Acta Materialia 117 (2016) 371e392

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Acta Materialia
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/actamat

By invitation only: overview article

Additive manufacturing of metals

Dirk Herzog a, *, Vanessa Seyda b, Eric Wycisk b, Claus Emmelmann a, b
a
Institute of Laser and System Technologies, Hamburg University of Technology, Germany
b
LZN Laser Zentrum Nord GmbH, Germany

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Additive Manufacturing (AM), the layer-by layer build-up of parts, has lately become an option for serial
Received 15 February 2016 production. Today, several metallic materials including the important engineering materials steel,
Received in revised form aluminium and titanium may be processed to full dense parts with outstanding properties.
7 July 2016
In this context, the present overview article describes the complex relationship between AM processes,
Accepted 7 July 2016
Available online 20 July 2016
microstructure and resulting properties for metals. It explains the fundamentals of Laser Beam Melting,
Electron Beam Melting and Laser Metal Deposition, and introduces the commercially available materials
for the different processes. Thereafter, typical microstructures for additively manufactured steel,
Keywords:
Additive manufacturing
aluminium and titanium are presented. Special attention is paid to AM specic grain structures, resulting
Metals from the complex thermal cycle and high cooling rates. The properties evolving as a consequence of the
Microstructure microstructure are elaborated under static and dynamic loading. According to these properties, typical
Properties applications are presented for the materials and methods for conclusion.
2016 Acta Materialia Inc. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
In contrast to conventional, subtractive manufacturing methods,
additive manufacturing (AM) is based on an incremental layer-by
layer manufacturing [1]. As such, most relevant AM technologies
commonly use powder or wire as a feedstock which is selectively
melted by a focused heat source and consolidated in subsequent
cooling to form a part [2,3]. AM has attracted much attention over
the past ten years due to its immanent advantages, such as unri-
valled design freedom and short lead times [4]. AM techniques have
already been known for more than 20 years [5] but were at rst
limited to the rapid manufacturing of porous structures and pro-
totypes. With the advancement of technology, part density and
quality improved and rst applications in tool inserts with
conformal cooling evolved [6], as well as medical applications, e.g.
in the form of dental prostheses [7]. Today, it has become possible
to reliably manufacture dense parts with certain AM processes and
for a number of materials, including steel, aluminium and titanium
[8].
Thus, AM transforms more and more from rapid prototyping to
rapid manufacturing applications [9], which require not only
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: dirk.herzog@tuhh.de (D. Herzog).
profound knowledge of the process itself, but also of the micro-
structure resulting from the process parameters and consequently
of the properties of the manufactured parts. From the many tech-
nologies available, only a handful is able to produce metallic parts
that full the requirements of industrial applications. In this over-
view, the relationship between process, microstructure and prop-
erties is studied in detail for three AM technologies with the
highest industrial relevance at the moment, Laser Beam Melting
(LBM), Electron Beam Melting (EBM), and Laser Metal Deposition
(LMD).
2. Additive manufacturing methods
AM methods can essentially be classied by the nature and the
aggregate state of the feedstock as well as by the binding mecha-
nism between the joined layers of material [10,11]. In AM of metals
a powder feedstock or more rarely a wire is fully melted by the
energy input of a laser or electron beam and transformed layer by
layer into a solid part of nearly any geometry.
The most popular processes for AM of metals are Laser Beam
Melting (LBM), Electron Beam Melting (EBM) and Laser Metal
Deposition (LMD). The process of LBM is also known as Selective
Laser Melting (SLM) [12], Direct Metal Laser Sintering (DMLS) [13],
LaserCUSING [14], Laser Metal Fusion (LMF) [15] or industrial 3D
printing. Widely used synonyms for the description of the LMD
process are amongst others Direct Metal Deposition (DMD) [16],

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.actamat.2016.07.019
1359-6454/ 2016 Acta Materialia Inc. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
372 D. Herzog et al. / Acta Materialia 117 (2016) 371e392
Nomenclature
AM Additive Manufacturing, often termed Additive
Layer Manufacturing (ALM)
DS layer thickness
EBM Electron Beam Melting
EL elongation at failure
EV volume energy
hs hatch distance
Kt stress concentration factor
LBM Laser Beam Melting, often termed Selective Laser
Melting (SLM)
LMD Laser Metal Deposition, often termed Direct Laser
Deposition (DLD)
PL laser power
R stress ratio
RZ average surface roughness
UTS ultimate tensile strength
vs scan speed
YS yield strength
smax at 107 fatigue strength at 107 cycles
Laser Engineered Net Shaping (LENS) [17], laser cladding or laser
deposition welding. Most of these names are trademarks of
different machine manufacturers.
Despite diverse naming, the various metal AM processes basi-
cally share the same approach: The starting point is a 3D CAD
model that is created on a computer, generated by an imaging
method or obtained by reverse engineering. The model is virtually
sliced into thin layers with a typical layer thickness of 20 mme1 mm
[18], depending on the AM process. Based on this data the physical
part is then built by repetitive deposition of single layers and locally
melting of the material by a heat source.
Nevertheless, there are important properties, advantages and
disadvantages of LBM, EBM and LMD that distinguish these three
processes. For this reason, a description emphasizing major char-
acteristics and highlighting the most signicant differences of these
processes is put rst. This is to support the understanding of for-
mation of microstructure and development of mechanical proper-
ties of parts resulting from the LBM, EBM and LMD processes.
2.1. Laser beam melting (LBM) of metals
LBM is a powder bed-based process in which metal powder is
spread in thin layers with a typical layer thickness DS of
20 mme100 mm [19] across a work area with dimensions reaching
from 50 mm
50 mm up to 800 mm
400 mm at present [14]. A
sketch of a typical LBM system is presented in Fig. 1.
The metal powder is either fed by a hopper or provided by a
reservoir next to the work area [20]. For uniform distribution of the
powder a levelling system or a recoater blade is used (Fig. 1, Step I.
Powder Deposition). With the help of a galvanometer scanner a
laser beam with a power PL in-between 20 W [21] and 1 kW [14] is
directed with a scan speed vs of up to 15 m/s [12] across the
deposited powder layer (Fig. 1, Step II. Laser Exposure). Laser beam
sources that are predominantly used in LBM are single mode bre
lasers in continuous wave mode that emit radiation with a wave-
length of 1060 nme1080 nm in the near infrared. Typical spot sizes
of the laser beam in the focal plane are between 50 mm [22] and
180 mm [23], depending on the manufacturing system used. Ac-
cording to the cross section of the part, the metal powder is
selectively exposed to the laser beam in the x-y-plane. By exceeding
the melting temperature of the material the powder is completely
melted along the parts contour and lling (Fig. 1, B-B). Usually, the
sequence of the individual melt tracks follows a pattern, the so-
called scan strategy, whereby the melt tracks overlap with a
certain hatch distance hs. The volume energy
EV PL =vs *hs *DS (1)
supplied to the powder layer causes not only the exposed material
to melt but also reaches areas adjacent to the melt pool due to heat
conduction. During solidication of the melt the individual melt
tracks and the already solidied layer below are fused [24]. After
selective exposure of the powder bed to the laser beam, the build
plate is lowered (Fig. 1, Step III. Lower Build Plate), another powder
layer is applied and the process of melting the newly deposited
powder layer is repeated. These three steps are iterated until the
part is completed. After completion unmelted metal powder can be
sieved and reintroduced into a subsequent LBM process.
The part itself is xed to a build plate, quite often connected by
so-called support structures. Support structures are lattice-like
structures which are necessary for heat dissipation and xation
of the part in the powder bed, especially for supporting its hori-
zontally oriented and overhanging surfaces, cf. Fig. 1, Detail A, and
also cf. Fig. 20 (left). That way deformation of the part is prevented.
The support structures need to be removed later on to nish the
part. In addition to support structures, pre-heating of the build
plate can be used to avoid distortion of parts by lowering thermal
gradients, resulting in a reduction of residual stresses which evolve
during the LBM process [27]. For LBM fabrication of Ti-6Al-4V parts,
typical pre-heating temperatures are 200  C [25] up to 500  C [26].
The LBM process is carried out in a closed process chamber in
which an inert gas atmosphere is continuously maintained so that
the residual oxygen content is less than 0.1% [28]. Nitrogen or argon
is fed into the chamber to avoid undesired interactions of the metal
powder with its environment and to protect the melt. Furthermore,
secondary products of the process such as weld fume and weld
spatter are removed by the inert gas ow around the work area
[29].
2.2. Electron beam melting (EBM) of metals
In Electron Beam Melting (EBM) a powder bed is created similar
to the LBM process. Therefore, metal powder is fed from a hopper
and distributed by a rake across a build plate with a size of typically
200 mm
200 mm in x-y-direction or 350 mm in diameter [30], cf.
Fig. 2.
Usually, the powder layer thickness amounts to 50 mme200 mm
[31]. Instead of a laser beam an electron beam functions as heat
source to melt the powder as prescribed by the 3D CAD data. The
electron beam is generated in an electron gun (Figs. 2 and 1) before
it is accelerated with an acceleration voltage of 60 kV, focused by
electromagnetic lenses (Fig. 2) and directed by a magnetic scan coil
(Figs. 2 and 3) to the desired positions in the x-y plane on the build
plate (Figs. 2 and 7) [32]. The power, focus and scan speed of the
electron beam are generally determined by the choice of beam
current, focus offset and speed function respectively [33]. At rst,
the powder bed is pre-heated by a defocused beam which scans the
powder bed surface several times [34]. Using a high beam current
of up to 30 mA and a scan speed of about 104 mm/s, temperatures of
>700  C of the powder material are achieved for Ti-6Al-4V
[8,35,36], while for e.g. Cu a lower temperature of 550  C has
been reported [37]. This leads not only to heating of the powder but
also to sintering of particles [36]. In order to ensure complete
melting of metal powder, beam current and scan speed are reduced
 D. Herzog et al. / Acta Materialia 117 (2016) 371e392 373

Fig. 1. Schematics of an LBM machine (left), and of the three process steps iterated during the build (right).

to about 102 mm/s and 5 mAe10 mA respectively during the sub-

sequent melt scan with a certain scan sequence [8]. Analogous to
the LBM process the build plate is lowered afterwards and metal
powder is delivered. The process of powder spreading (Figs. 2, 4
and 5), scanning the topmost layer and lowering the build plate
is repeated until the part (Figs. 2 and 6) is nished.
The operational atmosphere for the EBM process is basically a
vacuum of <102 Pa [8]. By feeding helium to the work area during
the melting process the pressure inside the system is increased to
approximately 1 Pa so that electrical charging of the powder par-
ticles is avoided and heat conduction and cooling of the melt is
enhanced [8,32].

