Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 151 (2017) 194212

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Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/petrol

Research advances and debates on tubular mechanics in oil and gas wells MARK

Zifeng Li , Chaoyue Zhang, Guangming Song
Petroleum Engineering Institute, Yanshan University, Qinhuangdao 066004, China

A R T I C L E I N F O A BS T RAC T

Keywords: Tubular strings in oil and gas wells are the backbone and central nervous system of oil and gas drilling and
Drill string production operations. Tubular mechanics in oil and gas wells is the most important applied fundamental
Casing science in petroleum and gas engineering. This paper rst introduces monographs on tubular mechanics in oil
Tubing and gas wells, as well as scholars engaged in investigating this eld. Then the methods used in this research are
Pumping rod
explored, and basic concepts are claried. The paper then focuses on research progress and debates about the
Riser
Mechanics
fundamental principles of tubular mechanics in oil and gas wells, the motion states of tubular strings in oil and
Vibration gas wells, the fundamental equations for dynamic analysis of the rod and pipe string in oil and gas wells, the
Advance stability of the rod and pipe string in oil and gas wells, the steady-state tension and torque in the rod and pipe
Debate strings in oil and gas wells, three-dimensional mechanical analysis of the bottom hole assembly, the drill string
dynamics, casing string mechanical analysis, testing string mechanical analysis, fracturing/water injection/
steam injection tubing string mechanical analysis, diagnosis and parameter optimization of the sucker rod
pump system as well as energy savings, vibration of the gas production tubing string, impact vibration of the
string, expansion screen pipe/casing mechanical analysis, riser string and deepwater pipeline mechanical
analysis, vibration wave signal transmission in the string, wear and corrosion as well as erosion of the string,
and residual strength and fatigue strength forecasts, connections mechanical analysis, strength design and
verication of the string. In the end, the paper discusses key future research directions.

1. Introduction
Tubular strings in oil and gas wells are the backbone and central
nervous system of oil and gas drilling and production operations;
without them there is no petroleum and gas industry. Tubular
mechanics in oil and gas wells is the most important tertiary subject
in petroleum and gas engineering. The primary research areas in
tubular mechanics are drill string mechanics, wellbore trajectory
control, casing string design, the sucker rod pump system, and so on.
Comprehensive and accurate mechanical analysis of tubular strings in
oil and gas wells could achieve the following objectives: (1) fast,
accurate, and economical control wellbore trajectories of oil and gas
wells, (2) accurate verication of the strength of various kinds of
tubular strings, and optimization of their design, (3) optimization of
the wellbore trajectories of oil and gas wells, (4) timely and accurate
diagnosis and discovery, as well as proper handling of all kinds of
downhole problems, and (5) optimization of drilling equipment and
operating parameters. This article describes the important available
monographs on tubular mechanics in oil and gas wells, well-known
scholars engaged in the research of tubular mechanics in oil and gas
wells, the mathematics and mechanics methods used in this research,
and research progress and arguments about specic branch directions,
and nally discusses the research and application prospects of tubular
strings in oil and gas wells.
2. Monographs
Quite a number of monographs have been published about tubular
string mechanics in oil and gas wells. Some of them are introduced
below, grouped by author and according to their chronological publish-
ing sequence.
(1) Drilling mechanics (Vozdvizhenski, 1958). This book is the
earliest monograph on tubular mechanics that can be found. It
introduces derricks, lifting equipment, casings, drill pipes, some
theoretical issues about cable drilling, churn drills, some theore-
tical issues about rotary drilling, coring drilling rigs, rotary
drilling rigs, downhole drill motors, the choice of pumps, piston
pumps, and dynamic water level pumps in deep wells. From a
content point of view, it is only partially related to tubular
mechanics in oil and gas wells, and represents the initial concept.
(2) Developments in petroleum engineering (Volume I-II) (Lubinski,

Corresponding author.
E-mail address: zi@ysu.edu.cn (Z. Li).

