Time and Cost Analysis

UNIT 10 TIME AND COST ANALYSIS

Structure
10.1 Introduction
Objectives

10.2 Estimation of Machining Time in Turning

10.3 Estimation of Machining Time in Milling
10.4 Estimation of Machining Time in Drilling
10.5 Estimation of Machining Time in Boring
10.6 Estimation of Machining Time for Shaping
10.7 Machining Time in Grinding
10.8 Machining Cost
10.9 Tool Cost
10.10 Summary

10.1 INTRODUCTION
There are certain basic activities that must be carried out in a factory to convert raw
materials into finished products.
These activities broadly are :
(a) Manufacturing and assembly operations,
(b) Material handling,
(c) Inspection and testing, and
(d) Coordination and control.
The first activity will help to convert raw material into finished product. It adds value to
the product. In second and third activities the product must be moved from one operation
to the next in the manufacturing and it must be inspected and tested to ensure high
quality. These activities indirectly contribute value to the product. Unnecessary operation
whether they were processing, assembly, material handling or inspection must be
eliminated and thus, result into savage of time and cost of waste material.
Objectives
After studying this unit, you should be able to
estimate the machining time for different machining operations like turning,
milling, boring, etc.
calculate the machining cost, and
calculate the tool cost.

10.2 ESTIMATION OF MACHINING TIME IN TURNING

There was an interesting Study by E. Merchant, an advocate and spokesman for the
machine tool industry for many years. He observed that materials in a typical metal
machining batch factory or job shop spend more time waiting or being moved than in
processing. His observation is illustrated in Figure 10.1. About 95% of a parts time is
spent either moving or waiting (temporary storage). Only 5% of its time is spent on the
machine tool. Of this 5%, less than 30% of the time on the machine (1.5% of the total 29
CAPP Analysis time of the part) is time during which actual cutting is taking place. The remaining 70%
(3.5% of the total) is required for loading and unloading, part handling and positioning,
tool positioning, gaging, and other elements of
non-processing time. These time proportions provide evidence of the significance of
material handling and storage in a typical factory.

Figure 10.1 : The Distribution of Various Times in MLT

Manufacturing Lead Time (MLT)

Manufacturing lead-time is the total time required to process a given part or
product through the plant. MLT of the component/product is mathematically
shown as :
Qj
MLT j (Tsuji + Q j . Tcji + Tnoji ) . . . (10.1)
i =1

where Tsuji = Setup time for ith operation of jth component/product,

Qj = Quantity of product in the batch being processed,
Tcji = Operation cycle time for operation i, and
Tnoji = non-operational time associated with operation i.
The non-operation times include handling, temporary storage, inspection and other
causes of delay.
The above equation of MLT can be further simplified by assuming that all setup,
operational and non-operational times are equal for all the machines (n0)
processing the batch of products.
MLT = n0 (Tsu + QTc + Tn0) . . . (10.2)
MLT for a job shop industry (Q = 1), MLT = n0 (Tsu + Tc + Tn0) . . . (10.3)
MLT for a flow line mass production industry :
MLT = n0 Tc (neglecting transportation times) . . . (10.4)
Example 10.1
A certain part is produced in a batch size of 100 units. The batch must be routed
through five operations to complete the processing of the parts. Average setup time
is 3 hr/operation, and average operation time is 6 min (0.1 hr). Average
nonoperation time due to handling, delays, inspections, etc., is 7 hours for each
operation. Determine how many days it will take to complete the batch, assuming
the plant runs one 8-hr shift/day.
Solution
30
 The manufacturing lead time is computed from Eq. (10.2) Time and Cost Analysis

MLT = 5 (3 + 100 0.1 + 7) = 100 hours

At 8 hr/day, this amounts to 100/8 = 12.5 days.
Production Rate (Rp)
The production rate for an individual processing assembly operation is usually
expressed as an hourly rate i.e. parts/hr. Let us consider how this is calculated for
three types of production systems namely Jobshop, batch and mass production?
In a typical processing operation, such as machining, Tc consists of
(a) Actual machining time (T0),
(b) Work part handling time (Th), and
(c) Tool handling time per workpiece (Tth).
Tc = T0 + Th + Tth . . . (10.5)
For a batch production, let the batch (Q) processing time is Tb, then
Tb = Tsu + Q . T0
Setup is required only once for one batch of product.
Therefore the processing time for each product (Tp) is computed as :
Tb
Tp = . . . (10.6)
Q
60
Production rate (Rp) = . . . (10.7)
Tp

For jobshop production system (Q = 1) and the production rate is calculated using
Eq. (10.7).
Tp = Tsu + Tc . . . (10.8)
For mass production system Tp = Tc (setup time and non-operational times are
neglected)
where Tc = Tr + Max. T0
Tr is time to transfer the workpart between stations.
Example 10.2
The turret lathe section has six machines, all devoted to the production of the same
part. The section operates 10 shifts/wk. The number of hours per shift averages
8.0. Average production rate of each machine is 17 unit/hr. Determine the weekly
production capacity of the turret lathe section.
Solution
Given Number of machines n = 6
Number of shifts per week S = 10
Number of hours per shift H = 8
Production rate Rp = 17
Production capacity = n x S x H x Rp
PC = 6 (10) (8.0) (17) = 8160 output unit/wk
In all the above equations, calculation of T0 is process dependent. If the process is
machining process, operation time is often referred as machining time. The machining
times for various machining processes and the importance of it is explained in the
following sections.
The Basic endeavour in any production process is to produce acceptable components
with minimum production cost and maximum production rate. But no single effort had 31
CAPP Analysis been found fully successful because of the complexities involved in the process. For
instance if the cutting speed, feed and depth of cut are increased rapidly to reduce the
machining time then the tool life shortens and therefore, tooling cost increases and so that
the total production cost also increases. On the other hand if the cutting speed is reduced
to improve the tool life the metal removal rate is reduced and therefore the production
cost is again increased. Hence, to keep a balance, optimal process parameters (speed, feed
and depth of cut) are to be determined. Their choice is somewhat difficult and a lot
depends upon the shop practices as well as the experience of the operator/planner.
In view of the above a thorough knowledge on the estimation of machining cost and time
is important.
The cutting speed in turning is the surface speed of the workpiece. Thus
DN
V = . . . (10.9)
1000
where V = cutting speed (surface), m/min,
D = diameter of the workpiece, mm, and
N = rotational speed of the workpiece, rpm.
The diameter D to be used can be either the initial diameter of the blank or the final
diameter of the workpiece after giving the depth of cut. However, there is practically not
much change in the values obtained by using either of the values. To be realistic, the
average of the two diameters would be better.
From the above equation, we get
1000 V
N= . . . (10.10)
D
The spindle speed (rpm) obtained from the Eq. (10.10) may not be an exact value of the
speed available on the lathe machine, since any lathe would only have limited range of
spindle speeds available. It is, therefore, necessary to adjust the value so obtained to that
available in the speed range considering the work and tool material combination. This is
demonstrated later using an example. Therefore the machining time in turning (t) is
estimated as
L + L0
t= . . . (10.11)
2f N

