INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATIONS UNIVERSITY

School of Humanities and Social Sciences

Course name

RESEARCH PROPOSAL
Research Proposal Submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements
for the Master in Development Studies

RESEARCH TOPIC:

A study on the impact of livestock farming on the Smallholder farming System:

A case of Chongwe District.

Supervisors Name: Mr Fred Mukonda

Student Name : Florence Banda
Student S.I.N : 1511102301
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This proposal was made more efficient and much more extensive through the use of available
information at Ministry of Livestock and Fisheries Headquarters and Chongwe District Council
Offices, Livestock Services Co-operative Society, Ministry of Agriculture, University of Zambia
School of Agricultural Sciences, University of Zambia Library, Central Statistics Office and
Lusaka City Council main library in town and other researches available on the internet. Thus I
gladly express my gratitude to personnel in these institutions for their support and guidance. I
further wish to single out Mr. Abraham Silwenga whose insights and input to my Research Topic
is immeasurable and appreciated, he added value to my work. I can only ask our Almighty God
to richly bless him.

Finally but not the least, this research proposal would not have been possible without the
expertise and guidance of my esteemed Supervisor, Mr. Fred Mukonda who responded quickly
to my requests than I could have hoped. I alone remain responsible for the contents of the
Research Topic including any errors or omissions which may have been made unwillingly.

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Contents
ITEM PAGE
3.9 Work Plan.Appendix A

3.10 Budget....Appendix B

Informed Consent Form.......Appendix (i)

Questionnaire.Appendix (i)

Figure 1 Chongwe Map.............10

Figure 2 Conceptual Framework..14

CHAPTER ONE ......................................................................................................................................... 4

INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY...................................................................................................... 4
1.0 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................................. 4
1.1 BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY ................................................................................................ 4
1.2 Statement of Research Problem................................................................................................ 9
1.3 RATIONALE................................................................................................................................... 10
1.4.1 General Objectives .........................................................................................................11
1.4.2 Specific Objectives ........................................................................................................11
1.5 RESEARCH QUESTIONS...................................................................................................... 12
1.6 CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK .................................................................................................. 12
CHAPTER TWO ....................................................................................................................................... 13
LITERATURE REVIEW ...................................................................................................................... 13
2.2 GLOBAL PERSPECTIVE - Smallholder Dairy Farming in Asia ....................................... 13
2.3 REGIONAL PERSPECTIVE - Smallholder Dairy Farming in Africa ................................ 15
2.4 Approach and Methods for measuring impacts of dairy cattle farming ....................... 17
2.5 Comperative Studies...21

2.6 Livestock and socio-economic development ...................................................................... 26

CHAPTER THREE................................................................................................................................... 30
3.1 Study Design ................................................................................................................................ 30

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3.1.1 Quantitative Method .................................................................................................................... 31
3.1.2 Qualitative Method ....................................................................................................................... 32
3.2 Data Collection ............................................................................................................................. 32
3.2.1 Data collection Instruments ...................................................................................................... 32
3.2.1.1 Interviews .................................................................................................................... 32
3.2.1.2 Focus group discussions ........................................................................................... 33
3.2.1.3 Questionnaire ............................................................................................................................ 33
3.3 Target Population ........................................................................................................................ 34
3.4 Study Sample ............................................................................................................................... 34
3.5 Sampling Technique ................................................................................................................... 34
3.6. Procedure ..................................................................................................................................... 35
3.6.2 Data Processing ....................................................................................................................... 35
3.7. Data Analysis............................................................................................................................... 35
3.7.1 Analysis of Quantitative Data .....................................................35
3.7.2 Analysis of Qualitative Data .......................................................................................... 36
3.8 Ethical Consideration ................................................................................................................. 37
3.11 REFERENCES ............................................................................................................................ 40

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 CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY

1.0 INTRODUCTION

This section of the proposal focuses on the background to the study; statement of the problem
purpose/rationale; objectives general specific hypothesis or research question framework
(conceptual or theoretical framework).

1.1 BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY

Livestock can be described as all domesticated animals, especially sheep, goats, cattle and pigs,
intentionally reared in an agricultural setting for food, fibre or breeding purposes (Ntshepe,
2011). Livestock systems occupy about 30 percent of the planets dry land surface area
(Steinfeld et al., 2006a). According to Nouman et al. (2014), livestock has the biggest land-use
activity globally, which is expected to double by 2020 with an annual increase of 2.7 percent in
meat production and 3.2 percent in milk production. The livestock sector in Zambia falls under
the Ministry of Fisheries and Livestock. Livestock plays an important role in the agriculture
sector and contributes an estimated 35% to the agricultural GDP in the Zambian economy, but
this contribution does not account for hides and skins, manure and animal draft power as input
into crop production and leather manufacturing sectors. If these were accounted for, probably the
contribution of livestock to agricultural GDP would rise to 45-50%. Smallholders use livestock
for the household's own consumption (meat, eggs and milk), animal draft power and to generate
cash income through sale of livestock and livestock products and as a form of savings (World
Bank, 2007). Livestock farming among the smallholder farmers have the opportunity to grow if
improved production and management practices are developed among smallholder farmers.
Livestock production in developed countries is highly efficient due to the limited availability of
resources, especially land, which are better utilized with more attention given to animal ethics,
environmental impact, product traceability and consumer satisfaction (Steinfeld, 2004).
Livestock farming plays an important role in the agricultural sector for most countries. Livestock
provide high-quality animal-source foods in conjunction with a myriad of associated economic
and social benefits to communities worldwide (Capper, 2013). Imai (2003) believes that

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livestock farming plays an important role in helping households to cope with negative shocks,
because livestock provide diversification of income sources as farmers can easily sell their
livestock to get cash.

Livestock production is the key to food security for many farmers in most developing countries,
and an increase in livestock production is invariably associated with an increase in livestock
numbers (Salem and Smith, 2008). Livestock farming has great potential to alleviate household
food insecurity and poverty in communal areas of the world, including Zambia (Musemwa et al.,
2008). Livestock may be used as a form of insurance against crop loss in poor weather (Seo et
al., 2008). Livestock production contributes to food security both directly and indirectly, and
plays a crucial role in the livelihoods of almost one billion of the worlds poorest people (Smith
et al., 2013a). Important products and by-products derived from livestock farming include meat,
milk, eggs, manure, feathers, hides and skins, fibre and wool. Keeping livestock is an important
risk-reduction strategy for vulnerable communities, and livestock are important providers of
nutrients and traction for growing crops in smallholder systems (Thornton, 2010).

Livestock also contribute to the food supply by providing manure in contributing to land
preparation, providing ready cash to buy planting materials or fertilizer, or to hire labour for
planting, weeding, or harvesting and converting low-value materials that are inedible or
unpalatable for human consumption into milk, meat and eggs. However, livestock decreases food
supply by competing with people for food, especially grains; currently livestock supply 13
percent of energy to the worlds diet but consume half of the worlds production of grain (Smith
et al., 2013b; Scholtz et al., 2013). Livestock provide major support to the livelihoods of many
rural dwellers in Africa where milk, meat and blood are important dietary components (Mariara,
2009). Livestock can also be used to deliver vital nutrients needed to supplement the nutritional
status of household members and secure their most fundamental livelihood asset and human
capital as a means of alleviating poverty (Randolph et al., 2007). According to Ser (2009),
keeping livestock is not only a pathway out of poverty for the rural poor but also a means of
spreading their risk and increasing their assets and resilience in order to cope with climate,
market and diseases shocks.

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As noted by (Ouma et al. (2004), the benefits of livestock in a livestock production system
outweigh costs when non-market parameters are considered. The rate of return on livestock
capital investment is higher than that obtainable from cash, in a form of savings that can be
invested in formal or non-formal financial institutions. These benefits of livestock keeping are of
special importance in developing countries, where financial markets function poorly and
opportunities for risk management through formal insurance are generally absent (Moll et al.,
2001).
Apart from the financial benefits derived from livestock farming, Fafchamps et al. (1998) reveal
that farmers may invest in livestock as part of a tribal custom or tradition, or use livestock as an
investment device in the absence of access to banking. Reflecting on the social importance of
livestock, they are considered a common means of demonstrating wealth, strengthening
relationships through bride price payments and for slaughter at funerals, child-naming
ceremonies or other social/religious events to honour the person or god concerned.

Livestock are also 3 used in settling local disputes, whereby fines are paid with certain numbers
of livestock (Ouma, 2003). According to Morton (2007), livestock production, especially on a
small scale, is critical for many of the poor in the developing world, often contributing to
multiple livelihood objectives and offering a pathway out of poverty through its impact on their
nutrition and health. Livestock kept or produced in smallholder farming systems are an important
component of the agricultural economy in the developing countries of the world; large numbers
of poor people currently depend and will continue to depend on this system for survival
(McDermott et al., 1999).