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.petrol.2016.10.025
Received 24 March 2016; Received in revised form 10 July 2016; Accepted 15 October 2016
Available online 21 October 2016
0920-4105/ 2016 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
Z. Li et al.
1987, 1988). These collected papers of Arthur Lubinski were
nished by Stefan Miska, and were translated into Chinese
(Lubinski, 1993, 1994). This book discusses some problems in
detail, such as the eect of longitudinal bending, tension and
pressure on the straight and bending with combined axial and
lateral load of the oil well pipe, oil well tubing bending and its
impact and control methods, the factors inuencing the inclina-
tion angle and doglegs in rotary drilling holes, how to use the
stabilizer to control the inclination and bottom hole assembly
(BHA) performance prediction, the mechanical problems of
marine drill strings and risers, the strength and fatigue failure
problems of pipes under various conditions, the inuence of bit
load and rotational speed on drilling rate, and the calculation of
the instantaneous pressure and load. This is the most author-
itative book for understanding the prole of tubular mechanics in
oil and gas wells and the contribution of Lubinski.
(3) Foundation of drilling mechanics (Zhao and Gong, 1988). This
discusses some mechanical problems in detail, such as downhole
bits, the strength of drill strings, movement form and vibration
characteristics, hole deviation control, wellhead tongs, lift rings,
elevators and slips, drilling rigs, mud cementing control systems,
and derricks. The book is required enlightenment material on
tubular mechanics for oil and gas wells researchers and users in
China.
(4) Deviation control theory and practice (Bai and Su, 1990),
Horizontal well trajectory control (Su, 2000), Deviation control
and fast drilling technology of oil-gas vertical wells - theory and
practice (Su, 2003). These three books review the basics of BHA
mechanical analysis theory, and propose a beam-column method.
Some new concepts, models, and methods are established
regarding the equivalent force of formation, side cutting, bit
trajectory prediction and control, and so on. In addition, they
introduce hole deviation control technology and development
prospects. The basis for horizontal well trajectory design, the
basic concept and properties of the trajectory control, large
deection mechanical analysis and combination design of BHA
in medium- and long-radius horizontal wells, a horizontal well
trajectory forecast method, etc. To solve the deviation control
problem and conduct fast drilling in high and steep structures,
problems existing in the conventional oblique prevention techni-
que are reected on, such as the pendulum combination, which
sacrices speed for quality. They also introduce systematically the
technical developments in this eld; some of these technologies,
such as o-axis combination and exible combination, generate
signicant gains in production.
(5) Control of wellbore trajectory (Gao et al., 1994), Advances in oil-
gas well drilling engineering mechanics Professor Liu
Xishengs 70th birthday and his 45th teaching anniversary
anthology (Gao, 1996b), Down-hole tubular mechanics and its
applications (Gao, 2006). These books primarily discuss the
mechanical behaviour (stability, dynamic and static characteris-
tics, overall force, stress and strain, mechanical strength, high
temperature and high pressure eects, etc.) of all kinds tubular
strings in dierent types of holes (vertical wells and directional
wells, horizontal wells and long-reach wells, etc.), and optimiza-
tion design theory and control technology closely related to
tubular strings in oil and gas wells, combined with engineering
applications, etc. The major contents include: basic equations,
buckling and post-buckling theory of tubular strings bounded by
dierent borehole conditions, the numerical analysis method of
these string friction and torque in long-reach wells, BHA static
and dynamic analysis methods, load analysis of composite casings
and the strength design method, stress and deformation analysis
of oil and gas test strings and high-temperature, high-pressure
shaft safety evaluation methods, the entity expansion pipe (cas-
ing) calculation method of plastic deformation force, the theory of
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Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 151 (2017) 194212
design of the rotary expansion tool, etc.
(6) Tubular mechanics in oil-gas wells (Li, 1996d), Tubular me-
chanics in oil-gas wells and its applications (Li, 2008c). These
books rst introduce tubular strings in oil and gas wells, along
with their motion states in downhole, loading, and failure modes.
Then the fundamental equations of tubular dynamic mechanics in
oil and gas wells are established. Finally, the following topics are
introduced in detail: the application of tubular mechanics to the
stability of the rod and pipe string in oil and gas wells, steady-
state tension and torque in the rod and pipe string, drill string
vibration, three-dimensional mechanical analysis of the BHA,
well trajectory prediction, diagnosis and prediction of the sucker
rod pump system, mechanical analysis of a pipe string in a
thermal recovery well, well cementation, and so on.
(7) Failure analysis and precaution of petroleum drill string (Li
et al., 1999a), Oil pipe engineering (Li, 1999a). These books
outline the status of the oil pipe in the oil industry, analyse oil
pipe service conditions and failure modes, and put forward the
technosphere of oil pipe engineering. They discuss three
technospheres and their inner link to the mechanical behaviour
of oil pipes, the environmental behaviour of oil pipes, prevention
and prediction of oil pipe failure, and so on. They introduce basic
ideas and methods of failure analysis, discuss the service condi-
tions of the drill string and the major failure types, and
emphatically discuss the characteristics, mechanism, and inuen-
cing factors of drill string brittle fracture and fatigue, corrosion,
corrosion fatigue and stress corrosion cracking failure, and so on.
Finally, they put forward corresponding preventive measures.
(8) Dynamic parameters computer simulation and system optimi-
zation of rod pumping wells (Dong, 2003). This book establishes
a mechanical model of the longitudinal vibration characteristic
analysis of a sucker rod string, and a new model for an oil well
pump valve motion law; as well as systematically studing the
inuences of motor speed uctuation, pump valve closing lags,
and the underground multiphase ow of oil, gas, and water,
improves and develops a computer simulation model of a
pumping unit well dynamic parameters. It establishes an unit
module simulation method, and solves the highly coupled simu-
lation algorithm of a hybrid model, perfects the calculation
methods of each node power and unit average operation eciency
of the ground drive transmission system. It establishes the
calculation methods of pumping well discharge coecient and
eective power under multiphase ow conditions, develops a
theory of computation of the pumping unit well system eciency,
and establishes a method based on a dynamic system simulation
for the optimization design of the rod pump system.
(9) Oshore petroleum drilling engineering mechanics research and
practice (Jiang, 2008). This book researches the jack-up drilling
platform, drilling riser, and mechanical behaviour and mechan-
ical properties of the drill string in oshore oil drilling engineer-
ing. The research results have been applied and validated in
practice. This information plays an important role in helping and
guiding oshore drilling operations to ensure safety and improve
eciency.
(10) Drilling system dynamics simulation and application (Liu et al.,
2009), Deep well injection tubular mechanical behaviour and
application (Liu and He, 2013). These books construct a drilling
system dynamics behaviour theory system, including drilling
system dynamics modelling, dynamic and static characteristics
analysis of bits and drill strings, the drill string and borehole wall
contact problem, wellbore trajectory prediction and control
problems, etc. They also establish a drilling system dynamics
model based on the interactions between the drill string, BHA, bit
and bottom hole rock, wall, etc. They establish a displacement
model of the bit in the drilling and wellbore trajectory prediction
model. According to the multiple mathematical model, research a
Z. Li et al.
large numerical solutions method for a nonlinear system of the
coupling eects of certainty, randomness, continuous variables
and discrete variable; combined with engineering applications,
expound an optimization design theory closely related to the
drilling system and the deviation control technology, and develop
simulation analysis software. These books systematically study
the injection string load, stability, post-buckling congurations,
dynamic characteristics, mechanical strength, and deformation,
based on an analysis of the work environment of deep well
injection string and mechanical characteristics, while fully con-
sidering the characteristics of high temperature, high pressure,
and complex hole structure, and researching wellbore tempera-
ture and pressure eld distribution. At the same time, and based
on the above, they establish an injection string mechanical model
under dierent working conditions, develop computer-aided
analysis and design software, and realize the simulation analysis
of a deep well pipe string under dierent construction para-
meters. Finally, they provide a theoretical basis and methods for
oileld injection allocation strings and injection strings downhole
operations.
(11) Tubular mechanics in oil wells under hydraulic environment
(Han, 2011c). This book carries out a force analysis for various
hydraulic conditions, various tubular structures, wellbores in
various trajectory, etc., and deduces some new formulas, puts
forward new ideas, draws new conclusions, and applies the
results to casing strength design.
(12) Oil drilling & production pipe string mechanics (Liu and Yue,
2011; Liu, 2012). This book systematically discusses various
analysis methods and applications aimed at drilling and produc-
tion pipe string structures, which are long and thin, and its
dierent working conditions. The analysis methods covered in
this book include an introduction to oil drilling and production
pipe string mechanics, the analytic method and applications of
drill string mechanical analysis, a nite element method of drill
string mechanical analysis, casing and casing pipe string mechan-
ical analysis and application, sucker rod string mechanical
analysis and application, and drilling and production pipe string
connection thread mechanical analysis and application.
(13) Rod pumping: modern methods of design, diagnosis and sur-
veillance (Gibbs, 2012). This book includes an overview of
conventional articial lift methods, the wave equation applied
to a sucker rod pump, an existing pumping unit well analysis
method based on power indicator instruments, further applica-
tions of the downhole power indicator diagram, dynamic and
torsional characteristics of well pumping units, characteristics of
the pumping system prime mover, behaviour of the sucker rod
pump system, system analyses of existing wells, and the automa-
tion of the sucker rod pump pumping system.
In addition, there are many other related monographs, including
Casing strength computation and design (Hao and Gong, 1987), Finite
element method for drill string mechanical analysis (Yu, 1998),
Drillstring kinematics and dynamics (Zhang, 2001), Oil and water
well casing external pressure computation and its mechanics founda-
tion (Li and Yin, 2006), In-situ stress and casing damage mechanism
(Lian, 2009), Formulas and calculations for drilling operations
(Samuel, 2010), Tubular mechanics in petroleum engineering (Lv,
2012), Gas well tubing string fatigue life prediction (Huang et al.,
2012), etc.
The theory and mathematical models in the vast majority of these
books are correct and suciently precise. However, some portions of
them are defective, should go further, or should be discarded, while
other parts are fundamentally wrong and should be abandoned.
Readers of books and papers about tubular mechanics in oil and gas
wells, especially researchers, must accurately grasp the wellbore and
tubular string, along with their working conditions, and have a solid
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Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 151 (2017) 194212
foundation of mathematics, mechanics, and computer programming
skills. Before studying tubular mechanics in oil and gas wells, reading
Elastic-plastic mechanics examples and exercises (Xu, 1981) is
suggested.
3. Scholars
While many scholars have engaged in research on tubular me-
chanics in oil and gas wells, the following list are those who are more
familiar to the authors of this paper.
(1) Arthur Lubinski. He is the founder and lifelong researcher of
tubular mechanics in oil and gas wells; his representative work is
Developments in petroleum engineering (Volume I-II) (Lubinski,
1987, 1988).
(2) Jiazhi Bai. His beam-column method was presented to solve the
stress and deformation of the BHA; his representative work is
Deviation control theory and practice (Bai and Su, 1990). Yinao
Su was mentored by him.
(3) Xisheng Liu. He is one of the founders of the oil and gas
engineering disciplines in China. His rst research direction is
annulus uid mechanics, and his second is the mechanical
analysis of drill strings and BHAs. His representative work in
his second research direction is Control of wellbore trajectory
(Gao et al., 1994). Deli Gao and Zifeng Li were mentored by him.
(4) Guozhen Zhao. He mainly engages in petroleum machinery and
casing string mechanics research; his representative work is
Foundations of drilling mechanics (Zhao and Gong, 1988).
(5) Weian Gong. He primarily engages in casing string mechanics
and petroleum machinery research; his representative works are
Casing strength computation and design (Hao and Gong, 1987)
and Foundations of drilling mechanics (Zhao and Gong, 1988).
He published 91 papers that are listed in the China National
Knowledge Infrastructure database, and is the rst author of 74
of them. He published the largest number of papers in this eld at
that time.
(6) Helin Li. He is one of the major pioneer researchers of oil pipes in
China, and committed to long-term study of this topic; his
representative works are Failure analysis and precautions of
petroleum drill strings (Li et al., 1999a) and Oil pipe engineering
(Li, 1999a).
(7) Zhiyong Han. He has been committed to teaching about and
researching tubular string mechanics for a long time; his repre-
sentative work is Tubular mechanics in oil wells under hydraulic
environments (Han, 2011c).
(8) Stefan Miska. He has been committed to teaching about and
researching drill string mechanics for a long time; his represen-
tative work is Developments in petroleum engineering (Volume
I-II) (Lubinski, 1987, 1988). Recently, he has contributed to axial
frictional drag reduction of drill strings in directional wells.
(9) Sam Gibbs. He has been engaged in researching the diagnosis and
optimization of parameters of the sucker rod pump pumping
system for a long time; he is the founder of diagnostic techniques
of downhole conditions and system parameter optimization in
sucker rod pump pumping systems. His representative work is
Rod pumping: modern methods of design, diagnosis and sur-
veillance (Gibbs, 2012).
(10) Yinao Su. He improved the beam-column method that was put
forward by Jiazhi Bai, and applied it to all aspects of wellbore
trajectory prediction and control. His representative works are
Deviation control theory and practice (Bai and Su, 1990),
Horizontal well trajectory control (Su, 2000), and Deviation
control and fast drilling technology of oil-gas vertical wells
theory and practice (Su, 2003). Then he put his primary energy
into downhole control engineering, which is more meaningful for
drilling engineering.
Z. Li et al.
(11) Deli Gao. Downhole tubular mechanics is one of his major
research directions. He has intensively studied BHA, established
three-dimensional nonlinear dynamic control equations, and
successfully solved the BHA three-dimensional nonlinear me-
chanics large deection of the criss-cross curving problem using
the weighted residual method. His representative works are
Control of wellbore trajectory (Gao et al., 1994), Advances in
oil-gas well drilling engineering mechanics Professor Liu
Xishengs 70th birthday cum coached 45th anniversary anthol-
ogy (Gao, 1996b), and Down-hole tubular mechanics and its
applications (Gao, 2006). Recently, he has contributed to knowl-
edge about the post-buckling behaviour of tubular strings.
(12) Zifeng Li. He has been committed to working with, teaching
about, and researching tubular mechanics and its application in
oil and gas wells. He established the distinctive theory system for
tubular mechanics in oil and gas wells, primarily including the
fundamental equations of tubular mechanics in oil and gas wells,
along with their applications, such as the stability of the rod and
pipe string, the steady-state tension-torque, the drill string
vibration, three-dimensional mechanical analysis of the BHA,
production test pipe string mechanical analysis, fracturing pipe
string mechanical analysis, diagnosis and prediction of the sucker
rod pump system, mechanical analysis of pipe strings in thermal
recovery wells, well cementation, and so on. He discussed the
application of tubular mechanics in oil and gas wells to vascular
interventional medicine, micromechanics, and nanotubes. His
representative works are Tubular mechanics in oil-gas wells (Li,
1996d) and Tubular mechanics in oil-gas wells and its applica-
tions (Li, 2008c).
(13) Wei Jiang. He has been engaged in research work on oshore
drilling pipe string mechanics for a long time; his representative
work is Oshore petroleum drilling engineering mechanics
research and practice (Jiang, 2008).
(14) Qingyou Liu. He has been engaged in teaching about and
conducting research work on drill bits, drill string systems, and
water injection string mechanics simulation for a long time. His
representative works are Drilling system dynamics simulation
and application (Liu et al., 2009) and Deep well injection tubular
mechanical behaviour and application (Liu and He, 2013).
(15) Qinfeng Di. He has been engaged in tubular mechanics research
for a long time; his representative work is Rotary steering closed-
loop drilling technology (Di, 1999).
(16) Shimin Dong. He has been committed to the parameter optimiza-
tion and energy savings of the sucker rod pump system. His
representative work is Dynamic parameters, computer simula-
tion and system optimization of rod pumping wells (Dong,
2003).
(17) Jubao Liu. He has engaged in petroleum tubular mechanical
analysis and downhole tool design for a long time; his represen-
tative work is Oil drilling & production pipe string mechanics
(Liu and Yue, 2011; Liu, 2012).
(18) Zhichuan Guan. He mainly researches drill string mechanics and
casing string mechanics, and his key directions are downhole drill
string motion experiments and vibration wave propagation in
drill strings.
(19) Yihua Dou. He primarily researches petroleum pipe string
mechanics.
(20) Xiangzhen Yan. He mainly researches casing string mechanics.
(21) Xiaohua Zhu. He has been committed to pipe string mechanics
and downhole tools mechanics research for more than a decade.
Recently, he has published the largest number of papers in the
eld of pipe string mechanics; in addition, he has the largest
number of papers included in the Science Citation Index and the
Engineering Index.
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Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 151 (2017) 194212
4. Research methods
4.1. Mechanical analysis
Mechanical analysis is sometimes called modelling or simulation.
Mechanical analysis should generally follow these steps: separation,
simplication, mechanical model, mathematical model, solution, cal-
culation, verication, and conclusion.
4.1.1. Separation
Separating the system to be studied from the surrounding environ-
ment. When following the philosophy that all things in the world are
interrelated, without grasping the main contradiction, scientic re-
search almost cannot be done. On the other hand, the boundary of the
detached body should be reasonable. If the detached body is too large,
the research will be more dicult; if it is too small, the results will be
less reliable.
4.1.2. Simplication
The parts and factors of the detached body aect each other.
However, without simplication, research work cannot go on. Complex
objects can be abstracted as simple structures through simplication.
Retain the major inuence factors and ignore the secondary factors
according to the object to be solved when simplifying, so that the
physical meaning of the subsequent mechanical model is clear, and the
mathematical model can be built and solved. If we can build and solve
this mathematical model, assumptions should be as few as possible.
The interaction between the detached body and its surroundings can be
expressed by the boundary conditions.
4.1.3. Mechanical model
The simplied results should be expressed clearly through a
mechanical model. This model is generally expressed by a schematic,
coupled with a text explanation.
4.1.4. Mathematical model
The mechanical model can be analysed using mathematical meth-
ods that have been converted into a mathematical model. A mathema-
tical model contains dierential equations, boundary conditions, and
initial conditions.
(1) Dierential equations. It is the dierential equations that describe
the relationship between the stress, strain, temperature, and so on
of the research objects. Dynamic dierential equations are asso-
ciated with time, but static dierential equations are not.
(2) Boundary conditions. These express the interaction between the
detached body and its surroundings.
(3) Initial conditions. Initial conditions are the status of the detached
body at the initial moment. For periodic questions, the initial
conditions are the periodic conditions.
Static problems (including steady-state mechanics) must have
dierential equations and boundary conditions. Dynamic problems,
on the other hand, must have dierential equations, boundary condi-
tions, and initial conditions.
4.1.5. Solution
It is necessary to choose the most eective solution in view of the
mathematical model. Dierent mathematical models have dierent
most eective solutions. Sometimes the mathematical model cannot
be solved, because mathematics still cannot solve all problems. In this
case, the object needs to be further simplied.
The mathematical methods used by domestic and foreign scholars
to analyse the tubular mechanics in oil and gas wells can be currently
summarized into three major types: dierential equations methods
(including analytical solution, beam-column method, nite dierence
Z. Li et al. Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 151 (2017) 194212

