUCTION
In the early stages of learning mathematics, pupils begin to learn about data and
probability. This involves gathering information, organising information and
analysing information. Pupils should begin learning to record data by using tally
charts. There are two types of data: grouped data and ungrouped data.
Children learn to record data and represent information in the form of tables,
graphs and pie charts. Children will learn a variety of charts, graphs and tables.
The graph used at this stage is a pictograph which uses pictures to present data
values. Children will also be asked to interpret the data.
Data does not only exist in the form of numbers and values. Data can also be
collected in the form of an object that is being researched on. For example, a
collected data about colours of balloons being released on TV3 Carnival: red,
green, blue, white, black, yellow, purple, orange and gray.
In this topic, we will see how you, as an early childhood teacher can introduce to
children data and its organisation, the concept of probability and its application in
daily life, as well as nurturing logical and mathematical thinking in young children.
Nevertheless there are also some disadvantages in the learning method when
charts and graphs are used, such as:
(a)" It takes a long impoverished time because decisions must be made in
advance to make a sketch, choose colours and materials;
(b)" It is more technical because pupils need knowledge to interpret and
understand; and
(c)" It is expensive as it requires the use of tools such as manila cards, pieces of
letters and others.
Figure 7.1: Data for number of pupils with the amount of marbles collected
Vertical and horizontal column charts show that the longest column
represents the number of pupils who collected the most marbles and the
shortest column represents the number of pupils who collected the least
number of marbles.
A pie chart is also called a circle chart because of its round shape. A pie
chart is often used to interpret data in terms of percentages. In this example,
we mentioned that one student collected about 40 green marbles (32%), 20
red marbles (16%), 30 blue marbles (24%) and 35 purple marbles (28%).
A pie chart collects and stores information in a way that impresses children.
Although children do not see the numbers on the pie chart, they can see the
breakdown of colours of the least and most abundant in the divisions of the
circle. For example, in Figure 7.4, the child will interpret that the student
collected the most blue marbles and least red marbles.
(d) Pictograph
A pictograph helps children to analyse information easily from the chart. A
pictograph is a form of a chart that uses pictorial objects to represent
numbers. Figure 7.5 shows an example of a pictograph about varieties of
apples in a food store.
ACTIVITY 7.1
ACTIVITY 7.2
Present the following data into the form of vertical bar graph and pie
chart.
Example 1
The following is an ungrouped data that shows the number of books brought to
school by a child in Year 1 from Kelas 1 Permata in a class of 30.
4 5 6 4 6 4 7 4 5 7 6 5
5 3 1 5 6 5 7 4 5 6 6 6
7 6 5 4 2 5
Step 1: Gather the collected data and group the data collected using tally
charts (see Table 7.1) to form a frequency table.
Step 2: After acquiring the collected data, the children can begin to build a
graph, chart or pictograph with the help of the teacher.
Figure 7.6 shows a vertical bar graph, showing the number of pupils who bring
the various number of books to school, and constructed using Microsoft Excel.
Figure 7.8 Rectangles drawn in 7 columns and 2 rows to make a strip box
Mapping technique
Equipment:
(i) Manila card;
(ii) Sea-shells; and
(iii) Beans
Method:
(i) On the manila card draw a rectangle with seven columns and two
rows (see Figure 7. 8)
(ii) A child is then given a pile of sea-shells and beans.
(iii) The child has to separate the sea-shells and place each of the sea
shells in the drawn box on the manila card (see Figure 7.9).
(iv) Once all the shells and beans have been filled in the boxes, the
children need to answer the questions that are asked by their teacher.
From the above example, the child will begin to learn ways of mapping
and how to analyse and interpret data.
SELF-CHECK 7.1
7.3 PROBABILITY
Probability is the likelihood that an event will occur or not occur. In statistics,
probability of an event ranges from 0 to 1. 0 means that the event is certainly not
going to happen, and 1 the event will definitely occur. Sometimes we measure
probability in percentages. For example, "Chances that it will rain is 10% or you
can use words such as impossible, unlikely, likely, chance, and sure. It is likely to
rain in the evening.