The small-scale livestock farmers, sometimes referred to as smallholder farmers, are mainly
categorized by the livestock numbers, land size and household inputs. Smallholder farmers in
developing countries have multiple goals for their livestock enterprises. Apart from cash
benefits, livestock are closely linked to the social and cultural lives of smallholder farmers, for
whom animal ownership ensures varying degrees of household economic stability (Lubungu et
al., 2012). Schultze et al. (2007) believe that cattle are the best instrument for finance for
smallholder farmers and that they are the best option for large and flexible cash reserves; they
also maintain the food security of the smallholder farmers by providing emergency finance. In

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South Africa, cattle production is the most important livestock sub-sector as it contributes about
2530 percent to the total agricultural output per annum. Cattle farming meet multiple objectives
such as provision of draught power, manure and cash sales, among other socio-economic
functions desired by poor farmers.

Livestock are also the main sources of meat, dairy products, fibre and manure (Musemwa et al.,
2008). According to Umrani (2000), livestock contributes to the production of organic fertilizer
and fuel; dung from livestock can be used to supply household energy. McManus et al. (2011)
observed that ambient temperature is the factor that has the largest direct effect on livestock
production. Most livestock perform at their best at temperatures between 4oC and 24oC, and the
temperature usually rises above this comfort zone in the tropics and sub-tropics. According to the
study, climate affects livestock production through its impact on pasture, forage crop quality and
production, changes in distribution of livestock diseases, disease vectors and parasites. Changes
in climate patterns have altered the patterns of disease in animals, as a result of change in the
emergence of new parasites and syndromes and the prevalence of existing diseases, putting
greater pressure on livestock production and survival (McManus et al., 2011).

Roger (2008) defines diseases in livestock as a state of disturbance of the health status of an
animal. It can be caused by any factors that alter this status. Examples of diseases include foot-
rot, gastrointestinal parasitism, and hypocalcaemia and pregnancy toxaemia. According to the
study, diseases in livestock can be specific, shared with other species, or zoonotic, i.e.
transmissible between animals and humans. Diseases left uncontrolled can reduce livestock
numbers drastically. On the other hand, Smith et al. (2013b) believe that livestock disease can
impact on food security when transmitted to humans, as these diseases may limit productivity by
hindering peoples ability to produce food themselves or work to earn income to purchase food.

According to Salem and Smith (2008), breeding is an area of concern in improving livestock
farming; however, cross-breeding of livestock to produce desirable traits for disease resistance
requires better nutrition, which is provided by a higher intake and supply of good-quality forage.
However, livestock development may imply an increase in the demand for forage crops, and this
can be detrimental to grain production, thus raising grain security concerns (Smith et al., 2013a).

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Thomas and Rangnekar (2004) further state that the available land for livestock grazing has been
reduced due to pressure for more cropping areas and infrastructural development.

Blignaut et al. (2009) believe that in Zambia, as in many other African countries, the agricultural
sector (of which livestock production is a part) plays a very important role in the national
economy. Over 70 percent of the resource-poor farmers in Zambia live in harsh agro-ecological
zones unsuitable for growing crops, and they are thereby forced to focus on livestock farming as
a means of livelihood (Mapiye et al., 2009).

The livestock sector is currently experiencing an expansion due to increasing demand for
livestock products and population growth. This expansion of livestock sectors presents both
challenges and opportunities for rural households in emerging economies. For example, Thomas
and Rangnekar (2004) reveal that livestock farming encounters negative factors such as problems
with housing and control of resources; access to credit and microfinance to purchase necessary
inputs such as feed, supplements and drugs; and readily available and relevant knowledge. A
study by the United Nations (2011) indicates that climate change is having a negative effect on
livestock production and has already led to a decline in the availability of surface-water
resources, a requirement for livestock farming. Grassland pastures will also change to shrub land
due to this decline, which will definitely have a negative impact on livestock farming.

Frequent droughts are also taking a toll on the condition and numbers of livestock, usually the
breeding herd. A localized, limited supply of water leads to overgrazing and trampling by cattle,
with a serious negative environmental impact (Marinara, 2009). This is similar to the case of
livestock production in the tropics, where lack of available feed for livestock production is said
to have resulted from overgrazing and poor-quality and reduced forage from natural veld during
the dry season (Abdulrazak et al., 1997). Munyai (2012), in a study in the Limpopo province of
South Africa, indicates that the most important constraints on livestock production are
overstocking rates, feed and herbage shortage during winter, loss of livestock due to extreme
drought, poor grazing-land management, uncontrolled breeding, stock theft and snares.

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1.2 Statement of Research Problem

Livestock farming has great potential to alleviate household food insecurity and poverty in most
of the worlds communities. The role that smallholder livestock farmers play in livestock
production is a very crucial one. According to Smith et al. (2013b), smallholder livestock
keepers rely mostly on food that is not available to people (grass, fodder, residues and waste) to
feed their livestock. In this way they reduce the threat posed by livestock to food security. This
Sector is one of the key economic sectors with huge potential to contribute towards wealth
creation and economic development of the country and living standards as crop production
dwindles due differences in weather patterns. It is a known fact in Zambia today that the crop
farming sector has become a challenge as the rains during farming season are unpredictable
posing problems for smallholder farmers in crop farming. The poor rains experienced in most
parts of the country and changes in weather patterns results in failure by farmers to have higher
production yields hence the need to diversify and intensify efforts into livestock farming.

Furthermore, the development of the livestock sector in Zambia has been stifled by a number of
barriers, including and not limited to the following ; diseases, nutritional stress in terms of
quality and quantity, compromised extension delivery system, inadequate animal husbandry
practices by farmers, inadequate livestock marketing infrastructure and livestock policies. The
other reasons cited in the literature are that some Smallholder farmers still keep livestock for
prestige purposes and not as a source of income generation for economic empowerment,
remoteness of livestock producers from the main urban market centres, and poor road
infrastructure that result in high transport costs. It is important to enhance livestock production
output and productivity by addressing the challenges in a more effective and efficient manner.

The dairy farming programmes have been initiated in Chongwe District and particularly Kasisi
Agricultural Training Centre where they have got a project running for small scale farmers. The
training involves the use of sustainable farming methods which promotes mixed farming
involving dairy farming, agroforestry, organic vegetable growing and food processing.

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Conversely, small scale dairying is important in reducing income poverty, improving food
security and household assets. Dairy farming among the rural communities like the one in
Chongwe is one thing, understanding the impacts of such intervention on income poverty, food
security and household assets is another thing completely different, and in the view of this study
its more fundamental to this study. It involves clarifying the socio economic impact of the
programme to the target group involved. There is therefore, a need to study the socio-economic
impact of smallholder dairy on the communities of Kanakantapa, Chikhuli, Lwiimba, Nakatindi
and Chalimbana. Consequently, this study is basically designed to assess the impact of dairy
cattle farming on households socio-economic status in terms of household income, household
food security and household assets owned. This will effectively contribute to the knowledge gap
in the country regarding why poverty remains high even among households owning dairy
livestock.

1.3 RATIONALE

The livestock sector can be a major contributor to the gross domestic product (GDP) and a
pathway out of poverty. Prominence in the sector has been given to the crop subsector over the
livestock sub-sector which is equally of key economic importance with huge potential to
contribute towards wealth creation and economic development of the country. For the purpose
of this study will analyse the direct financial benefits. The livestock play many roles for
smallholder farmers as it provides food, manure, traction, a savings mechanism, and social
status. Despite its huge potential for growth, the livestock sector in Zambia continues to face a
number of challenges and production output of the sector remains very low

The rationale of this study is that in a country like Zambia that is now struggling to rebuild its
economy, there is need to concentrate efforts to diversify the economic base with agricultural
production, especially smallholder livestock dairy. This could be achieved by ensuring that all
major components to Livestock production such as access to land, improved production, disease
control and marketing are looked into. Livestock farming among the smallholder farmers have
the opportunity to grow if improved production and management practices are developed among
smallholder farmers.

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Many programs/schemes and projects for promotion of smallholder dairy production in the
country have been done for years, with the aim of increasing income, improvement of nutritional
status and living conditions of rural households. The socio-economic information resulting from
this study will help different stakeholders in the smallholder dairy development such as planners
and donors who want to establish new smallholder dairy projects. Information from this study
can also help to streamline/up-scaling the already established smallholder dairy development
programmes/schemes/projects in the country.

1.4 RESEARCH OBJECTIVES

1.4.1 General Objectives

To investigate the impact of livestock farming on the Smallholder farming System with focus on
Chongwe District.

1.4.2 Specific Objectives

The specific objectives of this study will be:

1. To determine the influence of livestock farming on the food security of the smallholder
farmers in Chongwe District.
2. To investigate the influence of livestock farming on the production output of the
smallholder farmers in Chongwe District.
3. To determine the influence of livestock farming on the socioeconomic status of the
smallholder farmers in Chongwe District.