Table 1
Mathematical methods applied to tubular string mechanical analysis in oil and gas wells.

Primary classication Secondary classification Users

dierential equations methods
nite element method
energy method
analytical solution Arthur Lubinski, Guozhen Zhao, Weian Gong, Zhiyong Han, Stefan Miska, Sam Gibbs, Deli Gao, Zifeng Li, Wei
Jiang
nite dierence method Xisheng Liu, Deli Gao, Zifeng Li, Wei Jiang, Shimin Dong
weighted residual method Xisheng Liu, Deli Gao, Zifeng Li, Qinfeng Di
beam-column method Jiazhi Bai, Yinao Su
Guozhen Zhao, Qingyou Liu, Qinfeng Di, Shimin Dong, Jubao Liu, Zhichuan Guan, Yihua Dou, Xiangzhen Yan,
Xiaohua Zhu

method, weighted residual method, etc.), nite element method, and
energy method (Li, 1996d, 2008c; Li and Liang, 2008), as shown in
Table 1.
Dierential equations methods require simplifying tubular strings
and their constraints in oil and gas wells properly, then establishing the
dierential equations of their mechanical analysis and the denite
conditions, and nally solving the dierential equations though
analytical, semi-analytical, or numerical methods. Dierential equa-
tions methods have the advantage of fast calculation speed, and they
are easy to use. Owing to complicated mechanical dierential equa-
tions, the application of analytical solution is limited. Beam-column
method is only eective for solving two-dimensional problems of
tubular strings in oil and gas wells, and is not ideal for three-
dimensional problems. Finite dierence method is a better numerical
method, and it has been successfully used to solve small deformation
problems and large deection problems of tubular strings in oil and gas
wells. Its defect is that in order to improve the accuracy of the solution,
we must reduce the dierence grid, which leads to a larger operational
matrix and a slower operational speed. Weighted residual method is a
powerful numerical method for solving denite solution problems of
dierential equations. It is simple, accurate, has a small workload, has
a knowable residual, etc. It has been successfully used in small- and
large-deection mechanical analysis of tubular strings in oil and gas
wells; of course, to further improve the accuracy, we have to increase
the trial function item number, leading to a lot of work.
Finite element method is a type of very good numerical analysis
methods, especially suitable for solving mathematical and mechanical
problems with irregular areas and complex constraints, and is widely
used in the static and dynamic analysis of tubular strings in oil and gas
wells. The disadvantage of this method is that in order to improve the
accuracy, we must decrease the size of the unit, thus the computation
task, which is already large, increases rapidly.
Energy method is only used in two-dimensional small deformation
static analysis of tubular strings in oil and gas wells. It is not convenient
for dealing with BHA and borehole wall contact problems. Table 2 lists
the BHA mechanical analysis methods and their applicable conditions.
4.1.6. Calculation
For very simple problems, we can know whether an answer is right
or wrong through an analytical solution. In general, however, we need
to program the calculation to discover the correct answer and its
application.
4.1.7. Verication
The calculation results should satisfy the demand. Some results can
be seen as wrong at a glance. If the result and the size of the error
cannot easily be logically judged as right or wrong, laboratory experi-
ments and/or eld tests are necessary.
4.1.8. Conclusion
When the calculation and verication are successful, concrete
outcomes are obtained; when the calculation and verication fail, a
summary of the lessons learned should be created; and when the
calculation and verication are insucient, new or further directions in
which to strive are discovered.
4.2. Laboratory experiments and eld tests
4.2.1. Laboratory experiment
Performing simulation experiments in the laboratory can achieve:
(1) verication of the correctness of the theory and precision, and (2)
discovery of new phenomena and new rules.
4.2.2. Field test
Testing in the eld allows the researcher to verify and correct the
theory model.
4.2.3. How to choose
Some problems can be dealt with through either indoor experi-
ments or eld tests, although doing both is better, such as when
determining the BHA deviation change rate or the casing thermal stress
when the temperature rises after well cementation. Because of the
length to diameter ratio of a rod string is very large, it is hard to do
similar experiments on the mechanics. (1) Some problems are suitable
for laboratory experiments, while eld tests are more dicult to do,
such as tubular string buckling or the vortex of the drill string. (2)
Others are suitable for eld tests, while laboratory experiments are
more dicult, or even insignicant. For example, it is best to do a eld
test of the longitudinal and torsional vibrations of a drill string, as
laboratory experiment phenomena are not as realistic as those at the

Table 2
BHA mechanical analysis methods and their applicable conditions.

method space dimensionality dynamic or static deflection size

two-dimensional three-dimensional static dynamic small deflection large deflection

analytical solution methods

dierence methods
weighted residual methods
beam-column methods
nite element methods
energy methods