Questionnaire Probability
Will tomorrows weather be bright and (a) Maybe
sunny? (b) Sure
(c) Not sure
Questions involving probabilities can only be ascertained after the survey and
calculation is conducted. Only then will a definite answer be known whether we
have made a right or wrong assumption or hypothesis. The topic of probability, if
taught using a proper technique is fun, and will be beneficial to pre-schoolers.
Understanding probability will help children to think more critically and help
them with other subjects.
In Table 7.4 we are going to see some examples of using the concept of
probability compatible to the early mathematical learning in pre-schoolers.
Activity Probability
A pupil throws a dice. Perhaps number 1 will appear, or
Perhaps number 2 will appear, or
Perhaps number 3 will appear, or
Perhaps number 4 will appear, or
Perhaps number 5 will appear, or
Perhaps number 6 will appear.
A pupils flicks a 50 cent coin. Perhaps a tail will appear or perhaps
a head will appear.
Sometimes, the most effective way to teach children is through games. Here is
one example of a game involving probability.
A black box is filled with several different marbles of different colours. Cut open
at the top of the box a hole big enough for a child to put his hand inside to pick
the marbles. Ask a child to put his hand inside the box, but before he takes out a
marble, ask him what colour he thinks the marble that he is going to pick out
from the box would be. Is it a white? blue? red? yellow? green? or an orange
marble? A confident child might answer, I am sure it is blue or if feeling
unsure the child might answer, I think it may be a yellow marble. In
probability, anything can happen. A 100% yes means the probability is 1 and a
totally wrong answer will have a probability of 0. Sample space is the different
coloured marbles in the box.
Another example that can explain the meaning of the sample space is:
If in a kindergarten there are 500 pupils, but only 10 children are taken and asked
to obtain their weights. Thus, 10 is the sample space taken at random.
SELF-CHECK 7.2
Probability provides an opportunity for children to play with the
questions and find the right answers after every investigation. Give
some examples of questions that relate to the topic of probability in
mathematics.
Children can learn to record data and represent information in the form of
tables, graphs and pie charts.
Children who learn how to collect and organise data would be able to
construct simple graphs such as bar graphs, pie charts or pictographs.
Mastura Badzis & Norzaini Yang. (2012). Study guide mathematics in early
childhood education. Open University Malaysia.
Math in Children's Literature, Data Gathering and Analyzing. Retrieved from:
www.carolhurst.com/subjects/math/datagather.html
Watson, J., & Fitzallen, N. (2010). The development of graph understanding in
the mathematics curriculum.
" INTRODUCTION
Measurement is the process of measuring the physical properties of an object by
comparing it with a standard unit of measuring attributes such as length, width,
weight or volume of an object or a quantity that is not physical in nature such as
time, temperature, or the value of money
8.1 MEASUREMENT
In early childhood education, pupils use direct and indirect measurement and
estimation skills to describe, compare, evaluate, plan and construct. The terms
non-standard and standard are often used when describing prescribed
learning outcomes for measurement. Standard measurement uses ruler,
measuring tape and other means of measuring devices with units such as
centimetres or metres, feet or yards or inches. Non-standard measurement uses
blocks, pencils, hands, feet, etc. as long as they remain unchanged. For example if
we use an unsharpened pencil then the pencil should remain unsharpened
throughout the process. Table 8.1 shows attributes in measurement in early
childhood education.
ACTIVITY 8.1
Discuss with your colleagues on how to devise an activity on
measurement for young children.
In fact, children have a high level of imagination. Parents and teachers should not
prevent children from exploring their imagination but must also help develop their
imagination towards betterment.
ACTIVITY 8.2
The use of standard measuring tools and real materials train the children to
practice the correct way to measure other objects, making assumptions on the
size of an object seen or used.
We use measurements not only to measure the length or width of the object, but
also to measure and calculate area and volume of objects, time and temperature.
Table 8.2 shows classification of the types of tools to measure different objects
and the units used.