L
where L = length of the job, mm if L L0 ,
fn
L0 = over travel of the tool beyond the length of the job to help in the setting
of the tool, mm (some times approach length is also included), and
f = feed rate, mm/rev.
The over travel to be provided depends upon the operators choice but usual values could
be 2 to 3 mm on either side. The purpose of providing over travel in a machining process
is to ensure smooth exit of tool from the zone of machining, to clear the burr produced on
the part and to compensate for the elastic deflections as of the tool/work system.
The number of passes required to machine a component depends upon the left over stock
(stock allowance). Also depending upon the specified surface finish and the tolerance on
a given dimension, the choice would have to be made as to the number of finishing
passes (1 or 2) while the rest of the allowance is to be removed through the roughing
passes. The roughing passes Pr is given by
A Af
Pr =
dr
32
where A = total machining allowance, mm, Time and Cost Analysis

Af = finish machining allowance, mm, and

dr = depth of cut in roughing, mm.
The value calculated from the above equation is to be rounded to the next integer.
Similarly, the finishing passes, Pf, is given by
Af
Pf =
dr
where df = depth of cut in finishing, mm.
Example 10.3
A hollow workpiece of 60 mm outside diameter and 150 mm length is held on a
mandrel between centers and turned all over in 4 passes. If the approach
length = 20 mm, over travel = 12 mm, average feed = 0.8 mm/rev.,
cutting speed = 30 m/min, estimate the machining time.
Solution
We know that,
D N
Cutting speed =
1000
60 N
or, 30 =
1000
N = 159 rpm
Now, the total (length) traveled by the tool in a single pass in given by :
L = 150 + 20 + 12
= 182 mm
Therefore, the total length traveled by the tool in its 4 passes is given by :
L1 = 182 4 = 728 mm
Now, the machining time (T) is given by :
L1
T =
feed N
728
= = 5.72 minutes
0.8 1.59

10.3 ESTIMATION OF MACHINING TIME IN MILLING

The following factors are to be considered in estimating the machining time in any type
of milling operation :
(a) Total length of job to be machined.
(b) Approach i.e., the distance through which the cutter has to move before
the full depth of cut is acquired. This ensures smooth entry of tool into the
workpiece and thus, improves both tool life and the job accuracy.
(c) Over run i.e., the distance through which the cutter has to move further
after the job length is over, to be clear of the job. Its purpose is similar as
enumerated earlier.
(d) Number of cuts.
(e) Cutting speed.
33
CAPP Analysis (f) The amount of feed per minute.
Figures 10.2 and 10.3 show milling operations being performed by using the plain and
face milling cutters respectively.
Let l = length of the job to be machined in min.
[

Feed, f A

Figure 10.2 : Slab Milling Operation

L=l+2A
Now, in plain milling, if D mm be the diameter of the cutter and d mm be the total depth
of the cut, then the approach A is given by :
2 2
D D
Approach distance, A = d = d ( D d ) . . . (10.12)
2 2

Feed, f

Figure 10.3 : Face Milling Operation

Now refer to Figure 10.3, i.e. face milling. Let W mm be the width of the job and D mm
the diameter of the cutter, then the approach in this case is given by :
D D
A= mm for W = up to D
2 2
D
A = W ( D W ) mm for W <
2
l + 2 A
Time for one pass = minutes . . . (10.13)
f ZN
where Z = no. of teeth in the milling cutter, and
f = feed per tooth, mm.
Now, if n be the number of cuts and f the feed in mm per minute, then the machining
time T in minutes can be calculated from :
34
 (L N ) Time and Cost Analysis
T = minutes . . . (10.14)
f ZN

For finding out the total floor time, handling time should be added to the actual
machining time calculated above.
Example 10.4
A surface 115 mm wide and 250 mm long is to be rough milled with a depth of cut
of 6 mm by a 16-tooth cemented carbide face mill 150 mm in diameter. The work
material is alloy steel (200 BHN). Estimate the cutting time.
(Cutting speed = 60 m/min, f = 0.18mm/tooth).
Solution
Given : Numbers of teeth on cut, Z = 16
Diameter of cut, D = 150 mm
Depth of cut, d = 6 mm
Width of cut, W = 115 mm
Cutting speed, V = 60 m/min
Feed rate f = 0.18 mm/tooth
1000 60
Spindle speed N =V = 127.32 125 rev/min
150

D
Since W = ,
2

Approach distance, A = 115 (150 115) = 63.44 65 mm .

