BIOLOGY FORM4&5 ikmal hafizah

COLLECTION OF BIOLOGY
ESSAYS FOR SPM

YOU AND ME A+ BIOLOGY

A+
PREPARED BY :

- MOHD IKMAL BIN ASMUNI

- NUR HAFIZAH BINTI SAZALI

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Phagocytosis
The pseupodia are also used for feeding.
Amoeba sp. engulfs food by phagocytosis.
Amoeba sp. is a holozoic organisms which
feed on microscopic organisms such as
bacteria.
The presence of food causes Amoeba
sp.to advance by extending its pseupodia.
The pseupodia encloses the food which is
then packaged in food vacoule.
The food vacoule fuses with lysosome and
the food is digested by hydrolitic enzyme
called lysozyme.
The resulting nutrients are absorbed into
the cytoplasm.
Facilitated Diffusion
For water soluble molecules//molecules
which are not soluble in lipids (ions,
nucleic acid, amino acids and glucose)
Carrier Protein
The carrier protein function by
binding to the molecules to pass
through the plasma membrane.
The molecules move to the carrier
protein which is specific for the
molecules.
Molecules bind with the carrier
protein at the active site.
Carrier protein changes its shape and
pass the molecules through the
plasma membrane.
Simple Diffusion
Net movement of molecules or ions from
a region of higher concentration to a
region of lower concentration.
Going down concentration gradient until
an equilibrium is achieved.
The particles are distibuted equally
throughout the system.
The concentration gradient provides
energy to move the molecules into and
out of the cells.
**Choose any one
Active Transport
Movement of molecules or ions against
the concentration gradient across the
plasma membranes.
Requires both carrier proteins and
expenditure of energy.
Energy from ATP (adenosine
triphosphate) that is generated during
respiration in the mitochondria.
Has active sites which bind to the ATP
molecules.
The carrier protein changes shape when
the phosphate group from the ATP
molecule binds to it
Then the solute is moved across the
plasma membrane.
BIOLOGY FORM4&5 ikmal hafizah
Osmosis: the diffusion of water
Net movement of freely moving water
from a region of lower solute
concentration to a region of higher solute
concentration through a semi-permeable
membrane.//
Net movement of water from region
higher water concentration to a region of
lower water concentration.//
Net movement of water from hypotonic
region to hypertonic region.
Animal and plant cells in an isotonic solution
Solution in which the solute concentration
is equal to that of the cytoplasmic fluid.
Water diffuse in and out of the cells at
equal rate.
No net movement of water.
Cells retain its normal shape.
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Hypotonic solution
Concentration of solute outside a cell is lower
than concentration of solute inside cell.
Animal cells
Is said to be hypotonic solution.
Cell placed in hypotonic solution.
Net movement of water into the cells via
osmosis.
Cell swells up.
When extremely hypotonic, cells will
eventually burst
Cannot withstand the osmotic pressure
because of thin plasma membrane.
E.g : red blood cells (haemolysis)
Plant cells
Do not burst
Rigid cell wall.
Water diffuse into vacoule of cell via
osmosis.
Cell swells up and becomes turgid
Tugor pressure in plant.
Supporting the plant.
Hypertonic solution
The concentration of solute in the solution is
higher than the concentration of solutes within
the cell.
Animal cells
Net movement of water from inside to
the outside of the cell.
Cells shrink//shrivel, internal pressure
decrease.
Red blood cells immersed in hypertonic
solution , the cell shrink and the plasma
membrane crinkles up.
Cell undergone crenation.
Plant cells
Water diffuse out via osmosis.
Vacoule and cytoplasm shrink and plasma
membrane pulls away from the cell wall.
This process called plasmolysis.
Cell becomes flaccid.
BIOLOGY FORM4&5 ikmal hafizah
Preservation of fish and vegetables
Fish
Fish is covered by salt solution which is
hypertonic to body fluid/cell/tissue.
More water diffuses out from tissues into
salt solution via osmosis.
Fish becomes hydrated.
Prevents bacterial growth in fish tissues.
Bacteria cells are also
plasmolysed//crenated.
Prevent decay/last longer.
Vegetables
Vegetables are immersed in vinegar which
is acidic//has low pH.
Vinegar diffuses into vegetables tissues.
Vegetables tissues becomes acidic//has
low pH.
Prevents bacterial growth in tissues.
Preventing decay//last longer.
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 BIOLOGY FORM4&5 ikmal hafizah

Differences between facilitated diffusion and active transport

Facilitated diffusion Active transport

D1 Down the concentration gradient Against the concentration gradient
E1 Molecules moves from higher concentration to lower Molecules moves from lower concentration to
concentration higher concentration
D2 Molecules move in both direction across the plasma Molecules move in one direction across the plasma
membrane membrane
E2 Molecules can move through pore protein or/and carrier Molecules move through carrier protein
protein But
D3 No ATP/energy used ATP/energy is used
E3 Molecule can move through pore protein without binding Energy needed for binding/bind with active site
D4 Molecules need carrier protein and pore protein to help Need carrier protein only to help movement
the movement
D5 Could achieve equilibrium Will not achieve equilibrium/result in accumulation
D6 Not depended in cellular respiration Depend on cellular respiration/energy

Similarities between facilitated diffusion and
active transport
Both (ways of transportation)need carrier
protein.
To bind with
molecules/ion/substrate/examples
Both transport specific molecules only.
Because the carrier protein have specific
site to certain molecules.
Both processes occur in living cell.
Because carrier protein need/can change
shape to allow substances to move across.
The Importance of water
Water is a polar molecule and act as a
solvent.
Transport medium in the blood,
lymphatic, excretory and digestive
systems and in the vascular tissues of
plant.
As a medium for biochemiocal reaction.
Helps in lubricant.
Regulates/maintaining body temperature.
Providing support to the cell.
High surface tension and cohesion.
Providing miosture (respiratory surfaces
such as alveoli).
Maintaining osmotic balance and
turgidity.
General characteristics of enzymes
Alter or speed up the rates of chemical
reactions
Remain unchanged at the end of reaction.
Do not destroyed by reactions they
catalysed.
Have specific sites called active site to
bind with specific substrates.
Needed in small quantities.
Reaction are reversible
Can be slowed down or stopped by
inhibitors. E.g: lead and mercury
Require helper molecules, called
cofactors.
Inorganic cofactor : ferum, copper
Organic cofactor: water soluble vitamins,
B vitamins .