Measuring Unit of
Object Measurement
Instrument Measurement
Pencil length ruler cm
Paper area ruler cm2
Box volume ruler/measuring tape cm3
Car length measuring tape m
Room area measuring tape m2
Liquid (water) volume measuring cylinder l/ml3
Book weight weighing machine g/kg
Children weight weighing machine kg
Ice/hot water temperature thermometer C
cm= centimetre
cm2= centimetre square
cm3=centimetre cube
m=metre
l=litre
ml=mililitre
g=gram
kg=kilogram
C= degree Celsius
(b)" The next difficulty that may arise is the concept of units, and how to use the
unit. Children do not realise that using a smaller unit will increase the
number of units in measurement of a fixed quantity. For example, a piece of
string measuring 1 metre length is 100cm, 2 metres is 200cm (centimetres).
Nevertheless 1m=100cm and 2m=200cm;
(c)" The error can also occur when the child does not place the object at point '0
on the ruler;
(d)" Complexity also occurs because children are not able to distinguish
measurements of area and perimeter;
(e)" Although measurement is a technique of measuring objects to discover its
inequality between objects, children are more likely not to use the correct
measuring devices , but more to just making comparisons. For example, I
have a bigger cake than you, I'm taller than you, My pencil is longer
than your pencil; and
(f)" The illustrations in textbooks are rather vague and confusing for pupils in
the early childhood learning especially in the use of units such as cm and
inches.
SELF-CHECK 8.1
1. Formal approach of measurement uses instruments such as a
thermometer, weighing scale, measuring tapes and stop watch.
How can the children be taught the techniques of measurement in a
formal way.
2. What are the constraints that might occur when using a formal
approach in your teaching of measurement to young children?
Even before rulers could be introduced to children, teachers must ensure they are
familiar with numbers from 1 to at least 50. Rulers are used to measure length,
width and height. Once these measurements are obtained, they can calculate
areas, perimeters and volumes.
Figure 8.3 shows a rectangle measuring 5cm long and 3cm wide. The area
of this figure is obtained by multiplying its length and its width. (5cm
3cm) which gives a yield of 15cm2.
(b) Volume
We can calculate volume for 3-dimension objects such as cubes or cuboids.
The solid cuboid in Figure 8.4 has a length of 5cm, 2cm width and 3cm
height. The volume of this block can be found by multiplying the values of
length, width and height to produce the volume. [(5x2x3) cm = 30cm3].
Therefore the volume of the cuboid is 30cm3.
When told that a bottle contains 1 litre of mineral water, young children
will only give a blank stare. Why? Because 1 litre does not carry any
meaning to a child. A more practical and easy way for children to
understand is by getting the children to make a comparison. Compare a
bottle of mineral water 1000ml/1 litre, with 500ml milk (half litre) and a
bottle of 'VITAGEN' 25ml. Set up three plastic containers of the same size
and shape. Pour the mineral water in the first container, milk in the the
second and finally pour 'VITAGEN' into the third container. Children will
notice that the amount of mineral water (1 litre) is more than milk (500ml)
while VITAGEN '' (25ml) is very little compared to the rest (refer to Figure
8.5).
(c) Weight
Young children often hear adults say 'heavy'. "Basket is heavy, do not lift",
"Hanis school bag is heavy, let mummy carry it to your class", "How heavy
is this papaya?". Teachers can create their own scales using hangers and
paper cups (refer to Figure 8.6). Children will be excited to use these scales.
Teachers should explain to the young child that the cup contains the object
tilted down because it is much heavier than the object in a second paper
cup. Encourage children to use a variety of objects and record the weight of
the two objects that are weighed. Through this activity the children will
realise that a large object does not necessarily weigh more than the smaller
object and small objects might be heavier than bigger objects.
If the child is able to read and recognise letters and numbers, the actual
scales can be used. There are various tools to consider, depending on the
type of the object to be weighed (refer to Figure 8.7).
(d) Temperature
Teachers are encouraged to make a chart for weather and temperature, and
paste it on the walls or notice boards in the classroom (refer to Figure 8.8).
In the early stages, the young children will be taught whether the weather
is hot, cloudy, rainy or windy. Later, they are taught that the temperature
during hot weather is higher than the temperature when the weather is
cloudy or raining.