198
Z. Li et al.
scene. Similarly, eld tests should be performed for drill string friction
problems, as laboratory experiment results are almost insignicant.
4.3. Common problems
This section refers to manuscripts and/or published papers.
4.3.1. Maliciously refusing to cite
This refers to the practice of deliberately not citing someone elses
relevant published reference in ones academic paper or monograph, in
order to obtain attention illegally. The intentions are that: (1) to
publish papers with lies or someone elses published theory and data,
pretending to be innovative, so as to deceive the reviewers and editors,
in the case of broadly peer-reviewed writings and (2) to suppress the
small peer profession. The consequences are that: (1) academia is full
of fallacies and (2) the achievements of small peers cannot be normally
spread, and the citation frequency of small-peer papers is reduced.
4.3.2. Two layers of skin theory and calculation
Some papers still evidence a lack of sucient theoretical support
after analysing a problem with widely used commercial software (such
as ANSYS or FLUENT), such that some formulas are borrowed in the
rst half of the article or in an appendix, while only a few are new.
Moreover, many formulas are wrong. In general, the problem under
consideration is not the theoretical basis of the large commercial
software, even if the formula is right.
4.3.3. Improper terms
There was a big dierence between the terms used and the items
described, and the terms are uncomprehensive, inexact, or rustic. For
example: ctive force, well factory, smart well, tight oil, tight
gas, slick water, pump eciency, etc.
4.3.4. False equations
Dimensions are often not equal on both sides of an equation. If this
is not due to a printer error, the paper will have no value at all.
5. Easily confusing concepts
5.1. Buoyancy
Tubular strings in oil and gas wells are subject to the uid pressure
when working in the uid. Sometimes it is more convenient to handle
with buoyancy instead of pressure, but when doing so, the concept of
buoyancy should be accurately grasped. Buoyancy is (1) the resultant
force of the pressure that uid gives the object, all or part of which is in
the uid, (2) the direction is purely vertical, (3) its amount is equal to
the weight of the uid that the object displaces, (4) the action line is
through the centroid (or buoyancy centre) of the uid volume that is
arranged, and (5) the action line of the buoyancy on the object is given,
but not an action point. When solving the tubular mechanics problem
through buoyancy, separating the buoyancy calculation part with other
parts in the analyzing cross section, and the buoyant weight could be
regarded as a concentrated force in the section (Li et al., 2011a).
5.2. Buckling
The buckling of tubular strings in oil and gas wells is the
phenomenon of tubular strings bending in order to reduce the total
potential energy, when the axial pressure exceeds the critical load.
When the axial load is less than the critical load, tubular strings do not
bend (in a slant hole section), or bend along with the borehole (in a
curved hole section). When the axial load is greater than the critical
load, there are two possible states: (1) the tubular string do not bend
(in a slant hole section), or they bend along with the borehole (in a
curved hole section), or (2) the tubular string bend (in the slant hole
Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 151 (2017) 194212
section), or bend again after rst bending along with the borehole (in a
curved hole section), and this state is stable. These are the two possible
characteristics of stability problems.
It becomes a stability (buckling) problem when tubular strings are
simplied as equal outer diameter circular rod and pipe under axial
pressure in the wellbore. There are only three possible states: stabiliza-
tion, sinusoidal buckling, and helical buckling, but no plane buckling.
5.3. Criss-cross curving
Slender tubular strings are in the criss-cross curving state when
they bend under a transverse load that is not equal to zero, and are
under axial pressure. For criss-cross curving, there is no critical load,
and the tubular string must have been in a bending state.
When the tubular strings outer diameters are inconsistent, con-
sidering the joint and stabilizer, and the tubular string are under axial
force in the wellbore, the problem belongs to a criss-cross curving
problem.
5.4. The relationship between criss-cross curving and buckling
It is entirely a criss-cross curving problem, when the axial force is
pressure and the pressure is less than a certain critical load; on the
other hand, it is criss-cross curving problem added to a stability
(buckling) problem, when the pressure is greater than a certain critical
load, and the buckling of tubular strings also occurs. Criss-cross
curving disappears, and there is only a stability (buckling) problem,
when the outer diameters of the joint and stabilizer are equal to the
tubular strings ontology (Li, 2008c; Li, 1997).
6. Progress and debate of research branch directions
This section is an extension and supplement to the literature (Li
and Liang, 2008), and includes the three principles of tubular
mechanics in oil and gas wells, the motion states of tubular strings in
oil and gas wells, the fundamental equations for dynamic analysis of
the rod and pipe string in oil and gas wells, the stability of the rod and
pipe string in oil and gas wells, the steady-state tension and torque in
the rod and pipe string in oil and gas wells, a three-dimensional
mechanical analysis of the BHA, drill string dynamics, casing string
mechanical analysis, testing string mechanical analysis, fracturing/
water injection/steam injection tubing string mechanical analysis,
diagnosis parameter optimization, and energy savings of the sucker
rod pump system, mechanical analysis of screw-pump sucker rods,
vibration of the gas production tubing string, impact vibration of the
string, expansion screen pipe/casing mechanical analysis, riser string
and deepwater pipeline mechanical analysis, vibration wave signal
transmission in the tubular string, wear and corrosion as well as
erosion of the tubular string, residual strength and fatigue strength
forecast of the tubular string, connections mechanical analysis,
strength design and verication. Because the nite element method is
a common method of mechanical analysis, and it can cover all dynamic
and static force analyses areas of the rod and pipe string, this paper
gives a brief introduction.
6.1. Three principles of tubular mechanics in oil and gas wells
The three principles of drill string mechanics in oil and gas wells are
(Li, 2008c): mechanical equilibrium, minimum potential energy, and
minimum dissipation power.
Any point of the drill string at any time must meet the mechanical
equilibrium equation. If the results in multiple solutions, the minimum
potential energy principle is rst applied to determine the true
solution. If multiple solutions still remain, the minimum dissipation
power principle is then applied to determine the true solution.
199
Z. Li et al.
6.2. Motion states of tubular strings in oil and gas wells
The motion states of tubular strings in oil and gas wells are the
basis of the tubular mechanics in oil and gas wells. In this respect,
Yanglie Zhang (Zhang, 2001) has done a remarkable job.
Dierent motion states of tubular strings exist in dierent applica-
tions. The motion states of the drill string are very complex, including
rotation, revolution (including back whirl), longitudinal vibration,
torsional vibration, lateral vibration, etc. During casing running
operation, the casing moves primarily in the axial direction, then has
a rotary motion after the casing running operation. During tubing
strings in tripping, the tubing string is moved primarily in the axial
direction, and then experiences a weak longitudinal vibration during
normal working hours. The pumping rod exhibits periodical long-
itudinal vibration.
The motion state of tubular strings in vertical oil and gas wells may
include rotation, revolution, longitudinal vibration, torsional vibration,
and lateral vibration. There is a possibility that the drill string under-
goes longitudinal vibration in the entire well, resulting in the destruc-
tion of the drill string; this signicant phenomenon can be observed
from the ground. There is also a possibility that the drill string could
experience torsional vibration throughout the entire well, and also
resulting in the destruction of the drill string; however, this signicant
phenomenon is obvious too when observed from the ground. The upper
drill string, which is subjected to tension, revolves around its own axis
of rotation. The lower part of the drill string, which is subjected to
compression, revolves around its own axis of rotation with a back whirl.
If the drill string is bent, it performs positive revolutions.
In the deviation section, because the drill string lays on the low wall
of the well by gravity, the sliding friction between the drill string and
the casing/wellbore results in a reduction in the longitudinal vibration,
a reduction in the torsional vibration, and a reduction or disappearance
in the back whirl. As a result, a smaller number of fatigue failures of the
drill string are caused by vibration (Li, 2008c).
6.3. Fundamental equations for dynamic analysis of the rod and pipe
string in oil and gas wells
Since the 1950s to early 1990s, some special problems of the rod
and pipe string in oil and gas wells were studied extensively and deeply,
and hundreds of academic papers were published, due to the urgent
need for oil and gas eld development. During the Seventh Five-Year
Plan and the Eighth Five-Year Plan periods, particularly, China focused
its scientic and technological research on directional cluster wells and
horizontal wells, greatly improving the research quality of tubular
mechanics in oil and gas wells in China. However, no unied theory
was formed; all the research work was based on special needs. Some
problems were seldom studied, such as the dynamic problem and the
geometrical nonlinear problem. Therefore, it is quite necessary to
conduct systematic research on dynamic analysis of the rod and pipe
string in oil and gas wells, and to establish a unied theory.
The fundamental equations for dynamic analysis of the rod and
pipe string in oil and gas wells were initially built, basically completed,
and gradually improved. Gao et al. (1992) put forward the idea of
establishing the fundamental governing equations for the dynamic
analysis of the rod and pipe string in oil and gas wells. Li basically
completed this task (Li et al., 1995b, 1995c), and then gradually
improved it (Li et al., 1999c; Li and Li, 2002a). There is only a little
expression dierence in the mathematical formulation between Gao
(2006) and Li (2008c).
Specic content: based on analysis of mechanics and motion of
tubular strings in oil and gas wells, the fundamental equations for
dynamical and statical analysis of tubular strings in oil and gas wells,
which consist of geometric equations, dynamic equilibrium equations,
and constitutive equations, were established. All the dierential
equations presently used in the calculation of mechanical analysis of
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Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 151 (2017) 194212
the rod and pipe string in oil and gas wells can be obtained simply by
properly simplifying these fundamental equations, so they have been
widely used in oil drilling engineering. These equations have been
successfully used in many elds, such as the stability of the rod and
pipe string in oil and gas wells, the steady-state tension and torque in
the rod and pipe string in oil and gas wells, the analysis of the BHA, the
analysis of vibrations of the drill string, the mechanical analysis of the
tubular string in thermal recovery wells, the mechanical analysis of the
testing string, the mechanical analysis of the fracturing tubing string,
the diagnosis and parameter optimization of the sucker rod pump
system, and so on.
6.4. Stability of the rod and pipe string in oil and gas wells
The rod and pipe string could be subject to compressive force and
torsional load in the wellbore, which sometimes causes buckling or
plastic yielding. If the rod and pipe string constrained by the wellbore is
buckling, the buckling congurations will change with increasing load,
which will maintain or transform between three kinds of congura-
tions: stable, sinusoidal buckling, and helical buckling. At the same
time, the modality of the rod and pipe string will be changed with
increasing load in each of the buckling congurations. The buckling of
the rod and pipe string is a complex multi-level behaviour; as a
consequence, the force and deformation analysis of the rod and pipe
string is of great benet to the optimal design of the pipe string
structure and operational procedures.
The pioneering research on the buckling of the rod and pipe string
was put forward by Lubinski (1950). In 1950, Lubinski et al. conducted
a simulation test of the buckling behaviour of pipe in inclined and
straight wells, found the formula for the critical forces for sinusoidal
and helical buckling in inclined and straight wells, analysed the
internal and external uid pressure inuence on tubing buckling, and
derived the mathematic relation between the screw helical buckling