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 BIOLOGY FORM4&5 ikmal hafizah

Extracellular enzyme
Extracellular enzyme is produced in a cell,
then packed and secreted from the cell.
It catalyses its reaction outside the cell.
An example is amylase.
The nucleus contains DNA which carries
the information for synthesis of enzymes.
Protein that are synthesised at the
ribosomes are transported through the
spaces within the rough ER.
Proteins that depart from the rough ER
wrapped in vesicles tehat bud off from the
membrane of the rouhg ER.
These transport vesicle then fuse with the
mebranes of the golgi apparatus and
empty their contents into the
membranous space.
The proteins are further modified during
their transport in the Golgi apparatus. For
example, carboohydrates are added to
protein to form glycoproteins.
Secretory vesicles containing these
modified protein bud off from the Golgi
apparatus and travel to the plasma
membrane.
Enzymes are released.
Prophase
Chromosomes in the nucleus condense.
Chromosomes appear shorter and thicker.
Consist of sister chromatid joined at the
centromere.
Spindle fibres begin to form.
Centrioles migrate at opposite poles.
At the end, nucleolus disappears and the
nuclear membrane disintegrates.
Lock and key hypothesis
The substrate molecule fits into the active
site of the enzyme molecule.
The substrate is the key that fits into the
enzyme lock.
Various types of bonds such as hydrogen
and ionic bonds hold the substrate
in the active site forming the enzyme-
substrate complex.
Once the complex is formed, the enzyme
changes the substrate to its product.
The product leaves the active site.
The enzyme is not altered by the reaction
and it can be reused.
Metaphase
Chromosomes align at the metaphase
plate//equatorial plate//middle of the
cell.
Mitotic spindle are fully formed.
Two sister chromatids are still attached to
one another at the centromere.
Ends when the centromere divides.
Effects of temperature on enzyme activity
At low temperature, reaction takes place
slowly.
As temperature increases, movement of
substrate increase.
Increase their chances of colliding with
each other and with the active site of the
enzymes.
At optimum temperature, the reaction is
at maximum rate.
Beyond the optimum temperature, rate of
reaction will not increase.
Bonds that hold enzyme molecules begin
to break.
Actives sites destroyed.
Enzyme denatured.
Anaphase
Two sister chromatids separate at the
centromere.
Sister chromatids pulled apart at opposite
poles.
Chromatids are referred to as daughter
chromosomes.

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Telophase
Chromosomes reach the opposite poles of
the cell.
Chromosomes uncoil and revert to their
extended state(chromatin).
Animal cloning
Somatic cells (from the mammary gland
cells) are removed and grown in a culture.
Cells stop dividing and enter a non-diving
phase.
Unfertilised egg is obtained. The nucleus
is sucked out, leaving the cytoplasm and
organelles without any chromosomes.
Electric pulse stimulates the fusion
between the somatic cells and egg cell
without nucleus.
Cells divide repeatedly forming an
embryo.
The embryo is then implanted in a
surrogate mother.
The cloned sheep of the somatic cell
donor is born.
Cytokinesis
Process of cytoplasmic division.
Begins before nuclear division is
completed.
Actin filament formed contractile ring.
Contracts and constrict pull aring of
plasma membrane inwards.
Groove of cleavage furrow pinches at the
equator between two nuclei.
Vesicles join to form a cell plate.
Cell plate grows until it edges fuse with
the plasma membrane of the cell. Cell
divides.
Cellulose are produced by the cell to
strengthen the new cell walls.
Tissue culture
Small part of plant is cut. E.g : shoots, bud.
The part is called explant.
Enzymes are used to digest the cell walls
of tissue.
Cells are naked (protoplast).
Explant/protoplast are steriled then
placed in a glass container which contains
a nutrient solution.
Culture medium (glucose, amino acids).
Apparatus must be steriled to make sure
free from microorganisms (bacteria).
pH and temperature must be at optimum
level.
Explant divides by mitosis.
Develops into callus.
Callus develops into somatic embryo
(planlet).
Then transferred to soil for growth.
BIOLOGY FORM4&5 ikmal hafizah
Uncontrolled mitosis
Cell divides through mitosis repeatedly
without control.
Produce cancerous cells.
Cancer is a genetic disease caused by
uncontrolled mitosis.
Disruption of cell cycle.
Cancerous cells divides freely and
uncontrollably not according to the cell
cycle.
These cells compete with surrounding
normal cells for energy and nutrients.
Cancer cells formed tumour.
Tumour invade and destroy neighbouring
cells.
Advantages of cloning
Biotechnologists to multiply copies of
useful genes or clones.
Clones can be produced in a shorter time
and in large numbers.
Cloned plants, however, can produced
flowers and fruits within a shorter period.
Clones are better quality.
Delayed ripening.
Does not need polinating agents.
Propagation can take place at any time.
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 BIOLOGY FORM4&5 ikmal hafizah

Disadvantages of cloning Meiosis I Meiosis II

Long-term side effects are not yet known.
May undergo natural mutations. Disrupt
the natural equilibrium of an ecosystem.
Clones do not show any genetic
variations.
Has the same level of resistance towards
certain disease.
Certain transgenic crops contain genes
that are resistant to herbicides.
These genes may be transferred to weeds
through viruses. These weeds would then
become resistant to herbicides.
Cloned animals has shorter lifespan.
1. During prophase I, homologous
chromosomes pair up (synapsis) and
crossing over between non sister
chromatids occurs.
2. During Metaphase I, homologous
chromosomes align at the metaphase
plate (equator, middle) of the cell.
3. During Anaphase I, homologous
chromosomes separates and move to
opposite poles. Sister chromatids are still
attached together and move as a unit.
4. At the end of Telophase I, two haploid
daughter cells are formed. Each daughter
cell has only one of each type of
chromosomes, either the paternal or
maternal chromosomes.
1. During Prophase II, synapsis of
homologous chromosomes and crossing
over between non-sister chromatids do
not take place.
2. During Metaphase II, chromosomes
consisting of two sister chromatids align
at the metaphase plate (equator/middle)
of cell.
3. During Anaphase II, sister chromatids
separate, becoming daughter
chromosomes that move to opposite
poles.
4. At the end of Telophase II, four haploid
daughter cells are formed. Each daughter
cell has the same number of
chromosomes as the haploid cell
produced in Meiosis I, but each has only
one of the sister chromatids.

