Dynamic of Chess Psychology

The Dynamics of
Chess Psycho1ogy
Copyr i ght 1 994

Cary Utterberg
A l l r i gh t s r e s e r v e d u n d e r P a n Am e r i c a n
a n d I n t e r n a t i o n a l Cop y r i g h t c on v e n t i o n s .
I SBN 0 - 8 7 56 8 - 2 56- 1
N o p a r t o f th i s p u b l i c a t i o n m a y b e r e
p r o d u c e d , s t o red i n a r e t r i eva l s y s t e m , o r
t r a nsm i t te d i n any f o rm , or b y a n y means :
e l e c t r on i c , electrostatic , m a g ne t i c ,
tapes , m e ch a n i c a l p h o t o c o py i n g , r e c o r d i n g
or otherwi s e , wi thout pr ior and current
p e rm i s s i o n f r o m t h e p u b l i s h e r .
A u t ho r : C a r y Ut t e rb e r g
Ed i tor : K e n S m i th
C omp u t e r T yp e s e t t i n g : C a r y Ut t e rberg
Cover : E l a i ne Sm i th
Proo f r ea de r : S i d P i ckard
F i n a l P r e p a r a t i o n & D i a gr am s : K e n S m i th
Publ i she r : C he s s D i g e s t , I n c .
1 6 0 1 T a n t o r ( P . O . Bo x 5 9 0 2 9 )
Da l l a s , Texa s 7 5 2 2 9
S e n d the p u bl i s he r $ 2 . 0 0 f o r the n e w
Che s s G u i d e t h a t c a t a l o g s eve r y che s s b o o k
for g e ne r a l s a l e in the Un i ted S t a t e s .
You are g i ve n publ i she r s , page c ount s ,
n o t a t i o n a n d c r i t i c a l r ev i e w s . Also in
c l ud e d i s a f r e e C h e s s I mp r ov e m e n t c o u r s e
fo r b e g i n ne r s u p t h r ough Ma s t e r l eve l
p l a yers .
Tab1e o f Contents
Page
Pref ace 7
1 . Phi 1osophica1 Founda t i ons 10
2 . The Importance of Aesthet i cs 30
I . PRE-HI STORY ( 600 - 1 8 2 1 )

F IRST STEPS
3 . The Embryo Chess 39

A F am i l y Tr ee
4 . The Span i sh Schoo1 48

The Ex i s t e n t i a l C o mb i n a t i ve
Unde rstand i ng
5 . The Ita1 i an Schoo1 52

T o wa r d a C o n t i n u i t y o f S t y l e
6. Phi 1 i dor 57
P a wn P l a y a n d O r d e r
I I . THE ROMANTI CS ( 1 8 2 1 - 1 8 59 )
T H E D E VELO P M E N T O F NATURAL TALENT
7 . Bourdonna i s 62
T h e Exi s t en t i a l A t t a c k i n g Un i t
8 . Staunton 66
E x i s t e n t i a l Vu l ne r a b i l i t y
9 . Anderssen 71
Antagon i sm
4 Tab1e of Contents
Page
1 0 . Morphy 76
The G l o b a l Ex i s t e n t i a l
Und e r s t an d i ng
III . THE CLASS ICAL ERA ( 1 8 59 - 1 9 2 7 )

C H E S S A S S C I ENC E
1 1 . Pau1sen 81
I n e r t i a l Ma s s
1 2 . Ste i n i tz 87
S t r a t e g i c Ma s k i n g
1 3 . Tarrasch 93
I d ea l i sm
1 4 . Tchigor i n 1 00
Skep t i c i sm
1 5 . Lasker 105
Recogn i t i on
1 6 . Rub i nste i n 111

I n t e gr a t i on
1 7 . Capab1anca 1 17
T he F u l l y - I n t e g r a t e d Ex i s t e n t i a l
Un d e r s t a n d i n g
IV . THE MODERN GAME ( 1 9 27- 1 9 5 7 )