10.4 ESTIMATION OF MACHINING TIME IN DRILLING

Typical process parameters used in drilling operations are given in Table 10.1. The
cutting speed in drilling is the surface speed of the twist drill. Thus,
DN
V =
1000
where V = cutting speed (surface), m/min
D = diameter of the twist drill, mm
N = rotational speed of the drill, rev/min
The drill will have to approach the start of the hole from a distance and also traverse
beyond the actual hole by a distance termed as the total approach allowance A. The
initial approach is generally a small value for positioning the drill above the hole. This
distance AI can generally be taken as 2 to 3 mm. The traverse distance beyond the hole is
often termed as the breakthrough distance and is required because of the conical shape of
the twist drill as shown in Figure 10.4. This value is dependent upon the drill diameter and
the lip angle and is given by :
For drilling blind holes breakthrough distance = 0 (zero).
D
Breakthrough distance A=
2 tan

Approach
35

Over-travel
CAPP Analysis

Figure 10.4 : End of the Twist Drill Showing the Breakthrough Distance

For the most common case of = 59o, it is given by

D
A=
3.3286
Total length of tool travel L = l + A + 2 mm
where l = length of the hole, mm
L
Time for drilling the hole = minutes . . . (10.15)
fN

where f = feed rate, mm/rev.

Table 10.1 : Cutting Process Parameters for Drilling
HSS
Work material Hardness BHN
Speed m/min Feed, mm/rev
Cast Iron 200 25-35 0.13-0.30
Cast Steel 280-300 12-15 0.06-0.19
AISI 1020 110-160 35 0.20-0.50
AISI 1040 170-200 25 0.13-0.30
Manganese Steel 185-215 5 0.06-0.19
Nickel Steel 200-240 18 0.06-0.19
Stainless steel 150 15 0.13-0.30
Spring steel 400 6 0.06-0.19
Tool steel 150 23 0.20-0.50
Tool steel 200 18 0.13-0.30
Tool steel 215 15 0.13-0.30
Tool steel 300 12 0.06-0.19
Tool steel 400 5 0.06-0.19
Malleable Iron 110-130 26 0.20-0.50
Aluminium 95 275 0.13-0.90
Aluminium alloys 170-190 18 0.13-0.30
Copper 80-85 21 0.06-0.19
Brass 190-200 70 0.20-0.50
Bronze 180-200 54 0.20-0.50
Zinc alloys 110-125 70 0.20-0.50
Glass 4.5 0.06-0.19
The material removal rate is indicated by the total volume of the material in the hole. In
the case of a solid material without coring, the material removal rate MRR is given by the
area of cross-section of the hole times the tool travel rate through the material. Thus

D2 f N
MRR = . . . (10.16)
4
Example 10.5

36
 A through hole of 40 mm diameter and 50 mm depth is to be drilled in a mild steel Time and Cost Analysis
component. The cutting speed can be taken as 65 m/min and the feed rate as
0.25 mm/rev. Calculate the machining time and the material removal rate.
Solution
Given V = 65 m/min
f = 0.25 mm/rev
D = 40 mm
L = 50 mm
1000 65
Spindle speed N = = 527.35 rev/min
40
= 520 rev/min
40
Breakthrough distance A =
2 tan 59o
Total length of drill travel L = 50 + 12 + 3 = 65 mm
65
Time for drilling the hole = = 0.50 minutes
0.25 520

( 402 0.25 520)

The material removal rate =
4
= 163362.82 mm3/min
= 163.363 cm3/min.

10.5 ESTIMATION OF MACHINING TIME IN BORING

In boring operation the machining time is calculated the same manner as in turning. It is
given by the following relation :
Depth of hole to be bored in mm
Machining Time = minutes . . . (10.17)
N feed/rev
where, N = No. of revolutions per min. of machine spindle or work.
Example 10.6
In a cast iron housing a hole of 30 mm diameter is to be bored to a depth of
50 mm. Calculate the machining time required for boring this hole assuming a
cutting speed of 30 mpm and a feed of 0.2 mm per revolution.
Solution
Vc 1000
N=
D

30 1000
= = 318 rpm
30

50
Machining time =
318 2

50 60
= = 47 secs.
318 0.2
Example 10.7
37
CAPP Analysis An existing hole of 140 mm dia. is to be finish bored to 150 mm dia. in a grey cast
iron casting to a depth of 300 mm. The operation is to be performed in four
passes two rough and two finish. The depth of cut for rough boring is to be kept
as 2 mm and that for finish boring as 0.5 mm. Calculate the machining time
required for boring this hole assuming a cutting speed of 80 mpm and a feed of
2 mm for rough work and 0.25 mm for finish boring.
Solution
Vc 1000
N=
D

80 1000
= = 170 rpm
150
Machining time required for rough boring :
Length bored No. of passes
Tr =
rpm feed/rev.

300 2
= = 1 min. 46 secs.
170 2
Machining time required for finish boring :
300 4
Tf = = 1 min. 28 min. 14 secs.
170 2
Total machining time
= T r + Tf
= 1 46 + 28 14
= 30 min.

10.6 ESTIMATION OF MACHINING TIME FOR SHAPING

Refer to Figure 10.5 for understanding the tool positions and other related terms.
Let L = Length of stroke or Tool travel, in metres,
l = Length or breadth of job, over which the tool passes, in metres,
l1 = Tool approach, i.e. the distance it has to travel before starting actual cutting in
metres,

Figure 10.5 : Shaping Operation

38
 l2 = Overtravel, i.e. the distance through which the tool travels beyond the work Time and Cost Analysis
surface in metres,
f = Feed per cycle, in mm,
m = Ratio of return time to cutting time,
v1 = Average cutting speed, in metres per min.,
v2 = Average return speed, in metres per min., and
n = No. of cycles required
Length of cutting stroke
Now, Cutting speed (v1 ) =
Time taken in cutting stroke

Length of cutting stroke L

Cutting time = = min.
Cutting speed in m / min. v1

l + l1 + l2
or, = min.
v1
and, non-cutting time or idle time
Length of cutting in metres L
= =
Return speed in m/min v2

l + l1 + l2
= min.
v2
Now, Total time per cycle = Cutting time + Idle time
L L L L
= + = +K . . . (10.18)
v1 v2 v1 v1
{where K = ratio of idle stroke time to cutting stroke time)
L L L (l + K )
Total time = +K = minutes . . . (10.19)
v1 v1 v1
For shaping a workpiece an allowance of about 5 mm is left on either side of it. Thus, the
shaping width of the workpiece is obtained as :
Shaping width B = Width of workpiece + 2 allowance
Shaping width B
No. of cycles required (n) = =
Feed per cycle f