Synthesis of enzymes
1. The information for the synthesis of enzymes is carriied by the DNA
- The sequences of bases on the DNA are codes to make proteins
2. In the nucleus, the DNA double helix unwinds and exposes its two strands for the synthesis of a messenger RNA (mRNA) strand
- The messenger RNA is synthesised according to the instruction on the DNA
3. The messenger RNA then leaves teh nucleus and moves to a ribosome
4. The messenger RNA attaches itself to the ribosome
- The ribosome acts as a workbench for the messenger RNA
- The messenger RNA contains information which codes for the sequence of amino acids
5. This genetic information is translated into the primary structure of specific protein
6. Each amino acid is bonded to the next and as a result, a chain of amino acids (polypeptide) is formed and is ready for release into the cytoplasm.

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Digestion in mouth
Secretion of saliva by three pairs of
salivary glands
Saliva contains the enzyme salivary
amylase
Begins the hydrolysis of starch to maltose.
Salivary amylase
Starch + water maltose
An additional digestive process occurs
further along the alimentary canal to
convert maltose to glucose.
pH is maintained at 6.5-7.5
Digestion in stomach
Epithelial lining of the stomach contains
gastric glands.
These glands secrete gastric juice.
Consists of mucus, HCL and enzyme
pepsin and renin.
HCL make the pH around 2.0.
High acidity destroy bacteria.
Acidity stop the activity of salivary
amylase enzyme.
pepsin
Protein + water polypeptides
Renin coagulate milk by converting the
soluble milk protein, caseinogen into
soluble caesin.
Stomach contents become a semi-fluid
called chyme.
Chyme gradually enter the duodenum.
BIOLOGY FORM4&5 ikmal hafizah
Digestion in small intestine
Duodenum receives chyme from stomach
and secretion from the gall bladder and
pancreas.
Starch, protein and lipids are digested.
Bile which produced by the liver and
stored in the gall bladder enter the
duodenum via the bile duct.
Bile helps neutralise the acidic chyme and
optimise the pH for enzyme action in
duodenum.
Bile salts imulsify lipids, breaking them
down into tiny droplets.
Providing high TSA for digestion.
Pancreas secrete pancreatic juice into
duodenum via pancreatic duct.
Pancreatic juice contains pancreatic
amylase, trypsin and lipase.
Pancreatic amylase complete the
digestion of starch to maltose.
Trypsin digests polypeptides into
peptides.
Lipase complete the digestion of lipid into
fatty acid and glycerol.
Glands in the ileum (small intestine)
secrete intestinal juice which contain
digestive enzyme needed to complete the
digestion of peptides and disaccharides.
Peptides digested by erepsin into amino
acids.
Maltose digested by maltase into glucose.
Disaccharides digested by its own enzyme
into monosaccharides and glucose.
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Digestion of cellulose by ruminant
Partially chewed food is passed to the
rumen (largest compartment of the
stomach).
Cellulose is broken down by cellulase
produced by bacteria.
Part of the breakdown products are
absobed by bacteria, the rest by the host.
Food enters the reticulum.
Cellulose undergoes further hydrolysis.
The content of the reticulum, called the
cud, is then regurgitated bit by bit into the
mouth to be thoroughly chewed.
Helps soften and break down cellulose,
making it more accessible to further
microbial action.
The cud is reswallowed and moved to the
omasum.
Here, the large particles of food are
broken down into smaller pieces by
peristalsis.
Water is removed from the cud.
Food particles moved into obamasum, the
true stomach of the ruminant. (e.g : cow).
Gastric juice complete the digestion of
protein and other food substances.
The food then passes through the small
intestine to be digested and absorbed in
the normal way.
Digestion of cellulose by rodent
Caecum and appendix are enlarged to
store the cellulose-digesting bacteria.
The breakdown products pass through the
alimentary canal twice.
The faeces in the first batch are usually
produced at night.
Faeces are then eaten again. To absorb
the products of bacterial breakdown.
The second batch of the faeces are harder
and drier.
Allows rodent (give example) to recover
the nutrients initially lost with the faeces.
BIOLOGY FORM4&5 ikmal hafizah
Digestion
Protein
- In stomach, pepsin breakdown
protein into polypeptides.
- HCL being secreted to provide acidic
medium for the digestion to occur.
- In duodenum, trypsin breakdown
polypeptides into peptides.
- In small intestine, arepsin break dwon
peptides into amino acids.
Fats
- Bile salts breaking up fats into small
fat droplets in the duodenum.
- In duodenum/small intestine, lipase
breaks lipids into fatty acids and
glycerol.
Carbohydrates
- In mouth, salivary amylase hydrolyse
starch into maltose.
- In duodenum, pancreatic amylase
hydrolyse starch into maltose.
- In small intestine, maltase hydrolyse
maltose into glucose.
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Absorption of digested food
Absorption of digested food occur in the
ileum.
Glucose/amino acids initially diffuse into
blood capillaries.
The remaining of the glucose/amino acids
actively transport into blood capillaries.
All blood capillaries converge into hepatic
portal vein, which lead to the liver (and
transport to all parts o fthe body).
Glycerol and fatty acids diffuse to the
epithelial cell which lining the ileum) and
combine to form fat droplets.
Fatty acids and glycerol then enter the
lacteal (lymphatic system).
Return back to the blood stream at left
subclavian vein.
Assimilation of digested food
Explain the assimilation of glucose and amino acid
in body cells.
Glucose is oxidised to produce energy,
carbon dioxide and water by cellular
respiration.
Amino acid is used to synthesis
protoplasm (the component of cell). By
this way new cells will be synthesised
causing growth.
Amino acid also can be used to synthesis
enzyme, hormone or antibody.
BIOLOGY FORM4&5 ikmal hafizah
Formation faeces
Faeces which contain dead cells that are
shed from intestinal linings, toxic
substances and bile pigments enter the
colon by action of peristalsis.
In colon, more water is absorbed. The
undigested food residues harden to
become faeces.
Faeces contain undigestible residues that
remain after the process of digestion and
absorption of nutrients that take place in
the small intestine.
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Photosynthesis mechanism
The formation of starch in plants is by the
process ofphotosynthesis which occurs in
chloroplasts.
The two stages in photosynthesis are the
light and dark reactions.
Light reaction:
P3:Takes place in grana.
P4: Chlorophyll captures light energy
which excites the electrons of chlorophyll
molecules to higher energy levels.
P5: In the excited state, the electrons can
leave the chlorophyll molecules.
P6: Light energy is also used to split water
molecules into hydrogen ion (H+) and
hydroxyl ions (OH-) (Photolysis of water).
P7: The hydrogen ions then combine with
the electrons released by chlorophyll to
form hydrogen atoms.
Photosynthesis mechanism
P8: The energy from the excited electrons
is used to form energy-rich molecules of
adenosine triphosphate /ATP.
P9: Hydroxyl ion loses an electron to form
a hydroxyl group. This electron is then
received by chlorophyll.
P10: The hydroxyl groups then combine to
form water and gaseous oxygen.
Dark Reaction:
P11: Take place in stroma.
P12: Do not require light energy.
P13: The hydrogen atoms are used to fix
carbon dioxide in a series of reactions
catalysed by photosynthetic enzymes
P14: and caused the reduction of carbon
dioxide into glucose.
P15: The glucose monomers then undergo
condensation to form starch which is
temporarily stored as starch grains in the
chloroplasts.
BIOLOGY FORM4&5 ikmal hafizah
Uses of enzyme (Chapter 4)
Enzymes are used as biological
detergents.
Protease degrades coagulated proteins
into soluble short-chain peptides.
Lipase degrades fat or oil stains into
soluble fatty acid and glycerol.
Amylase degrades starch into soluble
shorter-chain polysaccharides and sugars.
Enzymes are used in the baking industry.
Protease is used in the breakdown of
proteins in flour for the production of
biscuits.
Amylase is used in the breakdown of
some starch to glucose in flour for making
white bread, buns and rolls.
Enzymes are used in the medical field.
Trypsin is used to remove blood clots
and to clean wounds.
Various other enzymes are used in
biosensors.
Enzymes are used in industries because:
They are effective.
They are cheap and easy to use.
They can be re-used, thus only small
amounts are needed.
They don't require high temperature to
work, thus this reduces fuel costs.
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 BIOLOGY FORM4&5 ikmal hafizah