To make learning more interesting for the children in the classroom, teachers
could bring a clinical thermometer to the children. A simple activity can be
conducted. The teacher randomly chooses some pupils and take the temperature
of their bodies. A special thermometer placed on the childs forehead, is used. An
example of the childrens temperatures is recorded in the data in Table 8.3
Our normal body temperature is 37C. From the data obtained, we may notify the
pupils that Abigails body temperature is 38.0C, a little higher than the normal body
temperature. Thus, there is a possibility that Abigail is having a slight fever.
Every day on television, weather reports display data for the states in Malaysia
and overseas. Young children should be encouraged to watch it, and parents
should try to explain the concept of temperature to their children.
Learning through songs about the days of the week is one of the ways to learn about
time. Children love to sing! Learning becomes fun and easy through music and
poetry. Children learn faster when the days are noted on the calendar while singing
songs or reading a poem.
The curriculum of early childhood education begins to teach the children to look
at pictures of clocks and tell the time shown in hours: 1 oclock, 2 o'clock, 3
o'clock and 12 o'clock, besides describing the concept of night and day which
uses the same count. Once the child is able to read the time on the clock
according to the count of the hour, children will be taught how to count and read
the movement of the minute which is calculated every 5 minutes.
Now, in modern technology, children are exposed to a digital clock where they
only need to read the numbers displayed on the screen to tell time. For example,
3.47am or 4.19pm.
The activities in many classrooms provide opportunities for pupils to learn the
concept of time effectively. Some examples of activities are shown below:
Example 1
By using a stopwatch, the teacher tells the pupils to close their eyes for 1 minute.
After the one minute, stop the stopwatch and asked the pupils to open their eyes.
This activity is designed so that pupils can feel the duration time of 1 minute. The
same activity can be repeated for 2 minutes or 3 minutes.
Example 2
Children are given a drawing of an object to be coloured or painted. Before
starting to colour, the children were asked to look at the clock and note the time .
Once the children have finished colouring, they will be asked to note down the
time. The children will learn and notice how long they took to finish colouring.
Example 3
All children are given a checklist for them to make a note of the time taken while
making a number of activities, daily for a week, as set out in Table 8.4.
With such a schedule, the child will always feel excited to create activities and
constantly think about time.
SELF-CHECK 8.2
Children sometimes have difficulty in doing the process of measuring.
What are the techniques that could be used when measuring liquids
using informal measurement?
" There are two types of measurement for young children; standard and non-
standard measurement.
" The concept of time is very important to preschoolers because it involves our
everyday lives, no matter how young or old. Time affects our lives and
children can be trained to appreciate time and use it well.
" INTRODUCTION
Developmental stages in children gradually develop and expand as they grow
older and maturity in thinking increases.
Learning mathematics is not conducted only in formal schools but should begin
in preschool. This is because the effective learning of a child develops at an early
age, and will form a strong foundation of learning that will help them to continue
Some things that teachers can consider in managing the learning environment
include:
(a)" Building an environment that is able to provide effective teaching and
learning;
(b)" Strengthening the role of teachers in the mathematics learning environment;
(c)" Developing the integration of technology in teaching and the learning
environment; and
(d)" Organising teaching strategies to improve the learning environment.
Apart from having a comfortable and conducive learning centre, the materials in
teaching mathematics in early childhood learning must also be carefully
designed to diversify teaching, in order to attract the attention of children.
Other than that, the learning environment is also affected by factors such as:
(a)" The belief of teachers teaching mathematics;
(b)" Teaching expertise in mathematics and an understanding of how pupils
learn mathematics;
(c)" Past experiences of pupils;
(d)" Expectations of parents; and
(e)" School policies.
Each activity must be planned so as to avoid wasting time and can thus provide
the maximum benefit to the pupils. The teacher should plan learning activities in
the classroom which should last for half an hour (30 minutes). Plan activities
which involve the number concept. Table 9.1 shows an example of activities
suitable for 5 year old pupils at the kindergarten.
Table 9.1: Example of a Mathematics Lesson Plan for 5-year old Pupils
Lesson Plan
Subject: Mathematics
Total number of pupils: 20 pupils
Age : 5 Year old
Time: 9am until 9.30am. (1/2 hour)
Time Learning Module
9.00am-9.05am Induction
Introducing cube, cuboid and concept of numbers.
Teacher explains while showing the block.