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 1.5 RESEARCH QUESTIONS

1 What is the influence of livestock farming on the food security of the smallholder farmers
in Chongwe District?

2 What is the influence of livestock farming on the production output of the smallholder
farmers in Chongwe district?

3 What is the influence of livestock farming on the socioeconomic status of the smallholder
farmers in Chongwe district?

1.6 CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK

Fig 2. Conceptual Framework

Increase of Farmer's Production Output

Livestock Farming

Increase of Farmer's Food Security

Increase of Farmer's Socioeconomic Status

Source: Adapted by Author

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 CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 An Overview of Smallholder Dairy Production

Smallholder dairying is a method of milk production in which small holder farmers keep a small
numbers of cows herded near the farm or fed the cut-and- carry grass, crop byproducts and
milked for family use or local sale (Mathewman, 1993). Farmers usually own a few cows to
complement crop farming; they use milk and derive income from sale of milk, male calves or
fattened steers. Moussa (1995) categorized dairy cattle keeping as follows: small scale (10-19
dairy cattle); medium scale (20-99 dairy cattle); and large scale (more than 100 dairy cattle). On
the other hand, Chantalakhana and Skunmun (2002) categorized dairy farms as: smallholder (up
to 20 milking cows plus replacement heifers), semi- commercial (20-50 milking cows plus
replacement heifers) and commercial (more than 50 milking cows plus replacement heifers).
Therefore, it appears there is no uniform definition of smallholder dairy farming. The criteria for
success of this system includes the provision of guaranteed price for milk for the producer, the
lack of competition for the use of land between crop production and feed production for milk
cows; an adequate infrastructure to allow collection and transport of milk; good extension and
back up advisory services (Mathewman, 1993).

Dairy cattle production makes an important contribution to economic development, rural

livelihoods, poverty alleviation and meeting the fast growing demands for animal protein in
developing countries. The case for promoting increased dairy cattle production is pressing given
the rapidly growing demand for animal products, and the global aim to half, by 2015, the
proportion of the world population living in abject poverty, most of whom are dependent in part,
on food and income derived from dairy cattle production (Mathewman, 1993).

2.2 GLOBAL PERSPECTIVE - Smallholder Dairy Farming in Asia

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In the countries of the South East Asia Region, dairying is practiced by tens of millions of dairy
operators - smallholders, traders and dairy entrepreneurs, small and large. With production gains
over the last decade double that of global averages, it is estimated that 80 percent of the regions
total annual milk production of 240 billion litres is supplied by smallholders with 1-5 cows
(Chantalakhana and Skunmun, 2002).

Rae (2008) states that in China, the revolution in the livestock sector resulted from rapid
economic growth and development. He further states that backyard and part-time farming are the
most common types of livestock farming in China, and that smallholder livestock farmers make
up about 99 per cent of all the livestock operations, producing most of the livestock products in
the country. Ali (2006) adds that the growth of the livestock sector in China has been increasing
consistently when compared to the growth in the crop sector. The sector contributes about 25 per
cent to the gross value of agricultural output, with great potential to provide nutritional security
in terms of calories, protein and fats.

The smallholder dairying has become a good income-earning occupation for crop farmers in
mixed farming systems. This is evident in Thailand, Malaysia and Indonesia where crop farmers
turned to small-scale dairying and were able to make enough income and savings to give their
children a college education. With further improvement in productivity and reduction in
production costs, Chantalakhana and Skunmun (2002) believe that smallholder dairying in these
countries can become a very sound and sustainable enterprise.

Smallholder dairy farming is an important part of farming throughout the developing world
(Mchau, 1991). Dairying represents one of the fastest returns for livestock keepers in the
developing world. More importantly, smallholder dairying provides a regular source of income
and spreads income risk, whereas income from agriculture is seasonal. In countries like India
livestock development, in general, and dairy development in particular, are considered key
components of pro-poor development strategies. This is mainly because livestock distribution is
much more equitable than land distribution.

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2.3 REGIONAL PERSPECTIVE - Smallholder Dairy Farming in Africa

World milk production from cattle is estimated at 502 325 000 metric tons per year (FAO, 2003),
with an average cow producing 5307 litres per lactation for top producing cows in the European
Union (Morgan, 1999). Africa carries 16% of the world dairy livestock but produces less than
4% of global milk production (Morgan, 1999) with an average cow producing only 454 litres/
year. According to FAO (2003), Africa is estimated to produce 20 643 000 metric tons of milk
annually. Considering ideal lactation yield of 305 days it gives an average of 1.5 litres/cow/day
in Africa compared to 17.4 litres/cow/day in Europe.

The smallholder dairy sector is a major pillar in the socio-economic standing of sub- Saharan
Africa (SSA); functioning both food security and income generation roles, particularly at
household level. In general, dairy cattle farming sub sector remains the key player among the
livestock sector, accounting for 80% in the milk industry (De Leeuw et al., 1999). In Malawi, it
was observed that even the poorest families have the opportunity to undertake dairy farming
through the heifer loan project administered by Shire Highlands Milk Processors Association
(SHMPA), an umbrella group currently funded by European Union (E.U) (Anne, 2008).

In Kenya, according to Muriuki et al. (2001), the country has the largest dairy sub-sector in
eastern and southern Africa making available annually an estimated 85-90 litres of liquid milk
equivalent per capita based primarily upon well-established market-oriented smallholder dairy
systems. In addition dairying plays a crucial role in sustaining smallholder crop-dairy systems
through its contributions to nutrient cycling. It is this smallholder crop-dairy systems, generally
based on the cropping of the staple food, maize, that dominate marketed dairy production and
underpin the competitiveness of smallholder dairying in Kenya. These beneficial outcomes of
crop and dairy interactions have their basis in the production objectives of smallholders when
keeping dairy cattle. Farmers responses reported in the SDP (Smallholder Dairy Programme)
characterization surveys have shown that even in these commercially-oriented systems, the
primary objective of smallholders adopting dairying is to produce milk for home (household)
consumption, followed closely by the objective ranked second, milk produced sale to generate
income (Bebe et al., 2001b).

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Cow milk is an important protein source which is universally accepted and consumed by
majority of the Worlds population wherever cattle are raised; the usage of milk from sheep,
goat, camel and other less well known animals varies from one community to another within the
same country, region, or even district depending on cultural habits and preferences.
Recommended milk consumption for the world stands at 105kg/capita/year and milk
consumption in Tanzania is estimated at 25kg/capita/year (URT, 2002). Kurwijila (2002a)
reported that milk consumption has risen faster in urban and peri-urban areas of Tanzania than in
rural areas because of the growth in peri-urban dairy herds and the increased availability of milk
and dairy products for urban consumers.

The livestock sector in Tanzania is dominated by smallholder farmers who constitute 99% of
national stock (Mlozi et al., 1989). The livestock sector in the country employs 10% of the total
population and it is the most important source of protein (Massae, 1993). Smallholder dairy
farmers dominates dairy sector in the country. Smallholder dairy farming in the country is
characterized by low productivity. This situation is partly attributed to lack of capital and uses of
poor farming technologies by smallholder dairy farmers, drought, and lack of market for the
produce (Mwankemwa, 2004). Lack of capital by smallholder dairy farmers is linked to
inaccessibility to formal credit institutions due to lack of collaterals by majority of smallholder
farmers. In addressing the problem of lack of capital by smallholder dairy farmers, the
government of Tanzania has been encouraging the Heifer in-Trust (HIT) credit schemes for the
case of dairy cattle farming ( Mwakalile et al., 2002; Mwankemwa 2004; Kyomo et al., 2006). In
HIT credit schemes some farmers are trained on dairy cattle management and thereafter are
provided with one to two crossbred dairy cows (crossbred in calf heifer) for management under
stall-feeding regime. Upon calving of the cows a farmer is supposed to pass on an equivalent
animal from the off springs to another farmer as a repayment for the credit. These HIT credit
schemes have helped many poor farmers in the country who do not have capital to buy dairy
cattle to possess them.

In general, as with other agricultural development projects in Tanzania the main aim of the HIT
schemes was to improve welfare of smallholder farmers. In recognition of this central role of

16
smallholder dairy farmers in the development of dairy industry in Tanzania, the government,
with assistance of bilateral donor agencies, supported a number of smallholder dairy
development programmes in the country, including: The Smallholder Dairy Development
Programme (SDDP) in Iringa and Mbeya (Swiss government assistance); The
Arusha/Kilimanjaro Dairy Extension project (FAO/UNDP assistance); The Heifer Project
International (HPI) Heifer-In Trust Schemes (Massae, 1993). The merits of this sub- sector are
that dairy production is more efficient and is better exploited, due to generally better animal
husbandry practices followed by smallholders (Kurwijila, 1991).

Smallholder dairy farming is an important part of the household economy of some parts of
Tanzania, particulary where land is a limiting factor for agriculture (Mdoe and Nyange, 1993).
Smallholder dairy farming gained popularity after the 1983 Livestock Policy and the National
Livestock Development Programme. Most farmers in this sector own between 1-10 dairy cows
(Massae, 1993). The size of the farmers holding is usually the major constraint to increase herd
size. Approximately 60% of all dairy cattle in the country are owned by smallholders and most
of these are found on the slopes of Mount Kilimanjaro (Kilimanjaro region), Mount Meru
(Arusha region), Southern Highlands (Iringa and Mbeya regions), Tanga and around Lake
Victoria regions. The dairy cattle kept are from improved breeds, which include Friesian,
Ayrshire, Jersey, Guernsey and their crosses or crosses with Zebu cattle (Massae, 1993).
Furthermore, it has been shown that in households with improved cattle, the per capita milk
consumption was more than twice the national average and that considerable amounts of surplus
milk were sold to supplement farm income (Lerenius and Skarback, 1987).