pitch and the axial compressive force for a weightless rod and pipe, by
using the energy method. Paslay and Bogy (1964) and Dawson and
Paslay (1984) used the energy method to analyse the stability of a
circular rod laterally constrained to be in contact with an inclined
circular cylinder, and found the critical forces for sinusoidal buckling in
inclined and straight wells. Mitchell (1982, 1986, 1988) used the
mechanics basic equations to analyse helical buckling, including axial
load, contact pressure, and internal force. Chen et al. (1990) deduced
the critical forces equations for sinusoidal and helical buckling, which
was proven by experiments.
Li et al. (1994a), (1994b), (1997); Li (1996d) (1999b), (2008c)
systematically studied the stability of the rod and pipe string in oil and
gas wells, including the stability discriminant, and linear and nonlinear
buckling of the rod and pipe string in oil and gas wells.
Gao (2006) conducted an in-depth study on buckling and post-
buckling behaviour of tubular strings under axial compression force
and torsional load in inclined and horizontal wells. The buckling
dierential equations, boundary conditions, and the contact force
equation between the string and the borehole wall for tubular strings
with weight were established by using the energy variational principle;
existence conditions and the loading range for sinusoidal as well as
helical buckling congurations were analysed; some inuence factors
for tubular string buckling, such as the borehole curvature, the string
weight, and the friction, were rigorously analysed. It was concluded
that when a tubular string was constrained in a cylinder, the borehole
curvature will delay sinusoidal as well as helical buckling. The eect of
the tubular string weight is the same as the eect of the borehole
curvature in the building section, while it is opposite in the drop
section. The friction improves the critical buckling load of the tubular
string. After the tubular string goes into sinusoidal buckling, the
tangential friction plays a leading role. After the tubular string goes
into helical buckling, the axial friction plays a leading role. Gaos recent
research focus on the post-buckling behaviour of a tubular string with
Z. Li et al.
connectors, and the eects of boundary conditions on tubular string
buckling (Gao and Liu, 2013; Huang and Gao, 2014, 2015; Huang
et al., 2015a, 2015b).
Liu and Wang (2005), Liu et al. (2007) and Yuan and Wang (2012)
analysed the helical buckling of a rod string with a weight based on a
nite element analysis.
Zifeng Li claried some vague and inaccurate understandings of the
stability of the rod and pipe string in oil and gas wells by pointing out
that stability and criss-cross curving of tubular string in oil-gas wells
were dierent issues in dierent conditions (Li, 1997). The unbending
drill-collar (Gong, 1996, 1997b; Gong et al., 1999) lacks a theoretical
basis (Li, 1999c). The mechanical and mathematical models of the pipe
operating conditions are too simple (Jiao et al., 2000a, 2000b, 2001;
Wang et al., 2001), so the results obtained are nonsense (Li, 2004).
The conguration of the tensioned collar and its function of deviation
control and vibration diminish (Song and Gao, 2007b) similar to the
unbending drill-collar, lacks a theoretical basis. Li (2011, 2013b)
considers that the ctitious force is wrong, while Han (2013, 2014)
maintained the original theory.
The mechanical model gures in Sun et al. (2015a, 2015b) contains
errors; it is listed as a nonlinear analysis in the title, however the body
of the text used the basic formulas for linear analysis (Li, 2016).
Katz and Givli (2015) simplied the buckling of the rod and pipe
string to the plane buckling of a rectangular beam governed by two
tablets, which is clearly false.
6.5. Steady-state tension and torque of the rod and pipe string in oil
and gas wells
The distribution of tension and torque in the rod and pipe string in
oil and gas wells is one of the most important parts of the rod and pipe
string mechanics research. Due to the actual borehole being a three-
dimensional space curve, for the rod and pipe string in oil and gas wells
under axial tension and the gravity component force, there are contact
force and frictional force between the tubular string and the borehole
wall. These forces play a key role in the strength and abrasion of the rod
and pipe string in oil and gas wells.
6.5.1. Tension and torque calculation
Johansick (1983) considered the tension and gravity of the tubular
string in directional wells, as well as the borehole trajectory, and rst
established the tension-torque soft string model of a tubular string in
oil and gas wells. In this model, tubular string is assumed to be a rope
with no stiness, and in the curved interval, when a force is applied to
both ends of the tubular string, and the tubular string lays on the upper
wall of the well. It assumes that both torque and frictional resistance
are entirely caused by sliding friction. The main problems with this
model are: (1) the motion states of the tubular string are not
considered in detail, the torque in the tripping operation is not
accounted for, and this study does not say how to calculate the axial
force when the tubular string rotates, and (2) the stiness of the
tubular string is not considered, and (3) the viscous resistance of the
drilling uid in wells is not considered. Sheppard (1986) considered
the eect of drilling uid properties, to improve the soft string model of
the tubular string in oil and gas wells that was established by
Johansick.
The tension-torque soft string model of the tubular string in oil and
gas wells can meet the needs of general engineering; however, due to
the stiness and motion states of tubular strings not being taken into
account, the result will be somewhat far away from the actual
condition, and could even be nonsense, in complex-structure wells
such as deep wells and extended reach wells. Ho (1988) established the
tension-torque hard string model of tubular strings in oil and gas wells
considering the eect of drill string stiness, to overcome the dis-
advantages of the soft string model. However, there are still serious
shortcomings: (1) it only contains a mathematical model of a drill
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Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 151 (2017) 194212
string pulling out of the hole, (2) in the tripping process, the torque of
the drill string should be zero, but it is not zero in this model, and (3)
the viscous resistance of the drilling uid in wells is not considered.
Zifeng Li presented a steady tension-torque model and a software
program for drill strings, considering the motion of the drill string. In
this model, all factors increasing the axial and rotational torque are
equivalent to the change in the equivalent friction coecients, and the
concept of an equivalent friction coecients was introduced. It is
successfully applied to many topics (Li and Liu, 1992; Li et al., 1993b,
2000a), including strength verication of tubular strings in oil and gas
wells, friction reduction measures for tubular strings in oil and gas
wells, design of well trajectory, monitoring of downhole conditions, and
so on. He pointed out the problems existing in some tension-torque
models (Li et al., 1993a, 2002).
These models are static or steady state, but in a recently published
paper claimed that the dynamic model for sti-string torque and drag
(Vadim et al., 2014). In this paper, the mathematical model is wrong,
and the expression is confusing (Li, 2015). There are many mistakes in
Yang et al. (2015), such as a malicious refusal to cite correlative
references, and the dimension of the quantities in most of the
mathematical formulas is wrong.
There are many researchers (Zhang et al., 1992; Shuai et al., 1995;
Yu, 1998; Guo et al., 2003; Fu et al., 2007; Zhu et al., 2007; Liu et al.,
2009; Liu and Yue, 2011; Liu, 2012; Liu et al., 2013a) who have
studied the tension and torque of the rod and pipe string in oil and gas
wells by using nite element analysis.
6.5.2. Reduce axial friction and friction torque measures
If the friction coecient between the tubular string and the wall is
reduced, and the viscous force of liquid on the string is reduced, the
tubular string will be in normal operation, the energy consumption will
be reduced, and tubular string wear between the tubular string and the
wall will be reduced. There are many specic methods, including using
a tubular string with less weight, increasing the smoothness of the
surface between the tubular string and the wall, increasing the lubricity
of the borehole liquid, reducing the cutting bed thickness and sand plug
length, and installing anti-friction collars and hydroscillators in the
tubular string (Fu et al., 2012; Zhang et al., 2015; Wang et al., 2015).
For each method, it will have to pay something in order to obtain a
return. The tubular string with anti-friction collars will only experience
reduced friction near the anti-friction collars, so many anti-friction
collars have to be installed in the tubular string to reduce the entire
string friction. As a result, it is more dicult to trip; in addition, if the
anti-friction collar breaks, the drill string may get stuck. Similarly, the
tubular string with hydroscillators can reduce the friction near the
hydroscillator, so many hydroscillators have to be installed in the
tubular string to reduce the entire string friction. Multiple hydroscilla-
tors cause energy losses, blocking of the drilling uid communication
channel, and earlier drill string fatigue damage from vibration. The
optimal slide drilling technology (Li et al., 2013e) is (1) drill string spin
down to the bottom with (2) hydraulic thruster drilling.
6.6. Three-dimensional mechanical analysis of the BHA
In order to control the well trajectory eectively, mechanical
analysis of the BHA has always been the focus in the drilling industry.
Several theories have been put forward: the secondary bending theory,
the pendulum BHA theory, the two-dimensional theory of the BHA,
and the three-dimensional theory of the BHA. The secondary bending
theory is based on the premise of a vertical borehole and plane
buckling; therefore, many of the conclusions are wrong. In the
pendulum BHA theory and the two-dimensional theory of the BHA,
the force condition of the BHA is based on a two-dimensional plane;
however, the actual well trajectory is a three-dimensional space curve.
As a result, there is a large error in calculation, so its application is
limited. So three-dimensional mechanical analysis of the BHA must be
Z. Li et al.
applied to simulate the real state of the BHA.
Lubinski (1950) studied the buckling of rotary drilling strings and
the bit tilt angle in vertical wells. Walker and Friedman (1977) applied
the principle of minimum potential energy to analyse the conventional
BHA by the two-dimensional theory, then they established a mathe-
matical model of the three-dimensional force and the deection
analysis of a variable cross section drill string, used dierential
equations theory and Galerkin methods to search the approximate
solutions of the model. The three-dimensional analysis procedures of
the BHA apply in BHA design, resulting in improved drilling speed and
reduced drilling costs.
Millheim and Apostal (1981) applied a nite element method to
analyse the static mechanics of the BHA, rst studying the BHA
dynamic behaviour and its eect on well trajectory.
Ho (1986) initially presented a general formulation for a drill string
under a large deformation, and applied a nite dierence method for
the numerical solution.
Bai (1982), Bai and Lin (1985), Bai et al. (1989), Bai and Su (1990),
Su and Bai (1991), Su (2000), Su (2003), Su et al. (2004) applied three
moment equations to analyse the force and deformation of the BHA.
The theoretical analysis results guided drilling practice and allowed the
development of underground directional control tools.
Liu et al. (1988), Gao (1990), Gao et al. (1994), Gao and Xu (1995),
Gao (1996a), (1996b), (2006) applied the weighted residual method to
nish the three-dimensional mechanical analysis of the BHA under
small deections, and discussed the problem of two-dimensional and
three-dimensional analysis under large deformations. This method is
the second BHA analysis method independently proposed by Chinese
scholars. Recently, Gao improved the method for determining the
upper tangency point at the BHA (Guo et al., 2014).
Li (1992), Li and Liu (1993), (1994), Li et al. (1995d), (1996a), Li
(1996c), Li et al. (2000b), Zhao et al. (2003), Li et al. (2004b), Li and Li
(2008) presented three-dimensional statical mechanical analysis mod-
els of the BHA (including geometry steering BHAs and rotary steering
BHAs) under small and large deections, applied the weighted residual
method, the weighted objective function, and the optimization method
to determine the tangency point between the drill string and the
borehole wall, and solved the problem of a multivariate nonlinear
system of dierential equations. Li (1992), Li and Li (1994) presented a
three-dimensional drilling velocity equation and its reverse evolution
model. The equations of the well path prediction were established (Li,
1992; Li et al., 1995d; Li, 1996c; Li and Li, 2005), as the lateral drilling
rate is zero at the predicted point. He (Li, 1996b; Jiang and Li, 2001; Li