Machining time = No. of cycles time required for each cycle

B L (1 + k ) LB (1 + k )
= = min. . . . (10.20)
f v1 f v1
Example 10.8
ACI plate measuring 300 mm 100 mm 40 mm is to be rough shaped along its
wider face. Calculate the machining time taking approach = 25 mm,
overtravel = 25 mm, cutting speed = 12 m/min, return speed = 20 m/min,
allowance on either side of the plate width = 5 mm and feed per cycle = 1 mm.
Solution
Now, length of stroke (L) = 300 + 25 + 25 = 350 mm
L 350
Cutting stroke time = = = 0.029 min.
v1 1000 12
39
CAPP Analysis L 350
Idle stroke time = = = 0.0175 min.
v2 1000 20
Time per cycle = 0.029 + 0.0175 = 0.0465 min.
Shaping width B = 100 + 5 + 5 = 110 mm.
B 110
No. of cycle required (n) = = = 110 cycles
f 1

Machining time = n time per cycle = 110 0.0465

= 5.12 min.
Example 10.9
A mild steel plate 400 mm 800 mm 30 mm is to be shaped along its wider face.
The ratio of return time to cutting time is 2:3 and the feed per cycle is 2 mm. Tool
approach and the over-travel respectively are 50 mm each. Select a suitable cutting
speed and calculate the machining time required for machining the given plate
with H.S.S. tools.
Solution
Length of stroke L = 800 + 50 + 50 = 900 mm = 0.9 m
Cutting stroke time = 0.9/24 (Selecting average cutting)
= 0.0375 min.
Return time 2
Given that, = =
Cutting time 3

Return time = 2/3 cutting time = 2/3 0.0375 = 0.025 min.

Total time per cycle = 0.0375 + 0.025 = 0.0625 min
Shaping width B = 400 + 2 5 = 410 mm
410
No. of cycles required = = 205 cycles
2
Total machining time = 205 0.0625 min = 12.8125 min
= 13 min (say)

10.7 MACHINING TIME IN GRINDING

The machining time (T) in cylindrical grinding can be calculated from the following
relationship.
L.P.K
T = min. . . . (10.21)
f . N .t
where, L = Longitudinal travel in one pass (in mm),
P = Number of passes made,
f = Longitudinal feed/rev. (in mm),
N = rpm of the workpiece, and
K = a constant (Accuracy Factor), depending upon the degree of accuracy
and level of surface finish.
= 1.0 to 1.2 for rough grinding (commonly used value = 1.1)
= 1.3 to 1.7 for finish grinding (commonly used value = 1.4)
40
 Time and Cost Analysis
Grinding Wheel

Job
Figure 10.6

In case of plunge cut cylindrical grinding, the machining time (T) is given by :
a.K
T = min. . . . (10.22)
fc . N
where, a = grinding allowance on each in mm.,
fc = cross feed in mm/rev.,
N = rpm of the workpiece, and
K = has the same significance as in case of cylindrical grinding.
SAQ 1
(a) Derive an equation for the estimation of machining time in shaping process.
(b) Derive an equation for the estimation of machining time in drilling process.
(c) Derive an equation for the estimation of machining time in milling process.

10.8 MACHINING COST

Return on investment (ROI) is the acid test for signifying the success of a business.
Machining is an important activity of a manufacturing enterprise and the ultimate test of
successful machining is a good rate of return on the investment on machine tool, fixtures
and tools and manpower. Hence, when we make a decision for buying tools we must
select the alternative, which gives best return on investment.
When we make comparison between two tools we have to determine which tool would
give better return on investment. The savings per year that one tool would give with
respect to the other indicates the improvement in the rate of return. In fact the savings per
year divided by the initial investment would give the improvement in return on
investment.
The total production cost of machined components is made up of the following
components :
material cost,
labour cost,
overhead cost,
tool cost, and
cost of percent of the total cost.

41
CAPP Analysis But the influence of tools on the other costs is considerable. It is often possible that the
tool cost is increased but the total production cost is reduced considerably because of the
influence of the tool on other aspects of cost.
For example, if the tool permits higher speed or feed to be used, then the machining time
is reduced and the machining cost, which is the product of machining time and machine
hour rate is reduced considerably.
If a tool provides longer and more reliable tool life, the machine would run with fewer
stoppages leading to better utilization of the machine and better return on investment.
If one tool can provide the function of two or more tools, the tool change time and
machining time are saved. In addition, inventory cost is also saved.
Quick-change and modular tools reduce not only tool change time but also set up time.
Thus we see that the performance of the cutting tool is a decisive factor determining not
only the efficiency of metal removal but of the utilisastion of the machine tool and thus
the return on investment.
10.8.1 Elements of Machining Cost
The costs that go into machining a part can be broken into three categories :
(a) Material removal cost.
(b) Tool cost
(c) Non-productive cost
Total machining cost = Material removal cost + Tool cost + Non-productive cost.
Material Removal Cost
This is the cost incurred while the job is being actually cut (it excludes all non-
productive movements of both machine and man).
Material removal cost = Metal cutting time per piece (labour + overhead) rate
Length of cut
Metal cutting time = for turning
Feed/rev. rpm
Labour rate = Rs./hr.
= Rs./hr. for machine or for a cost center or as a percentage of
direct labour
Non-Productive Cost
This is the cost incurred through non-productive time of labour and machine.
Non-productive cost = Non-productive time machine (labour + overhead) rate
Non-productive Time of Labour
(a) Movement of tool towards job and away
(b) Indexing of turret, etc.