I ND I V I DUAL I TY AND C HARAC T E R
1 8 . Nizov i ch 1 25
Respons i b i l i ty
1 9 . A1ekh i ne 132
The I n i t i a t i ve
Tab1e of Contents 5
Page
20 . Botvinn i k 1 44
S ubje c t / O bje c t I n t e g r a t i o n
2 1 . Sys1ov 152
T h e Mod e r n G r u n f e l d D e f e n c e
2 2 . Bo1es1avsky 1 56
The Mod e r n S i c i l i a n D e f e n c e
2 3 . Bronstein 161
The Mod e r n K i n g ' s I n d i a n D e f e n c e
V . CONTEMPORARY CHESS ( 1 9 5 7 - )
T H E I ND I V I DUAL I N S T RUGGLE
24 . Ta1 1 66
The P s y c h o l o g i c a l S a c r i f i c e
2 5 . Petros i an 1 70
Adve r s a r i a l R e s pons i b i l i t y
2 6 . Korchno i 1 74
D e f en s i ve C h a r a c t e r
2 7 . Spassky 1 78
The U n i v e r s a l S t y l e
2 8 . F i scher 1 84
I nt e r a c t i ve R e s pons i b i l i t y
2 9 . Karpov 1 95
D om i n a t i o n
30 . Kasparov 1 99
C o mmu n a l R e s p o n s i b i l i t y
3 1 . Overview 206
6 Tab1e of Contents
Page
Append ix 1 2 14
O n t h e R a t i n g o f C he s s p l a y e r s
Append ix 2 217
O n T r a i n i n g Ex i s t e n t i a l Und e r s t a n d i n g
Preface
C he s s I n f o r ma t i on : o p e n i n g s a n d en d -
i n g s , t o u r n a m e n t a n d m a t ch b o o k s , p e r i o d
icals , b i o g r a ph i e s , hi s tor i e s , p r o b l em s ,
T he r e ' s n o s h o r t a g e o f k n ow l e d g e t o
b e a ss i m i l a ted . Bu t who w ou l d c l a i m tha t
a n y g i v e n p e r s o n c ou l d f o l l ow t h i s r o a d t o
the gr andma s te r t i t l e ? Or who truly be
l i ev e s t h a t f o r thcom i ng i n f o rma t i on w i l l
one d a y topp l e thi s ba rr i e r ? My p r i ma r y
the s i s a l r e a d y s u gg e s t s i t s e l f : The h u m a n
m i nd po s s e s s e s a c a p a c i t y to un d e r s t an d
che s s e x i s t e n t i a l l y - - i n a m a n n e r wh i ch d e
f i e s a n y obje c t i ve , we l l - d e f i ne d f o r mu l a
t i on .
Th i s is f u r t he r c o r r obo r a t e d by the
c a s e o f che s s - p l a y i n g c o mp u t e r s . Con tem
p o r a r y progr ams a cc e s s a v a s t a mo u n t o f
i n f o rm a t i on - - a s c l e ve r l y f o r mu l a t e d as
pos s i bl e - - yet rema i n gross l y ineff i c ient
wh e n c o mpa r e d t o t h e a ve r a g e h u m a n c o mp e t
i tor . A dm i t t e d l y , p r e s en t - d a y compu t e r s
have exh i b i t e d g r a n dma s t e r s t r en g th -
thanks to the i r i ncred ible speed of
" th o u g h t " ; o n the o t he r h a n d , n o o n e c a n
deny that even the b e s t p r ograms , if
f o r c e d t o th i n k a t t h e l e i s u r e l y p a c e o f a
hum a n m i n d , w o u l d b e 1 u c k y t o p l a y a l e g a l
game , much l e s s a s t r on g one . The f a c t i s
t h a t h um a n s a r e a b l e t o s o l ve m a n y p o s i
t i o n s " a t a g l a n c e " , wh i l e t h e m e t h o d s o f
a r t i f i c i a l i n t e l l i g e n c e r e q u i r e i nv e s t i g a
t i o n i n t o t h ou s a n d s o r m i 1 1 i o n s o f p o s s i
b i l i t i e s f o r the s ame purpo s e . E l e c t r on i c
s pe e d ha s o ve r c om e i n e f f i c i e n c y , b u t the
i n e f f i c i ency does per s i s t .
The p r o b l e m w i th p r e v i ou s a t t e mp t s t o
8 Pref ace
a pp r o a c h t h e i n s p i r a t i on b e h i n d c he s s c r e
ativity is a t e n d e n c y t o p i c t u r e huma n
t h o u g h t a s a n a l g o r i thm - - o n e a k i n t o the
clear and we l l - d e f i n e d products of the
c o mp u t e r p r o g r a mm e r . Bu t wha t i f w e w e r e
t o a c c ept the ex i s t e n c e o f a n unde r s t a n d
i ng beyond s c i enc e ? Wh a t i f w e r e f u s e t o
o bje c t i f y tha t wh i ch a pp e a r s hope l e s s l y
s u bje c t i v e ?
O . K . , s u pp o s e hum a n s d o p o s s e s s a n e x
i stent i a l und e r s t a n d i ng of c he s s - - o n e
wh i ch cannot be p r ec i s e l y f o rmu l a t e d .
Mu s t we t h e n a b a n d o n a l l hop e o f s t u d y i ng
th i s p he n om en o n ? D i r e c t l y , y e s ; o bv i o u s l y
w e c a n ' t s p e a k o f t h o u gh t s who s e n a t u r e i s
i n c omp a t i b l e w i t h l a n g u a g e . N e v e r th e l e s s ,
we c a n t r a c e t h e e vo l u t i on o f t h e s k i l l s
ex i s t e n t i a l u n d e r s t a n d i n g h a s p r ov e n i t
s e l f c a pa b l e o f . T h u s we ' 1 1 d i s cov e r t h a t
e v e n h u n d r e d s o f y e a r s a g o p l a ye r s we r e
a b l e t o 11 s n i f f - ou t 11 c om b i n a t i o n s w i th r e
ma rkabl e e f f i c i ency ; l a t e r , l ea d i n g ma s
ters s u ch a s Bou r d o n n a i s , S t a u n t o n , and
Ande r s s en deve l oped the abi l ity to in
s t i n c t i ve l y s e n s e a n a t t a c k t a k i n g f o rm ;
a n d l a t e r y e t , Mo r phy l e d t h e wa y t o t he
r e s i l i ency o f pos i t i on a l p l a y b y ma i n t a i n
ing a n h a rmon i o u s c o o p e r a t i o n o f fo r c e s
a c r o s s t h e e n t i r e che s s b a t t l e f i e l d .
It ' s not only o ve r - the - b o a r d t a l en t ,
b u t a l s o t h e g e ne r a l i z a t i o n s o f s t r a t e gy
th a t o r i g i n a t e f r om ex i s t e n t i a l und e r
s t a nd i ng . The i mp o r t a n c e o f t h i s f a c t be
c om e s clear o n c e we r e c o g n i z e th a t t h e
s t r a t e g i c l aw s o f S t e i n i t z a r e 1 i n g u i s t i c
f o rmu l a t i o n s o f a m a nn e r o f t h ou g h t w h i ch
c a n n o t be f a i th f u l l y f o rmu l a t e d . It fol
l ow s t h a t s t r a t e g i c i d e a s , e s p e c i a l l y d u r
i ng t h e i r i n f a n cy , c o mp r om i s e the eff i -
Preface 9
c i ency o f a pl ayer ' s ex i s t e n t i a l u n d e r