2.3. Laser metal deposition (LMD)

In Laser Metal Deposition (LMD) a part is built by means of

melting a surface and simultaneously applying the metal powder.
The melt pool which is typically protected against oxidation by
supplying argon or helium is produced by the energy input of an
Nd:YAG, diode or CO2 laser and the metal powder is fed by a coaxial
or multi-jet nozzle [38,39], cf. Fig. 3.
In contrast to the powder bed-based technologies, LMD pro-
vides a high build rate and allows for larger build volumes.
Depending on the main parameters spot size, scan speed and laser
power build rates up to 300 cm3/h can be achieved using a layer
thickness of in-between 40 mm and 1 mm [2,18,39]. Feed rates
between 4 g/min [40] and 30 g/min [41] are realized for the Fig. 2. Schematics of an EBM machine (from Murr et al. [30]), 1: electron gun, 2: lens
deposition of metal powder, e.g. Ti-6Al-4V. The spot size of the laser system, 3: deection lens, 4: powder cassettes with feedstock, 5: rake, 6: building
beam varies between 0.3 mm [42] and 3 mm [41] and the scan component, 7: build table.
speed ranges from 150 mm/min up to 1.5 m/min [39].
Due to intensive developments, several different systems for
LMD evolved. Most commonly the part is stationary while the
deposition head is repositioned for each layer, e.g. by a 5-axis 3. Feedstock for AM
Cartesian gantry system or a robotic arm. In other systems the
part is moved under a stationary deposition head. Commonly Common materials for AM of metals are steel, Al alloys, Ti and its
repaired or produced parts are turbine blades, shafts and parts of alloys as well as Ni-based superalloys, CoCr, and various other
gear mechanisms mostly made from steels, Ti and its alloys as well metallic materials. These metals are used in pulverized condition as
as Ni-based super alloys [38,39]. feedstock in AM processes.
The nozzle-based approach of LMD may be modied with a wire
as a feedstock instead of powder yielding a similar AM process. This 3.1. Powder production
variant may be driven by a laser, an arc beam or an electron beam as
a heat source, of which the latter is sometimes referred to as The majority of these metal powders are typically produced
Electron Beam Free-Form Fabrication (EBF) [3]. using well established methods such as water, gas or plasma
374 D. Herzog et al. / Acta Materialia 117 (2016) 371e392

Fig. 3. Schematics of an LMD set-up (from Frazier [38]).

Fig. 5. Section of three layers of LMD-produced austenitic stainless steel (316L) in as-
fabricated condition (from Yadollahi et al. [66]), revealing the footprint of the laser
tracks.
atomization. Especially in the eld of Ti and Ti alloys, low-cost
processes e.g. electrolytic methods, metallothermic processes (e.g.
TIRO process) and the hydride-dehydride process are under
development or already used for cost-effective metal powder
production [43].
The different powder production methods result in different
powder characteristics such as particle morphology, particle size
and chemical composition each of which might be important for
AM. In principle, the AM process requires good ow properties in
order to achieve homogeneous spreading of the powder as well as
good packing characteristics for the formation of a powder layer
with high relative density. These powder characteristics impact the
bulk material properties of the fabricated component such as part
density and porosity.
The most simple and low-cost atomization process is water at-
omization. In this process, liquid metal is atomized by water jets
when free falling through the atomization chamber. Due to the high
cooling rate the particles with a size of a few mm up to 500 mm
adopt an irregular shape during solidication [44]. According to
German [45], an irregular, asymmetric particle shape is at a
disadvantage of high packing density. Thus, these kinds of particles
are not preferred for the use in AM. Compared to gas atomized
powders water atomization yields powder particles with higher
oxygen content [46]. Concerning the application of the produced
metal powder in AM oxygen uptake and the formation of oxide
layers are undesired effects as they not only inuence the powder Fig. 6. TEM bright-eld image revealing dislocations, stacking fault traces and defor-
ow behaviour but also impact the melt pool and consequently mation twin faults (tf) in 17-4PH LBM as-fabricated condition (from Murr et al. [50]).
The selected area electron diffraction pattern reveals a composition of austenite and
martensite.

Fig. 4. Fine-grained microstructure of maraging steel (18Ni-300) in LBM as-fabricated condition (from Kempen et al. [71]), a) top view, b) cross-section, c) magnication of dendritic
structure.
 D. Herzog et al. / Acta Materialia 117 (2016) 371e392
Fig. 7. Reaustenitization of an LBM-produced specimen of maraging steel during aging at 480  C/5 h (from Ja
and concentration prole along the cylinder shown in (a) for the elements Ni, Co, Mo and Ti (b).
change the bulk material composition and the parts mechanical
properties [47]. Obviously, water atomization is not suitable for
reactive materials such as Ti, and the most typical material to be
water atomized is steel [48].
To overcome the limitations of water atomization, i.e. the suit-
ability only for non-reactive materials and the non-spherical par-
ticle shape, gas atomization is usually used for producing feedstock
for AM. The risk of oxidation is reduced by using an inert gas, such
as argon or nitrogen, for atomization of the melt and thus gas at-
omization is the preferred method for reactive materials such as Ti,
however the method may of course also be used for non-reactive
materials such as steel. The particular choice of inert gas in-
uences the development of the microstructure of the particles and
consequently does also affect the microstructure of the parts
manufactured via AM. Experimental work [49,50] revealed that the
type of gas used for the atomization inuences the phase compo-
sition of the powder. Nitrogen and argon have been used to atomize
steel, yielding different phase compositions in the powder, and
consequently also in the AM fabricated steel parts. The micro-
structure of the steel parts, however, has also been found to depend
on the choice of the inert gas in the AM process chamber (cf. Sec-
tion 2.1).
The melt for gas atomization can either be produced by vacuum
induction melting or may be from a rod which is liqueed by
electrode induction melting (cp. Electrode induction melting gas
atomization, EIGA) [51]. Especially for the production of high-purity
and reactive powder materials, e.g. titanium and its alloys, the
dispension with a ceramic crucible may be benecial. Due to
cooling in an inert gas atmosphere heat conduction between the
metal and the surrounding gas allows formation of spherical
powder particles. The size of the particles produced by EIGA is
equivalent to particle sizes of water atomized powders, irrespective
of the material [44].
Other processes used for production of spherical metal powders
are plasma melting inert gas atomization (PIGA) as well as induc-
tion plasma spheroidization which both are well known for Ti
powder production [43]. While in plasma atomization the raw
material is a wire that is melted and atomized using plasma torches
and an inert gas, e.g. argon, the feedstock in the spheroidization
process is an irregular, non-spherical metal powder that is melted
by inductively coupled plasma [52]. Compared to other atomization
processes the solidied powder particles are ner and feature an
average particle size of 40 mm [53]. Spherical particles favour the
desired owability and apparent density for AM.
375
gle [72]). Location of atom probe tomography (APT) measurement (a),
3.2. Steels
Steel is still the most common engineering material [54].
Therefore, steel is obviously also a material of high interest for AM.
Steel grades available for LBM are mainly common austenitic
stainless steels (AISI 316L/EN: 1.4404/X2CrNiMo17-12-2 [55e68]
and AISI 304L/EN: 1.4306/X2CrNi19-11 [69,70]), maraging steel
(18Ni-300/1.2709/X3NiCoMoTi18-9-5) [71e74], as well as precipi-
tation hardenable stainless steels (17-4 PH/EN: 1.4542/X5CrNi-
CuNb16-4/AISI: 630 [49,50,58,75,76] and 15e5 PH/EN: 1.4545/
X5CrNiCu15-5 [77]). Besides, a martensitic cutlery grade (AISI 420/
EN: 1.4034/X46Cr13) has also been investigated for LBM usage
[78,79], while in EBM mainly tool steels (H11/EN: 1.2343/
X37CrMoV5-1 [80] and H13/EN: 1.2344/X40CrMoV5-1 [81]) as well
as austenitic stainless steel (316L) [34] have been used. For LMD,
the use of austenitic stainless steel (316L) [66,82,83] and tool steel
(H13) [84] is also reported. The alloys described above satisfy
typical requirements of general-purpose applications, as well as
increased requirements on strength and hardness, e.g. for mould
and tool applications.
On the one hand, the allotropy of iron based alloys in combi-
nation with the high temperature gradients involved in AM offers
the potential to generate unique microstructures [49]. On the other
hand, alloys that can produce different phase compositions
depending on cooling rate, e.g. martensite and retained austenite in
precipitation hardening steels [50], will be sensitive to choice of AM
parameters, and thus need a careful control of these.
3.3. Aluminium alloys
The number of different Al alloys available for AM is still rather
limited. One reason is, that Al is e unlike e.g. Ti e comparatively
easy to machine and the costs of Al parts are comparatively low
[85]. Processing of aluminium AM parts is therefore often of lower
commercial advantage, if any. Another reason is that many Al alloys
are known to be hardly weldable. High performance alloys typically
get their strength from precipitation hardening. Some heavily
applied hardenable alloys, e.g. EN AW-7075 of the Al-Zn 7xxx se-
ries, contain highly volatile elements such as Zn, leading to tur-
bulent melt pools, splatter and porosity and are therefore not suited
or not easy to use in AM, although current research efforts may
promise AM of such alloys for the future [86]. Under vacuum con-
ditions, alloying elements with a vapour pressure highly different
to Al, e.g. Mg and Li, are known to vaporize preferentially. In
376 D. Herzog et al. / Acta Materialia 117 (2016) 371e392