9.05am-9.15am Provide sense of numbers and experience to the children on the
concepts of number and quantity. Children are exposed to using
blocks of various shapes. Let the children hold two blocks, one
on the left hand and one on the right hand, saying "a block".
Every time they show the block, they will be repeating the words
but the number will be increased, two blocks, three blocks,
four blocks, and so on. Over time, the child can arrange the
blocks in accordance with the characteristics of the other.
9.15am-9.25am To develop the ability to count in sequence and in a position
such as first, second, third and so on. Children take a few pieces
of the block. Each person count the blocks one by one. Other
children will be watching.
1. Several pieces of blocks arranged in a row and the children
will be counting the blocks.
2. The blocks are compiled into a tower. Children count the
blocks used to make the construction.
3. The blocks are arranged in a straight line. Children are asked
to show the position of the first block, second, third, and so
on. These activities are conducted after the child is familiar
with the concept of numbers. In the initial stages do not
exceed the number 5 then 10.
9.25am-9.30am Giving a sense of fun to learn mathematics. Teachers sing with
children a song that has numbers in the lyrics while using
fingers. Over time the child can count with the fingers while
singing.
ACTIVITY 9.1
1. Plan activities in the classroom suitable for children aged five years.
Describe in detail how you plan to execute the plan in your own
classroom. Write your answer in myVLE forum.
2. What preparations should you do as a teacher teaching mathematics
to preschool children?
Elements of Socio-
Examples
Emotional Skill
Self-Awareness Recognising and knowing one's emotions
Understand the causes and circumstances of a person
Recognising and knowing the emotions of others
Recognising the inner strength, and stir positive feelings
about self, school, family, and support network
Knowing the needs and values of a person
Looking at the requirements and values of a person
Believing personal effectiveness
Have a sense of spirituality
Value diversity
Social Awareness Showing respect for others
Listen carefully and accurately
Increase empathy and sensitivity to the feelings of others
Understanding the views and feelings of others
Responsible for decisions Analyse the situation perceptively and identify the problem
clearly
Practice social decision making and problem solving
skills
Respond constructively in solving interpersonal problems
Engage in self-assessment and reflection
Face up to personal responsibility, morality, and ethics.
Relationship Management Managing emotions in relationships, harmonising the
various feelings
Demonstrate sensitivity to social-emotional cues
Expressing feelings effectively
Communicate clearly
Involve others in social situations
Build relationships
Collaborate
Practicing self-tendencies, leadership, and persuasion
Manage conflict, negotiation, and refusal
Preparing and looking for help
Self-Management and Expressing and dealing with anxiety, anger, and
Organisation depression
Controlling impulses, aggression, and self-destruction
and antisocial behaviour
Manage personal and interpersonal pressures
Focus on existing tasks
Setting short and long term goals
Plan carefully and thoughtfully
Modifying performance based on feedback
Mobilising positive motivation
Activating hope and confidence
Work towards optimal performance
SELF-CHECK 9.1
1." Give examples of how negative emotions and stress can affect
learning of a pupil.
2." What are the elements of socio-emotional learning skills and the
effects on the learning of the pupil?
The following are some instructional methods and strategies that can be
employed by teachers to enhance mathematics learning environment:
Figure 9.1 shows the learning process through method of induction which
could be practised to enhance the learning of mathematics.
Figure 9.3 shows steps used in the inquiry-discovery method starting from
identifying the problem until a summary or solution is achieved.
At the beginning, the teacher will start a discussion and ask questions
related to a topic. During the discussion, pupils are encouraged to give their
views while the teacher acts as an observer, stimulating pupils to give
opinions and help pupils make the conclusion. Focus areas in discussions
that teacher must take into consideration are:
(i)" The relevance of the discussion;
(ii)" Accuracy of facts;
(iii)" Relevance and fitness of ideas presented; and
(iv)" Mode of discussion.
Figure 9.4 shows four characteristics in the questioning method that can be
used by teachers.
STAGES OF QUESTIONING
Table 9.4 shows the examples of questions that could be used in the process
of questioning based on the levels of Blooms Taxonomy.
(g) Expository
Expository is a way of delivering education through information,
storytelling or demonstration with the aim of teaching. Teachers provide
information in advance and pupils listen carefully to understand and
remember them.