s t a n d i n g ; the w a y i n wh i ch S t e i n i t z and
T a r r a s ch t h o u g h t a b ou t s t r a t e g y , f o r in
s t a n c e , wa s e s s e n t i a l l y i n c omp a t i b l e w i t h
the i r i n s t i n c t i ve s e n s e f o r c o mb i n a t i on ,
a t t a ck , a n d c ommo n - s e n s e m a n e uve r s . The
g r e a t t a s k f o r the a g e o f La s k e r and C a p a
blanca wa s t h e r e f o r e t o i n t e g r a t e t he s e
t w o l ev e l s o f t h o u g h t - - t o c o m e t o t h i nk
t h e m s i m u l t a n e o u s l y , a pp e n d i n g a f e e l f o r
s t r a tegy t o the i r exi s t en t i a l unde r s t an d
i ng .
The p r ob l e m s i n vo l v e d i n thi s process
a r e t o o c o mp l e x to d i scu s s br i e f l y , s o
I ' l l c o n c l u d e m y p r ev i e w a t th i s p o i n t .
F o r now , s u f f i ce i t t o s a y tha t the exi s
t e nt i a l u n de r s t a nd i ng o f the modern g r a n d
m a s t e r i nh a b i t s t h e p h i l o s o p h i c a l m a z e o f
the s ubje c t / o bje c t d i ch o t o m y , s t r u gg l i n g
t h r ough a f o rm o f i n te l l e c t ua l r e s pons i
b i l i t y w h i ch i s s t r a n g e l y p e c u l i a r t o t h e
r oy a l g ame .
1 . Phi losoph i c a l Founda t i ons
In an effort t o s a t i s f y tho s e w i th a
p e n ch a n t f o r r i g o r , I ' l l b e g i n w i t h a d e f
i n i t i on : A p e r s on i s s a i d t o p o s s e s s a n
e x i s t e n t i a l u n d e r s t a n d i ng o f che s s i f t h e
m a n n e r i n wh i ch he t h i n k s a b o u t t h e g a m e
c a n n o t b e p r e c i s e l y fo r mu l a t e d .
N o t e tha t I h a v e ch a r a c t e r i z e d a p a r
t i c u l a r t y p e o f p e r s o n ( o n e who s e " ch e s s
thought s " e l ud e the cl a r i t y o f l og i c )
r a t h e r t h a n a m en t a l f a c u l t y . The i n d e
pend ent phr a s e " ex i s tent i a l under s tand
i ng " , m e a n wh i l e , ha s r em a i n e d unde f i ne d
f o r t h e o bv i o u s r e a s o n tha t i t c a n n o t be
def ined . S i mu l t a n e o u s l y , h o w e ve r , a g r e a t
p a r t o f m o d e r n ph i l o s o ph y b e a r s a h e a l t h y
s ke p t i c i s m t ow a r d s a n y th i n g i n a cc e s s i bl e
t o o bje c t i v e d i s c u s s i o n . C a n s u ch a n u n
ders t a n d i n g be s a i d t o " prope r l y " exi s t ?
For tuna te ly , we needn ' t wre s tl e w i th
th i s p r o b l e m a s l on g a s ou r s t u d y p r o b e s
n o d e e p e r t h a n t h e c a p a b i l i t i e s o f che s s
p l a y e r s , r e f r a i n i n g f r om a l l i l l - f a t e d a t
t emp t s to c o mp r eh e n s i ve l y expl a i n the
m i n d s r e s pons i bl e . I t ' s t he r e f o r e o n l y .y
c o nv e n t i o n tha t I ' l l s p e a k o f a n " e x i s t en
t i a l unde r s t a n d i ng " , and t h i s ph r a s e i s
n e v e r t o b e t a k e n i n a c o n t ex t i n d e p e n d e n t
o f a n a ct u a l p l a y e r ' s unexpl a i n a bl e a b i l i
t ies . For e x a m p l e , when I a s k wh e t h e r