2.4 Approach and Methods for measuring impacts of dairy cattle farming

2.4.1 Definition of Impact, income, food security and assets

Impact
According to FAO (2000) impact refers to the broad, long- term economic, social and
environmental effects resulting from an intervention. Furthermore, impacts assess the process of
identifying the actual impacts of a development intervention on those social, economic and
environmental factors which the intervention is designed to affect.
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Income
The word income has been defined by several authors in various ways. According to Barr
(2004), households and individuals income is the sum of all the wages, salaries, profits,
interests payments, rents and other forms of earnings received in a given period of time. On the
other hand household income has been understood as consisting of all receipts whether monetary
or in kind of goods and services that are received by the household or by individual members of
the household at annual or more frequent intervals, but excludes windfall gains and other such as
irregular and typically one time receipts, Case and Fair (2007). In the context of this study the
word income is defined as total amount of money which a household head get from selling of
milk, livestock and crop produce; and also money obtained from small businesses and wage
employment.

Food security
Food security is a complex field of study developed within the disciplines of food sciences,
nutrition and economics. It is a multi-disciplinary cross-sector concept which combines natural
and social sciences in one integrated approach (Makundi et al., 2001). Food security is defined as
a situation when all people, at all time, have physical, social and economic access to sufficient,
safe and nutritious food which meet the dietary needs and food preferences for an active and
health life (FAO, 2003). It is further argued that food security is mostly concerned with food
supply, usually in the form of grain stock and is being applied at regional or district level
(opacity). This definition is also supported by World Bank (2003) which defines food security as
the access by all people at all times to enough food for an active and health life.

2.4.2 Household food security indicators

According to Frank et al. (1999), in most analysis of food security conditions in developing
countries, multiple indicators are used to reflect the various dimensions of the problem. Some of
the most commonly used types of indicators in the assessment of food security conditions
include those related to: (1) Food production (2) Income (3) Total expenditure (4) Food
expenditure (5) Share of expenditure on food (6) Calorie consumption and (7) Nutritional status.
2.4.3 Subsistence potential ratio

18
This is the ratio of the households ability to feed itself to its need to feed itself (Whelan, 1983).
The data needed for calculating this ratio are size of the farm, expected yield, and age and sex
composition of household. The subsistence potential ratio compares the amount of food
(calculated in energy) which a household can produce over a year with the energy requirements
of the entire household for the year (Frankenberger, 1985). This ratio works best in communities
that produce most of their own food.

A similar indicator used in Tanzania is the household food security card (Wagara, 1991). The
card is mainly an assessment curve that corresponds to individual household food balance,
calculated on a monthly basis. From the month of harvest, the food available for the main crop
(maize) is compared to the household food requirement. Each household is then classified as
good, average, or poor. This is used as tool by extension personnel for nutrition programming
and evaluation. Food adequacy reflects both quantity and quality of the food that is enough to
meet daily requirements by providing all essential nutrients for all members of the household or
society.
2.4.4 Assets
Chimilila (2005) defined an asset as any item having economic value that is owned by institution
or individual. Furthermore reported that, assets are most commonly grouped into current assets
(items like cash, inventory, and accounts receivable that are currently cash or expected to be
turned into cash; fixed assets (items like land, buildings, and equipment); and intangibles (items
like copyrights, trademarks, brand names, and other intellectual property which are not physical).
Chimilila (op.cit) argued that, assets that people pursue depend heavily on the resources they can
access (by owning the resource, borrowing or renting it) and use. All these forms of assets in one
way or another can be acquired through dairy cattle keeping.
2.4.5 Classification of household assets
According to Household Budget Survey (HBS, 2007), household assets are classified into two
classes, namely, consumer durables and productive assets.

Consumer durables; Many of these are of typical household items in nature, such as radio
receiver, chairs, beds and mattresses, household utensils such as pots, saucepans and many more
of that kind.

19
Productive assets; many of these assets are of an agricultural nature, such as land, ox plough,
ox-carts, bicycles, livestock and poultry , sewing machines and many much more of that kind.
Level of asset ownership among rural households is striking. Within rural areas, only 10% of
households own a plough, and 41% of rural households own livestock other than poultry.

2.5 COMPERATIVE STUDIES

2.5.1 Impact of dairy production on household income

In many parts of Africa the dairy sector has been identified for its potential to increase the
income generating productivity of smallholders assets (Walshe et al., 1991; Staal et al., 1997;
Thorpe et al., 2000). The SDP (Smallholder Dairy Project) research findings show that
smallholder milk production in Kenya is a key driver of rural income and employment. In
Kiambu, Nakuru and Nyandarua, people are able to make good profits from dairying, whether
they are stall-feeding a cow or two on a small piece of land or grazing their cows in paddocks. In
all systems, farmers on average are able, after costs, to make about twice as much income from
milk production than from other farm enterprises or rural labour (as high as 244% of the income
from alternative wage labour in Nyandarua). And this doesnt include the additional benefits
dairy cattle provide farmers by insuring them against financial emergencies, serving as inflation-
proof savings, and producing the manure that sustains their smallholder cropping.

The research has also shown that half the dairy farmers in many areas hire fulltime dairy
workers. Thus, dairy is a key driving force for sustainable rural incomes and on-farm
employment. In Rwanda, according to Rutamu (2004), it is understood that by increasing
numbers of dairy cattle in rural settings, there are significant direct contributions at household
level of dairy producing households such as; access to high quality nutrients improved
nutritional status of the children, employment of family members, regular incomes for long
periods, manure for crops and improved soil fertility and income funds for education and health
expenses. It is easy to identify the difference in living standards of the household with one or two
dairy cows compared to those without. Two physical features that are observable are the good

20
health of the children and healthy banana plants near the cattle shed. Most of farmers use manure
for fertilizing tomato gardens which produce further income to the household.

The vast majorities of the poor and malnourished in Rwanda live in rural areas and depend on
crop and dairy cattle farming for income. Malnutrition here is pervasive among women and pre-
school children. A glass of milk every day can make a great difference. In short, dairy supports
food security first and extra income next.

2.5.2 Impact of dairy cattle production on household food security and nutrition
Dairying represents one of the fastest returns for livestock keepers in the developing world. It
enhances household nutrition and food security, fulfills important cultural and social functions as
well as creating off-farm employment as many as one job for each 10 to 20 litres per day of
milk processed and marketed (FAO/ ILRI, 2003). Small scale dairying is an important
agricultural activity in many parts of the developing world, producing a valuable food products
and providing a regular income and work for poor households (de Haan et al., 2003). Milk is
natures most complete food. Furthermore, dairying represents one of the fastest returns for
livestock keepers in the developing world. It provides regular returns to farmers, especially to
women, enhances household nutrition and food security and creates off-farm employment, as
many as one job for each 20kg milk processed and marketed.

According to Sansoucy et al. (1995) livestock production gives increased economic stability to
farm households. Small ruminants serve in part as a cash buffer and large animals as capital
reserve and a hedge against inflation. In mixed farming systems, livestock can also serve as a
form of insurance against the risk associated with crop failures by providing alternative sources
of food and income. In addition, the frequent cash flow from the sale of milk and eggs adds to
household economic stability by increasing the purchasing power of livestock owners and has
been noted as an important determinant of food security. Animal products are also good source
of absorbable forms of iron, zinc, vitamin B retinal and many more other minerals highly
essential for child growth (ILRI, 2003).

21
According to Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO, 1996), livestock play an important role
in food security by helping to alleviate seasonal food availability in many different ways. For
example, liquid milk whose production is seasonally processed during periods of surplus into
products such as butter, curd, milk powder and cheese can be used throughout the year.
Similarly, meat can be processed into various products such as dried, cured or smoked meat that
can be used when other food sources are scarce. In a household, milk and other dairy products
including manure, meat and live animals can be sold and the income obtained be used to
purchase food and other household items.

Increase in the ability to purchase food and consumption of milk at household level would
improve the malnutrition that is contributed by lack of access to adequate calories, protein,
vitamins and minerals. Similary, Mwakalobo and Shively (2001) noted that increase in income
increases the ability to purchase food for the family to curb the food insecurity situation in more
than 40% of the poor families in the tropics.

Smallholder dairy cattle production is regarded as one of the best means of providing resource
poor farmers with regular income to pay for childrens education and other family necessities
such as food and health services. However, achieving food security through dairy production
depends on good policies. Notable policies and strategies implemented included breeding
policies, input supply, and supportive services to smallholder producers, dairy commodity aid
programme and investment in large-scale parastatal dairy farming (Mdoe and Temu, 1994).
Smallholder dairy sector contributes significantly to poverty and malnutrition reduction
particularly in rural and peri-urban areas. It provides regular income to household, self-
employment, particularly to women and valuable human food (Mdoe and Temu, op.cit). Dairy
cattle production can be important in achieving food security in three ways:
Directly through increased food production that adds directly to household nutrition,
Indirectly through increased cash income that can be used to purchase foods of plant
origin, as well as other household items and
Through generation of employment.

2.5.3 Dairy cattle farming and malnutrition problems

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Malnutrition is a multifaceted problem particularly in early childhood. Any nutritional
deficiencies experienced during this critical period could lead to growth retardation and other
adverse effects in future. In many rural areas, most nutrition problems stem from food insecurity,
poor complementary feeding practices and poverty. Improved dairy production is likely to
enhance access to food by households or individuals thereby reducing the incidences of
malnutrition problems.