addition, Al has a high reectivity for the laser wavelengths usually Besides, a few recent articles report the usage of invar for ap-
applied in LBM and LMD, which may be seen as another obstacle for plications requiring a low coefcient of thermal expansion in LBM
Al parts fabricated via AM [85]. The low viscosity of molten Al is [111], of Mg [112], refractory materials such as Ta [113], and
another problem and limits AM of aluminium to small melt pool precious metals such as Au [114] in LBM, as well as Cu [37] and g-
sizes, thus favouring LBM over e.g. LMD. On the more favourable TiAl (g/a2 lamellae) [30] in EBM to name only a few for the fabri-
side for AM fabrication of Al parts, the high thermal conductivity of cation of components. A detailed overview of the material science
Al reduces thermally induced stresses, thus also reducing the need of AM of each of these materials would exceed the scope of this
for support structures. In addition, the high thermal conductivity article.
allows for higher processing speeds.
Most common Al alloys for AM available today are the harden-
4. Microstructure and properties
able AlSi10 Mg (EN AC-43000) and the eutectic AlSi12 (EN AC-
44200). For high strength applications, a hardenable Al-Mg-Sc
This section at rst describes the different microstructural fea-
alloy is proposed by Schmidtke et al. (AlMg4.5Sc0.66 [87]). The
tures of AM parts, fabricated from steel, Al- and Ti-alloy powders,
addition of Sc enables precipitation hardening by formation of
and then correlates these to the static and fatigue properties in
Al3Sc precipitates and is also known for grain renement in AlMg
section 5.
alloys. Other commercial Al alloys investigated with regard to their
suitability for AM part fabrication in literature are hardenable Al-
Mg-Si (6061 [88,89]) and Al-Cu (2139 [85]) alloys. It must be 4.1. General remarks on microstructural evolution during AM
stated, however, that LBM and AlSi10 Mg is to date by far the fabrication
dominant combination in AM of Al parts.
During AM, a dened volume element of the material is usually
subjected to a complex thermal cycle [25,35]. This thermal cycle
3.4. Titanium and titanium alloys
involves a rapid heating above melting temperature due to the
absorption of the energy of the laser or electron beam and its
Ti and Ti alloys are of uttermost interest with regard to AM. Ti
transformation into heat, a rapid solidication of the molten ma-
combines broad industrial application in high performance parts
terial after the heat source has moved on, and numerous re-heating
with high machining costs and long lead times in conventional
and re-cooling processes when the following layers are welded and
processing. Thus, many business cases exist for AM of Ti that offer
the volume element is still exposed to heat [35]. Hence, many of the
substantial cost advantages. Besides commercially pure (cp) Ti
AM processes lead to meta-stable microstructures and non-
[90e93], AM parts fabricated from the a-b alloy Ti-6Al-4V have
equilibrium compositions of the resulting phases both of which
been investigated by many research groups and today are widely
even may vary for each layer of deposited material. This renders the
used for commercial fabrication [35,94,95].
modelling of microstructures and composition in AM fabricated
Hitherto, LBM [26,95e100], EBM [35,94,100] and LMD
parts rather difcult and challenging.
[35,101,102] have been successfully applied to fabricate parts from
AM microstructure is therefore a result of the above described
Ti-6Al-4V. The results obtained from the different AM processes
thermal cycle. Irrespective of the material, a ne-grained structure
make it also highly attractive for comparison of the AM processes
has usually been observed for AM in comparison to e.g. casting
and resulting properties. The great variety of alloy composition and
[32,115]. This can be explained by the rapid solidication, which
related microstructure, and the allotropy of Ti in combination with
itself is a result of the very local heat input and the small volumes of
the high temperature gradients and complex thermal cycle usually
molten material. Obviously, the temperature gradients are inu-
involved in AM also make Ti based alloys one of the most inter-
enced by a number of process parameters, e.g. the energy density,
esting materials for research regarding the relationship between
the thickness of the layer and the pre-heating temperature, if
AM process, microstructure and properties.
applied [96]. In addition, the temperature gradients are also
Other Ti alloys of research interest include Ti-24Nb-4Zr-8Sn
affected by the surrounding material, e.g. different heat conduction
[103] and Ti-6Al-7Nb [23] for biomedical applications, and Ti-
of powder and solidied material adjacent to the melt pool in
6.5Al-3.5Mo-1.5Zr-0.3Si for aerospace applications [104].
powder bed-based processes. Thus, microstructures of components
fabricated by AM are also inuenced by the geometry of the part,
3.5. Other metallic materials and may vary within a manufactured part, especially between bulk
material and surface areas [35]. As heat conduction in build di-
Further materials with relevant industrial applications in AM rection (z in Fig. 1) is typically higher than in the other spatial di-
include Ni-based superalloys for high-temperature applications, rections (x, y) as a result of the solidied material from lower,
such as Inconel 625 [105] and Inconel 718 used e.g. in LBM [106] previously built layers, anisotropy in both microstructure and
and EBM [107,108], and CoCr for biomedical applications [109,110]. properties has been observed in selected cases [2,35,107,113]. Under

Table 1
Typical conditions of selected AM methods and resulting grain sizes for Ti-6Al-4V.

AM method Typical process characteristics Typical cooling rate [K/s] a-lath width [mm]
Layer thickness [mm] Energy density [J/mm3] Pre-heating temperature [ C]

LBM 20 150 [18,116] <100 [25,95] 0 200 [25], 500 [26] 103 108 [90] 1 mm (a0 ) [26]
EBM <200 mm [32] 150 900 [34] >700 [35,36,94] 103 104 [36] 1.4 3.2 mm (a) [94]
LMD 40 1000 [18,35] 90 220 [35,102] 0 200 [18] <103 [35] 0.88 1.57 mm (a) [35,117]

It can be concluded, that LBM regularly leads to the highest cooling rates, while LMD features the lowest ones. Consequently, LBM yields the nest grain size, while LMD yields
slightly coarser grains by comparison. Grain size in EBM strongly depends on the pre-heating temperature, thus grain sizes may become considerably large if typical pre-
heating temperatures of 700  C and above are chosen.
 D. Herzog et al. / Acta Materialia 117 (2016) 371e392 377

certain conditions and for several materials, an epitaxial grain chromium carbides at grain boundaries due to rapid cooling [69].
growth in build direction has been reported for e.g. LBM of Ti-6Al- 316L shows a very similar microstructure [63] in LBM. An increase
4V [25] and Ta [113], EBM [36] and LMD [2] (both Ti-6Al-4V), in distance from the substrate leads to a coarsening of the micro-
yielding grain sizes in build direction that exceed layer thickness. structure due to usually lower heat conduction through the build
Although the considerations above are valid for all AM pro- structure than close to the build plate, as specically reported for
cesses, the different AM methods still yield different microstruc- LMD in Ref. [82].
tures due to their specic mode of operation. Table 1 exemplies The microstructure of AM fabricated steel grades that are typi-
the basic relationship of process characteristics, cooling rates and cally martensitic in conventional processing, is found to form a
grain sizes (for Ti-6Al-4V, for which a-colony or a-lath width are certain amount of austenite phase in AM, as shown in Fig. 6. This
known to be the most inuential microstructural parameter for the behaviour has been reported for precipitation hardening steel (17-
mechanical properties of lamellar microstructures [115]). 4 PH [50,75,76]) and maraging steel (18-Ni300 [71,72]), but also for
the martensitic stainless steel grade AISI420 (X46Cr13) [78]. Fac-
chini et al. found for LBM of 17-4 PH a microstructure consisting of
4.2. Microstructure of AM fabricated steel parts
large and oriented grains and a ne dendritic substructure [75].
Phase composition was 72% austenite and 28% martensite, with
As a common feature, components fabricated from the steel
highly twinned martensite plates and untwinned regions near the
grades mentioned in Section 3.2, reveal a ne grained microstruc-
martensitic grains with a high density of stacking faults and dis-
ture typical for the high cooling rates of AM [71,72], as shown in
locations. The retained austenite was located in between
Fig. 4. Melt pool boundaries may be visible as a superstructure
martensite plates. LeBrun et al. [76] and Murr et al. [50] also
[63,79], lled with a cellular structure with an intercellular spacing
investigated this phenomenon in the same steel grade. Retained
down to 1 mm [71,72] (also cp. Fig. 4c). Elongated and oriented
austenite is supposed to be mainly a result from residual thermal
grains have also been widely reported, depending on processing
stresses in the material formed during the high cooling rate in LBM,
parameters [69,75,82]. Niendorf et al. [61] showed that larger melt
mechanically stabilizing the metastable austenitic phase [76]. The
pools lead to a coarsening of the microstructure because of slower
behaviour is sensitive to cooling conditions, thus even variation of
cooling rates and also promote texture due to enhanced recrystal-
cover gas in LBM may change phase composition signicantly due
lization while smaller melt pools lead to ne grained, weakly
to different thermal conductivity of the gas [49,50].
textured microstructures.
Krakhmalev et al. showed in Ref. [78] that in LBM of martensitic
LMD, typically having larger melt pools than LBM, consequently
steels, in this case AISI420, an austenitic phase may also be present
showed large grains of 100 mme140 mm and a near-monocrystalline
as a result of austenite reversion. The top layers revealed a mixed
texture [66]. The same report also pointed out that inter-layer time
microstructure of fresh martensite and 21% of retained austenite. In
intervals are crucial regarding cooling rates and thus inuence
contrast, the centre of the specimens appeared to consist of
grain size signicantly. Fig. 5 shows a typical LMD microstructure of
tempered martensite with ~57% austenite. LBM is therefore
a 316L austenitic stainless steel consisting of equiaxed grains within
believed to promote an in-situ partitioning process, where diffu-
the melt pool and columnar grains at the boundary.
sion during permanent re-heating leads to areas with high amounts
Austenitic stainless steels (such as 304L and 316L) typically
of austenite stabilizers such as carbon. As a consequence, austenite
exhibit a completely austenitic microstructure after AM fabrication,
reversion or growth of retained austenite grains appear. This
specically in LBM [58,69]. For LMD however, an amount of ~10.9%
austenite reversion was also reported to occur during aging pre-
retained d-ferrite has been observed in as-fabricated 316L samples,
cipitation hardening Cr-Ni-Cu steels (17-4 PH) manufactured by
transforming to austenite in a subsequent heat treatment at 1150  C
LBM [76], where the diffusion of Ni and Cu in conjunction with the
for 2 h and air cooling [66]. For 304L, Abd-Elghany et al. found a
formation of precipitates leads to a similar effect. However, with
typical LBM microstructure with elongated grains in building di-
heat treatment (>550  C for 4 h), the austenite generated in LBM
rection, with a 100% austenitic phase and no precipitation of