Aerobic respiration Anaerobic respiration in human muscle Anaerobic respiration in yeast

Continuous supply of oxygen.
Glucose molecules are oxidised by
oxygen.
Complete breakdown of glucose in the
presence of oxygen.
A large amount of energy released.
Carbon dioxide and water are produced as
waste products.
Most of the nergy released is used to
synthesise adenosine triphosphate (ATP)
from adenosine diphosphate (ADP) and
inorganic phosphate.
ATP acts as instant energy source.
ATP consists of phosphate bonds which
can be easily broken down to release
energy.
Energy released
ATP ADP + phosphate + energy
During a vigorous exercise (running), the Yeast normally respires aerobically.
breathing rate is increased. Under anaerobic condition, yeast carry
This is to supply more oxygen to the out anaerobic respiration.
muscles for rapid muscular contraction. Produces ethanol.
However, the supply of oxygen to muscles Process known as fermentation.
is still insufficient. Catalysed by the enzyme zymase.
and the muscles have to carry out
anaerobic respiration to release energy. - Ethanol produced can be used in
The glucose is converted into lactic acid, making wine and beer.
with only a limited amount of energy - In bread making, the carbon dioxide
being produced. released during fermentation of yeast
An oxygen debt builds up in the body, causes the dough to rise.
when no oxygen use in energy production.
High level of lactic acid in the muscles
cause them to ache.
After running, the athlete breathes more
rapidly and deeply than normal for
twenty minutes.
There is recovery period after 10 minutes
until it reaches 20 minutes when oxygen is
paid back during aerobic respiration.
About 1/6 lactic acid is oxidized to carbon
dioxide, water and energy.

Similarities between the sturucture of digestive and digestion process of ruminants and rodents

S1 Both alimentary canal contains bacteria/protozoa

P1 To secrete extracellular enzyme//to digest
P2 To digest cellulose into glucose
S2 Both have large surface area
P1 To increase rate of diffusion //hydrolysed food

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 BIOLOGY FORM4&5 ikmal hafizah

Differences between the sturucture of digestive and digestion process of ruminants and rodents

Aspects Ruminant (has) Rodent (has)

Number of stomach chamber D1 4 stomach chamber 1 stomach chamber
E1 Have to digest cellulose Do not have to digest cellulose
Size of caecum D2 Small//short caecum Big//long size caecum
E2 Do not digest cellulose A place to digest cellulose
Bacteria D3 In reticulum In caecum
E3 For secrete cellulase enzyme For secrete cellulase enzyme
Number of times yhe food passes D4 Twice But Once
through the stomach chamber E4 To complete the digestion// To absorb digested food
Regurgitated D5 Twice in mouth cavity Once in mouth cavity

Breathing mechanism in man
Diaphragm is a muscular sheet in the
body cavity separating the thorax from
the abdomen.
At the start of inhalation, the muscles of
the diaphragm contract , making it less
arched.
This helps to increase the volume of the
thoracic cavity and reduce the pressure
of the thoracic cavity. Air rushes into the
lungs.
When the muscles of the diaphragm
relax , it returns to its arched condition ,
reducing the volume of the thoracic
cavity and increasing the pressure of the
thoracic cavity. Air is forced out of the
lungs.
The muscles between the ribs are known
as intercostals muscles.
During inhalation the external
intercostals muscle contracts and raise
the lower ribs.
Breathing mechanism in man (continuation)
This helps to increase the volume of the
thoracic cavity and reduce the pressure of the
thoracic cavity. Air rushes into the lungs.
During exhalation the external intercostals
muscles contract , the ribs return to their
original position , reduce the pressure of the
thoracic cavity. Air is forced out of the lungs.
The alveoli are thin-walled air sacs with the
lungs.
These sacs are surrounded by a network of
capillaries.
During inhalation the alveoli are filled with
air and gaseous exchange occurs between the
alveoli and the capillaries.
Oxygen from the alveoli diffuses into the
capillaries while carbon dioxide diffuses from
the capillaries into the alveoli.
Transport of O2 and CO2 in human body
Gaseous exchange across the alveolus
occurs by diffusion.
Diffusion of gas depends on differences
in partial pressure between two regions.
The partial pressure/ concentration of
oxygen in the air of the alveoli is higher
compared to the partial pressure/
concentration of oxygen in the blood
capillaries.
Therefore, oxygen diffuse across the
surface of the alveolus and blood
capillaries into blood.
The transport of oxygen is carried out by
the blood circulatory system.
Oxygen combines with respiratory
pigment called haemoglobin in the red
blood cells.
To form oxyhaemoglobin.
When the blood passed the tissue with
low partial pressure of oxygen,