and Li, 2002b) also pointed out the misconceptions about the boundary
conditions at the drill bit point and the tangency point. The tumbler
eccentric deviation controlled drilling tool has no application value in
the downhole (Song and Gao, 2006, 2007a).
The nite element method is a well-established numerical method
(Shuai et al., 1990; Shu et al., 1990; Liu et al., 1997) that is widely used
in the mechanical analysis of the BHA.
6.7. Drill string dynamics
Drill string dynamics is mainly research into the motion, stress, and
deformation laws of drill strings, under a variety of dynamic loads. Due
to the inuence of many factors, such as the rock inhomogeneous
peroperty, the bending of the drill string, the rotating speed reaching to
the resonant frequency of the drill string, and so on, there are often
multiple vibration modes in the actual drilling process, including
longitudinal vibration, torsional vibration, lateral vibration, whirl
motion, and coupled vibrations. Drill string dynamics analysis is the
best way to understand and master the working state of the drill string,
to predict the wellbore trajectory accurately, to reduce the number of
drilling tool fracture accidents, and to extend the life of the drill string
eectively. The early research on drill string dynamics analysis is
mainly the experimental analysis of longitudinal and torsional vibra-
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Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 151 (2017) 194212
tion in vertical wells; experimental methods, experimental means, and
the level of awareness, were far away from the actual state of the drill-
string. It is generally acknowledged that the study of drill string
dynamics in modern times started in the 1980s. During this period,
the development of drill string dynamics was rapid, because of the
development of related science and technology, and the progress and
requirements of the drilling industry (Di et al., 2006; Hu et al., 2006).
Drill string vibration is a whole, and axial vibration, torsional vibration,
lateral vibration, and whirl, are each an aspect of it; any study for a
single vibration is incomplete. Since drill string vibration is a dynamic
process that is smooth and cyclical, the calculation results are cyclical,
and the displacement and velocity are continuous.
6.7.1. Drill string whirl mechanism
Wolf and Zacksenhouse (1985) used NL's Wire Telemetry System to
measure forces, accelerations, pressures, and formation properties for
drilling in vertical wells, and he discovered that the system resonant
frequency was signicantly lower than the natural frequency of the drill
string. He also found that high bending moments were observed in the
downhole, but could not be measured in the wellhead; this provided
direct evidence for the existence of drill string whirl. Dunayevsky
(1993) rst put forward that the drill string not only turned around its
own axis, at the same time, there is a whirl. Reyfabret et al. (1997)
established a BHA whirl identication method, to measure the BHA
whirl both on the ground and in the downhole at the same time. The
measuring principle is that the average torque changes when the BHA
is whirling, therefore, a particular frequency signal will appear in the
hook load measurement signals, and a specic signal could be used to
identify changes in the torque and hook load in the ground signal.
Jansen (1992) used the rotor dynamics theory to research the whirl
and chaotic motion of stabilized drill collars. The deection of the drill
collar, which is between two stabilizers, resembles a simple sine wave.
The motion of the drill collar could change from a simple whirl motion
to a highly irregular motion, caused by the nonlinear eect of the uid
force, and the contact and clearance between the stabilizer and the
borehole wall. The precession seriously aects the azimuthal change
rule of the borehole trajectory; Jansen revealed that the dynamic
response of the drill string is strongly nonlinear, even into the chaotic
motion.
Zhang et al. (1988) and Zhang (2001) created the rst domestic
motion simulator of the BHA, and obtained very important experi-
mental results. They put forward the drill string movement principle,
with reversal movement as the main characteristic. That is, when the
drill string rotates clockwise around its own axis in vertical wells, tool
joints or drill collars appear closer to the wall, whirl counterclockwise
around the borehole axis is a nearly non-slip scroll, and the essence of
the back whirl is multi-support self-excited vibration; only when the
friction between the drill string and the borehole wall is very small does
the drill string not generate a back whirl.
Zhang et al. (2001) conducted stability tests to compare rotary
drilling and static drilling, the results of the two tests are signicantly
dierent, and in consequence, the rotation has an important inuence
on the stability of the drill string. Guan et al. (2003), Shi et al. (2007),
Guan et al. (2013), Shao et al. (2013) used an experimental device to
study the dynamic characteristics of bottom drill strings; as a result,
they found that as the speed increased, the drill string movement
gradually transformed from a regular swaying phase into an irregular
swaying phase, and then into a regular back whirl phase.
Until now, the back whirl of drill strings under compression was
only measured and observed from the eld and laboratory in vertical
wells, and the maximum back whirl angular velocity was derived.
However, the research and simulation of the whirl mechanism is not
ideal. Anti-whirl stabilizers (Li et al., 2008b) can eectively reduce the
whirl of a drill string.
Z. Li et al.
6.7.2. Longitudinal and torsional vibrations of drill strings
Longitudinal vibration is produced by the uneven bottom hole, as
the bit teeth cut into the rock intermittently, the rock is broken
intermittently, and the transformation between the dynamic and static
friction coecient. Torsional vibration is produced by the bit inter-
mittently breaking the rock, and the transformation between the
dynamic and static friction coecient. When the longitudinal or
torsional vibration frequency of the drill string is an integer multiple
of the natural frequency of the drill string, the drill string will be in a
resonance state. The alternating stress amplitude of the drill string is
considerable, resulting in drill string breakage or galling. Gao (2000)
measured the axial vibration of a drill string when drilling with a three-
cone bit; the result shows that longitudinal vibration is the main reason
for drill string fatigue failure.
Wang and Xu (1990) studied the forced longitudinal vibration of a
drill string, and found that the structural damping and sound radiation
were small to negligible, compared with the viscous damping.
Meanwhile, they presented a computation of the forced longitudinal
vibration of a drill string by a generalized transfer matrix method.
Liu et al. (1998b), (2000), (2009) and Wu et al. (2000) analysed the
axial and torsional vibration problems, respectively, of a drill string
induced by the roller bit.
Li et al. (1992), (2004a), Li (1996d), (2008c), Li and Li (2004), Li
and Guo (2007) and Wang and Li (2011) appropriately simplied the
drilling vibration system (derrick, rope, traveling block and rotary
swivel, etc.), for the problem of longitudinal vibration, and established
the mathematical models of the force and displacement excitation
methods. For the problem of torsional vibration, the mathematical
models of the torque and rotational angle excitation methods were
established. In addition, he pointed out that the best anti-vibration
rotation velocity, which is provided by the traditional force excitation
method, is none other than the resonant rotational velocity; therefore,
the displacement excitation method should be used to study the
longitudinal vibration of drill strings (Li, 1989). This method has been
eld tested with good results (Li, 2008c; Wang et al., 2011). It should
be made clear that some mathematical models of longitudinal vibration
(Liu et al., 2013b, 2014b, 2014c) are wrong, particularly those in which
the axial force of the bit is a known condition. The reason for this is
incorrect is that the drill string will jump away from the bottom, under
this assumption condition and a certain rotational speed, according to
the results calculated by the models.
Omojuwa et al. (2011), (2012), (2014) and Patil and Teodoriu
(2013a), (2013b), (2013c) studied stick-slip vibration, some consider-
ing PDC bit-rock interaction.
Until now, all the research on longitudinal vibration and rotational
vibration has only studied the drill string response to the boundary
conditions at the drill bit in vertical wells. Because the boundary
conditions at the bit are very complex and varied, and the boundary
conditions we used are assumptive at present, the research on long-
itudinal and torsional vibrations is still in the beginning stages.
6.7.3. Lateral vibration and whirl of drill strings
If a drill string is not rotating, it experiences lateral vibration with
no whirl; if a drill string is rotating, the whirl is coupled with lateral
vibration.
(1) Collision and whirl between the rotating drill string and the
borehole wall.
Burgess (1987) discovered some phenomena when drilling
vibration models were applied to eld experience: drill string
vibration in a vertical well is more serious than that in a deviated
well; the resonant frequency of lateral vibration depends mainly on
some parameters, including the size and stiness of the drill collar,
the position of stabilizers, and the inclination of the wellhole; the
location of the drill collar leaning against the wall above the
stabilizer, is determined by the inclination of the wellhole, and this
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Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 151 (2017) 194212
location determines the length of the lateral vibration system.
Dunayevsky (1993) analysed the drill string dynamics for a
roller bit, and it was the rst time to give the reason for the BHA
lateral vibration in theory.
Dykstra and Chen (1994, 1996) conducted dynamics experi-
ments with drill bits and drill strings. Their results suggested that:
the adverse eect of lateral vibration was far greater than that of
axial vibration; due to the isolating eect of stabilizers, bit
vibration amplitudes rapidly diminished with distance from the
bit; and measuring results on the ground and in the downhole
might not be consistent. Laboratory and eld experiments were
performed, the results of which show that one of the main causes
of lateral vibrations was drill string mass imbalance, which
included decentration, initial bending, eccentric wear, and so on.
Heisig and Neubert (2000) studied drill string lateral vibration
with long sections of the drill string laying on the low side of the
wellbore, and derived an analytical solution for the intrinsic
frequency by using the analytical method. Liao et al. (2011),
(2012), Chatjigeorgiou (2013), Liu et al. (2013c), Nandakumar
and Wiercigroch (2013b), Thompson and Van der Heijden (2013),
Liu et al. (2014d), Vlajic et al. (2014a), (2014b) conducted
interactions between a rotary drill string and the borehole wall.
Di et al. (2008), (2010), Yao et al. (2008) and Hu et al. (2010)
discussed the issue of the collision between a rotary drill string and
the borehole wall, and noted that the inuence of the drilling uid
was considered to be a damper, by the nite element method.
Luo (2009), Liu et al. (2011) and Zhang et al. (2011) used nite
element simulation and laboratory experiments to study multi-
directional drill string collisions and whirl coupling with the inner
and outer annular uids, and they discovered that when the
eccentricity is greater than 0.8, the drill string eccentricity is
prevented by the interfacial force of the uniform axial eccentric
annulus helical ow over the tube cross-section. Zhu et al. (2008),
(2012) and Zhu and Hu (2014) studied the lateral vibration of drill
strings as well, by the nite element method.
(2) The interaction between a rotating drill string and the drilling
uid.
Qu (1994), Qu and Zhang (1994) and Qu and Xu (1997)
analysed the dynamic pressure between a drill string and the
drilling uid, from the perspective of drill string whirl. Xiao et al.
(2004) discussed the annulus whirl motion of a rotary drill string
under the actions of the friction force between drllstring and well
wall and the drilling uid. Li et al. (1995a) and Li (2008c) set up a
mathematical model of the Newtonian liquid laminar ow induced
by drill string rotation and revolution. Cui and Liu (1995), 1996;
Cui et al. (2005), (2007a), (2007b) studied ow regularity and
pressure distribution of the power law uid owing in the annulus
with the inner cylinder executing a planetary motion.
(3) The major problems.
Although there are many researches studying the dynamic
stability of a rotary drill string under compression, these scholars
have only studied one or two aspects of the problem, without
aggregating their results into a system; what is more, the theore-
tical results are still far away from the physical truth.
For example:
(a) Many scholars have studied the problem of the collision
between a rotary drill string and the borehole wall. Is it a
collision between a rotary drill string and the borehole wall? If
the wellbore has no drilling uid, the answer is yes; however, if