Fig. 8. Analysis of AlSi12 in LBM as-fabricated condition (from Prashanth et al. [119]), a) and b) microstructure showing laser tracks, c) elongated columnar morphology at boundary
between laser tracks, def) EDX composition of cellular structure with a-Al in the cells highlighted in e) and Si in the boundaries highlighted in f).
378 D. Herzog et al. / Acta Materialia 117 (2016) 371e392
Fig. 9. Schematics of the AlSi12 LBM microstructure during heat treatment (from
Prashanth et al. [119]). Si at former cellular boundaries forms Si-particles growing in
size with temperature.
was found to partially transform to martensite as the relief of re-
sidual stresses may permit austenite to martensite transformation
during post-treatment cooling. Austenite reversion was also
observed for an LBM fabricated maraging steel (18Ni-300/
Fee18Nie9Coe3.4Moe1.2Ti), with Ni-rich reverted austenite
shells around retained austenite regions during aging [72], cf. Fig. 7.
As a consequence of the presence of a metastable austenite
phase in AM of both maraging steels (17-4 PH and 18-Ni300), they
also display the transformation induced plasticity (TRIP) effect
when formed (also cp. section 4.2).
Powder mixtures of austenitic 316L and martensitic 17-4 PH
steel grades were investigated by Jerrard et al. [58]. The results
show that the microstructure as well as the properties (i.e. hard-
ness, magnetic adherence) of LBM manufactured parts from these
mixtures may be tailored by powder composition.
4.3. AM microstructure of aluminium and aluminium alloys
LBM with spherical gas atomized powders of the commercial Al
alloy AlSi12 yields an extremely ne microstructure [118,119]. A
cellular structure, representative of very high cooling rates, with
residual silicon along the cellular boundaries is reported by Pra-
shanth et al. [119], Fig. 8.
In addition, for AlSi12 as well as for the widely used AlSi10 Mg
alloy, it was reported that the microstructures show the melt pool
boundaries [119,120], also cp. Fig. 8ab. These have been charac-
terized by the transition from a ne to coarse cellular-dendritic
pattern, and Si had been found to be located primarily at the
cellular boundaries, cp. Fig. 8f. When heat treated, the Si diffuses to
form particles that are growing with increasing temperature, as
schematically shown in Fig. 9 [119,120]. Although the melt pool
Fig. 10. Microstructure of LBM-produced ScalmalloyRP (AlMg,Sc) alloy (from Palm et al. [124]), after ion-etching and examined by SEM in back scattering emission alloy contrast
mode. Overview of microstructure perpendicular to build direction, consisting of ne grained equi-axed regions with a grain size of 100 nm e 1 mm and coarser regions 2e5 mm in
grain size (left); and magnication of the highlighted square area (right). The white dots represent primary and secondary phases containing Fe and Mn; these phases seem to
concentrate in the ne grained regions.
boundaries are no longer visible [120], the microstructure is still
inhomogeneous with a higher number of larger Si-particles. A
texture has been noted with columnar Al grains oriented in the
build direction [119,121].
In precipitation hardening alloys, such as AlSi10 Mg, it has also
been reported that due to the rapid solidication no Mg2Si pre-
cipitates are found in the as-fabricated condition, and Si is instead
segregated at the grain boundaries [121]. When that alloy is solu-
tion treated at 520  C, the grains coarsened with increasing dura-
tion of treatment, and the Si starts forming Si particles in a matrix of
a-Al preferentially at the original melt pool boundaries. After
applying solution treatment, water quenching and peak-hardening,
the Si-particles coarsened and appear globular, and needle-like
Mg2Si precipitates are formed. Any former anisotropy in the
microstructure has dissolved and the previously visible dendrites,
melt pool boundaries, and heat affected zones are no longer visible
[122]. Thijs et al. [123] observed for this alloy that dendrites grow
towards the centre of the melt pool with very ne (0.4 mm) grains in
the centre and coarser but still ne (0.7 mm) grains towards the
border, while Fulcher et al. [88] measured slightly larger grains in
an otherwise similar microstructure.
Investigations on LBM of some Al 2xxx and Al 7xxx alloys also
show the typical, very ne microstructures in single tracks. More
investigations are needed, however, with regard to the micro-
structural evolution in larger volumes [86]. Al 6061 showed an
epitaxial growth with grain sizes exceeding layer thickness in build
direction [88].
AlMgSc-alloy powders, a vital alternative to 7xxx aerospace al-
loys with increased corrosion resistance, were used for LBM fabri-
cation by Schmidtke et al. [87] and Palm et al. [124]. The
microstructure of the directly generated proprietary alloy concept
named ScalmalloyRP (or only Scalmalloy) is bimodal, with a very
ne equi-axed grain microstructure of a few 100 nm up to 1 mm
resulting from a combination of the high cooling rate and the grain
rening effect of Sc, and coarser 2 mme5 mm columnar grains, cf.
Fig. 10. Sc which is relevant for the strength of that particular Al
alloy, is thought to be in solid solution after LBM [124]. Once heat
treated (325  C/4 h), the alloy forms fully coherent nano-sized Al3Sc
precipitates [87] which are enabling a strength increase of about
50 MPa per 0.1% Sc added to the AlMg-base alloy, cf. Section 5.2.2.
The literature is scarce regarding EBM of aluminium alloys.
Mahale et al. [125] reported feasibility tests of Al 2024 (AlCu,Mg)
and Al 7075 (AlZn,Mg,Cu) but did not reach fully dense parts. The
AA 2139 (AlCu,Mg) alloy was investigated by Brice et al. [85] in
 D. Herzog et al. / Acta Materialia 117 (2016) 371e392 379

Fig. 11. Microstructure of AlSi12 LMD in as-fabricated condition (from Dinda et al. [126]). a) Overview revealing laser tracks, b) and c) alternating bands of microcellular structure (b)
and dendritic structure (c), with d) a-Al decorated with brous Si-particles at the boundary of cellular structure and e) eutectic with extremely ne spacing.

Fig. 12. Microstructures of LBM-produced cp-Ti in dependence of process parameters (from Gu et al. [90]). Coarse lath-shaped a phase observed at comparably high volume energy
(a), rened acicular a0 martensite at lower volume energy (b), and further renement of the a0 martensite with even lower volume energy (c, d).
380 D. Herzog et al. / Acta Materialia 117 (2016) 371e392
electron beam free-form fabrication (EBF), a process using an
electron beam as energy source and wire as the feedstock. A very
ne microstructure with elongated grains was reported. It was
observed that considerable amounts of magnesium were lost dur-
ing the process, and this inhibited substantial formation of the U-
phase.
In a study of Dinda et al. [126], the layer-by-layer structure was
clearly retrieved in the microstructure of LMD fabricated AlSi12.
Furthermore, as shown in Fig. 11 the microstructure consisted of
alternating bands of coarse dendritic areas and ne cellular struc-
tures. A very ne eutectic phase was found between the dendrites
with a eutectic spacing of 0.22 mm in average. The ne cellular
structure was identied as primary Al with brous Si particles at
the boundaries and possessed a spacing of 0.78 mm. The structure of
alternating bands was however lost with increasing build height,
which was attributed to slower cooling rates. A texture was also
reported, with the dendrites regularly growing in build direction.
Fig. 13. Microstructure of Ti-6Al-4V in LBM as-fabricated condition (from Thijs et al. [25]). a) Fine grained herringbone structure corresponding to scan direction, b) front view, c)
side view showing elongated grains d) schematic of experiment.
4.4. AM microstructure of titanium and titanium alloys
4.4.1. LBM of pure Ti
The microstructure of LBM parts fabricated from commercially
pure (cp) Ti has been found to depend on the applied scan speed
[90]. While the laser power was held constant at 90 W, the scan
speed was varied between 100 mm/s and 400 mm/s. At a scan
speed of 100 mm/s (and a resulting high volume energy), a regular
phase transition from b-phase to a-phase occurred during cooling
resulting in coarse lath-shaped grains, cf. Fig. 12a.
At higher scan speeds (200 mm/s) and corresponding lower
volume energies, a higher degree of undercooling resulted in the
transformation from b into the martensitic a-phase (Fig. 12b). The
grain microstructure was found to be a rened acicular shape. With
a further increase in scan speed, further grain renement to below
10 mm and a zigzag-pattern was observed (Fig. 12c,d).
 D. Herzog et al. / Acta Materialia 117 (2016) 371e392 381

Fig. 14. Ti-6Al-4V LBM microstructure in build direction (a, c) and in plane with layers (b, d), (from Wycisk et al. [95]). a) and b) in stress-relieved condition after heat treatment at
650  C for 3 h in vacuum, c) and d) in HIPed condition.