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Transport of O2 and CO2 in human body
(continuation)
Oxyhaemoglobin dissociates to release
oxygen.
Carbon dioxide released by repairing
cells can be transported by dissolve
carbon dioxide in the blood plasma.
Bind to the haemoglobin.
As carbaminohaemoglobin.
In form of bicarbonate ions.
Carbon dioxide is expelled with water
vapour from the lung.
Explain how energy flows through the food chain
and how it is lost to the environment.
Energy flows through the food chain in one
direction .
In the food chain, the plant is the producer,
the rat is the primary consumer, the snake is
the secondary consumer and the eagle is the
tertiary consumer.
In the food chain, the plant is the producer,
the earthworm is the primary consumer, the
bird is the secondary consumer and the
snake/ eagle is the tertiary consumer. Each
level of food chain is called a trophic level.
Energy is transferred from one trophic level
to another trophic level.
When energy is transferred from one trophic
level to another level as much as 90% of the
chemical energy in the food consumed by
primary consumer is used for its metabolic
activities and lost as heat.
Only 10% of the energy in an organism is
passed on to the organism at the next trophic
level.
BIOLOGY FORM4&5 ikmal hafizah
Colonisation and succession in mangrove
swamps
The pioneer species of a mangrove
swamp are the Sonneratia sp. and
Avicennia sp.
The presence of this species gradually
changes the physical environment of
the habitat.The extensive root systems
of these plants trap and collect
sediments, including organic matter
from decaying plant parts.
As time passes, the soil becomes more
compact and firm. This condition
favours the growth of Rhizophora sp.
Gradually the Rhizophora sp. replaces
the pioneer species.
The prop root system of the Rhizophora
sp. traps silt and mud, creating a firmer
soil structure over time.
The ground becomes higher. As a result,
the soil is drier because it is less
submerged by sea water.
The condition now becomes more
suitable for the Bruguiera sp., which
replaces the Rhizophora sp.
The buttress root system of the
Bruguiera sp. forms loops which extend
from the soil to trap more silt and mud.
As more sediments are deposited, the
shore extends further to the sea. The
old shore is now further away from the
sea and is like terresterial ground.
Over time, terrestrial plants
like nipah palm and Pandanus sp. begin
to replace the Bruguiera sp.
14

Green house effects
Green house effect.
Ultra violet(uv) from solar radiation is
absorbed by the earth and some of them
is reflected back to the atmosphere in the
form of heat/infra red.
Heat or infrared radiation cannot be
reflected back to the atmosphere.
Because it is trapped by green house
gases such as CO2, nitrogen dioxide and
methane.
Heat/infrared warmed the surface of
earth.
Earth temperature increases.
Explain briefly why humans carry out the activity
as shown in diagram above
The human population grows rapidly. The
demands for food and housing areas have
increased.
Vast areas of forest are cleared for
agricultural and commercial purposes.
Urbanization and industrialization have
caused more forests to be cleared for
road construction and housing areas.
Deforestation is also caused by the
demands for timber and fuel wood.
BIOLOGY FORM4&5 ikmal hafizah
Explain the impacts of the activity shown above
on the environment
Deforestation causes soil erosion ,
landslides, flash floods and global
warming.
Causes the soil to become loose and less
stable.
Without the protection of green plants,
the soil is exposed to the forces of wind
and rain.
The top layer of soil is washed away
gradually by the rainwater.
This is known as soil erosion.
Soil erosion causes the depletion of
minerals from the soil, therefore the soil
becomes infertile and unsuitable for
agriculture.
Landslides may happen on steep hillsides
during heavy rain.
It is because rainwater flows quickly and
causes the top layer of the soil to
crumble.
Rivers and drains are silted and the flow
of water is blocked.
Therefore, water flows inland and this
causes flash floods in the lower areas
during rainy seasons.
15
 BIOLOGY FORM4&5 ikmal hafizah

Human blood vessels Circulatory system in fish and human Blood clotting
Arteries Similarities - clumped platelets, damaged cells, clotting
- carries blood away from heart - both have closed circulation factors form activators (thromboplastins)
- transport blood quickly, at high pressure - both have a heart - activators together with calcium ions and
vitamin K, converts prothrombin to
- muscle of tissue enables the artery to
Differences thrombin
constrict and dilate
- thrombin catalyses the conversion of
- walls of arteries are strong and elastic, soluble protein fibrinogen into insoluble
have small lumen Fish Human
Has single circulation Has double circulation fibrin.
Capillaries - fibrin is a fibrous protein which combines
- thin walled blood vessels Heart divides into 2 Heart is divided into 4
to form a mesh of long threads over the
chambers chambers
- allow rapid gaseous exchange via diffusion wounds, trapping red blood cells and
Septum is absent Septum is present
- nutrients, wastes and hormones are also sealing the wound.
Deoxygenated blood Deoxygenated blood
exchanged across here - blood clot hardens when exposed to air
flows from heart to flows from heart to
- one cell thick gills lungs
forming scab
Veins Oxygenated blood Oxygenated blood
- blood returns from capillaries to heart flows from gills to flows from lungs to
through veins body cells heart
- blood flows in low pressure
- have large lumens and valves (prevent
back flow)

Difference between blood and lymph Type of immunity Phagocytosis

- lymph has a large numbers of lymphocyte - active immunity, body produces its own - the phagocyte is attracted by chemicals
compare to blood antibodies in response to stimulation by produced by bacterium
- lymphocyte is produced by lymph nodes an antigen - Phagocytes extend its pseudopodium
in lymph system - passive immunity, body receive an (legs) towards bacterium to engulf it.
- lymph has lower content of oxygen antibodies from outside source - ingestion of bacterium forms phagosome
compare to blood - phagosome combines with lysosome
- lysosome releases lysozyme into
phagosome
- bacterium inside the phagosome will be
destroyed by lysozyme
- phagocyte releases the digested products
from cell