s u ch a t h i n g a s ex i s t e n t i a l u n d e r s t a n d i n g
e x i s t s , I ' m r e a l l y i n q u i r i n g i n t o the e x
i s t e n c e o f p l a y e r s who s e t h o u g h t p r o c e s s e s
d e f y p r e c i s e f o rmu l a t i o n .
It ' s ev i d e n t tha t exi s tent i a l under
s t a n d i n g i s a f a c e t o f the u n c o n s c i ou s - - o r
at least the " p e r i ph e r a l l y c on s c i o u s " - -
Phi losophica l Foundat i ons 11
b e c a u s e f o c u s e d , c o n s c i ou s t h o u g h t i s i n
va r i a b l y we l l - d e f i n e d . Th u s , e v e n t h o u g h
c o mp r e h e n s i ve s o l u t i o n s a r e l o g i c a l l y i m
p o s s i b l e i n t h i s a r e a , w e m i ght a t l e a s t
t r y t o p a i n t a po r t r a i t o f t h e g r a n d m a s t e r
uncon s c i ou s in a n e f f o r t t o b e t t e r a pp r e
c i a t e t h e th i n k i n g b eh i n d g o o d p l a y .
A portra i t is not a phys i o l o g i c a l
s t udy - - i t harbo r s n o a mb i t i o n s in the
f i e l d of s c i e n t i f i c e x p l a n a t i o n . Sti ll ,
t h i s c a n ha r d l y prevent a t a l e n t e d a r t i s t
f r om h i gh l i ght i n g h i s s u bje c t ' s c h a r a c t e r
a n d m o o d - - h i s " p r e s en c e " - - t he r e by c r e a t i n g
a n a r t i s t i c s t ud y . Who w o u l d d e n y t h a t
V a n G o gh ' s s e l f - p o r t r a i t s i nv i t e u s i nto
hi s wo r l d , o f f e r i ng occa s i ona l g l i mp s e s
i n t o h i s f a c u l t y f o r a r t i s t i c c r e a t i on ?
The p r e s e n t b o o k l i e s s om e whe r e b e t we e n
art and sc i ence . In form , the pre s ent a
t i on i s unden i a bly s c i en t i f i c ; n e v e r th e
less , t h e r e a d e r w i 1 1 f a i 1 t o a pp r e h e n d
anyth i ng of s u b s t a n c e a s l o n g a s he r e
f u s e s t o acknowl e dg e h i s o w n thought s , o b
stinately deny ing the rad ically s u bje c
t i ve , h e n c e i n c o mm u n i c a b l e , a s p e c t s o f the
hum a n mind . My i n t e n t i o n i s to e x p l o r e
wha t i t f e e l s l i k e t o f i n d g o o d m o v e s , s o
I i mp l o r e t h e r e a d e r t o r em a i n o p e n t o t h e
i r r a t i on a l s i d e of h i s thought s .
The r e ' s no doubt that p a r t o f every
che s s p l a y e r th i n k s i n a c l e a r a n d we l l
d e f i n e d m a n n e r ; we a l l s i l e n t l y " t a l k " t o
o u r s e l ve s d u r i n g play . S u ch a m o d e o f
thought wi 1 1 b e r e f e r r e d t o a s t e chn i c a l ,
a n d f o r m s t h e f ou n d a t i on f o r the va s t m a
j o r i t y o f c he s s b o o k s . Bu t d o p r e c i s e l y
f o r mu l a t e d i d e a s e n c o m p a s s t h e e n t i r e t y o f
h um a n t h o u g h t ? Does a n exi s t ent i a l under
s t a n d i n g a c t u a l l y ex i s t ?
12 Phi losophical Foundat i ons
As o u r f i r s t p i e c e o f e v i d e n c e , cons i d
er the Elo r a t i ng d i s t r i bu t i o n of the
U . S . C he s s F e d e r a t i on .
USCF Over-the-Board Ra t i ngs

