Chapter 22 Gauss Law and Flux

Lets start by reviewing some vector calculus

Recall the divergence theorem
It relates the flux of a vector function F thru
a closed simply connected surface S bounding
a region (interior volume) V to the volume
integral of the divergence of the function F
Divergence F => F

Volume integral of divergence of F = Surface (flux) integral of F

 Mathematics vs Physics

There is NO Physics in the previous

divergence theorem known as Gauss Law
It is purely mathematical and applies to ANY
well behaved vector field F(x,y,z)
 Some History Important to know
First discovered by Joseph Louis Lagrange 1762
Then independently by Carl Friedrich Gauss 1813
Then by George Green 1825
Then by Mikhail Vasilievich Ostrogradsky 1831
It is known as Gauss Theorem, Greens Theorem and
Ostrogradskys Theorem
In Physics it is known as Gauss Law in
Electrostatics and in Gravity (both are inverse square
laws)
It is also related to conservation of mass flow in
fluids, hydrodynamics and aerodynamics
Can be written in integral or differential forms
 Integral vs Differential Forms
Integral Form

Differential Form (we have to add some Physics)

Example - If we want mass to be conserved in
fluid flow ie mass is neither created nor
destroyed but can be removed or added or
compressed or decompressed then we get
Conservation Laws
Continuity Equations Conservation Laws
Conservation of mass in compressible fluid flow
= fluid density, u = velocity vector

Conservation of an incompressible fluid

= fluid density = constant here

Conservation of charge in electric current flow

J = current flux vector (amps/m2) , = charge
density (coulombs/ m3)

Conservation of probability on Quantum

Mechanics, j = probability flux vector,
= probability

General Continuity Equation with source term s =

source or sink creation or annihilation

General Continuity Equation with s = 0

 What are Continuity, Conservation Laws?
The equation What it means
Let F = V for a fluid then
F = flux (mass flow) of fluid per unit area
per unit of time (Kg/s-m2)
If you integrate this over a closed
surface (right hand side) you get the net
mass change per unit time going INTO or
OUT OF the surface
This must be -m/t where m = mass
inside the surface. Note minus sign
this depends on how we define the
outward normal
BUT m = dV and m/dt = /t dV
Now equate the two sides of the equation
We now get F = -/t or
F +/t = 0 => Continuity equation
 Gauss Law in Electromagnetism
We start with an assumption about the E field
from a point source.
Assume it obeys Coulombs Law ie inverse
square law

Where er is a radial unit

vector away from the point
charge q

Compute the surface integral of E(r) over a sphere of radius r with

the charge q at the center. We will then use Gauss Law.
 Surface integral over sphere

Compute the surface integral of E(r) over a

sphere of radius r with the charge q at the
center.
E(r) dA = 4r2 * kq/r2 = 4kq = q/0
(NOTE: no r dependence) k=1/40

E(r0) = 0 this is true of ANY inverse

square field (Gravity also)
E(r=0) = (r) function ( at r=0, 0 otherwise)
 What if we are not at the center of the sphere?
We break the sphere into two imaginary regions one sphere inside the
other but not centered.
Imagine there is only one charge in the smaller sphere and none between

The total flux when summing over both spheres is ZERO

Since E(r0) = 0 in between both spheres (no charges)

E dV = 0 = E dA (over both spheres)

But = E dA (total) = 0 = E dA (outer sphere) + = E dA (inner sphere)

Thus:
E dA (outer sphere) = - E dA (inner sphere)

But we know E dA (inner) = Q/0

Hence E dA (outer sphere) = Q/0 (not minus due to the way we oriented
the normal to the surface)

There was nothing special about the outer sphere, It could have been any
shape, Hence E dA = Q/0 where Q is the total charge enclosed.

More generally E = /0

Maxwell Eq #1 of 4 = charge density

 Electric Flux
Differential flux

Integral flux

Flux is charge
enclosed Qs /0

This is Gauss Law

 Coulombs Law from Gauss Law
Assume we have a point charge at
the center of a sphere and use Gauss
Law
And spherical symmetry