10.9 TOOL COST

The tool cost is made up of
(a) Tool change cost (TCC) or cost for indexing the insert
(b) Tool regrinding cost (TRC)
(c) Tool original cost (TOC)
(d) Tool inventory cost (TIC)
Total tool cost = TCC + TRC + TOC + TIC . . . (10.23)
Tool Changing Cost Per Edge
42
 Tool changing cost = Tool changing time (Machine operators rate + Overhead) Time and Cost Analysis

Tool changing time is defined as the time required to remove the tool from the
machine when it is worn out, to put new tool back into the machine, to reset the
tool for size, and to get ready to start the machining. In case of toolholders with
indexable insert the tool change time would involve the time for indexing the inset
and setting the tool for the dimension.
Tool Grinding Cost Per Edge
The tool grinding cost depends upon the type of tool and the extent of wear
Grinding cost is totally avoided in the case of indexable throwaway tool.
Grinding time (Grinders ' rate + Overhead)
Tool grinding cost per edge =
Number of edges per grind
Grinding room overhead consists of :
(a) Depreciation of capital investment on grinding machine
(b) Cost of grinding wheel
(c) Cost of supervision
(d) Heat, Light, Water
(e) Maintenance of grinding machines
Tool Inventory Cost
This is the cost of carrying inventory of a particular type of tool to ensure that the
work is not held up for want of tools.
The inventory of tool at any given instant consists of :
(a) Number of tools at machine.
(b) Tools in transit between grinding room and machine.
(c) Stock of ready reground tools or stock of tool holders and inserts in
the tool crib.
(d) Those in the process of grinding.
Inventory carrying rate consists of interest on money invested in the tools, storage cost
etc., approximately 20% of purchase price per year.
Tool Inventory Cost
Total inventory of tools Cost per tool Inventory cost rates
These costs can be demonstrated with the help of a simple turning operation.
Let us assume turning of a bar of length L mm and diameter
D mm, with a cutting speed of V m/min, feed rate of f mm/rev, and depth of
cut of d mm.
Time for machining is given by
L
Tm =
fN
where N is the spindle RPM which is related to cutting speed by the
following relation.
DN
V =
1000
Substituting this into the previous equation, we get
DL
Tm =
1000 f V
For a given job, the cost of all overheads is given by :
43
CAPP Analysis C1 = C0 [ p (t1 + tu1 + ta ) + t0 ] . . . (10.24)
where t0 = tool advance and withdrawal time,
tl = job loading time,
tul = job unloading time,
t0 = initial setup time of the machine for a batch of
components, and
p = number of parts produced per batch.
For evaluating the tool cost, we have to consider the initial cost, the cost of
regrinding, the number of regrindings possible in case of HSS tools, the time
taken for indexing and the number of indexable edges available in case of
carbide tools.
For carbide and ceramic tools with throwaway tips,
Cost of the bit
Ce =
Number of cutting edges per bit
For HSS and brazed carbide tools,
Cost of tool + regrind cost Number of regrinds
Ce =
Number of regrinds + 1
Ct + r C g
Ce =
r +1
where Ct = initial cost of the tool,
r = number of regrinds possible for one tool,
Cg = cost of regrinding the tool, and
Pg = number of components produced between regrinds = T/Tm.
where T is the useful life of the tool
p C0 Tc
Cost of tool replacement =
Pg

where tc = tool change time

Thus the total cost of the tool is
p
C2 = (Ce + C0 tc )
pg

The machining cost C3 is given by

C3 = C0 p Tm
Now combining all the components of costs, we get the cost per batch CB as B

p
C B = C0 [ p (t1 + tu1 + ta ) + t0 ] + (Ce + tc C0 ) + C0 p Tm
pg

Similarly, the cost per piece of production is given by

t 1
C p = C0 t1 + tu1 + ta + 0 + (Ce + tc C0 ) + C0 Tm
p pg

Considering Taylors tool life equation,

V Tn = C
The number of pieces produced per regrind is
44
 T 1000 v f T Time and Cost Analysis
pg = =
Tm Dl

From the tool life equation,

1
C n
T =
V
1
1
1000 f Cn 1
Thus, pg = V n
Dl

The cost per piece, Cp is given by

t D l (Ce + tc C0 ) C Dl
C p = C0 t1 + tu1 + ta + 0 + 1 n 1
+ 0
p 1000 f N
1000 f C n V n

The above equation is the basic equation with which we can derive the
optimal cutting speed and time for the conditions of minimum cost and
maximum production rate. It is applicable for single pass, single tool,
constant speed machining operations (e.g. longitudinal turning). It will
require to be modified to accommodate other situations in machining like
face turning, multi tooth cutting, etc.
Cutting Speed for Minimum Cost
Material removal cost drops with increase of speed, since the machining time is
reduced. The piece is machined very rapidly and spends less time on the machine
tool. Tool cost increases with cutting speed as the tool wears out much faster at
higher speeds, leading to more frequent replacement of the cutting edge.
Non-productive cost such as loading, unloading, gauging and rapid traverse is not
affected by spindle speed of machine and hence this cost will remain constant.
If we plot these three costs in a graph and plot the sum of these three costs we can
see that at a particular cutting speed the cost is minimum.

Figure 10.7 : Machining Cost vs Velocity

For minimum cost, the above equation could be differentiated with respect to
cutting speed V, considering the fact that all other conditions such as feed and
depth of cut could be maintained constant, we get.

45
CAPP Analysis n
C0 n
V =C
Ce + tc C0 1 n
1 1
C0 n
V n = Cn
Ce + tc C0 1 n

D l Ce + tc C0
1 (C0 V 2 ) = 0
1000 f
C n

1 2n
Cp D l (Ce + tc C0 ) 1 n n
C0 D l 2
= V V =0
V 1
n 1000 f
1000 d C n

From the tool life equation we can also obtain the minimum cost tool life as
n
C 1 n Ce 1 n
T = tc + e
n
(or) T = tc + . . . (10.25)
C0 n C0 n

It can also be shown :

C
Vc = n
. . . (10.26)
1 t
1 + T C T
n M

where Vc = Cutting speed for minimum cost metres/min.,

t = Cost of sharp tool, Rs. per sharp cutting edge,
M = Machine labour plus overhead rate Rs./min.,
TCT = Tool changing time in minutes (tc),
n = Slope of tool life vs. velocity curve as plotted in log co-ordinates,
and
C = Taylors constant for the material.
From the above expression it can be seen that tool life for minimum cost