A number of studies have shown significant positive effects emerging from the consumption of
milk on childrens nutritional status in developing countries. For example, Siereg et al. (1992)
found that in urban Nicaragua, non-breast feeding children between the ages of 2.5 to 5 years
who drank cows milk were less than half likely to be stunted compared to non-breast feeding
children of the same age who did not drink milk. Odhiambo et al. (2004) examined the impact of
dairy production on the nutritional status of preschool children aged between 24 59 months
.They assessed the nutritional status by taking height, weight and age of the children and
compared it with the height and weight of well-fed children of the same age using the
WHO/NCHS growth reference standards. The study revealed that 44.7% of the preschool
children were stunted, while 10.4% were wasted and 27% were under weight. Stunting was more
prevalent (37.2%) among children from households whose main enterprise was sugarcane
farming. Analysis of the income and expenditure patterns indicated that men, who did not
consider food as a main expenditure priority, controlled income from this enterprise. On the
other hand, children from the dairy keeping households including those that farmed sugarcane as
well were better off in terms of food security and nutrition as they had regular income.

According to Odhiambo et al. (2004) stunting in this Kenyan community may be due to poor
households access to food leading to inadequate dietary intake by pre-school children. It was
apparent that consumption of milk resulting from the dairy programmes promoted in the area,
contributed to the improved nutritional status of young children. Dairy production is clearly a
positive activity in food security program (Odhiambo et al., 2004).

23
In a study conducted by Vosti and Witcover (1992) in rural coast of Ecuador, access to food
market as measured by per capita food expenditure and ownership of livestock , mostly cows,
showed the strongest correlation with childrens nutritional status (H/A,W/A and mid-arm
circumference measures). Children from farm households owning livestock were found to be less
likely to be growth retarded compared to children of farmers not owning livestock. Analysis of
data from Zona Da Mata, Minas Gerais, Brazil, showed that children from households keeping
livestock tended to be healthier in according to all three nutrition anthropometric measures
(W/A, H/A and W/H) due to income accruing from livestock products (Vosti and Witcover,
1992).

Findings from the study undertaken by Odhiambo et al. (2004) showed that animal protein intake
by children from Kenya was positively and significantly associated with height for age and
weight for age. A similar pattern was also reported in Mexico. Controlling for morbidity,
maternal education and nutritional knowledge, and socio-economic status, higher consumption of
foods of animal origin (as percent of energy or protein intakes) was associated with children
being heavier and taller at 30 months in India (Alleyne et al. 1989). In India, children consuming
foods of animal origin were found to be less likely to suffer from malnutrition compared to
children on vegetarian diets (Alleyne et al., op.cit).

The addition of cows milk to the diet of children after weaning can increase linear growth and
reduce stunting in populations with low milk intake. In a study conducted by Vaughan et al.
(1989) in Khartoum Province of Sudan, children aged 6-26 months given fortnightly home
supplement dry skimmed milk or local beans as home food supplement, were found to have
increased linear growth and reduced stunting. Bowonder et al. (1985) in their study at India on
impact of dairy development programmes, examined whether dairy development has any
positive influence on economic and nutritional benefits. Conclusions from that study were that,
food intake per capita was 25.7kg per household in dairy producing villages and 18.5 kg for
households in non-dairy producing villages, suggesting that dairy development helped the
landless population to stabilize its nutritional intake. Consumption of milk and milk products was
substantially higher in households with dairy cattle development programmes than in households
without dairy cattle development programmes.

24
Findings from a study undertaken by Kisusu et al. (2002) showed that dairy production increased
food security in Mvumi area, Dodoma Tanzania in two ways; First, increased consumption of
milk by dairy producing households had improved the nutritional quality of food eaten by
members of the households. In other words, there was increased access to nutritious food items
by the people keeping dairy cattle, which consequently led to improvement in health.
Furthermore, the findings indicate that the benefits in terms of improved nutritional status of the
poor households also extended to non-dairy keeping households who purchased the surplus milk.
Second, the additional and reliable income from sale of milk increased purchasing power of the
people involved in the dairy production. The earned income from dairy products enabled
purchase of cereal grains such as maize during grain scarcity periods. Mdoe and Temu (1994)
found out that improved smallholder dairy cattle production contribute to food security through
increased consumption of home produced milk and income from sale of milk.

2.5.4 Impact of dairy production on household assets

Household income, current value of durable assets and food security status of a household are
among the measures of household welfare (Mwankemwa, 2004). In their study in southern
highlands of Tanzania Bayer and Kapunda (2006) observed that income from milk sales helped
some smallholder families acquire additional land, improve their houses (and cattle sheds),
finance small-scale businesses, send their children to secondary school, and expand the dairy
business. As an asset, livestock can be liquidated at a time of great need to stabilize food
production and consumption. Livestock provide multi-purpose uses such as skin, fibre, manure,
draught power, fuel and capital accumulation (ILRI, 2003). The distribution of assets in an
economy is a major factor in the determination of income distribution and therefore purchasing
power. In rural areas, land is the dominant asset. Land is the principal source of income and
consumption, of status, wealth and security. Most rural households with access to land have the
ability to produce at least some of their own food requirements.

It is reported (URT, 2003b) that, assets provide people with opportunities and options in the face
of impoverished forces. Thus, being asset poor limits peoples capacity to improve and safeguard

25
their wellbeing. However, Rutasitara (2002) argued that wealth symbolizes peace and prestige, a
sign that the owner is well-off at least by the standards of his community and wealth in form of
assets, land, and capital is in addition a source for further wealth. Three forms of wealth are used
to describe the poverty profile namely; land, livestock and ownership of simple consumer
durables. Likewise, Kamuzora (2001) supported that, possessions of assets reflect income levels.

2.6 Livestock and socio-economic development

Livestock is globally the mainstay of the agricultural community. It provides 50 per cent of the
value of agricultural output globally and one-third of the value in developing countries (Nouman
et al., 2014). In many African countries as well as in South Africa, many rural households earn a
living from livestock farming and consider keeping livestock as a store of wealth (Mandleni and
Anim, 2012). Livestock makes a multifaceted contribution to the social and economic
development of the rural masses. However, livestock farming is an important component of the
agricultural economy, especially in most developing countries (McDermott et al., 1999). Several
factors have contributed both positively and negatively to changes in livestock numbers. Some of
these factors are economic growth and increased incomes (Steinfeld et al., 2006a); increase in
demand for livestock products arising from rapid growth in human population and urbanization
(Delgado et al., 1999; Thornton, 2010); developments in breeding, nutrition and animal health
(Thornton, 2010); rapid technology invasion (Nouman et al., 2014; Rae, 2008); changing food
preferences (FAO, 2009); changes in climatic conditions (Mandleni, 2011) and genetic
improvements (Adkinson and Adkinson, 2013). Mwangi (2013) adds that socio-economic and
environmental factors such as population growth, urbanization and economic development,
changing livestock market demands, impacts of climate variability and science and technology
trends have contributed to the changes in livestock numbers. According to Ilea (2009), global
livestock production is expected to double by 2050, growing faster than any other agricultural
sub-sector.

Over the last six decades, livestock production has increased substantially across the globe; this
increase in production has been driven mostly by animal science and technology, as well as by
scientific and technological development in the areas of breeding, nutrition and animal health.
People who live in highly industrialized countries derive more than 40 per cent of their dietary

26
protein intake from livestock (Steinfield et al., 2006a). It is projected that people who live in the
rapidly emerging economies and developing countries will demand better animal-based foods in
the future (Smith et al., 2013a). Thornton (2010) is of the opinion that the future demand for
livestock products, especially in developed countries, could be heavily moderated by socio-
economic factors such as human health and changing socio-cultural competition between food
and feed production for land use. Increasing industrialization of livestock production may also
lead to increasing concerns about air and water pollution.

Considering the importance of livestock systems for food security, and their potential to impact
on poverty, livelihood, health and nutrition as well as the environment, the livestock sector still
receives limited attention in the global agriculture and food debate. According to Smith et al.
(2013b), livestock production is an indispensable part of the solution to global food security; a
reasonable amount of the worlds food supply comes from systems of which livestock are an
important part. Livestock production is an important contributor to sustainable food security for
many nations, particularly in low-income areas, and marginal habitats that are not suitable for
crop production (Godber and Wall, 2014). Warburton et al. (2011) state that smallholder farmers
and livestock keepers are at the heart of world food production, producing more than half of the
worlds food; they feed an estimated 70 per cent of the global population and cultivate most of
the worlds varieties of food crops and livestock.

The livestock sector accounts for over 40 per cent of the global GDP and one-third of the global
protein requirement; it forms a component of the livelihoods of about 70 per cent of the worlds
more than one billion rural poor, who survive on less than US $1.25 per day (LID, 1999; UN,
2009). Livestock systems are a significant global asset, occupying 45 per cent of the earths
surface. Livestock contribute about 17 per cent of the food energy and about 33 per cent of the
protein we consume (Ser, 2009). The economic importance of livestock production to
agriculture and economic development as a whole cannot therefore be overemphasized.
Livestock production accounts for 90 per cent of the agricultural GDP in Mongolia and 80 per
cent in Sudan (FAO, 2009). According to Papa Christoforou and Markou (2006), livestock
production in Cyprus accounts for about 42 per cent of the value of total agricultural production.
He notes that the increase in livestock production was as a result of the gradual transformation
from low to high input production systems, which came about in an effort to improve

27
productivity to meet increasing demand, reduce production risk associated with frequent
droughts, decrease pressure on the environment from overgrazing and lower production costs. In
the US, the livestock sector has developed and intensified according to strict production systems
that emphasize efficiency rather than cultural, social, economic and environmental aspects. As a
result this has posed sustainability problems that are difficult to resolve (Hinrich and Welsh,
2003).