16

Lymph formed - brought back into the blood
circulatory system.
- when blood flows from arteries into
capillaries, there is higher hydrostatic
pressure at artial end of capillaries
- high pressure causes some plasma to pass
through capillary walls into intercellular
spaces
- interstitial fluid fills the spaces between
cells and constantly bathes the cells
- 90% of interstitial fluid diffuses back into
blood capillary
- 10% of interstitial fluid goes into the lymph
capillaries and known as lymph
- lymph capillaries unite forming larger
lymphatic vessels
- from lymphatic vessels, lymph eventually
passes into thoracic duct
- hence lymph drains back into blood
Respiratory gases
Transportation in respiratory gas.
- oxygen enters alveoli during inhalation
- gaseous exchange occurred at alveoli
(oxygen diffused into blood capillaries
while carbon dioxide diffused out)
- the diffusion of these gases caused by
different of partial pressure of both
gaseous
- partial pressure of oxygen in alveoli is
higher than partial pressure of oxygen in
blood capillaries
- oxygen diffused in cytoplasm of red blood
cell
- oxygen combines with haemoglobin
forming oxyhaemoglobin
- oxyhaemoglobin then sent to all parts of
body
- heart pumped the oxygenated blood to all
body cells
- oxygen diffused from blood capillaries to
cell because partial pressure of oxygen in
blood capillaries is higher than in cell
- carbon dioxide diffuse from cell to blood
capillaries because partial pressure of
carbon dioxide in cell is higher than in
blood capillaries
- deoxygenated blood going back to heart
by vena cava and to lungs by pulmonary
artery
BIOLOGY FORM4&5 ikmal hafizah
Active immunity Passive immunity
Active immunity
- obtained by vaccination (artificially
acquired)
- vaccine contains dead/weakened
bacteria/pathogen/virus
- white blood cells stimulated to produce
antibodies against pathogen
- also obtained when an individual has
recovered from certain diseases(naturally
acquired)
- a ready made supply of antibody will give
immunity towards the disease
Passive immunity
- obtained by injecting
antibodies/antiserum (artificially
acquired)
- no antigen is put into body, so body does
not produce its own antibodies
- obtained by a baby when antibodies from
mothers blood plasma diffuse into foetus
through placenta (naturally acquired)
17

Movement of water froom root to leaves
Movement of water from root to leaves aided by
root pressure, capillary action and transpirational
pull.
Root pressure
cell sap of root hair(usually) hypertonic to
surrounding soil solution
water diffuses into root by osmosis
cell cap becomes more dilute compared
to neighbouring cell
water moves to these adjacent cells which
become more diluted themselves, so
osmosis continues across the cortex
(at the same time) ions from soil are
actively secreted into xylem vessels and
causes osmotic pressure to increase
Water flows continuously into xylem and
create a pressure(root pressure)
Root pressure gives an initial upward
force to water and mineral ions in xylem
BIOLOGY FORM4&5 ikmal hafizah
Movement of water from root to leaves Effect of no lignin formation on the function of
tissue xylem
Capillary action lignin is important to make tissue xylem
water moves up through xylem in stems strong
by capillarity
capillary action is due to combined force - without lignin, tissue xylem will collapse
of cohesion(water molecules have - therefore, it cannot form a continuous
attraction for each other) and hollow tube
adhesion(water molecules are attracted
- to allow water to flow upwards
to the side of vessels)
continuously
water molecule form a continuous water
column in xylem vessel (due to cohesion lignin makes the tissue become
and adhesion)
impermeable
the cohesion of water prevent the water
column in xylem breaking apart
- materials cannot pass in xylem cells
the adhesion of water prevents gravity
from pulling the water down the column - causes the tissue to become hollow
- allows continuous flow of water
Transpirational pull -
the lost of water from mesophyll cells (choose one of the * and the explanations below)
during transpiration is replaces by water
which flows in from xylem vessels in
leaves
this creates a tension/suction force in
water column because water has cohesive
properties called transpiration pull
the transpiration pull draws water from
xylem in the leaves/stem/roots
the continuous flow of water through
plant is known as transpiration stream
18

light intensity and stomata and cells effect the
rate of water loss
F1- from 0500 to 0170(time/hours), rate
of water loss increases
E1- light intensity increases
E2- stimulates photosynthesis in guard
cells
E3- this makes energy available for
potassium to move into guard cells by
active transport
E4- guard cells become
hypertonic(compared to cell sap) of
epidermal cells
E5- water molecules from epidermal cells
diffuse into guard cells by osmosis
E6- causing guard cells to bend outwards
E7- stoma opens (allows water to escape)
F2- from 0170 to 0300(time/hours) rate of
water loss decreases
E8- lisght intensity decreases/rate of
photosynthesis decreases
E9- guard cells become flaccid and bend
inwards
E10- stoma closes, prevents water from
escaping
Notes: (F1 + any 5Es) + (F2 + 3Es)
Adaptation of the muscle which enables it to
contracts
- the skeletal muscle consist of bundles of
muscle fibres and a large supply of nerves
and blood vessels
- a muscle fibre is made up of bundles of
smaller units called myofibrils
- each myofibril is made up of 2 types of
protein filaments: the actin and the
myosin which interact and cause muscle
contractions
- the muscles nerve endings control its
contractions
BIOLOGY FORM4&5 ikmal hafizah
Movement takes place involves muscles,
tendons, bones, ligaments and joints
Muscle
- quadriceps femoris contract while biceps
femoris muscles relax (leg straightened)
- biceps femoris contract while quadriceps
femoris relax (leg bent)
- calf muscles contract to lift up the heels
- feet push downwards and backwards
- repeated contraction and relaxation of
muscle result in running movement
Ligaments
- it connects 2 bones together
- give support and strength to joints for
movement
- strong and elastic
Joints
- a hinge joint allow the movement of leg to
swing back and forth
Tendon
- connect muscles to bones
- strong and non elastic
- force is transferred to bones through
tendons
Bones
- femur/ thigh bone is long, heavy and
strong
- provide support to body weight
19

Adaptation of plant which enable it to float
- have fine aerenchyma wall tissues (plants
become more lighter)
- have air spaces/air sacs (becomes more
easy to float)
- have big and swell stem/petiole (increase
the air to help plant floating)
- have fine and many roots (trap gas
bubbles)
Skeletal system of earthworm and fish adapted
for its movement
Movements in earthworm
- earthworm has hydrostatic skeleton
- moves by changing hydrostatic pressure
of fluid in its segment
- each segment of the body has its own set
of muscles
o an outer layer of circular muscles
running around the body causes the
worm to become long and thin when
they contract
o an inner layer of longitudinal muscles
causes the worm to get short and
thick when they contract
- as the circular muscles contract, the
longitudinal muscles will relax
simultaneously in antagonistic action
- causes the hydrostatic pressure to be
transferred from anterior part to posterior
part causing the worm to move forward
Movements in fish
- fish has an endoskeleton
- it provides place for attachment of
muscles
- when the left myotome contracts, right
myotome will relax in antagonistic action
- causes the vertebral column to curve
toward the left
- the fish also has fins with different
functions for locomotion
BIOLOGY FORM4&5 ikmal hafizah
Adaptive features which helps in birds and fish
locomotion
Bird
- aerofoil wing to generate the upward lift
- a pair of antagonistic muscle (pectorolis
major and minor) pulled down and up the
wings
- single organ (one testes/kidney)//small
skull to reduce weight
- streamlined body shape reduce air
resistance
- waterproof feather avoid increase in
body weight during raining
Fish
- streamed lined body reduce water
resistance
- myotome muscle are W/V shaped which
act antagonistically
- air sac maintain buoyancy in water
- fins
o dorsal and ventral fin
prevent/helps in yawing and
rolling
o tail fin provides thrust and
controls direction
o pelvin and pectoral fin act as
brakes/to slow down
20