1 t
Tc = 1 + T C T . . . (10.27)
n M

In order to arrive at a maximum production rate we take the total time for the
manufacture as

t0 T t
Time = t1 + tu1 + ta + + Tm + m c . . . (10.28)
p T

For a single pass turning job, it can be shown that

t0 Dl tc D l
Time = t1 + tu1 + ta + + + 1 1
. . . (10.29)
p 1000V f 1
1000 f Cn V n

If we now plot these times in a graph and also the sum of these, we find that total
time per piece reaches a minimum at a certain cutting speed.
46
 Time and Cost Analysis

Figure 10.8 : Machine Time Vs Velocity

For getting the maximum production rate, the above expression for manufacturing
time is to be differentiated w.r.t. cutting speed, V and equated to zero.
1 2n
Time D lV 2 tc Dl 1 n
= + n V
n =0
V 1000 f 1

1000 f Cn
Simplifying, we get
1
tc 1 n n
1 n
V =1

Cn
Simplifying, we get
n
n
V =C
tc (1 n)
tc (1 n)
T =
n
Example 10.10
A 600 mm long job of diameter 150 mm of AISI 4140 steel is to be turned with a
depth of cut of 1.5 mm and feed rate 0.25 mm/rev. The following data is applicable
for the problem :
Labour cost per hour = Rs. 12.00
Machine overhead per hour = Rs. 40.00
Grinding cost per hour = Rs. 15.00
Grinding machine overhead per hour = Rs. 50.00
Idle time = 5 minutes
Taylors tool life equation is given by
VT 0.22 = 475
The operation can be carried out using tungsten carbide tools either as brazed tools
or throwaway tools.
For brazed tools,
Initial cost = Rs. 60
Grinding time = 5 minutes/edge
Tool change time = 2 minutes
9 grinds per tool before salvage
47
CAPP Analysis For throwaway tips,
Initial cost = Rs.40
Tool change time = 1.5 minutes
Total cutting edges = 8
Find the optimum cutting speed, tool life and the cost of the operation for both the
brazed tip and the throwaway type using the criteria of minimum production cost,
and maximum production rate. Comment on the results obtained.
Data given :
n = 0.22; C = 475; r = 9
Idle time = t1 + tul + t0 = 5 minutes
Over head cost C0 = 12 + 40 = Rs. 52/hour = Rs. 0.8667/minute
Brazed Tools :
5 (15 + 50)
Tool grinding cost = = Rs. 5.417
60
60 + 5.417 9
Tool cost Ce = = Rs. 10.875
10
Tool change time, tc = 2 minutes
Minimum Cost Criterion
n
Ce n
C
Ce + tc Cn 1 n
0.22
0.8667 0.22
Optimum cutting speed, V = 475
10.875 + 20.8667 1 0.22
= 199.5 m/min
C 1 n
Optimum tool life, T = tc + e n
C0

= 51.58 minutes
DL
Machining time, Tm =
1000 f V

150 600
= = 5.669
1000 0.25 199.5

t0 tc
Total time = t1 + tu1 + t0 + + Tm T
p

2
= 5 + 5.669 1 + = 10.89 minutes
51.58

t
Cost of operation = C0 t1 + tu1 + ta + 0 + Tm (Ce + tc C0 )
p

= 0.8667 5 + 5.669 (10.875 + 2 0.8667)

= Rs. 10.63
48
Maximum Production Rate Criterion Time and Cost Analysis

n
n
Optimum cutting speed, V = C
tc (1 n)
0.22
0.22
= 475 = 308.7 m/min.
2 (1 0.22)
tc (1 n)
Optimum tool life, T =
n
2 (1 0.22)
= = 7.091 minutes
0.22
150 600
Machining time, Tm = 3.664 minutes
1000 0.25 308.7

2
Total time = 5 + 3.664 1 + = 9.697 minutes
7.091

t
Cost of operation = C0 t1 + tu1 + ta + 0 + Tm (Ce + te C0 )
p

= 08667 5 + 3.664 [(10.875 + 2 0.8667)]

= Rs. 14.02
Throwaway Tools
Tool cost, Ce = 40/8 = Rs. 5
Tool change time, tc = 1.5 minutes
Minimum Cost Criterion
0.22
0.8667 0.22
Optimum cutting speed, V = 475
5 + 1.5 0.8667 1 0.22

5 1 0.22
Optimum tool life, T = 1.5 + = 25.77 minutes
0.8667 0.22
150 600
Machining time, Tm = = 4.866 minutes
1000 0.25 232.4

1.5
Total time = 5 + 4.866 1 + = 10.149 minutes
25.77
Cost of operation = 0.8667 5 + 4.866 [(5 + 1.5 0.8667)]
= Rs. 9.74
Maximum Production Rate Criterion
0.22
0.22
Optimum cutting speed, V = 475 = 328.87 m/min.
1.5 (1 0.22)
1.5 (1 0.22)
Optimum tool life, T = = 5.318 minutes
0.22
150 600
Machine Time, Tm = = 3.439 minutes
1000 0.25 328.87
49
CAPP Analysis 1.5
Total time = 5 + 3.439 1 + = 9.409 minutes
5.318
Cost of operation = 0.8667 5 + 3.439 (5 + 1.5 0.8667) = Rs. 11.388
The above results are summarized in the following Table.
Brazed Tools Throwaway Tools
Parameters Minimum Maximum Minimum Maximum
Cost Production Rate Cost Production Rate
Cutting speed, m/min 199.5 308.7 232.4 328.87
Tool life, minutes 51.58 7.09 25.77 5.318
Machine time, minutes 5.669 3.664 4.866 3.439
Operation time, minutes 10.89 9.679 10.149 9.409
Cost, Rs. 10.63 14.02 9.74 11.388