4.4.2. LBM of Ti-6Al-4V
Similar microstructural effects have been observed for LBM of
the widely used alloy Ti-6Al-4V. Thijs et al. [25] noticed a ne-
grained acicular martensitic structure in their investigations, and
also identied from XRD the present phase as a. In building di-
rection, elongated grains with a size [ 100 mm have been found
that signicantly exceed the layer thickness of 30 mm which was
used in the experiments, Fig. 13. Obviously, an epitaxial growth
occurred. The width of grains was approximately the same as the
width of the scan track. With an increased heat input, a larger
width of the scan track resulted, leading to coarser grains. In
addition, the local heat conduction was found to determine the
orientation of the martensite structure. As the local heat conduc-
tion is inuenced by the scan strategy, the orientation of the
martensite has been found to be inuenced by the scan strategy,
too. For a zig-zag scan pattern, a herringbone structure was found
for the x-y-plane (orthogonal to the build direction), while in the x-
z-plane the grains were tilted by around 20 . The grains grow to-
wards the melt pool, when the scan orientation is unidirectional.
Thijs et al. also reported the presence of the intermediate Ti3Al
phase. In Refs. [25], the authors postulated that comparative to a
heat treatment the Ti3Al phase precipitates during consecutive re-
heating to 500  Ce600  C when further layers are built on top of the
material. Consequently, the precipitates occur with a periodicity of
the layer thickness and are visible in the cross-sections as dark
areas. High temperature gradients and short interaction times lead
to only a small amount of such precipitates. It has been found,
however, that more precipitates are formed with higher energy
density.
To improve the tensile elongation to failure (cf. Section 5) of
LBM-manufactured Ti and Ti alloy parts in the as-fabricated con-
dition, a heat treatment is usually applied. Different heat treat-
ments have been investigated by Seyda et al. [127], varying the
temperature range from 700  C (stress-relieved condition) up to
1010  C (solution treated). While the stress-relieved microstructure
showed comparatively little change in grain size, the martensitic
phases completely dissolved during solution treatment into equi-
librium (a b) structure in combination with a coarsening of the
grain, as expected. Wycisk et al. [95] proposed a stress-relieve
treatment at a slightly lower temperature of 650  C, yielding a

Fig. 15. Ti-6Al-4V LBM microstructure (SEM back-scattered), (from Qiu et al. [97]). a) Needle-like martensitic structure in as-fabricated condition, b) and c) after HIP at 920  C/
103 MPa.
382 D. Herzog et al. / Acta Materialia 117 (2016) 371e392

Fig. 16. Ti-6Al-4V LBM microstructure depending on layer thickness (from Xu et al. [96]). a) Fine 15 mm-wide columnar prior-b grains lled with a0 martensite using a layer
thickness of 30 mm, b) ultrane lamellar a b structure using a layer thickness of 60 mm, c) acicular a0 with minor a b lamellae using a layer thickness of 90 mm, d) detail of a0
martensite formed inside the prior-b grains shown in a).

very ne microstructure consisting of a and a0 phases. The thick- top eight layers were found to consist of the a-phase independent
ness of individual a-lamellae was measured to be below 1 mm, as of process parameters, as there are not enough consecutive layers
shown in Fig. 14. for in-situ decomposition. Also, due to different heat conduction
AM manufactured parts may also be treated by hot isostatic conditions in the layers closest to the bottom, coarser grains were
pressing (HIP) in order to relieve stresses and to reduce any observed.
remaining porosity. Qiu et al. [97] found that HIP at 920  C for 4 h
and a pressure of 103 MPa results in a transformation of the as-
fabricated martensitic microstructure into a and b phases while
reducing porosity at the same time, cp. Fig. 15. Wycisk et al. [95]
showed that under similar HIP conditions the a lamellae slightly
coarsen to a thickness of about 4 mm (also cp. Fig. 14).
Recently, Xu et al. studied in much detail the inuence of the
chosen LBM parameters such as the single track and multilayer
deposition, layer thickness, focal offset distance and energy density,
on the resulting microstructure of Ti-6Al-4V parts [96]. They found
that with optimized LBM process parameters, it is possible to
decompose already during LBM fabrication (in-situ) the rather
brittle martensitic a0 phase into a much more ductile (a b)
microstructure, thus potentially avoiding the need of a subsequent
heat treatment. While the powder bed was pre-heated to 200  C,
the layer thickness was varied between 30 mm and 90 mm and the
focal distance was also varied, thus varying the spot size. Columnar
prior-b grains were found for all samples, Fig. 16, and the a0
martensitic phase was present at a layer thickness of 30 mm (cor-
responding to the highest heat gradient and related fastest cooling
rate, Fig. 16a,d). With layer thicknesses of 60 mm and 90 mm, the a0 -
phase was found to decompose, when the focal distance was
selected properly. An ultrane lamellar (a b) structure was the
result. It was proposed that the specic microstructure is a result of
an in-situ heat treatment comparable to solution treatment and
subsequent aging, when the material reaches a temperature range Fig. 17. Schematic Ti-6Al-4V EBM microstructure (from Antonysamy et al. [36]). Large
of around 400  C during build-up of consecutive layers. Hence, the columnar prior-b grains are found in the centre, while towards the outer contour ner
curved grains are present.
 D. Herzog et al. / Acta Materialia 117 (2016) 371e392
4.4.3. EBM of Ti-6Al-4V
In EBM of Ti-6Al-4V, the microstructure typically consists of
coarse prior b-grains transformed into a ne lamellar a morphology
with a small volume fraction of retained b [33]. EBM allows for pre-
heating of the powder layer to high temperatures, which will affect
both the cooling rates as well as the resulting microstructure. If the
part is maintained above a temperature of 700  C in the EBM
manufacturing process, a rather ne annealed ab-structure has
been observed. At rst, columnar b-grains nucleate either at the
base plate or at the surface of the parts during solidication with
grain sizes far larger than the layer thickness and a pronounced
texture [36]. Afterwards, as the build temperature is in the same
range as the martensite start temperature Ms, the b-phase may
transform diffusionless to a0 if below Ms and then decompose to a,
or transform diffusional into a if above Ms [36].
Antonysamy et al. explained schematically in Ref. [36] how
different microstructures evolve for the contour pass compared to
the in-ll hatching, as presented in Fig. 17. The bulk material
generated by in-ll hatching showed the highly textured, coarse
prior-b-grains directed parallel to the build direction, as described
above [36]. Wavy grain boundaries have been observed for the in-
ll hatching, if the melting direction was rotated 90 after each
layer [35]. The skin contour however showed a complex structure
consisting of an outer layer of ne-curved b-grains which nucleated
from the surrounding powder bed and then growing inwards
following the curvature of the melt pool, and an inner layer of lath
shaped grains growing upwards from previously deposited mate-
rial [36].
Fig. 18. Microstructure of Ti-6Al-4V LMD depending on location (from Carroll et al.
[2]). Fine lamellar Widmanstatten structure at the bottom with small amounts of
grain-boundary a-phase (a), and slightly coarser structure at the top (b).
383
Tan et al. [35] determined a volume fraction of 3.6% of the
retained bcc b-phase in EBM built Ti-6Al-4V (at a pre-heating
temperature of 730  C and 600e650  C temperature range during
the process), formed as discrete at rods embedded in the
continuous hcp a-phase. It has also been reported that a graded
microstructure formed in build direction, as the width and inter-
spacing of prior-b-grains increased with build height, which was
attributed to the decreasing cooling rate. The a-b-interface has
been studied in detail and has been found to consist of the fcc L
phase, supposedly a result of the lattice mismatch between the a
and b phases. The fcc L phase had the same composition as the hcp
a phase. The authors also showed that Ti, Al and O had partitioned
to the a phase, while the other trace elements already present in
the Ti-6Al-4V powder, V, Fe and H concentrated in the b phase.
4.4.4. LMD of Ti-6Al-4V
Same as for the other two discussed AM technologies (LBM,
EBM), columnar prior-b-grains have also been observed in LMD of
Ti-6Al-4V [35,128]. Even with the high layer thickness of LMD (cf.
Section 2.3), the prior-b-grains grow epitaxial, extend across
several layers and reach a length of 1.5 mm to >10 mm. Perpen-
dicular to the build direction, the width of the grains was found to
be on average 375 mm. The grain boundary a phase was detected on
the boundaries of the prior-b-grains, cp. Fig. 18 [2].
Baufeld et al. [128] also reported a graded microstructure but
distinguished three areas. Close to the base plate, where the cooling
rate is the highest, small a-lamellae were found and the grid-like
structure indicated the presence of a0 martensite. The top-most
layers were dominated by (a b) colonies starting at grain
boundaries. Although the cooling rates are lower, this area features
rather small a-lamellae in the b-matrix as the area is not re-heated,
which in turn is a consequence of no further layers built on top of
these outermost layers. Below these top-most layers, however,
coarser lamellae were observed with a segregation of Al into the a
phase and V into the b phase, as a consequence of periodic heat
treatment during building up the following layers, cp. Fig. 19. Single
lamellae are found to grow at the expense of other lamellae forming
a rectangular grid.
5. Mechanical properties
5.1. Inuence of residual porosity of AM fabricated parts
With the advancements in AM technology over the past years,
dense metallic parts with mechanical properties comparable to
conventional manufacturing methods are achievable for a number
Fig. 19. Microstructure of Ti-6Al-4V LMD (from Baufeld et al. [128]). The arrow shows a
lamella with increased size, forming a rectangular grid with similar lamellae.
384 D. Herzog et al. / Acta Materialia 117 (2016) 371e392
Fig. 20. LBM-produced Ti-6Al-4V bracket for Airbus A350 (from LZN Laser Zentrum
Nord GmbH and Airbus), with topology optimized bionic design resulting in ~30%
weight saving cp. to conventional milled bracket. Three brackets with support struc-
tures on a build plate after LBM process (left) and nished part (right).
of material and process combinations. As porosity is facilitating
crack propagation and thus deteriorating mechanical properties
[120], the manufacture of parts with a high density, typi-
cally > 99.5%, is regularly the rst goal in AM process optimization.
Besides other inuences, part density is depending on the applied
volume energy (cf. Section 2.1). Too low energy input will result in
unmolten material and thus reduced density by the formation of
irregular-shaped voids, while too high energy input will lead to
higher melt pool dynamics and reduced density originating from
pores formed due to entrapped gas. These latter pores are of rather
spherical shape, as they are formed during evaporation of material
[25,26,64]. Vilaro et al. [26] showed that linear-shaped defects in Ti-
6Al-4V are attributed to insufcient melting, which in turn is due to
improper optimization of process parameters or to an inhomoge-
neous powder bed. These pores were typically larger
(100 mme150 mm in length) than the spherical pores found. Irreg-
ular or clustered pores may lead to stress concentration and are
therefore considered to deteriorate mechanical properties to a
larger extent than spherical pores [120]. Similar results are pre-
sented by Carlton et al. [56], who used synchrotron radiation micro
tomography to investigate three-dimensional pore volume, distri-
bution and morphology in LBM manufactured 316L stainless steel.
The location of the pores and the local concentration of pores were
found to have a dominant inuence over total, mean porosity, as
certain areas in the parts featured a higher local porosity due to
pore accumulation.
Qiu et al. [97] found the residual porosity in their investigations
of LBM as-fabricated Ti-6Al-4V to be mainly spherical, and argued
that most of the voids were not gas-lled as they did not re-open in
subsequent heat treatments once closed by previous HIP. Therefore,
they concluded that pore formation was due to incomplete re-
melting of surfaces of previous layers. In addition, Qiu et al. [97]
showed that HIP is a suitable method to eliminate detrimental
porosity. While optimum LBM parameters yielded a maximum
density of 99.9% before HIP, almost all of the residual porosity was
successfully removed after HIP. Yasa et al. [67] proposed a re-
melting approach, in which a layer is melted a second time
before applying the next powder layer, to reduce residual porosity
in LBM of 316L from 0.77% to 0.036%. They showed that the
irregular-shaped pores in between the melt pools were closed once
the material was re-melted. Re-melting also led to further grain
renement, probably due to the higher heat conduction through
the already consolidated material compared to the initial powder.
Maskery et al. [120] investigated the porosity of AlSi10 Mg in
LBM and also found that various heat treatment conditions altered
the microstructure and hardness but had no measurable effect on
the porosity in terms of pore quantity as well as size and shape.
Larger pores were found to be at and disc like, perpendicular to
the build direction.
In summary, a density of 99.5% and higher can be reached with
AM for a variety of materials. This however implies careful opti-
mization and control of AM parameters, especially of the volume
energy. As pore distribution and shape have a signicant inuence
on mechanical properties, measuring only the bulk density may be
insufcient for quality control.
5.2. Static strength
In general, the static strength depends on the density of the
parts as well as on the microstructure formed during AM.
As compared to parts which are fabricated via classical routes
(e.g. casting), the microstructure of AM fabricated parts is ner.
Therefore, in general, AM parts reveal a higher static strength than
their counterparts with microstructures corresponding much more
to thermodynamic equilibrium. Concerning the dependence of
yield strength on average grain size, AM specimens were found to
follow the Hall-Petch relationship, as shown by Xu et al. [96] for
lamellar a b microstructures of Ti-6Al-4V manufactured with
different AM techniques. Aboulkhair et al. [121] reported the same
for AlSi10 Mg.
As outlined in Section 4.1 the microstructure of AM fabricated
parts is anisotropic with regard to the building direction (in build
direction vs. orthogonal to build direction), and often reveals a
more or less pronounced texture. As a consequence, the tensile
properties (UTS, EL) are also anisotropic and may strongly depend
on the orientation [2,35,70,107,113]. Most frequently, the tensile
strength and the strain to failure in as-fabricated parts are higher in
build direction than orthogonal to it.
5.2.1. Tensile properties of AM fabricated steels
Tensile properties of the available steel grades often meet the
standard specications for technological applications already in the
AM as-fabricated state. Grain renement leads to a considerable
increase in both yield and ultimate tensile strength. Regarding
ductility, a low remaining porosity (0.1%) gives rise to a ductile
failure mode with elongation values comparable to wrought ma-
terial. By contrast, a high remaining porosity (2.4%) leads to brittle
failure modes with signicantly reduced elongation [56]. Table 2
lists the yield strength (YS) and ultimate tensile strength (UTS), as
well as elongation at failure (EL) for selected steel grades for
different AM technologies derived from literature, and compares
them to reference properties of wrought materials. Obviously, static
strength properties vary strongly within one processing method,
such as LBM, depending on the obtained microstructure, which
results from the chosen processing parameters and from the con-
ditions of post-process heat treatment, if applied. Therefore, Table 2
also gives information on the conditions of the tested specimens, as
well as on the microstructure found by the authors of each inves-
tigation, where available.
Precipitation hardening steels are comparatively soft in the AM
as fabricated state, as no precipitations are formed due to the rapid
solidication and rather fast cooling [76,78]. Similar to conven-
tional processing, these steels benet from heat treatments and
reach their maximum strength in the peak aged condition [71,76].
As described in Section 4.2, retained austenite and austenite
reversion has been observed in martensitic steel grades. Conse-
quently, these steel grades show transformation induced plasticity.
In this respect, exceptional work hardening has been reported for
17e4 PH [75,76] and 18-Ni300 [71].
 D. Herzog et al. / Acta Materialia 117 (2016) 371e392 385