Nouman et al. (2014) reveal that livestock production in Pakistan has increased contributing to
the growth of the agricultural economy. The livestock sector contributes significantly to the
health and economy of the rural communities and the whole nation of Pakistan; the sector makes
an important contribution to the GDP and overall export earnings of the nation. According to
Umrani (2000), the livestock sector of Pakistan contributed 9 per cent to the GDP, 37 per cent to
the agricultural sector and formed about 5.3 per cent of the overall export earnings of the country
in 1998. Livestock was also responsible for the supply of 16 per cent of total household energy in
the form of dung. Apart from the contribution of livestock to Pakistans national economy,
Umrani (2000) also states that the majority of livestock belong to landless or small farmers who
keep livestock under the extensive farming system. According to UzmaAmbreen et al. (2013),
most of the natural exports of Pakistan come from the livestock sector; however, demand for
livestock products is increasing as a result of population growth, economic development and
urbanization. The study further state that livestock provide security against crop failure for the
majority of the rural poor in the country.

Wilson (2007) reveals that the livestock sector contributes about 16 per cent of the GDP of the
Laos Peoples Democratic Republic; about 90 per cent of all households in the country keep one
or more species of livestock on a low-input system, which accounts for low levels of production
in the country; while in India the livestock population occupies one-third of Asias agricultural
land area (Chhabra et al., 2013). According to Meena and Singh (2013), Indias livestock sector
has grown at an annual rate of 7 per cent, which is more than double the growth of the
agriculture sector. Meena and Singh further state that the livestock sector plays a multi-faceted
role in the socio-economic development of rural households, and contributes about 4.2 per cent
to the GDP and 25.6 per cent to the agricultural GDP in the country. Kumar et al. (2007) reveal
that livestock is the prime source of livelihood for about 85 per cent of the rural population in the

28
north-eastern region of India, as dependence on livestock as an alternative source of income is
very significant for the majority of the rural population. According to the study, several factors
such as availability of labour, occupation, farm size, availability of irrigation and access to
information sources determine a households decision to rear livestock.

For the majority of the rural households that depend heavily on agriculture as a major source of
livelihood in sub-Saharan Africa, livestock (especially cattle production) play an important role
in agricultural development as well as in the economic and socio-cultural traditions of the people
(Ngigi, 2005). According to Cardoso (2012), livestock production and performance has
decreased within the last three decades in sub-Saharan Africa; production has failed to keep up
with the increasing population; low productivity has been attributed to economic and
environmental consequences; and upgrading livestock management skills in the region has
become necessary in order to bring about substantial increases in livestock yield for human
consumption. Livestock farming is mainly the primary source of livelihood for most of
Namibias population. About 75 per cent of the land area is used for extensive livestock
ranching; however, most of the marketed livestock in the country are produced by the
commercial sector, with very little marketed livestock originating from the communal sector
(Lange et al., 1998). In Botswana, Barnes (2008) notes that livestock, especially extensive cattle-
keeping on natural rangeland, dominates the agricultural sector. Most of the livestock in
Botswana are found on communal land; 60 per cent of the land is used for traditional livestock
keeping, while commercial livestock farmers occupy only about 10 per cent.

In Zambia, Livestock plays an important role in the economic development of the country
agriculture sector and currently contributes an estimated 35% to the agricultural GDP in the
Zambian economy, but this contribution does not account for hides and skins, manure and animal
draft power as input into crop production and leather manufacturing sectors. If these were
accounted for, probably the contribution of livestock to agricultural GDP would rise to 45-50%.
Most social economic surveys or studies conducted in Chongwe District have concentrated on
grains and other food crops, but less has been done on the impact of livestock farming on the
Smallholder dairy farming System in Chongwe District. Hence, this study will endeavour to
bridge that gap.

29
 CHAPTER THREE

METHODOLOGY

This study looks at the methodology and procedure that will be used to conduct this research.
Methodology refers to the overall approach to the research process, from the theoretical
reinforcement to the collection and analysis of the data (Hussey and Hussey, 1997). Saunders,
Lewis and Thornhill (2009) write that methodology is the theory of how research should be
undertaken, including the theoretical and philosophical assumptions upon which research is
based and the implications of these for the method or methods adopted. Hussey and Hussey
(1997) further add that research is the systematic collection and interpretation of information
with a clear purpose, to find things out. This section focuses on the methodology of the study. It
looks at the research design, selection of the study area, methods of data collection, sample size,
sampling method and data presentation and analysis.

3.1 Study Design

A mixed methods research design will be considered so that the researcher could have a holistic
picture of the issue under investigation in this study as well as to overcome the weaknesses of
each one of them and take advantage of their strengths. According to (Creswell,2012) mixed
methods research design is a procedure for collecting, analysing and mixing both quantitative
and qualitative research methods in a single study to understand a research problem. Therefore
the design has been chosen with a view of combining the collection and analysing of both
quantitative and qualitative data to better understand the research problem in a single study. In
this regard the research will adopt both qualitative and quantitative approaches that suit well a
descriptive case study (Creswell, 2009).

30
Qualitative approach will be used by the researcher to design, collect and analyse the data. The
goal of this method is defined as describing and understanding rather than explanation and
prediction of human behaviour (Babbie, 2001). Qualitative research involves exploration,
elaboration and systematisation of the significance of an identified phenomenon. Babbie and
Mouton (2001) define qualitative research as an approach in which research takes as its departure
point the insider perspective on social action. It is a research approach that privileges the emic
perspective- that is, the lived experience of the subject, and the meaning the subjects attaches to
the phenomena being investigated while quantitative research involves counting and measuring
of events and performing the statistical analysis of a body of numerical data (Smith, 1995).

Simply put, qualitative research investigates the why and how of decision- making, as compared
to what, where, and when of quantitative research. Rees (1997) asserts that rather than presenting
the results in the form of statistics, qualitative research produces words in the form of comments
and statements. Qualitative research offers insights and understandings of participants, which is
unobtainable by quantitative research, but is more than just non-numerical research. It aims to
study the subject in their natural surroundings and to collect naturally occurring, non-biased data.

According to Creswell (2003) qualitative methods yield large volumes of exceedingly rich data
obtained from a limited number of individuals. Qualitative data collection methods include the
use of photography, interviews, group and/or individual, observation, field notes, projective
techniques, life stories etc. While quantitative methods include a representation of an empirical
system in a numerical mathematical system for the purpose of reasoning analytically within the
mathematical system. Therefore, although this study is mainly qualitative, both quantitative and
qualitative methods will be used in order to overcome the weaknesses of each one of them and
take advantage of their strengths.
3.1.1 Quantitative Method
Quantitative method will be employed because it embraces the scientific inquiry. This approach
will enable the researcher to collect numerical data which is easy to analyse. Furthermore, the
quantitative approach will also provide statistical backing for the information generated through
the qualitative method.

31
3.1.2 Qualitative Method
Qualitative method will be used as it allows the study participants to describe their experiences
relating to the impact of livestock farming on the Smallholder farming System with focus on
Chongwe District of Zambia. Therefore, this approach will enable the researcher to get the
opinions of the participants by interacting with them.

3.2 Data Collection

Data collection refers to gathering specific information to prove or refute some facts. There are
two major sources of data used by researchers. These are primary and secondary sources.
Primary data is information gathered directly from respondents through interviews,
questionnaires, focus group discussions, observation and experimental studies (Creswell, 2009).
Secondary data collection involves gathering data that has already been collected by someone
else and stored in form of books, magazines, newspapers, journals and electronic sources.
Therefore, in this study both qualitative and quantitative primary data collection will rely on
interviews, focus group discussions and questionnaires to determine the impact of livestock
farming on the Smallholder farming System with focus on Chongwe District. Primary data will
be mainly obtained through semi-structured questionnaires and focus group discussions with
some study participants particularly men and women above 18 years and interviews with some
key stakeholders. Interviews will be held with key informants from Ministry of Fisheries and
Livestock, Extension Service Officers and traders from Chongwe Market from Chongwe
District.

3.2.1 Data collection Instruments

Data is often collected using questionnaires, observations, documents, interviews and past
records (Creswell, 2003). However, in this study data will be collected through the use of
questionnaires, interviews and focus group discussions

3.2.1.1 Interviews
An interview is a face to face confrontation between the interviewer and the respondent (Leedy,
1980).The interview will afford the researcher personal contact with key .The unstructured part
of the interview guide will be suitable for the study because it will provide in-depth information
how the impact of livestock farming on the Smallholder farming System with focus on Chongwe
District as per the objectives of the study.