The results are interesting to read. When the production rate is to be

maximized, the cutting speed goes up to almost the maximum value, giving
rise to a very low value for the tool life. The reverse is also true. This
happens because the earlier optimization does not have any constraints on
the variables. Hence the variables go to the extreme. However, it is
necessary to get more useful values to have the optimization be carried out
using various constraints on the variables. The following are some of the
possible constraints.
(a) The maximum cutting power available at the machine tool
spindle.
(b) The maximum cutting force permissible.
(c) The surface finish and the diametral tolerance to be achieved on
the machined surface.
(d) The limits on speed, feed and depth of cut imposed by the
machine tool and the cutting tool.
(e) Maximum permissible cutting temperature.
(f) Maximum permissible chatter.
(g) Maximum permissible workpiece static and dynamic
instability.
(h) Tool life and tool fracture.
Some of the possible constraints as mentioned above have been explained
further in terms of the possible formulation in case of turning.
Power Constraint
The power constraint assumes significance only in case of rough
machining and hence can be ignored in the case of finish machining.
The power consumed, P during a turning operation can be expressed
as :
ap b c
V f p d p kc
P= . . . (10.30)
60.1000 .
This value of cutting power should not exceed the maximum power,
Pmax available on the machine tool. In the above expression, the value
of specific cutting force is constant for a particular work material.
Hence, the expression for this constraint can be written as
ap bp cp
Cp V f d Pmax

50
 kc Time and Cost Analysis
Cp = . . . (10.31)
60.1000 .
Surface Finish Constraint
This constraint limits the maximum feed that can be used to attain the
required surface finish on the machined feature. This constraint
becomes active during finish turning. The expression for CLA value
of the geometric surface finish obtained during turning operation with
a tool of nose radius r is given as :
f2
SF = 100 . . . (10.32)
18 3 r
Based on the surface finish, SFmax specified on the turned surface, the
constraint on feed can be expressed as :
1000
Cs f 2 Fmax , Cs = . . . (10.33)
18 3 r
Maximum and Minimum Speed Constraints
Usually, these constraints are imposed by the machine tool. However,
in the case of carbide and ceramic tools, certain minimum cutting
speeds need to be maintained to avoid the failure of these cutting tools
due to BUE formation or micro-chipping. Hence, the minimum speed
constraint is determined as the larger of the values of minimum
cutting speed from machine tool and minimum cutting speed due to
cutting tool (Vmin). Thus, the speed constraint can be expressed as :
D N min D N max
max , Vmin V . . . (10.34)
1000 1000
Maximum and Minimum Feed Constraints
The maximum feed permissible for the cutting tool (ftmax) is set as per
the recommendations given by the cutting tool manufacturer. As per
these recommendations, fmax should not exceed 0.4-0.5 times the insert
corner radius for triangular inserts and 0.6 0.7 times the corner nose
radius for square inserts. The minimum feed value is set to the
smallest feed rate available on the machine tool. This constraint
checks the feed rate during finishing operation becoming too small.
Thus, the feed constraints can be expressed as :
f min f min { f max , f max } . . . (10.35)
Maximum and Minimum Depths of Cut Constraints
The maximum depth of cut constraint has relevance in roughing
operations, while the minimum depth of cut constraint should be
considered in finishing operations. The maximum limit on depth of
cut due to cutting tool (dmax) is set to half the cutting edge length for
inserts with included angles of 55o or 60o and for inserts with included
an angle of 80o 100o, dmax is set to two-thirds of the cutting edge
length. The minimum limit on depth of cut (dmin) is set to
0.5 mm for finishing operations and 1 mm on depth of pocket,
whichever is lower, for roughing operations. The depth of cut
constraints can thus be expressed as :
dmin < d < dmax . . . (10.36)
Mathematical models can be developed using these constraints and
the extended Taylors tool life equation to get more realistic and
practical results for optimized machining process parameters.
51
CAPP Analysis Example 10.11
A carbide brazed tip tool costs Rs. 200 and can be reground ten times at grinding
cost of Rs. 25 grind. The turret using the tool costs Rs. 2,00,000 and has got a
useful life of five years if run for two shifts for eight hours duration for
300 days/year. Operator Wages is Rs. 15 per hour and both machine and operator
carry overheads of 200%. Workpiece can be loaded and unloaded in 0.5 min.
The tool changing time is four minutes and tool life is 20 minutes for cutting
speed = 25 m/min. Find minimum production time and minimum production costs
possible and corresponding cutting speeds. Exponent n = 0.25. Tool travel per
Dl
workpiece K = = 40 metres .
f
Solution
Tool cost
Tool cost Ce = Grinding cost +
No. of regrinds
Ce = Rs. 25 + Rs. 200/10 = Rs. 45
O O
Overhead cost C0 = W 1 + w + DP 1 + d
100 100

200 2,00,000 200

= 15 1 + + 1 +
100 300 2 8 5 100
= 45 + 25 = Rs. 65 per hour
Tool changing time tc = 4 mins
V1 = 25 m/min; T = 20 mins
Cutting speed Voc for minimum production cost can be computed
n Mt1
Voc = V1
1 n M ts + Ce
0.25
20
1 65
= 25 60
3 65 4 + 45

60
= 15.46 metres/min
1
K Kts V n
tp = t1 + +
V Vt1 V1
1
15.46 0.25
40 4
40 25
= 0.5 + + = 3.162 mins
15.46 15.46 20
n
n T
Vot = V1
n 1 tc
0.25
0.25 20
= 25
1 0.25 4
= 28.4 m/min
52
 Minimum production time tpm Time and Cost Analysis

1
40 40 28.4 0.25
tp = 0.5 + + 4
28.4 28.4 20 25
= 0.5 + 1.408 + 0.469
tp = 2.377 mins
Thus machining time for minimum cost (3.162 mins) is about 33% higher than
machining time for maximum production (2.377 mins).
Example 10.12
A batch of 1000 Components is to be machined to 80 300 mm long at
0.25 mm/rev Feed; Cost/Cutting edge of the insert is Rs. 4, and the machine hour
rate inclusive of wages and overheads is Rs. 100/hr.
Vt0.25 = 28
V = Cutting speed (m/s)
t = Tool life in seconds
Find : (a) Tool life and Speed (m/s) for minimum production time
(b) Total production time and cost/piece; loading unloading time = 1 min;
Insert Indexing time = 30 secs
Solution
Tool life for minimum time depends upon exponent n and tool changing time ts.
1 n
tpm = ts
n
1 0.25
= 30 = 90 s
0.25
Vt0.25 = 28
28 28
V = 0.25
= = 11.97 m/s
30 2.34
= 718.2 metres/min
Vot = 718.2 metres/min
K Dl
Machining time = Tm = ; K=
V f