Table 2
Tensile properties of several stainless steel grades, depending on the microstructure generated by different AM processes and in different material conditions.

Alloy Process Reported by Condition Microstructure YS [MPa] UTS [MPa] EL [%]

316L stainless steel Wrought ASTM A276 [129] AN A 170 485 40

LBM Carlton et al. [56] AF A 590 17 705 15 44 7
AN (1095 /1 h/Vacuum ArC) A 375 11 635 17 51 3
Riemer et al. [62] AF A 462a 565a 53.7a
Mertens et al. [130] AF / 444 27a 567 19a 8 2.9a
528 4b 659 3b 16.6 0.4b
LMD Yadollahi et al. [66] AF 91% A, 9% d-F 410 5a 640 20a 36 4a
HT (1150  C/2 h/AC) 100% A 340 15a 610 5a 42.5 0.5a
304L stainless steel Wrought ASTM A276 [129] AN A 170 485 40
LBM Abd-Elghany et al. [69] AF A 182b 393b 25.9b
Guan et al. [70] AF / 568 2b 715.5 1.5b 41.7 1.1b
450a 550a 57a
17-4PH precipitation Wrought ASTM A564 [131] ST PA 100% M 1170 1310 10
hardening stainless steel LBM Facchini et al. [75] SR (600  C/2 h) 28% M, 72% A 600b 1300b 28b
LeBrun et al. [74] AF 64% M, 36% A 661 24b 1255 3b 16.2 2.5b
PA (482  C/1 h/AC) 59.5% M, 40.5% A 945 12b 1417 6b 15.5 1.3b
OA (621/4 h/AC) 94.4% M, 5.6% A 1005 15b 1319 2b 11.1 0.4b
ST AC 100% M 939 9b 1188 6b 9 1.5b
ST PA 96.7% M, 3.3% A 1352 18b 1444 2b 4.6 0.4b
Murr et al. [50] AF 100% M 1190a 1370a 8.3a
18Ni-300 maraging steel LBM Kempen et al. [71] AF 94.2% M, 5.8 A 1214 99 1290 114 13.3 1.9
AG (480  C/5 h) 90.6% M, 9.4% A 1998 32 2217 73 1.6 0.26
Casalino et al. [73] AF / e 1138.5 53.5b 6.5 1.5b
H13 high speed steel LMD Mazumder et al. [84] AF M with some retained A 1505a 1820a 6a

AF: as fabricated, AN: annealed, HT: heat treated, AC: air cooled, ArC: cooled in argon atmosphere, SR: stress relieved, ST: solution treated, AG: age hardened, PA: peak aged,
OA: over aged, M: Martensite, A: Austenite, F: Ferrite.
a
In build direction.
b
Orthogonal to build direction.

5.2.2. Tensile properties of AM fabricated aluminium alloys
Tensile properties of Al alloys show a similar behaviour as AM
fabricated steels with regard to the AM-microstructure/yield
property relationship. The ne grain structure resulting from AM
methods primarily leads to an increase in strength in the as-
fabricated condition. As no precipitates have been observed e.g.
in as fabricated LBM samples of Al alloys [121,132], tensile strength
values for precipitation-hardening alloys such as AlSi10 Mg are
comparable to solid-solution strengthened alloys such as AlSi12.
During age hardening of an additive manufactured AlSi10 Mg alloy,
the original ne grain structure coarsens and at the same time
precipitates are formed, the rst effect counteracting the intended
strengthening by the latter effect [121] and, thus, maintaining
about the same yield strength as the as-fabricated part (Table 3).
Also, a loss in Mg has been reported for AA 2139 (Al-Cu,Mg) alloy
during AM fabrication, reducing the amount of precipitates and
thus leading to a reduced yield strength (Table 3) [85]. An LBM-
fabricated scandium based alloy shows the highest performance

Table 3
Tensile properties of several aluminium alloys, depending on the microstructure generated by different AM processes and in different material conditions.