32
3.2.1.2 Focus group discussions
Focus group discussion will also be used to obtain information from the community. Especially
information the influence of livestock farming on the food security, on the production output of
and on the socioeconomic status of the smallholder farmers in Chongwe District. The focus
group discussion will be used because of its group interaction characteristic which allows
stimulation of ideas among respondents (Miller, 1999). The discussion will be facilitated by the
researcher who will be assisted by 3 research assistants and notes will be taken. In addition a tape
recorder will be used to ensure accuracy of data recording. The advantage of focus group
discussion is that it allows probing to obtain in-depth information. A total of 4 focus group
discussions 1 focus in each of the communities namely Kanakantapa, Chikhuli, Nakatindi and
Chalimbana. The composition of the focus group discussion will be 6-8 participants. The
researcher will organize some refreshments in form of soft drinks and mineral water considering
the length of time.

3.2.1.3 Questionnaire
A questionnaire is a document containing questions designed to seek information that is
appropriate for analysis (Tuckman, 1997). The questionnaires will be used to determine impact
of micro financial institutions on clients livelihood with focus on Chongwe District of Zambia.
The questionnaires will allow for anonymity and privacy, which may encouraged more open
responses on sensitive issues. The semi-structured questionnaire will be administered to the adult
members of households particularly those clients above 18 years of age by the researcher. This is
because not all the respondents may be able to read and write. The researcher will read all the
questions one by one to the respondents. With this approach, it will be easy to clarify any
misunderstanding with the respondent regarding the meaning of the questions immediately.

The questionnaire will have both open ended and closed ended questions. The open ended
questions will help in collecting data on information the influence of livestock farming on the
food security, on the production output of and on the socioeconomic status of the smallholder
farmers in Chongwe District. These questions will give the researcher an opportunity to explore
and clarify issues and collect qualitative data as well. The closed questions will help the
researcher to collect quantitative data on identified issues. Of the total sample, 200 participants
will be selected from households; in this case 50 participants will be selected from each
community of Kanakantapa, Chikhuli, Lwiimba, Nakatindi and Chalimbana.

33
3.3 Target Population
The target population of this research will be smallholder farmers selected from some wards of
Chongwe district specifically in Kanakantapa, Chikhuli, Lwiimba, Nakatindi and Chalimbana.
This study specifically looks at Chongwe District local farmers in Lusaka Province.

Fig 1: Chongwe District Map, with all its Constituencies indicated. Source; Chongwe Council

However, during the collection of data a letter explaining the purpose of the study and aspects of
confidentiality and anonymity of respondents will be attached to the questionnaires.

3.4 Study Sample

The total sample for this study will be 260 respondents which is considered to be sufficiently
representative of the population. Of the total sample, 200 participants will be selected from
households; in this case 50 participants will be selected from Kanakantapa, Chikhuli, Lwiimba,
and Nakatindi while 60 participants will be the key informants from Kanakantapa, Chikhuli,
Lwiimba, Nakatindi within Chongwe District. Furthermore, four focus group discussions will be
conducted comprising of men and ranging from 6-8 per group.

3.5 Sampling Technique

The research will use availability and purposive sampling methods which are non-probability
sampling methods (Ghosh, 1992) in the selection of houses, organisations and respondents from

34
the District. Availability sampling will be used in the selection of houses in the study area. From
each house hold that will be selected, an eligible respondent will be interviewed as long as they
agree. Availability sampling method will be employed in the selection of houses due to non-
availability of a sampling frame for most houses in Chongwe area. Purposive sampling will be
used in the selection of key informants. Similarly, purposive sampling will be used in this case in
order to select the key informants that will be located in places that may not be near and
accessible. Also, it has been pointed out by (Babbie, 2001) that purposive sampling is used when
you select your sample on the basis of your own knowledge of the population, its elements and
the nature of the research aims, in short based on the judgement and the purpose of the study.
The Advantages of purposive sampling are that people who do not fit the requirements are
eliminated and it is less expensive as it involves lesser search costs. However, a limitation of
purposive sampling is that, it is the responsibility of the researcher to choose participants, there is
a possibility that the researcher could be wrong in choosing suitable participants for the study
(Gillham, 2000).

3.6. Procedure
The possible research participants will be approached and the aims of the study will be explained
to them. After ensuring that they have understood the information, they will then be requested to
freely-consent to participate in the study.

3.6.2 Data Processing

Once the data is collected in the field, the filled in questionnaires will be edited thoroughly. A
well-developed coding scheme will be used in order to ensure that data coding follows an
unambiguous set of prescriptions of how all possible answers will be treated and what numerical
codes will be assigned to particular responses. The function of the coding process will be to
create codes and scales from responses which could be summarized in various ways.

3.7. Data Analysis

In this study, both qualitative and quantitative data will be collected, therefore, qualitative and
quantitative data analysis methods will be employed.

3.7.1Analysis of Quantitative Data

Coding for closed questions will be done during the design of the questionnaires. Open ended
questions will be coded using themes which will emerge from the data. Similar themes and

35
content categories will be given the same codes. The data will be then entered on a computer and
analysed by means of SPSS and STATA computer program. Descriptive statistics was then used
to summarize the data into frequencies and percentages where appropriate. SPSS & STATA
tables will be exported into excel for the generation of more customized tables and graphs, which
will then be taken to Microsoft word for the report writing.

3.7.2Analysis of Qualitative Data

While quantitative data permits patterns of associations between variables, qualitative data offers
greater insights into specific thoughts of respondents. Thematic and content analysis will be
employed to analyse qualitative data. Using this qualitative analysis technique, the following
steps will be adhered to by the researcher in the analysis of qualitative data.

Firstly, the researcher will have to peruse through the collected data through interviews and
identify information that will be relevant to the research questions. Irrelevant information not
related to the specific objectives and research questions will be separated from relevant
information.

Secondly, the researcher will identify themes from the respondents description of their
experiences. Material relevant to a certain theme will be placed together. Thirdly, the direct
quotations will be used to present the findings. These direct quotations will be used to reflect the
deep thoughts and feelings of the respondents on what their perceptions are in relation to the
problem under investigation. The relevant information will be broken down into key quotations
which will reflect specific thoughts of the respondent. The quotations will be presented in
narrative form.

Qualitative data obtained through key informant interviews and focus group discussions will be
analysed thematically. This will involve extracting of significant statements from the
respondents answers and similar responses will be categorized into themes. It will also involve
highlighting "voice" in the text, through significant quotations illustrating the theme that is being
described.

36
3.8 Ethical Consideration

The researcher will take steps to safeguard the rights, interests and sensitivities of informants.
During the course of data collection, the researcher will thoroughly explain the aims and the
purposes of the study to the informants. Similarly, Strydom (1998: 24) defines ethics as a set of
moral principle which is suggested by an individual or group is subsequently widely accepted,
and which offers rules and behavioural expectations about the most correct conduct towards
experimental subjects and respondents. The study will not expose respondents to any harm be, it
physical, emotional or psychological. The researcher will explain to the respondent what the
research is all about, and how it will benefit them and other people.

This study requires that participants expose issues that will be considered extremely private.
Recognizing that such revelations is going to have far reaching implications for the participants,
the principles of voluntary participation and informed consent will be implemented during
identification of interviewees and their recruitment to the study (Babbie and Mouton, 2001).

APPENDIX A:
3.9 Work Plan

MONTHS (2017)

ACTIVITY 1 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

Submission date ( July 2017)

Proposal approval

Data collection

Data analysis

Project Report

37
APPENDIX B: BUDGET
3.10 Budget
The total cost of undertaking this study is pegged at ZMK12, 716.00. See the schedule below for
the full break down of the cost estimates.

UNIT
ITEM COST QUANTITY AMOUNT ZMK
Research Assistants Fees 300 5 1,500
Transport for Research Team 250 6 1,500
Accommodation for Researcher 500 6 3,000
Food 300 6 1,800
Photocopying 5 510 2,550
Reams of Paper 35 2 70
Pens & Pencils 20 2 40
Memory Stick 200 1 200
Communication 100 4 400
Data Analysis Software 500 1 500
Subtotal 11,560
Contingency @ 10% 1,156
Total 12,716.00

38
3.11 REFERENCES

Abdullah, A. M. and Jahnke, H. E (1990). Some aspects of supply behavour and rural livestock
marketing in Africa In: Pasture production Systems in Africa. A study of nomadic household
economy and livestock marketing in Central Somalia. pp. 341 359.
Abel, Y. K. S. (2000). Impact of the Southern Highlands Dairy Development Project Workload
and gender relations in Njombe district. Unpublished Msc Dessertation. Sokoine
University of Agriculture, Morogoro, Tanzania. pp. 341 359.
ACP-EU Tecnhical Centre for Agricultural and Rural Cooperation: Impact Assessment/Smart
toolKit (http://www.cta.int/) site visited 30/10/2011.
Alleyne, G. A; Hay, R.W; Picon, D. J; Stanfield, J. P and Whitefield, R. G. (1989). Protein
Energy Malnutrition, Jaypee Brothers, New Delhi, India. 244pp.
Anandajayasekeram, P. and Martella, D.R. (1996). Conceptual framework to assess the impact of
agricultural research. Journal of Agricultural Economics and Development 1(1): 3-9
Anandajayasekeram, P; D.R. Martella and M.Rukuni. (1996). A training manual for biological
scientists on impact assessments of investments in agricultural and natural resources research.
Gaborone: Southern African Centre for Co-operation in Agricultural and Natural
Resources and Training.
Anne Drew, (2008). Uniterra Volunteer in Malawi. [http://www.fao.org/ag/againfo/projects/
en/pplpi/publications.html].54
Ashley, C. and Hussein, K. (2000). Developing methodologies for livelihood impact assessment:
Experience of the African Wildlife Foundation in East Africa. Overseas Development Institute,
London. pp. 55-65.
Babbie, E. R. (1994). Survey Research Methodology: Second edition: Wadsworth Pulishing
Company Inc. Belmont California. 395pp.
Baker, J. (200). Evaluating the Impact of Development Projects on Poverty: A hand book for
practitioners. Directions in Development. International Bank for Reconstruction and
Development . World Bank, Washington DC. 225pp.
Barr, N. (2004). Problems and definition of measurement. In Economics of the welfare state.
New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 121 124.
Barret, C and Reardon, T. (2000). Asset, activity and income diversification among African
Agriculturalists: Some practical Issues. Project Report to USAID BASIS CRSP, March 2000.