Support is achieved in submerged and floating
plants
Submerged plants
- posses air sacs within the leaves and the
stem to help the plant to stay upright in
water
- water buoyancy provides support
- have very few woody tissue/vascular
tissue
- thin/narrow/flexible leaves provide little
resistance to water flow
Floating plants
- stem have plenty of air sacs
- aerenchyma tissues helps to stay afloat in
water
- do not have woody tissues
- natural water buoyancy to help them float
- have broad leaves that are firm but
flexible to resist being torned by wav
action
BIOLOGY FORM4&5 ikmal hafizah
Osteoporosis and osteoarthritis happen - Important to have healthy musculoskeletal
prevented system - ways maintaining a healthy
musculoskeletal
Osteoporosis The musculoskeleton system where bones,
- a disease in which bone mass is reduced muscles, ligaments and tendons work together
and the boned become porous and lighter like a machine to bring about movement
- occurse most often in old people, partially
women who have gone menopause - musculoskeleton helps to support our
- bodies of postmenopausal women do not body
produce sex hormone, oestrogen - if any part of system injured, we will
- causes more bone minerals to be lost than experience discomfort, pain and loss of
deposited mobility
- as a results, bones become soft and brittle - it also affect othe organs and physiological
- can be prevented by
processes in body (respiration/digestion)
o doing weight-bearing exercise,
strengthen the muscles and bones
o taking diet rich in calcium,
phosphorus and vitamin D
o takin in vitamin C, increase bone
mass
o refraining from smoking
Osteoarthritis
- Osteoarthritis is part of ageing process
due to wear and tear of cartilage between
bones at certain joints
- Patient has painful, swollen stiff knees
which restrict daily activities (walking,
climbing)
- If treatment fails to relieve the pain, a
surgeon can replace the damaged joints
with artificial ones made of plastic or
metal
21

Important to have healthy musculoskeletal
system - ways maintaining a healthy
musculoskeletal
Ways to maintain
- having balanced diet. Take diet rich in
proteins, vitamins A, C n D together with
minerals (calcium,phosphate n iron) for
building strong bones. Drinking
fluoridated water will also harden the
bones
- adopt a good posture while standing,
sitting, walking and while performing
certain tasks to ensure that our body is
always supported. This is important
because bad posture will put undue
pressure on our muscles and spine and
this will in turn affect the functions of our
internal organs (lungs, heart and stomach)
- wear proper attire for daily activities.
Wear loose and comfortable clothes. Tight
clothes restrict our movement. Woman
wearing high heels tilt the body forwards.
To counteract this, the woman bends her
knees and throws her trunk forwards,
causing the spine to curve even more
- taking precautions during vigorous
activities
- practice correct and safe techniques when
exercisingto prevent serious injuries to
the musculosketonn system
Osteoarthritis and arthritis gout occur - effect of
the diseases
Muscular dystrophy
- muscle destroying disorder
- weakness/weaking of muscles
- mostly in male
- affect the heart muscle heart attack
- results in poor balance/wobbling/poor
movement
Osteoporosis
- condition characterized by lost of normal
density of bone
- resulting in fragile bone
- bone fracture
- no symptom before any bone fracture
- consequences fracture of
vertebrae//reduction of in height over
time//stooped posture
BIOLOGY FORM4&5 ikmal hafizah
Support system in woody plants differs from that
of non-woody plants
Non-woody plants (herbaceous plants)
- (support in herbaceous plants is) provided
by the turgidity of
parenchyma/collenchyma cells
- (when there is enough warm in the
ground) the cells take in water by osmosis
and become turgid
- The turgor pressure of fluids in the
vacuoles pushes the cell contents/plasma
membrane against the cell wall
- Creating support for its tem/roots/leaves
- The thin thickening die cell walls with
cellulose/collenchyma cells gives support
to herbaceous plants
22

Support system in woody plants differs from that
of non-woody plants
Woody plants
- woody plants have specialized
tissues/sclerenchyma tissues/xylem
vessels.tracheids to give them support
- these tissues have cellulose walls which
have deposits of lignin for added strength
- sclerenchyma cells have very thick walls
(do not allow water to pass through)
- (these cells are dead cells) their function is
to provide support
- Xylem vessels have thick walls of lignin
which are deposited during the plants
secondary growth
- The lignified xylem vessels form the
woody tissues of the stem
- This makes the plant stronger and also
provides support for the plant
- Tracheids are also dead cells with thick
walls and very small diameters
- They are found with xylem vessels and
together they support the plants
Synapse The event as a nerve impulse is
transmitted across a synapse
Synapse is a narrow gap between an axon
terminal and a dendrite of another
adjacent neuron. A chemical is used by
neuron to transmit an impulse across a
synapse. The chemical is called
neurotransmitter
The transmission of information across a
synapse involves the conversion of
electrical signal into chemical signal in the
form of neurotransmitter
Neurotransmitter is produced in vesicles
in a swollen part of the axon terminal
called synaptic knob
Synaptic knob contains abundant
mitochondrion to generate energy for the
transmission
When an impulse arrived at the synaptic
knob, the vesicles release the
neurotransmitters into the synapse
The neurotransmitters molecules diffuse
across the synapse to the dendrite of
another neurons
The dendrite of another neurons is
stimulated to trigger a new impulse which
travel down a long neuron
BIOLOGY FORM4&5 ikmal hafizah
Knee jerk
- the knee jerk action involves two types of
neurons named afferent and efferent
neurons
- when a hammer hits a tendon that
connect to quadriceps muscle in the thigh
to a bone in the lower leg
- as the hammer strike, the force stretches
the quadriceps muscle and stimulates the
stretch receptors in the muscles,
triggering nerve impulse
- afferent neurons transmit the information
to the quadriceps muscle and the muscle
contracts swing the leg forward
- if the patient is able to swing the leg
forward, it indicates that the patients
nerve system is still functioning
- if there is no response, it shows that the
patients nervous system fails to function
properly
23

