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Allotropes of Carbon
Diamond
Graphite
Amorphous
Graphene
Fullerenes (Buckyballs)
Glassy Carbon
Diamond Like Carbon
Carbon Nanotubes/Nanofibers
Four Carbon Families:
A. Graphite (Rhombohedral and Hexagonal)
The structure of rhombohedral graphite
can be best considered as an extended
stacking fault in hexagonal graphite.
Rhombohedral graphite can not be
isolated in pure form (natural graphite
and laboratory preparations contain less
than 40% of rhombohedral graphite in
combination with hexagonal graphite).
It is produced by shear deformation of hexagonal graphite and transforms to the
hexagonal (ABAB) modification on heating above 1600 K.
B. Fullerene Family (C60, C70, C 240, C 540)
C. Diamond Family
(Basic tetrahedral, Cubic, and Hexagonal diamond structures)
D. Carbyne Family
(sp hybridized carbon atoms bound linearly to form chains that associate together by
van der Walls interactions between pi electrons)
Hybridization States of Carbon
sp hybridization (Diamond)
sp hybridization (Graphite)
Other than Diamond, carbonaceous materials can be divided into graphitizing and
non-graphitizing carbon. (Franklin, R. Proceedings of the Royal Society (1951)
Graphene
High-magnification TEM images of (a) a bi-layer graphene
sheet, (c) a graphitic particle and (e) a bulk graphite structure
synthesized at 250 W and a plasma gas flow rate of 1.7 lpm.
Scale bars: 2 nm.
Dato, A. et al. 2010, New J. Phys.
Atomic Resolution Imaging of Graphene Membranes
TEM image of a few-layer graphene membrane near its edge, where the number of dark
lines indicates the thickness of two to four layers. The atomic-resolution imaging was
achieved by using FEI Titan at an acceleration voltage of 300 kV. Scale bar, 1 nm.
Meyer, J.C. et al., 2007, Nature Letters
Graphene Films
(A) Photograph (in normal white light) of a relatively large multilayer graphene flake with
thickness ~3 nm on top of an oxidized Si wafer. (B) AFM image of this flake near its edge.
Colors: dark brown, SiO2 surface; orange, 3 nm height above the SiO2 surface. (C) AFM
image of single-layer graphene. Colors: dark brown, SiO2 surface; brown-red (central area),
0.8 nm height; yellow-brown (bottom left), 1.2 nm; orange (top left), 2.5 nm. Notice the
folded part of the film near the bottom, which exhibits a differential height of ~0.4 nm.
Structure of Suspended Graphene Sheets
(C and D) Graphene films transferred onto a SiO2/Si substrate and a glass plate, respectively
HRTEM images
of graphene layers
The Rise of Graphene...by A.K.Geim and K.S.Novoselov
Electronic structure rapidly evolves with the number of layers, approaching the 3D
limit of graphite in 10 layers.
Only up to bi-layer graphene is zero-gap semiconductors with one type of electrons and
one type of holes.
Synthesis of single and few layer graphene has been achieved by epitaxy by chemical
vapor deposition of hydrocarbons on metal substrates.
Recently, bi-layer graphene was obtained on SiC.
Graphene shows extremely high-mobility charge carriers and thus has potential
applications in electronics.
Still, most of the researchers use graphene samples obtained from micromechanical
cleavage of bulk graphite.
At a time when Si based technology is approaching its fundamental limits, any new
candidate materials to take over from Si is welcome, and graphene seems to offer an
exceptional choice.
The Rise of Graphene...
by A.K.Geim and K.S.Novoselov
Major Challenges:
High quality graphene suitable for large scale applications
Reproducibility in their properties for their use on devices
Graphene based microprocessor are unlikely to appear for next 10 years.
However graphene finds its use in composites, energy storage devices, field
emission devices, sensors, hydrogen storage etc.
Fullerene (Buckyballs)
Geodesic Domes
Solid graphite block was ablated by pulsed laser in the presence of highly
dense helium environment to yield buckyballs.
Other names considered at the time of first synthesis were: ballene, spherene,
soccerene, carbosoccer
Acid treatment
By acid treatment mostly metal catalysts are removed by the reaction with Nitric acid or
Sulfuric acid or a mixture of both.
Annealing
In this method a very high temperature is applied (800-1800 C) in a vacuum atmosphere
which caused CNT atoms to rearrange and form a perfect CNT
very high temperature ,metal is melted and also can be removed from the reaction
Ultrasonication
Ultrasonic created a low pressure and high pressure waves in the liquid and it improves the
reaction and causes reactants to be mixed it forces particles to vibrate and disperse in the
liquid evenly.
PURIFICATION OF CNTs
Magnetic Purification
Micro filtration
By this method while we have a mixture of materials along with carbon nanotubes by
using a membrane.
Purification step
1. Purification process sample was used in HCl, Acid Nitric HNO3, and Hydrofluoric Acid
HF
2. Sonication (Ultra Sonication) in HF for 30 minutes and filtrated by polycarbonate
3. Immersed in HCl and HNO3 solution
4. Washed in pure water
5. Put in 600 C pure air to remove amorphous carbon
Opening of CNTs
Simplest way to open the end of
nnotubes is their oxidative treatment.
Liquid or gaseous chemical agents are
used as oxidants.
Refluxing, sonicaion or microwave
digestion in conc. Acids, such as nitric
acid or sulphuric acid are most popular
methods for oxidation.
However prolonged treatment of
SWCNTs leads to amorphization and
complete destruction of tubes.
Functionalization/Modification of CNTs
Need to align CNTs and prevent them from agglomerating so that they can be
even evenly distributed in nanofluids.
2. CNTs are filled with a material which reacts with it and then produces
nanoparticles which are trapped
Functionalization/Modification of CNTs
Exohedral Functionalization
is modification of external
part of CNTs like side walls