39
Basnayake, B. M. J. K and Gunaratne, L. H. P (2002). Estimation of technical efficiency and its
determinants in the tea smallholding sector in the Mid county West zone of Sri Lanka. Journal of
Agricultural Economics 4:137-150.
Bayer, W and Kapunda, B. L (2006). Dairy cattle for poverty alleviation in Southern Tanzania.
Conference on International Agricultural Research for Development, Tropentag, University of
Bonn, 11th 13th October 2006.
Bebe, B. O; Udo, H. M. J and Thorpe, W. (2001b). Breed preferences and breeding practices in
smallholder dairy systems in Central Kenya Highlands. Livestock Production Science, 49(10):53-
62.
Adhiguru, P., Birthal, P.S. and Kumar, B.G. (2009). Strengthening pluralistic agricultural
information delivery systems in India. Agriculture Economics Research Review, 22:71-79.
Adkinson, A. and Adkinson, R. (2013). The FecB (Booroola) gene and implications for the
Turkish sheep industry. Turkish Journal of Veterinary and Animal Science, 37:621-624.
Ahmad, M., Akram, M., Rauf, R., Khan, I.A. and Pervez, U. (2007). Interaction of extension
workers with farmers and radio and television are sources of information in technology transfer:
a case study of four villages of districts Peshawar and Charsadda. Sarhad Journal of Agriculture,
23(2):515-518.
Alemayehu, M. (1998). The Borana and the 1991-1992 droughts. A rangeland and livestock
resource study. Institute of Sustainable Development, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
Alemayehu, M., Amede, T., Bohme, M. and Peters, K.J. (2012). Increasing livestock water
productivity under rain-fed mixed crop / livestock farming scenarios of Sub-Saharan Africa: a
review. Journal of Sustainable Development, 5(7):1-10.
Ali, J. (2006). Structural changes in consumption and nutrition of livestock products in India:
implication for food security. Indian Journal of Agricultural Economics, 61(3):419.86
Amede, T., Tawaradi, S. and Peden, D. (2011). Improving water production in crop-livestock
system of drought-prone regions. Experimental Agriculture, 47(1):1-5.
Anaeto, F.C., Asiabaka, C.C., Nnadi, F.N., Ajaero, J.O., Aja O.O., Ugwoke, F.O., Ukpongson,
M.U. and Onweagba, A.E. (2012). The role of extension officers and extension services in the
development of agriculture in Nigeria. Woodpecker Journal of Agricultural Research, 1(6):180-
185.

40
Banda, L.J., Kamwanja, L.A., Chagunda, M.G.G., Ashworth, C.J. and Roberts, D.J. (2012).
Status of dairy cow management and fertility in smallholder farms in Malawi. Tropical Animal
Health Production, 44:715-727.
Creswell, S. (ed) (2003) Research design: qualitative, quantitative, and mixed approaches,
Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, Inc.
Creswell, J.W. (2009) Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative and Mixed Approaches,
Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications.
Creswell, J.W. (2012) Educational Research: Planning, conducting, and evaluating quantitative
and qualitative research (4thed.), Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education

41
APPENDIX (i): INFORMED CONSENT FORM

INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATIONS UNIVERSITY

School of Social Sciences

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Topic: To investigate the impact of livestock farming on the Smallholder farming System with
focus on Chongwe District.

Dear Respondent:

I am a Master Student at Information Communication University. I am carrying out a research

in respect with the above topic for the partial fulfillment of a Master in Development Studies.
You have been randomly selected to answer a few questions as truthful and accurate as possible.
This will enable me to carry out this study in a professional and scientific manner.

It is my sincere assurance that the findings generated in this study will be handled with the
highest level of confidentiality and for this academic exercise only.

Your cooperation will be highly appreciated

Thank You for your time

FLORENCE BANDA (RESEARCHER).

42
APPENDIX (ii): QUESTIONNAIRE

SMALLHOLDER RESEARCH QUESTIONNAIRE

SECTION A: GEOGRAPHICAL INFORMATION

1. Province
2. District ..
3. Population High [ ]
Medium [ ]

Low [ ]

4. Enumeration Area.
5. Classification of Residential Area Rural [ ]
Urban [ ]

SECTION B: BACKGROUND INFORMATION

6. Name
7. Age...
8. What is your highest level of Education?
(a) Pre-School [ ]
(b) Primary [ ]
(c) Secondary [ ]
(d) Tertiary [ ]
(e) Never been to school [ ]

9. What is your main profession?

Animal crop
(a) Farmer [ ] [ ]
(b) Trader [ ] [ ]
(c) None [ ] [ ]

43
 10. What is your main source of income?
(a) Livestock Farming [ ]
(b) Crop Farming [ ]
(c) Business [ ]
(d) Employment [ ]
(e) Other specify..

11. How much is your budget for food on monthly basis?

(a) K100-300 [ ]
(b) K300-500 [ ]
(c) K500-1000 [ ]
(d) Above 1000 [ ]

12. How many members are there in your household?

(a) Male [ ]
(b) Female [ ]

SECTION C: ANIMAL PRODUCTION

13. State your faming System (Scale)

(a) Subsistence [ ]
(b) Commercial [ ]
(c) Emergent (Improved) [ ]

14. How long have you been in this business?

(a) 1-5 years [ ]
(b) 5-10 years [ ]
(c) 10-15 [ ]
(d) 15-20 years [ ]
(e) Above 20 years [ ]

44
15. What type of animal farming are you involved in?

(a) Cattle [ ]
(b) Goats [ ]
(c) Pigs [ ]
(d) Chicken [ ]
(e) Sheep [ ]
(f) Fish [ ]
(g) Pigeons [ ]
(h) Any Other

16. Which animals are most preferred in your area?

(a) Cattle [ ]
(b) Goats [ ]
(c) Pigs [ ]
(d) Chicken [ ]
(e) Sheep [ ]
(f) Fish [ ]
(g) Pigeons [ ]
(h) Any Other...

17. State the reasons why they are preferred.

.
18. Do have sufficient grazing sites in your area?.................................................................
..
19. How do you keep your animals during droughts?...........................................................
..

45
20. Biosecurity requirements covered in your area

Very Effective Effective Not Effective Not Available

Prevention of animal diseases [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ]

Detection of animal diseases [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ]

Reporting of animal disease [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ]

Eliminating animal disease [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ]

21. Biosecurity scope covered in your area

Very Effective Effective Not Effective Not Available

A specific, infectious animal disease [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ]

Infectious animal disease(s) [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ]

Non-Infectious diseases [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ]
Good husbandly in general [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ]

Effectiveness of Veterinary Service [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ]

YES NO

22. How do you finance your livestock farming?

(a) Own Finance [ ] [ ]
(b) Loan from Banks [ ] [ ]
(c) Money Lenders [ ] [ ]
(d) Interested in financing but no access [ ] [ ]
(e) Specify

46
23. Are you involved in Dairy Farming?

(a) Yes [ ]
(b) No [ ]

24. How did you acquire the dairy animals? YES NO

(a) Own Finance [ ] [ ]

(b) Loan from Banks [ ] [ ]
(c) Money Lenders [ ] [ ]
(d) Interested in financing but no access [ ] [ ]

(e) Specify

25. Are you involved in any Dairy Programme/Scheme? Yes [ ] No [ ]

(a) If answer Yes, state the name of the Programme/scheme.......

And the benefits of belonging to the programme/scheme.......
.
(b) If answer is No, state the reason why:.
.
26. How many dairy animals do you have?
(a) Between 1 and 5 [ ]
(b) Between 5 and 10 [ ]
(c) Between 10 and 15 [ ]
(d) Between 15 and 20 [ ]
(e) Above 20 [ ]
27. How much income do you generate from dairy farming?
(a) Weekly between K1000 and K5000 [ ]
(b) Weekly between K5001 and K10000 [ ]
(c) Weakly between K10001 and K15000 [ ]
(d) Weekly between K15001 and K20000 [ ]
(e) Above K20000 [ ]

47
28. How viable is dairy farming in your household..

29. Has dairy farming improved your life.
(a) If answer Yes. State how...
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
(b) If answer is No. State the reasons why...
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
30. How viable is dairy farming in your area.

31. What needs to be done to improve livestock farming in the area.

Signature of Respondent:. Date: .

48