When the hand touches a hot object
- the heat on the object stimulates the
nerve endings (receptors) in skin
- impulses are triggered
- impulses travel along the sensory/afferent
neuron to spinal cord
- in spinal cord, the impulses are
transmitted first across a synapse to the
interneurone and then across another
synapse to the motor/efferent neurone
At synapse
- when an impulse reach a presynaptic
membrane, it triggers the synaptic
vesicles to release neutrotransmitter into
the synaptic cleft
- the neurotransmitter diffuse across the
synaptic cleft
- and bind to receptors which are attached
to the postsynaptic membrane
- the binding of the neurotransmitter to the
receptors leads to the generation of a
new impulse
- impulses leave the spinal cord along the
motor/efferent neurone to the effector
- the effector is the biceps muscle which
then contracts. This brings about a sudden
withdrawal of the hand
BIOLOGY FORM4&5 ikmal hafizah
Roles of cerebellum and medulla oblongata - Glomerular filtrate formed
reflex action when finger being stung by a bee
Cerebellum - when blood enters the glomerulus,
- coordination of movement ultrafiltration takes place
- controls of balance/posture - because blood from the aorta reaches the
Medulla oblongata nephron/glomerulus at high pressure
- controls/increase breathing - and due to the different artiole and
- controls/increase heart rate efferent arteriole
- controls blood pressure/sweating - the high pressure forces fluid through the
Reflex action filtration membrane into capsular space
- receptors in the skin of the finger detects forming glomerular filtrate
pain
- nerve impulse is generated in pain
receptor
- electrical impulses are sent via the
afferent(sensory) neurone to spinal cord
- impulses are transferred to the
interneurone in the spinal cord
- interneurone sents impulses to the
efferent neurone
- efferent neurone sents impulses to
biceps/muscle
- biceps/muscle contract (triceps relax)
causing the arm to bend
24

Structure and the role of nephron - formation of
urine
Structure and the role of nephron
- nephron is the functional unit of a kidney
- a nephron consist of 3 major parts
(glomerulus, and its associated vessels)
- the Bowmans capsule
- a long narrow tube called the renal
tubule, which made up of proximal
convoluted tubule, loop of Henle and
distal convoluted tubule
- the distal convoluted tubules of several
nephrons join to a common collecting
duct
- the loop oh Henle is a long hairpin-shaped
region of the nephron that descends into
the medulla and then returns to the
cortex
BIOLOGY FORM4&5 ikmal hafizah
Formation of urine Consequences of kidney failure
- ultrafiltration, reabsoprtion and secretion - if both kidneys stop functioning, the blood
- blood is under relatively high pressure osmotic pressure and blood volume
when it reaches the nephron cannot be maintained
- high blood pressure in glomerulus, forces - the built up of toxic wastes in the body
fluid to filter through the filtration can result in life-threatening conditions
membrane into the lumen of Bowmans - they have to undergo haemodialysis
capsule - another treatment for impaired kidney
- forming glomerular filtrate functions is the transplant of a healthy
- contains water, glucose, amino acids, kidney from a donor to the patient
mineral salts and other small molecules
- the glomerular filtrate will flow into
proximal convoluted tubule
- selective reabsoption occurs
- by active and passive transport
- forming relatively high solute
concentration in the peritubular
capillaries
- thus large volume of water is reabsorbed
into the blood by osmosis
- increase the concentration of urea in the
convoluted tubule
- glomerular filtrate then flow into loop of
henle and distal convoluted tubule
- more water and minerals being
reabsorbed back into the blood
- take place in the distal convoluted tubule
- urea/toxins/ammonia/ect being secreted
by passive diffusion and active transport
from blood capillary into distal convoluted
tubule
- filtrate reaches the collecting duct (now
called urine). flows down the ureter, the
bladder and urethra and is finally excreted
25

Avoid drug and alcohol why affects -
coordination systems
Drugs
- some drugs are stimulants/cocaine
- increases the activities of the central
nervous system
- excessive use leads to temporary
euphoria followed by depression
- causes the user to see/hear/perceive
things that do not exist
- some drugs like narcotic/heroin/morphine
- block pain signals
- induce feelings of euphoria/slows down
nerve impulses
Alcohol
- strong depressant
- affects coordination and judgement
- inhibits releases of ADH from posterior
pituitary
- less water will be absorbed into blood
stream/ more urine produced
- alcohol/drugs are addictive
- develop dependence on
alcohol/drugs/develop severe withdrawal
effects
- long term usage can damage organs
- brain damage/stomach ulcers
Geotropism is brought about in a plant root and
shoot - advantages
Shoot
- the auxin that is produced at the tip of
shoot
- auxin moves downwards/accumulate on
the underside of the shoot tip due to the
pull of gravity
- the high concentration of auxin
accelerates the growth
- stimulating greater cell elongation on the
underside relative to the cells on the
upper side
- this differential elongation causes the
shoot to bend away from gravity/grow
upwards
Root
- the auxin that is produced at the tip of
root
- auxin moves downwards/accumulates on
the underside of the root tip due to the
pull of gravity
- the hight concentration of auxin inhibits
the growth
- slowing down cell elongation on the
underside relative to the cells on the
upper side
- this differential elongation causes the
shoot to bend towards gravity
BIOLOGY FORM4&5 ikmal hafizah
Tips of shoot contribute to growth in oat
seedlings
- *without tip of a shoot, an oat seedling
cannot grow
- this proves elongation of plumule is
dependent on the presence of the tip of
the shoot
- *if the tip of the coleoptile is first
removed and placed on an agar block
which is transferred onto the cut stump of
another oat seedling the plumule still
grows straight upwards
- this means that the tip of the shoot
carried chemical messengers which has
diffused into the agar block
- the chemical messenger then diffuses into
the plumule and causes the plumule to
elongate
- *if the agar block is placed asymmetrically
(a little to one scale of the center), the
shoots bend away from the scale with the
agar block as though it is growing towards
the light
- This is because a higher concentration of
the growth promoting chemical
messenger accumulates below the agar
block
- This means that the agar block contains a
chemical messenger produced in the
shoot
- The chemical stimulates growth as it
diffuses down into the shoot
- The chemical messenger is auxin
26