the wellbore is lled with drilling uid, the problem should be a
problem about power lubrication or elastic collision after
buering by the liquid.
(b) Cui et al. made outstanding achievements in ow regularity
and pressure distribution of the power law uid owing in the
annulus with the inner cylinder executing a planetary motion;
however, whirl law is considered to be a known quantity. In
Z. Li et al.
addition, the formulas are too complex to understand; perhaps
only Cui and one or two of his students have mastered the
essence of these formulas.
(c) Although Xiao et al. discussed the annulus whirl motion of a
rotary drill string under the actions of the friction force between
drillstring and well wall and the drilling uid, he thought the
drill string will bear side forces along the direction of rotary
motion velocity and enlarge the whirl motion, this is contrary
to actuality.
(d) Di et al. only considered the inuence of drilling uid as a
damper, but neglected the problem of power lubrication, so that
the issue of the collision between a rotary drill string and the
borehole wall appeared.
(e) Although Liu et al. discovered that when the eccentricity is
greater than 0.8, the drill string eccentricy is prevented by the
interfacial axial force of the uniform axial eccentric annulus
helical ow over the tube cross-section.; however, he also
studied the issue of the collision between a rotary drill string
and the borehole wall.
There are still many unsolved problems, such as 1) under
what conditions will generate whirl of a drill string? 2) how
much of the eccentricity is in drill-string whirl? 3) how great is
the whirl angular velocity? 4) is the trajectory of the drill string
centre a circular arc?
(4) Ways to solve the problems.
According to the fundamental equations for the dynamic analysis of
the rod and pipe string in oil and gas wells, the mathematical model of
the drilling uid laminar ow induced by the rotation and revolution of
a drill string, and the existing theory of drill string buckling and radial
sliding bearing lubrication, we establish the mathematical model of the
drilling uid laminar ow which was induced by the rotation, revolu-
tion, and whirl of a drill string, and the mathematical model of a drill
string buckling under the action of compressive axial force, sliding
friction force, and the dynamic drilling uid eect. These models can
then be combined as a whole, using the mechanical equilibrium
principle, the minimum potential energy principle, and the minimum
dissipation power principle as criteria, to study drilling uid power
lubrication, buckling of a compressed drill string, and whirl motion, as
well as to draw the whirl trajectory, by theoretical and experimental
methods. The obtained results were compared with the data on drill
string wear and fracture, and provide a theoretical basis for drill string
anti-fracture design (Li, 2013a).
6.7.4. Coupled vibrations of drill strings
Yigit and Christoforou (1996) studied various kinds of vibrations
and their coupling eect of an oil well drill string, including coupled
axial and transverse vibrations. Equations of the BHA motion were
established by the assumption mode method, and nonlinear eects in
the coupling model were expounded. However, they only considered
the annulus drilling uid damping eect on the drill string; neither the
coupling eect of the inside and outside drill string drilling uid nor
the inuence of the weight of the drill string were taken into account. In
addition, only the condition in a vertical wellbore was studied.
However, he presented a fully coupled model for the axial, lateral,
and torsional vibrations of a drill string, with a quantitative description
of the eect of bit/formation and drill string/borehole wall interactions
on the vibration given in the model (Christoforou and Yigit, 2001).
Coupled axial and torsional vibrations were studied in the literature
(Divenyi et al., 2012; Nandakumar and Wiercigroch, 2013a;
Nandakumar and Wiercigroch, 2013b; Kapitaniak et al., 2015).
However: (1) papers use a lumped mass-axial spring with damping
to model the long slender drill string in studies of drill string axial
vibration, which is not appropriate. The vertical hook load applied to
the top of drill pipes (spring) as a constant is also incorrect, and the bit
boundary conditions need to be discussed; in addition, (2) papers use a
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Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 151 (2017) 194212
torsional spring-pendulum with damping to model the long slender
drill string in studies of drill string torsional vibration, which is also not
appropriate.
A coupled vibration model for a drill string must meet the following
conditions: (1) the dierential equations of the vibration system should
be coupled, and (2) the model should be combined with the bit rock
fragmentation rule.
6.7.5. Dynamic analysis of the anti-deection drilling tool
In the drilling industry, deviation control and fast drilling technol-
ogy for vertical wells is always a major problem. In recent years,
dynamical deviation control and fast drilling technologies have re-
ceived a wide application. There are three kinds of anti-deection
drilling tools based on their dynamics: 1) a BHA with an eccentric sub,
2) a BHA with a pre-bending sub, and 3) a exible BHA with an
eccentric sub. In most cases, they have good incline prevention results,
but sometimes they also increase the well deviation. These tools have
common characteristics: the lateral vibration of the drill string is
serious, the service life of the BHA is short, and the BHA is easy to
fracture.
Static and dynamical behaviours of the revolution BHA were
discussed by Di et al. (2003), (2007). Li et al. (2003b) concluded that
the incline prevention and increasing mechanism of the BHA is
nonlinear wall rock breaking during drilling, due to the relationship
between the volume of the rock breaks and the lateral side weight on bit
(WOB) is a power function and the power index is greater than 1. When
the original lateral WOB added a sinusoidal side WOB, the drilling tool
which has a dropping tendency ability in the static state, increases
dropping ability; on the other hand, the drilling tool which has a
building tendency ability in the static state, increases building ability.
This is in good agreement with eld practice.
There are some problems in the literature (Ritto et al., 2013; Ritto
and Sampaio, 2013; Ritto, 2015) that studied longitudinal and
torsional vibrations of drill strings:
(1) In the dierential equations, terms add and subtract when
dimensions of the quantities are not equal.
(2) Mathematical models are incomplete.
(3) The calculations are not from the mathematical models.
The mechanical model in Gulyayev et al. (2011) and Gulyayev and
Shevchuk (2013), (2015) literature that studied drill string whirling
dynamics, is wrong. Their mechanical model is (1) a two stablilizer
string, (2) simplyng stablilizer as xed hinge support, (3) without the
constraint of well wall or drillcollar can cutting well very easy, (4) no
drilling fuild.
6.8. Casing string mechanical analysis
6.8.1. External casing loads
The external casing is subjected to loads, including gravity, tension,
torque, pressure outside the casing, pressure inside the casing, thermal
stress, and so on (Hao and Gong, 1987); sometimes there is a shear
force (Li et al., 2008a).
There was a time when people invested a lot of energy in the study
of loading on the casing under nonuniform geologic stresses (Fang
et al., 1995, 1997, 1999; Li et al., 1999b, 2007; Yin et al., 2004, 2006a,
2006b; Chen et al., 2007). After it was pointed out that this problem
does not occur in oil elds (Li et al., 1985, 2009d), some people still
continued to publish this kind of articles (Yin et al., 2012; Li et al.,
2013c; Wang et al., 2013, 2014; Liu et al., 2014a; Yin and Gao, 2014;
Qu et al., 2015), and paid no attention to the pertinent literature (Li
et al., 2009d). If the formation is not of creep property, earth stresses
cannot be exerted on the casing; if the formation is of creep property,
after a long time, the external pressure on the casing will become the
overburden pressure. The external pressure on the casing in rheological
Z. Li et al.
formations exceeds the overburden pressure (Chen, 2012; Zhai et al.,
2015), that is impossible (Li et al., 2014c).
Teodoriu et al. (2010) developed an analytical model of wellbore
stresses among cement-casing-formation.
Chantose et al. (2011) used a limit-state function to describes the
casing condition as the casing undergo a reservoir compaction load,
and the ductile cement may absorb some of formation deformation
before transferring it to the casing. Rodriguez et al. (2003) studied
simulation of collapse loads on cemented casing using nite element
analysis. Gholami et al. (2015) used geomechanical analysis and
numerical modeling to investigate why casing damage is repeatedly
happening in one of the complicated reservoirs.
Yuan et al. (2012, 2013) used the nite element to study the eect
of cementing complications on casing collapse resistance in HPHT
wells.
6.8.2. Casing string strength and design
According to the external load, the strength of the casing can be
divided into the extension strength, collapse resistance, internal
pressure strength, and torsional strength (Hao and Gong, 1987).
According to processing quality, the strength of the casing can be
divided into concentric casing strength and eccentric casing strength.
According to the degrees of old and new, the strength of the casing can
be divided into new casing strength, casing strength after perforation
(Song et al., 2008), casing strength after wear (Liao et al., 2010), and
casing strength after corrosion (Xu et al., 2014).
The unied strength theory (Zhao et al., 2013b; Li et al., 2015a;
Tong et al., 2016) is similar to the fourth strength theory in the
mechanics of materials or the Mises yield criterion in plastic mechanics
(Xu, 1981). It has always been used in the three-dimensional mechan-
ical analysis of the casing (Li, 1996d, 2008c). The most classic theory is
the casing biaxial stress ellipse (Chen and Guan, 2000). From the 1970s
to the 1990s, Zhao (1981) and Gong (1997a) exchanged views on the
eccentricity casing strength. Han put forward his own view about the
casing biaxial stress ellips (Han, 2000), as well as some improvement
suggestions for casing design standards (Han, 2004a, 2004b, 2011a,
2011b).
Now, the safety coecient method is commonly used in the casing
design method. For wells in thermal recovery processes, there is a
casing design method based on strain variations (Han et al., 2014).
6.8.3. Mechanical analysis of casing in thermal recovery wells and
the pre-expansion technique
Li et al. (1995e), (1996b), (1998c), (2008c), (2009c) and Li
(1996d), (2008a), (2008b), (2008c) calculated the dynamic tempera-
ture formulations of the casings in thermal recovery wells, conducted
the casing string mechanical analysis and strength check, and then
presented a pre-expansion technique for protecting the casing from
thermal failure in thermal recovery wells.
6.9. Testing string mechanical analysis
There are less literatures about mechanical analysis of the testing
string. Liang and Deng (1998) and Deng et al. (2000) primarily
discussed the mechanical analysis of high-temperature, high-pressure
deep well testing pipe string. Gao and Gao (2002) thought that the
testing string had been in a plastic state when it was subjected to high
temperature and high pressure, so they used the plasticity increment
theory to calculate the deformation. Yu and Li (2003) used the nite
element method for testing string mechanical analysis. Li et al. (2011b)
and Li (2012) established mathematical models for mechanical analy-
sis throughout the entire testing operation, based on operating
procedures of formation testing, and taking various parameters into
account, such as well-bore trajectory, composition of pipe string,
property of borehole uid, internal and external pressure intensity,
friction coecient between pipe string and well wall, geothermal
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Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 151 (2017) 194212
gradient, air temperature, tubing temperature, test valve type, packer
type, piston eect of packer, helical buckling eect of pipe string, and
so on. They used the dierence method to solve mathematical models,
then provided various parameters of pipe string, such as tension force,
torque, stress, safety factor, stability, elongation, and so on.
6.10. Fracturing/water injection/steam injection tubing string
mechanical analysis
Li et al. (1998a) established the wellbore/formation temperature
mathematical model, analysed the stress state of the tubing in steam
injection and production in thermal recovery wells, and then obtained
all kinds of stress calculation formulas for the steam injection string,
and provided a strength checking method. They (Li et al., 2012c; Li and
Li, 2013) established mathematical models for tubing temperature
during dierent procedures of the fracturing operation. Next, they
introduced uid pressure calculations for the tubing and the annulus.
The mathematical model for the mechanical analysis of the tubing
string during tripping was established. Mathematical models for the
mechanical analysis of the tubing string while setting were established