Figure 9.6 shows the stages of delivering information to the pupils in the
expository method.
Advantages Disadvantages
Teachers save time, easy to control Boring
discipline
Effective in conveying information, Becomes a long lecture if used in the
concepts and principles of mathematics whole of teaching and learning concept
(h) Laboratory
When children study mathematics, they need concrete activities to
understand the symbols and signs of abstract mathematics. In the
laboratory method, pupils use mathematical resources or tools available in
the laboratory to experience concrete activities while discovering the
principles, laws and theorems of mathematics.
For example, to find out the relationship between the measurement of units
such as 1kg = 1000g, 1L = 1000ml, 1m = 100cm, children may get hands on
experience by using measuring instruments such as scales during
laboratory sessions.
(i) Demonstration
It is a technique that involves teachers demonstrating how to do an activity
or steps in front of the pupils. Demonstration starts with teachers
demonstrating what needs to be done while pupils hear, observe and
attempt to do the activity. For example, a teacher can demonstrate how to
draw an angle using a protractor.
Cooperative Collaborative
Pupils receive training in teamwork It is assumed that the pupils have the social
and social skills skills required. They need to develop their
Activities are structured where each existing skills to achieve learning goals
pupil plays a specific role Pupils make discussion and self-organise
Teachers monitor, listen and The group activity is not monitored by
intervene in group activities if teachers. If any questions arise, questions are
necessary answered by the group itself. Teachers only
Pupils need to submit their work for guide pupils toward resolving the question
assessment at the end of the lesson Pupils keep working draft for further tasks
Pupils evaluate the performance of Pupils evaluate the performance of
individuals and groups under the individuals and groups without the
guidance of teachers guidance of a teacher
Various types of media or materials used during learning and teaching are
able to improve the learning and teaching techniques and can enhance
critical thinking and mental skills.
SELF-CHECK 9.2
The activities must be arranged according to the age of the child, and have a
variety of activities and presentations that are interesting for further learning.
INTRODUCTION
In the normal schools, assessments and evaluations are done every semester to
assess the childrens competency. In preschool, evaluations and assessments are
also conducted on the early childhood learners to determine their achievements
and progress, so as to diagnose any problems in the child or any problems that
might arise in the method of teaching and learning. It will also help in making
decisions on matters related to the curriculum. In doing so parents will be
notified of their childrens progress
Assessment for early childhood must be developed and practiced in the best
interests of children and their future in the learning of mathematics in particular.
Evaluation is important because it can assess the cognitive development of the
intellectual, emotional, language and communication and behaviour of a child.
Most children beginning Grade 1 count by ones accurately, and know a few skip
counting sequences, but some children are still coordinating one-to-one counting
of objects. The way to determine childrens learning needs is to assess what each
child already understands in mathematics, and to find areas where each child
begins to experience difficulties.
(e) Multiplication strategies These children are able to multiply two numbers,
using thinking strategies such as multiplying by
tens, doubling, repeated addition, or turning
numbers around. They are able to mentally
multiply small numbers without making a model.
(f) Division strategies These children are able to divide a number equally,
using thinking strategies such as dividing by tens,
halving, and using repeated addition or
subtraction. They are able to mentally divide small
numbers without making a model.
E. Early Childhood Geometry Development
Childhood Development Descriptions
Beginning These children are just beginning to match very
simple two-dimensional figures shown in
conventional orientations.
Whole shapes These children can name and match simple two-
dimensional figures shown in conventional
orientations. They match shapes to common
prototypes, e.g. isosceles or equilateral triangles
only. They attend to the whole of the shape, and do
not yet describe any part of a shape.
Exploring shape parts These children are beginning to attend to the parts of
a shape, and typically describe the numbers of sides
and corners a figure has, after counting these.
They can visualise rotations of some simple shapes.
Understand shape parts These children attend to many parts of a shape, and
are able to fully describe a figures properties.
They recognise examples beyond common
prototypes, e.g. scalene and right triangles. They
can visualise rotations and reflections of some simple
shapes.