Hence we get Coulombs Law

Electrostatics Here it is dipole moments
 Sparks

Human Lightning

Lightning

A typical human has a capacitance of about 200-300 pf

Discharge can 10-20 KV+ and amps but microsecond long
Total energy is small so generally not harmful
Typical van de Graff generator is Positively charged but
NOT always depends on belt material
Flux =0 through sphere
Charged metal sphere E=0 inside
Solving a spherical problem via Gauss Law
Assume charge Q is spread uniformly over r<R
Gaussian Surface
Metal box in external E field
Faraday Cage
E=0 inside box
Using a Gaussian Pillbox and Gauss Law to solve for E field from a
uniformly charged metal plate with charge per unit area =
Note E field is the same everywhere except inside metal (=0)
Two metal plates a Capacitor
Charged ball and metal container
Charged ball inside neutral metal container
Charge moves to outside of metal container
Total flux = total charge enclosed/0
In this case it is ZERO
 Lightning
Approx 16 million lightning storms per year
Speeds are very high 60 Km/s (130,000 MPH)!!!
Temperatures in bolts are very high can be 30,000 C
History of kite experiments wet string = conductive =
sparks fly (from key)
Thomas-Franois Dalibard and De Lors May 1752
Benjamin Franklin June 1752 (independent)
 Some more on Lightning
Florida has the most US strikes
Typ Negative Lightning bolt 30 Kilo amps, 5 Coulombs of
charge and 500 Mega Joules of energy
Large negative bolts can be 120 Kilo amps and 350 Coulombs
of charge
For reference 1 Ton TNT ~ 4 Giga Joule of energy
Typ Positive Lightning bolts are 10 times that of Negative Bolts
Megawatts per meter of bolt are possible
Typ PEAK power ~ 1 Tera watt (1000 nuclear power plants)
Lightning heats air to 30,000 C or so and creates supersonic
shock wave
Lightning creates radio waves these can clear particles from
the Van Allen Belts (slots) and create low radiation zones
 More Lightning Facts
Norse mythology, Thor is the god of thunder
Perknas - Baltic god of thunder
Aztec had a god named Tlaloc
Cyclops gave Zeus the Thunderbolt as a weapon
Finnish mythology, Ukko (engl. Old Man) is the god of thunder
Brescia, Italy in 1769 lightning hit the Church of St. Nazaire, igniting
100 tons of gunpoweder that killed 3000 people
Average lightning hit rate is 44+-5 Hz
1.4 billion flashes per year
Lightning is dangerous - Georg Wilhelm Richmann July 1753 killed as
he tried to repeat Ben Franklins experiment hit in the head by a
blue ball of lightning
Venus, Jupiter and Saturn have lightning
 More Lightning Trivia
Terawatt laser in NM induced minor lightning
Rockets trailing wires can trigger lightning
Elves (Emissions of Light and Very Low Frequency Perturbations from
Electromagnetic Pulse Sources ) 250 miles up
Lighning struck Apollo 12 after take off
Triggered after above ground nuclear testing
Triggered by volcanoes
X-Ray, Gamma Ray 20 Mev and anti matter (positrons) seen from lightning
Lightning strikes can induce ground magnetic hot spots
Roy Sullivan held a Guinness World Record after surviving 7 different
lightning strikes across 35 years.
October 31 2005, sixty-eight dairy cows, died while taking shelter under a
tress on a farm at Fernbrook Dorrigo, New South Wales
December 8, 1963: Pan Am Flight 214 crashed 81 people were killed.

November 2, 1994, lightning struck fuel tanks in Dronka, Egypt 469 fatalities
Global Lightning strike distribution
 Lightning as Art

1902 Paris
Rimini Italy
Lightning is complex
Leader first then return strike
Volcano induced lightning

Ball Lightning Japan

Shuttle hit STS8 Challenger 1982/3

Cloud to Cloud

Light strike induced magnetism on the ground

Human Made Lightning Tesla Coils
More Tesla Coil Note Complex Streamers
Capacitance of simple systems

Type Capacitance Comment

A: Area
Parallel-plate capacitor
d: Distance

a1: Inner radius

Coaxial cable a2: Outer radius
l: Length

a: Wire radius
Pair of parallel wires[17] d: Distance, d > 2a
l: Length of pair

a: Wire radius
Wire parallel to wall[17] d: Distance, d > a
l: Wire length

a1: Inner radius

Concentric spheres
a2: Outer radius

a: Radius
Two spheres, d: Distance, d > 2a
equal radius[18][19] D = d/2a
: Euler's constant

a: Radius
Sphere in front of wall[18] d: Distance, d > a
D = d/a

Sphere a: Radius

Circular disc a: Radius

a: Wire radius
Thin straight wire,
l: Length
finite length[20][21][22]
: ln(l/a)