for dierent packers. Mathematical models for the mechanical analysis
of the tubing string in injection were established for dierent well
fracturing types, and the slip joint was included. Mathematical models
for the mechanical analysis of tubing string in unsetting and tripping
out scenarios were established. A strength checking method of tubing
string was provided. After these models were solved using a dierence
method, a software program for mechanical analysis of tubing strings
in fracturing operations was compiled; this software had been success-
fully applied. Liu and He (2013), Liu et al. (1998a), and Lian et al.
(2015) have performed related research as well.
6.11. Diagnosis, parameter optimization, and energy savings of the
sucker rod pump system
Gibbs presented the diagnosis and prediction technology of down-
hole conditions in sucker rod pumping wells (Gibbs, 1963; Gibbs and
Neely, 1966; Gibbs, 1992, 2012). In the diagnostic technology, he used
a dynamometer to measure two change rules curves, including the
displacement change of the polished rod with the time, and the load
change of the polished rod with the time. Both change rules curves
were used as boundary conditions, while the rod string wave equation
of longitudinal vibration was established to calculate the dynamic
mechanics parameters of the subsurface sucker rod pump. Meanwhile,
the mathematical model for the sucker rod pump system applied in the
diagnostic technique in directional wells was established (Gibbs, 1992).
In the prediction technology, according to the load characteristic of the
motor, the composition of the sucker rod pump pumping system, and
the known pump working condition, he calculated the mechanical
parameters for the sucker rod pump pumping system (Gibbs, 1963).
Zhang et al. (1985) studied the diagnosis technology of sucker rod
pumping unit, and then directed Li (Tao et al., 1986; Zhang et al.,
1986; Li et al., 1987) in his study of the prediction and optimization of
rod pump pumping system parameters. Li presented a new idea for
pumping unit rotating balance the rst and second harmonic
components cancelling method (Li and Li, 1988). Recently, the method
was realized by Feng et al. (2015). Hereafter, this aspect of the work is
in full swing, with representative scholars being: Guoan Yu, Siwei
Zhang, Xiaodong Wu, Qi Zhang, Yi Lu, Shimin Dong, Jubao Liu,
Haibin Yang, Qinfeng Di, and He Liu et al.; Dong Shimin always
focuses on the study of the beam-pumping system for energy saving
and parameters optimization (Xing and Dong, 2015).
6.12. Mechanical analysis of screw-pump sucker rods
In a screw-pump system, the rotation sucker rod drives the rotation
screw pump, and the main purpose of the mechanical analysis is anti-
Z. Li et al.
attrition and vibration reduction (Sui, 1988; Gao, 1997; Li et al.,
1998b; Wu et al., 1999; Dong and Li, 2006).
6.13. Vibration of the gas production tubing string
Whether in gas wells or in gas storage, gas production tubing
strings may vibrate when the gas ow rate is high. At present, we only
know that the vibration of the gas production tubing string is caused by
the self-excited oscillation between the gas and the string. However,
this phenomenon has not been simulated by mechanics or mathematics
(Fan et al., 2010, 2011; Huang et al., 2012).
6.14. Impact vibration of the string
Impact vibration of the string is caused by perforating bombs and
bumper jar shock. There is little research in this eld (Lian et al., 2006;
Chen et al., 2010; Wu et al., 2011; Cai et al., 2015), even the impact
pressure change and distribution rules along the string and with time
are not clear.
6.15. Expansion screen pipe/casing mechanical analysis
When the seam number of the expandable screen pipe is zero, the
expandable screen pipe becomes an expansion casing. Lian et al. (2002,
2003) used the nite element method to conduct a computer simula-
tion analysis of the expansion casing. After an analysis of the design
feature, installation, and pulling out of the screen pipe, Li et al.
(2003a), (2010b) and Li (2008c) presented a mathematical model of
the mechanical analysis of screen pipe contraction and expansion,
software was compiled, and the calculation result was compared with
that of room and eld tests.
6.16. Riser string and deepwater pipeline mechanical analysis
The riser string is under the action of gravity, ocean currents,
waves, drill strings, and so on, and the research directions of riser
string mechanical analysis focus on transverse vibration, vortex-
induced vibration, fatigue life, and so on. Mechanical analysis of the
riser string is one of the hot topics in the study of current string
mechanics. Research methods: (1) dierential equations and nite
dierence method and (2) nite element method, which was started
from top tension analysis (Li and Wu, 1994) and dynamic response (Jia
and Fang, 1995; Li, 1996a). Representative scholars: Guoming Chen
(Chen et al., 2013), Shouwei Zhou, Qingyou Liu, Wei Jiang, Jin Yang,
Xiaobing Shi, Yuanjiang Chang, and Zifeng Li (Li et al., 2013d, 2015b).
For deepwater pipelines, the most relevant limit states that need to
be analyzed are the collapse and collapse propagation under dierent
combinations of external pressure and bending. In the design of
pipelines, it is important to use validated numerical tools, usually
nite element models, to reliably determine the structural limit loads.
Assanelli et al. (2000a), (2000b) and Assanelli and Turconi (2001)
combined experimental and numerical procedures to investigate the
eects of casing geometry on its external collapse pressure, as well as
considered the eect of connections on collapse resistance.
Dvorkin and Toscano (2001), (2013), Toscano et al. (2003a),
(2003b), (2004), (2005), (2007), Toscano and Dvorkin, (2006),
(2009) developed the nite element models to predict the collapse
and collapse propagation of seamless steel pipes under external
pressure and bending, and analyzed the buckle arrestors cross-over
external pressures, the numerical results were compared with experi-
mental results.
6.17. Vibration wave signal transmission in the tubular string
The vibration wave (The term acoustic wave, which is used in the
existing literature, is not exact, because the frequency domain of
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Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 151 (2017) 194212
acoustic waves only includes the frequency that can be heard by
human ears.) spreads in a drill string; as an information carrier to
communicate with the ground and underground, the eect may be
better. A drill string is composed of single drill pipes connected
together by joints. Therefore, elastic waves in the joint interface
appearing by transmission, reection, and scattering can lead to
attenuation of the signal transmission and partial frequency blockage.
This technology has been studied for a long time, but the eect is not
ideal so far. Representative scholars: Cheng Li (Li et al., 2009a, 2009b,
2013a, 2013b, 2014a, 2014b) and Zhichuan Guan (Zhao et al., 2009,
2010; Guan et al., 2012; Liu et al., 2012, 2013a, 2015a, 2015b; Zhao
et al., 2013a).
6.18. Wear and corrosion as well as erosion of the tubular string
For tubular string wear, most of the attention was focused on casing
wear, since the wearing parts are xed and there are huge losses if the
casing failure. The wear of the drill string is commenly uniform in
diameter, and a small number of the eccentric worn drill collars can be
replaced. The tubing and the sucker rod also experience eccentric wear,
but the importance is less than that of the casing wear. Many factors
may aect the degree of casing wear (Gao et al., 1999; Chen and Liu,
2002; Lin et al., 2004; Yu et al., 2004; Wang et al., 2005; Yu et al.,
2006; Liang et al., 2013, 2015), such as abnormal pressure, the
material and smoothness degree of two mutual friction surfaces, the
performance of the borehole uid, sliding distance, casing inner
diameter, drill pipe diameter, and so on. We can use the string tension
torque model to calculate the normal force between the drill string
and the casing.
For the corrosion of the tubular string, most of the attention was
focused on the corrosion of the casing and tubing. Many factors may
aect the corrosion degree (Huang and Dai, 1995; Mao and Shi, 1996),
such material, surface condition, uid chemical properties, tempera-
ture, pressure, time, and so on. Dierent anti-corrosion measures
should be applied on a case-by-case basis.
The erosion of the tubular string (Lin et al., 2010, 2012d; Yao et al.,
2010; Zhu et al., 2010) occurs when the pipe wall is etched by the
heterogeneous particles in the uid. Many factors may aect the
erosion degree, such as the uid properties, the ow velocity, the ow
state, particle material, particle geometry, the wall material, and so on.
6.19. Residual strength and fatigue strength forecast of the tubular
string
There is a lot of research on residual strength calculations for
damaged casings (Liao et al., 2010), but the residual strength of the
drill pipe has seldom been studied (Zhu et al., 2011).
Most of the attention has been focused on the fatigue strength
forecast of the casing and tubing (Cui et al., 2003; Yuan et al., 2003;
Yan et al., 2009; Li et al., 2012a, 2012b). The prebending coiled tubing
technology may improve the fatigue life of coiled tubing at least one
times higher (Li et al., 2012a, 2012b).
6.20. Connections mechanical analysis
The development of new techniques are requiring the development
of connections with performance features not common standard tubing
and casing connections, such as casing drilling, tubing drilling, tubing
less completion and ultra deep well drilling. High resistance to fatigue
loading, high over torque capacity, and sealability are key performance
features dicult to nd in available tubing and casing connections.
Assanelli and Dvorkin (1993) and Dvorkin et al (1996) used the
nite element method to analyze the behavior of dierent types of tube
threaded connections. Teodoriu and Kinzel (2005), Teodoriu et al.
(2007), Teodoriu and Badicioiu (2009) and Teodoriu and Falcone
(2009) analyzed the makeup procedure and evaluation of conical
Z. Li et al.
shouldered threaded connections.
There are many researchers, such as Brutti and Salvini (1992),
Hilbert and Kalil (1992), Carcagno et al. (2004), Santi et al. (2005),
Diaz et al. (2009), Zhu et al. (2013), Di et al. (2016), who have studied
the fatigue analysis of threaded connections though nite element
analysis as well.
6.21. Strength design and verication
Stress intensity in tubular mechanics is generally in the elastic
range, part involves the plastic zone. Strength design and verication
use material mechanics, elastic mechanics and plastic mechanics; as for
fracture mechanics, due to fracture shape must be known, and if there
is an obvious fracture in the tubular, this tubular should be replaced, is
limited (Shuai, 2010).
Most people use safety coecient method to design tubular strings.
There are designs of resistance to tensile, resistance to external
pressure, resistance to internal pressure, biaxial stress and triaxial
stress, suitable for dierent stress states (Li, 1996d, 2008c; Chen and
Guan, 2000).
In strength verication, people often use triaxial stress state. The
yield criterions often used are Mises yield criterion and Tresca yield
criterion. The unied strength theory, which can deal with materails
that there is a dierence between the tensile yield strength and
compression yield strength, is now used in tubular mechanics (Zhao
et al., 2013b; Li et al., 2015a; Tong et al., 2016).
6.22. Others
Tubular mechanics can be applied in many elds, for example, the
mechanical analysis and safety evaluation of catheters and guide-wire
strings in vascular intervention medicine (Li et al., 2011c), the
mechanical analysis in micro/nano systems (Li et al., 2010a), and the
mechanical analysis of cables and wires threading and exchanging in
building construction.
7. Expectations
In the future, key research directions for tubular string mechanics
in oil and gas wells are as follows:
(1) Theoretical and experimental studies on drill-string whirl: the
combination of drilling uid power lubrication with drill string
dynamics.
(2) Drill string coupled vibration based on interactions between the bit
and the rock.
(3) Theoretical and experimental studies on the vibration of gas
production tubing strings in high gas wells.
(4) Theory and technology of friction reduction between tubular
strings and the wall.
(5) Theory and technology of antivibration and antifriction of riser
string.
(6) Theory and technology of vibration wave signal transmission in
tubular strings.
(7) Theory and technology of life extension of casing in thermal
recovery wells.
(8) Development and application of tubular mechanics in oil-gas wells
applied to vascular intervention medicine.
(9) Development and application of tubular mechanics in oil-gas wells
applied to micro/nano systems.
Statement
This paper literature sources is limited to English and Chinese, not
all languages.
207
Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 151 (2017) 194212
Acknowledgment
The paper was supported by the National Natural Science
Foundation of China (Grants nos. 51244004, 51374183, 51490653,
and 51674220), the China Scholarship Council (Grant 201608130103)
and the Postgraduate Innovation Project of Hebei Province (Grant
2016SJBS028).
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