Alloy Process Reported by Condition Microstructure YS [MPa] UTS [MPa] EL [%]

AlSi12 Cast EN 1706 [133] AF Eutectic 130 240 1

LBM Prashanth et al. [119] AF Cellular a-Al w Si at boundaries 260a 380a 3a
HT (450  C/6 h) Coarse cellular a-Al with larger Si-agglomerates 95a 145a 13a
AlSi10Mg Cast EN 1706 [133] AF / 140 240 1
LBM Manfredi et al. [134] AF Fine cellular-dendritic 230 5a 328 4a 6.2 0.4a
240 8b 330 4b 4.1 0.3b
Krishnan [135] HT (530  C/5 h/FC) / 72 7 113 3 12.6 0.9
T4 / 131 9 227 4 6.9 0.8
T6 / 245 8 278 2 3.6 0.8
Schmidtke et al. [87] AF / 275 340 8
Kempen et al. [132] AF Small Al cells/dendrites decorated w Si e 396 8a 3.47 0.6a
391 6b 5.55 0.4b
Read et al. [136] AF / 250a 340a 1.3a
230b 315b 1.05b
Buchbinder et al. [137] AF Dendritic e 360a e
420b
AlMg1SiCu LBM Fulcher et al. [88] HIP, T6 Small, dispersed Mg2Si precipitates (not crack-free) e 42a e
230.3b
AA 2139 (AlCu,Mg) EBFc
Brice et al. [85] T6 Al2Cu U-type precipitates 321 26 b
430 8b e
AlMg4.4Sc0.66MnZr LBM Schmidtke et al. [87] AA (325  C/4 h) Fine grained w Al3Sc/Al(ZrxScy) precipitates 520a 530a 16a
500b 515b 14b

AF: as fabricated, HT: heat treated, FC: furnace cooled, AA: articial aged.
a
In build direction.
b
Orthogonal to build direction.
c
EBF Electron Beam Free-Form Fabrication.
386 D. Herzog et al. / Acta Materialia 117 (2016) 371e392

Table 4
Tensile properties of titanium and Ti-6Al-4V, depending on the microstructure generated by different AM processes and in different material conditions.

Alloy Process Reported by Condition Microstructure YS [MPa] UTS [MPa] EL [%]

cp Ti (grade 2) Sheet metal Bajoraitis [138] AF a 280 345 20

LBM Attar et al. [91] AF Rened a0 555 3a 757 12.5a 19.5 1.8a
Barbas et al. [92] AF / 522 18a 654 1.5a 17.0 3a
533 2.1b 617 16.7b 5.1 2.1b
EBM Yamanaka et al. [93] AF Lath-shaped a (decomposed a0 ) 377 10b 475 15b 28.5 0.5b
Ti-6Al-4V Cast ASTM F1108 [139] / / 758 860 >8
Donachie [140] AF / 896 1000 8
Wrought ASTM F1472 [141] / / 860 930 >10
Donachie [140] b-ST a b colony 931 1055 9
STA atempered a0 1100 1170 12
LBM Facchini et al. [98] AF Acicular a0 1040 10b 1140 10b 8.2 0.3b
Koike et al. [99] AF a a0 840a 930a 6.8a
Ra et al. [100] AF Fine a0 in columnar prior-b 1143 30a 1219 20a 4,89 0.6a
1195 19b 1269 9b 5 0.5b
Vilaro et al. [26] AF Fine acicular a0 1137 20a 1206 8a 7.6 2a
962 47b 1166 25b 1.7 0.3b
SR (730  C/2 h) ab with residual a0 965 16a 1046 6a 9.5 1a
900 101b 1000 53b 1.9 0.8b
HT<bT WQ Columnar a' bm a 944 8a 1036 30a 8.5 1a
(950  C/1 h) TE AC 925 14b 1040 4b 7.5 2b
(700  C/2 h)
HT>bT WQ Equiaxed a00 br a 913 7a 1019 11a 8.9 1a
(1050  C/1 h) TE AC 836 64b 951 55b 7.9 2b
(820  C/2 h)
Xu et al. [96] AF Acicular a0 1000a 1150a 8.5a
in-situ HT Ultrane lamellar a b 1160a 1240a 11.5a
Qiu et al. [97] HIP (920  C/103 MPa/4 h) ab 980 30a 1040 30a 12.5 0.5a
900 5b 990 5b 15.5 2b
Wycisk et al. [95] SR (650  C/3 h) Ultrane lamellar a a0 in prior-b 1076 14a 1189 16a 13.6 1.3a
HIP (920  C/100 MPa/2 h) Fine a b 907 4a 1022 5a 17.7 0.8a
EBM Murr et al. [94] AF Coarse a-plates 1115a 1120a 25a
AF Fine & coarse a-plates 1110a 1115a 16a
Ra et al. [100] AF Lamellar a with b on the boundary 869 7.2a 928 9.8a 9.9 1.7a
899 4.7b 978 3.2b 9.5 1.2b
Tan et al. [35] AF Rods of retained b in continuous a 823.4 0.1c 940.5 6.5c 13.2 0.7c
851.8 5.8d 964.5 0.3d 16.3 0.8d
Zhai et al. [102] AF Fine a b lamellae 1001a 1073a 11a
1006b 1066b 15b
STA / 1039 1294 10
LMD Carroll et al. [2] AF Acicular a in columnar 945 13c 1041 12c 18.7 1.7c
prior-b with grain boundary a 970 17d 1087 8d 17.6 0.7d
960 26b 1063 20b 13.3 1.8b
Yu et al. [101] AF Acicular a0 976 24b 1099 2b 4.9 0.1b
Ti-6.5Al-3.5Mo-1.5Zr-0.3Si LMD Zhai et al. [102] AF a a in prior-b 990b 1042b 7b
Ren et al. [104] AF a lath a colony 1030 11b 1101 9b 10.2 2.2b

AF: as fabricated, HT: Heat treated, SR: Stress relieved, WQ: Water quenched, TE: Tempered, AC: Air cooled, ST: Solution Treated, STA: Solution treated and aged.
a
In build direction.
b
Orthogonal to build direction.
c
Upper part of graded structure.
d
Lower part.

keeping a ne-grained structure while forming fully coherent
precipitates in articially aged condition [87].
5.2.3. Tensile properties of AM fabricated titanium and titanium
alloys
Ti and the Ti alloy Ti-6Al-4V are probably the most thoroughly
investigated group of materials when it comes to AM of metals and
alloys. As Ti is a suitable material for LBM, EBM and LMD, the
complex interrelationship between the different AM processes,
their parameters used, resulting microstructures, and tensile
properties have been studied comprehensively, in particular for Ti-
6Al-4V. Table 4 gives an overview of the available data.
Referring to Table 4, for cp-Ti, AM processes tend to lead to
signicantly higher yield strengths than sheet metal Ti, whereas
the rather high ductility (~20%) is maintained. The highest strength
will be achieved, if the process conditions result in a very ne
martensitic (a0 ) microstructure, e.g. by the extremely high cooling
rates of LBM. Grain renement is increasing the yield strength as
well as ductility [142]. It is also known that the distorted hexagonal
lattice structure of the a0 martensite is stronger than lamellar a,
mainly due to its ne lath width, though it does not necessarily
reduce the ductility [143].
In general, AM processed Ti-6Al-4V also shows increased tensile
strength compared to cast or wrought material. Conventionally
processed (cast, wrought) a b alloys, such as Ti-6Al-4V, already
exhibit considerably lower elongation values in comparison to cp
titanium due to the blocking of the twinning deformation modes
[115]. Formation of microstructural features that further reduce
elongation at failure are thus a major concern in AM processing of
Ti-6Al-4V. Table 5 gives an overview of some microstructural fea-
tures commonly observed in AM processing of Ti alloys and its
inuence on properties.
While all AM techniques discussed here are able to meet or even
exceed yield and ultimate tensile strengths of ASTM specications
 D. Herzog et al. / Acta Materialia 117 (2016) 371e392 387

Table 5
Selected microstructural features and effect on properties of titanium alloys [143].

Feature Enhances Degrades

Equiaxed a Strength, ductility, fatigue initiation resistance, LCF resistance Fracture toughness, fatigue crack growth resistance, notched fatigue
resistance
Elongated a Fracture toughness, fatigue crack growth resistance, notched fatigue Ductility, fatigue initiation resistance, LCF resistance
resistance
Widmanst atten a/a- Fracture toughness, fatigue crack growth resistance, notched fatigue Ductility, fatigue initiation resistance, LCF resistance, strength
plates resistance, creep
Colony a Fracture toughness, fatigue crack growth resistance, notched fatigue Strength, ductility, fatigue initiation resistance, LCF resistance
resistance
Grain boundary a Fracture toughness, fatigue crack growth resistance, notched fatigue Ductility, fatigue initiation resistance, LCF resistance
resistance
Elongated grain shape Fracture properties, fatigue crack growth resistance, notched fatigue Fatigue initiation resistance
resistance
Coarse prior b grains Fracture toughness, creep Strength, ductility, fatigue initiation resistance, LCF resistance

LCF: low cycle fatigue.

Table 6
Fatigue Properties of Ti-6Al-4V, Al alloys and steels depending on material conditions and microstructure generated by different AM processes as compared to conventionally
processed materials (wrought, cast).