Shape families These children understand how shapes belong to
families, e.g. a square is a special type of rectangle,
and also a special type of rhombus. They attend to
parallel lines, angle and perpendicular lines. They
are able to visualise rotations and reflections of many
shapes.
ACTIVITY 10.1
Discuss in a group how an evaluation system is able to improve the
teaching of children in the early childhood environment.
Policy evaluation should be designed upon realising that the reliability and
validity of assessment increases with the age of the child. It is quite difficult to
make an accurate assessment of a child who is of a very young age until the child
reaches the age of 6.
Thus, some kind of assessment should be postponed until the child is more
mature, while other types of evaluation can be performed, but with more
caution.
Assessment should follow the appropriate ages in the content and methods of
data collection. Assessment of young children should include early learning and
development network, that fully includes physical well-being and motor
development, social and emotional development, approach towards learning,
and development of language and cognition, and general knowledge. The
method of assessment should recognise that children need to be able to exhibit
normal context of their abilities. Tasks that require the use of paper-and-pencil
can be difficult for children to demonstrate their abilities and understanding.
The teachers must be sensitive to the various technologies that are available for
evaluation purposes in a variety of situations. These technologies can help
teachers in developing the test, making the screening test and review the results.
Assessments can and should be done anywhere preferably in small groups either
at the playground, or done individually where teachers just need to talk to the
pupils to get the information and feedback, or in a large group when children are
doing leisure activities in the playground. We suggest that the assessment be
made while the child is learning to apply mathematics to solve a problem in their
daily activities. Evaluation should also be periodic and consistent with the child's
learning.
The above evaluation involved pupils in a group and the questions posed are the
basis of mathematics. Through this assessment, the teacher can assess a pupils
agility in responding to the questions given on the spot. Pupils will not feel
pressured by this group interview evaluation.
analysis. The use of audio and video recordings during the assessment is also
encouraged and recommended. A planned and systematic observation with the
aid of technology (audio and video) helps to make a valid and objective
assessment. Moreover, it can be a proof to the parents whenever assessments are
conducted on their children.
In example 1 above, the teacher should observe the pupils behaviour when
counting the number of pupils in the classroom to ensure that the pupil calculate
in a correct manner. The teacher should take note that the pupil doing the
counting is using his/her finger and pointing to the correct person that he/she is
counting.
ACTIVITY 10.2
As a teacher who teaches children in their early childhood education,
how do you report the achievement of children to their parents?
Table 10.3 displays the types of strategies that can be applied when making
assessment. Every type of evaluation has its unique advantages and some
combine more than one type of strategy. There are some strategies which are
unsuitable for young children because they are not yet able to write well and
interact smoothly yet.
Table 10.3: Assessment Strategy
Strategy Definition
Classroom Presentation The presentation in the classroom is an evaluation
strategy that requires pupils to express what they have
learned, choose and submit examples of their work
and arranged for topic to be presented. It can be a basic
provision for project evaluation or pupil essays.
Conference Conference is a formal or informal meetings
between a teacher and a pupil for the purpose of
exchanging information and sharing ideas. A
conference may be held to explore ways a pupil
Copyright Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 10 MATHEMATICS ASSESSMENT IN EARLY CHILDHOOD 165
ACTIVITY 10.3
There are five evaluation strategies that are considered uncommon,
namely: observation, interview, job performance, and pupils' writing
portfolio. Elaborate each of these strategies.
The teachers sensitivity in analysing assessment results will help improve the
performance of each pupil to the optimum level. Among the advantages of
conducting analysis on each of the assessment results are:
(a) Pupils excellence in achievement can be reinforced and enhanced through
challenging activities. Lack of pupils achievement can be helped through
proper guidance;
(b) The development and progress of pupils can be monitored fairly through
individual, group, and class learning process;
(c) A pupil who has mastered the level of achievement should be supported
and given more consolidation activities to improve achievement;
(d) Pupils who have not mastered the level of achievement should be given
guidance and support activities that are appropriate to the level of pupils
mastery; and
(e) Teachers should also inform parents of their child's proficiency level to gain
extra support at home.
Among the 15 strategies of evaluation, five are more frequently used; the
strategy evaluation observations, interviews, implementation of tasks, and
the pupils' writing self-assessment and portfolios.
OR
Thank you.