Dl 1
Tm = .
f V

80 300 1
= .
0.25 11.97 1000
Tm = 25.136 s
d d
Cost/Piece = C0 Tm + t1 + ts + C
N N
W have seen that
d Tm 25.14
= = ; tc = 30 s (given)
N t 90
C = Rs. 4; t1 = 60 s 53
CAPP Analysis 100
C0 = Rs. 100 hr. = = 0.02778 Rs/s
60 60
Cost/Piece (P) = 0.02778
= 2.587 + 1.117 = 3.704
= Rs. 3.70/piece.
SAQ 2
(a) Explain the need of finding the optimal process parameters for any
production process.
(b) With a neat graph explain the relation between the machining cost and the
speed.
(c) What are the various cost elements to be considered while estimating the
machining cost for a particular process?
(d) What are the various constraints that are possible in case of turning? Explain
any three of them in detail.

Exercise 1
(a) A 20 mm 150 mm diameter HSS side and face milling cutter is to be used
to cut a groove into a piece of brass with one cut. The groove is 20 mm
wide, 4 mm deep and 250 mm long. Calculate the total machining time.
Justify the assumptions made if any.
(b) A surface 115 mm wide and 250 mm long is to be rough milled with a depth
of cut of 6 mm by a 16-tooth cemented carbide face mill 150 mm in
diameter. The work material is medium hard cast iron (220-260 BHN).
Estimate the cutting time and justify the process parameters used.
(c) A hole of 25 mm diameter and 35 mm depth is to be drilled in a mild steel
component. The cutting speed can be taken as 35 m/min and the feed rate as
0.20 mm/rev. Calculate the machining time and the material removal rate.
(d) In a C 40 steel sheet of 25 mm thickness, 3 holes of 15 mm diameter are to
be drilled. The cutting speed can be taken as 30 m/min and the feed rate as
0.15 mm/rev. Calculate the machining time and the material removal rate.
(e) If the length of cutting stroke in shaping is 200 mm at an average cutting
speed of 12 m/min. The width of the job is 120 mm and the feed is
2 mm/cycle.
(f) Calculate the optimal speed and time so as to keep the cost minimum if the
overhead cost is Rs. 13 per hr. Tool is used in brazed carbide, whose initial
cost is Rs. 50, regrind cost per hr is Rs. 10 and the number of regrinds is 8.
The tool change time is 1 minute. Take n = 0.22.
(g) Free cutting steel workpieces of 200 mm long and 100 mm in diameter are
to be turned on a lathe using a feed of 0.15 mm/rev and a depth of cut of
2 mm. It is possible to use brazed and throw away type cemented carbide
tools for the operation. The overhead cost is Rs. 8 per hour, while the tool
life constants are n = 0.25 and C = 200. Compare the minimum cost and
maximum productivity times and costs with the following data.
Brazed Tools Throwaway Tools
Tool cost = Rs. 6 Tool cost = Rs. 2
54
 No. of regrinds = 10 No. of edges = 4 Time and Cost Analysis

Regrinding cost = Rs. 1

Tool change time = 3 min Tool change time = 1 min

10.10 SUMMARY
This unit discusses about certain basic activities that must be carried out in a factory to
convert raw materials into finished products. These activities broadly are Processing and
assembly operations, Material handling, Inspection and testing and Coordination and
control.
The machining times for various machining processes and the importance of it is
explained.
The machining time in turning (t) is as
L + L0
t= .
2f N

The machining time in milling T in minutes can be calculated as

( L n)
T = minutes
f ZN

L
Time for drilling the hole = minutes
fN

Depth of hole to be bored in mm

Machining Time = minutes
N feed/rev

where, N = No. of revolutions per min. of machine spindle or work.

In boring operation the machining time is calculated the same manner as in turning. It is
given by the following relation :
Depth of hole to be bored in mm
Machining Time = minutes
N feed/rev

where, N = No. of revolutions per min. of machine spindle or work.

Machining time for shaping can be calculated as below.
Shaping width B
No. of cycles required (n) = =
Feed per cycle f

Machining time = No. of cycles time required for each cycle

B L (1 + k ) LB (1 + k )
= = min.
f v1 f v1

The machining time (T) in cylindrical grinding can be calculated from the following
relationship.
55
CAPP Analysis L.P.K
T = min.
f . N .t

The total production cost of machined components is made up of the following

components : material cost, labour cost, overhead cost, tool cost and cost of percent of
the total cost. But the influence of tools on the other costs is considerable. It is often
possible that the tool cost is increased but the total production cost is reduced
considerably because of the influence of the tool on other aspects of cost.
The costs that go into machining a part can be broken into three categories as Material
removal cost, Tool cost and Non-productive cost
Total machining cost = Material removal cost + Tool cost + Non-productive cost.
The tool cost is made up of
(a) Tool change cost (TCC) or cost for indexing the insert
(b) Tool regrinding cost (TRC)
(c) Tool original cost (TOC)
(d) Tool inventory cost (TIC)
Total tool cost = TCC + TRC + TOC + TIC

56
 Time and Cost Analysis
BIBLIOGRAPHY
N. Nefedov, K. Osipov (1987), Typical Examples and Problems in Metal Cutting and
Tool Design, MIR Publishers, Moscow.
B. H. Amstead, Phillip F. Ostwald and Myronl. Begeman (1987), Manufacturing
Processes, John Wiley and Sons, New York.
F. Barbashov (1984), Milling Practice, MIR Publishers, Moscow.
Kalpakjain (1985), Manufacturing Engineering and Technology, Addison Wesley
Publishing Company, New York.
E. Paul DeGramo, J. T. Black, Ronald A. Kohser (1997), Materials and Processes in
Manufacturing, Prentice-Hall of India Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi.
Mikell P. Groover (2001), Automation, Production Systems, and Computer Integrated
Manufacturing, Pearson Education Asia.

57