Material Process Reported by Surface Condition Microstructure R smax at 107

treatment [MPa]

Titanium alloy
Ti-6Al-4V Wrought Peters et al. [148]. Polished / Ultrane lamellar, a 1 675
lamellae 0.5 mm
/ Fine lamellar, a lamellae 1 mm 1 600
/ Lamellar, a lamellae 12 mm 1 480
Gerdes [149] Notched / Fine a b lamellae 1 bending 260
Kt 2.4
LBM Leuders et al. [147] / HIP (920  C/100 MPa/2 h) Fine a b lamellae, a 1, tension- 620
needles 4 mm compression
Wirtz [150] Machined ST 930  C ab lamellae 1, bending 375
Ground 400
Brandl [144] AF SR 843  C/2 h Lamellar 0.1 200
Polished 300
Kausch [151] AF STA ab lamellae 0.1 330
Machined 400
Wycisk et al. [145] AF SR (650  C/3 h) Ultrane lamellar a a0 in prior- 0.1 210
Polished b 500
Wycisk et al. [95] Polished SR (650  C/3 h) Ultrane lamellar a a0 in prior- 1, tension- 360
b compression
HIP (920  C/100 MPa/2 h) Fine a b lamellae, a 0.1 680
needles 4 mm 1, tension- 575
compression
EBM Brandl [144] Polished HIP (843  C/100 MPa/4 h) / 0.1 600
LMD Brandl [144] Polished ST (843  C/2 h) / 0.1 ~700
Aluminium alloys
AlSi12 cast Kammer [152] Polished / / 1 bending 55-80a
LBM Siddique et al. Polished 200  C in process SR / 1 tension- 80
[153] (240  C/6 h) compression
AlSi10Mg cast Kammer [152] Polished / / 1 bending 65e100a
LBM Buchbinder [146] AF AF / 0.1 45
Polished AF / 70
T6 / 115
300  C in process T6 / 140
AlMg4.4Sc0.66MnZr LBM Greitemeier et al. Polished AA (325  C/4 h) / 0.1 300
[154]
Steel grades
17-4PH LBM Sehrt [155] Polished / / 1 bending 407
316L Riemer et al. [62] AF None / 1 108
Machined 650  C/2 h / 294
Machined HIP (1150  C/100 MPa/4 h) / 317
a
At 5
107 cycles, AF: as fabricated, SR: Stress relieved, ST: Solution Treated, STA: Solution treated and aged, AA: articial aged.

for cast [139] and wrought [141] materials usually applied in in- in-situ.
dustry, this is not the case regarding elongation at failure. EBM LBM yields very high strength though in combination with little
shows high elongation values in the as fabricated state, as the elongation as compared to standards (ASTM specications) in the
typical pre-heating temperatures are tempering the material as fabricated state. Adequate heat treatments may however
388 D. Herzog et al. / Acta Materialia 117 (2016) 371e392
transform the microstructure and lead to enhanced ductility, if
needed. With careful adjustment of LBM parameters such as layer
thickness and volume energy, the temperature cycle during build-
up may be controlled in a way that the a0 martensite phase de-
composes in-situ, leading to a favourable high strength and high
ductility combination, as suggested by Xu et al. [96]. LMD shows
lower yield strengths compared to LBM and EBM (Table 4) probably
due to the lower cooling rates of LMD, and the elongation at failure
shows a high variance depending on the chosen process parame-
ters. Oxygen is known to be a major factor in increasing strength
and reducing ductility [115]. In addition to the microstructure, even
a small variation in chemical composition may therefore explain
the observed variance in static properties found in literature. Be-
sides, the brittle failure mode of as fabricated AM Ti-6Al-4V is
attributed to the combination of a0 martensite, remnant porosity
and residual stresses [2,35,98]. Intergranular failure along elon-
gated prior-b-grain boundaries has also been observed [96].
Anisotropic properties of AM Ti-6Al-4V have been reported for
the as fabricated state. A literature survey does not reveal, however,
a unique trend for the tensile strength being always higher in build-
direction than orthogonal to the build direction. As shown in
Table 4, sometimes just the opposite is being found.
5.3. Fatigue strength
Identical to static mechanical properties the fatigue strength of
metallic materials primarily depends on their microstructure.
However, process-inherent properties such as surface roughness
and material defects strongly inuence the fatigue performance of
AM fabricated parts. The layer wise manufacturing process typi-
cally leads to an increased surface roughness, e.g. of Rz z 100 mm
in LBM, causing increased stress concentration and early failure of
AM parts under fatigue loading in as fabricated condition
[144e146]. Mechanical surface treatments (e.g. polishing) improve
the fatigue behaviour. However, material defects such as porosity
and insufcient layer bonding result in increased scatter of the
experimental data [145], rendering an assessment of the fatigue
properties rather difcult. Curing these defects and densifying the
material by hot-isostatic pressing results in improved fatigue
properties and values comparable to cast and wrought materials
[95,144,147]. Table 6 gives an overview on the fatigue strength of
additive manufactured Ti-6Al-4V as well as several Al alloys and
steels at 107 cycles achieved for different surface and heat treat-
ment conditions.
Fig. 21. LBM-produced fuel nozzle of the LEAP aero engine (from GE Aviation). Inte-
grated design built as one piece with optimized interior channels and a weight saving
of approx. 25%.
Additionally to the determination of fatigue strength by con-
stant amplitude testing, investigations on fracture mechanical
behaviour of AM material have been carried out. Due to the high
importance in aircraft applications, Ti-6Al-4V has been in the
focal point of crack growth and fatigue resistance analysis.
Leuders et al. [147] showed that the crack growth behaviour and
threshold value of Ti-6Al-4V compare to conventional plate ma-
terial. In additional investigations, Wycisk et al. [145] used the
approach of Kitagawa and Takahashi [156] to predict the fatigue
life of Ti-6Al-4V depending on process inherent porosity and
material defects with good agreement to the experimental re-
sults. Brandl et al. [157] successfully used computer tomography
to identify material defects and linear elastic fracture mechanic
software to simulate the inuence of these defects on the fatigue
life of EBM Ti-6Al-4V. In similar investigations, Siddique et al.
[158] used computer tomography to identify defects and FEM
simulation to predict stress concentration in LBM of the eutectic
AlSi12 alloy. The results show that - similar to static and fatigue
strength - the fracture mechanical properties of AM materials
compare to their conventional counterparts and that known
concepts from fracture mechanics can be used to evaluate AM
metals and alloys.
6. Applications
The recent extensive gains in knowledge on the inuence of AM
processing parameters on the microstructure and the related
properties of AM metals, as discussed in the previous sections,
enables AM to become not only a valuable method for rapid pro-
totyping but more and more also for rapid manufacturing. Serial
applications reach back some 10 years e.g. in the dental industry,
where CoCr is used for dental prostheses [7]. Applications of tool
steel, e.g. H13, in mould inserts and tools have also been reported
for some time [6]. Shortened lead times and new possibilities in the
position of cooling channels make the technology quite attractive
for this market, e.g. as cooling channels close to the surface that are
not producible by conventional technologies can shorten heat and
cooling cycles.
Ti-6Al-4V has been the material of choice for a variety of
biomedical applications, e.g. hip endoprosthesis [159]. The process
offers the possibility to manufacture osseointegrative structures
such as lattices and thus improves functionality of implants. Ti-6Al-
4V is also in the focus of the aerospace industry, under discussion
for serial production of brackets (cf. Fig. 20), parts of the fuel system
and many other parts [1].
The aerospace sector is probably the one most radically affected
by AM in the near future due to the enormous lightweight poten-
tial; besides structural elements, this also includes engine parts.
Fuel nozzles for the GE LEAP aero engine (cf. Fig. 21) is a prominent
example with a planned production volume of 25,000 parts [9]. The
manufactured part is said to be 25% lighter and stronger than the
previous conventional design.
7. Conclusions and outlook
An overview on the current state of AM of metals was presented
with a focus on the interrelationship between process, micro-
structure and properties. The high temperature gradients involved
in AM typically yield ne grained microstructures with outstanding
strength according to the Hall-Petch law. Depending on material
and process, non-equilibrium microstructures evolve in the as
fabricated state, e.g. retained austenite in certain martensitic steel
grades or the martensitic a0 phase in titanium and titanium-based
alloys. As heat conductivity is usually anisotropic during AM pro-
cesses with a signicantly higher conductivity in the build direction
 D. Herzog et al. / Acta Materialia 117 (2016) 371e392
through previously built layers, anisotropic microstructures with
elongated grains are found that consequently lead to anisotropic
properties.
The complex thermal cycle in AM involves a re-heating of
already solidied layers in the ongoing process, which leads to an [19]
in-situ heat treatment. This may have desired and undesired effects [20]
such as decomposition of brittle phases into more ductile variants,
partitioning of alloying elements and grain growth. The micro- [21]
[22]
structure and properties of the nal part may however be adjusted
in a wide range by a subsequent ex-situ heat treatment.
Extensive data on the static as well as fatigue properties derived [23]
from literature show that steel grades, aluminium alloys and tita-
nium alloys manufactured by LBM, EBM and LMD typically meet or [24]
even exceed the properties of cast or wrought counterparts. Most [25]
applications and technology demonstrators of today are still
limited to parts that face no or negligible dynamic loads. However, [26]
this is about to change with the recent understanding of fatigue
performance. Thus, a serial application of AM is already possible for
[27]
a number of material-process-combinations.
In the near future, the AM material variety will most likely grow
further, with e.g. high-performance materials such as titanium- [28]
aluminides already under investigation [30]. While most research
so far was directed at the fabrication of technologically approved [29]
alloys and the intention to make them available for AM, the
development of AM specic alloys proting e.g. from the thermal [30]
conditions during AM routes holds unprecedented potential for the
future. Scalmalloy [87,124], an aluminium alloy system with
increased strength gained by the characteristic thermal cycle of
LBM is a prominent example of such an approach. The anisotropy [31]
reported in AM bears further potential as it forms the basis for the [32]
development of e.g. gradient materials. [33]
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