( January , 1 994 )
Rat i ng Popul a t i on Over-a l l

Range of Range Percent i le
Un d e r 6 0 0 1 , 663 4
600-699 1 , 436 8
700-799 2 , 043 14
800-899 2 , 436 20
900-999 2 , 53 3 27
1 000- 1 0 99 2 , 66 5 34
1 1 00- 1 1 99 2 , 572 41
1 200- 1 299 2 , 543 47
1 300- 1 399 2 , 42 3 54
1 4 00 - 1 499 2 , 614 61
1500- 1 599 2 , 605 68
1 600- 1 6 99 2 , 5 10 74
1 700- 1 799 2 , 272 80
1 800- 1 899 2 I 1 2 1 86
1 9 00- 1 999 1 , 763 91
2000-2099 1 , 360 94
2 1 00- 2 1 99 1 ,011 97
2200- 2 299 613 99
2 3 00 - 2 3 9 9 269 99
2400-2499 137 1 00
2500- 2599 54 1 00
2600-2699 34 1 00
Ove r 2 7 0 0 4 1 00
I n f o rm a l l y s u rv e y i n g my a cqua i nt ances
i n t h e che s s wo r l d , I n o t i c e t h a t - - by a n d
l a rg e - - p l a y e r s under 1 8 0 0 po ssess 1 i t t l e
o r n o t h e o r e t i c a l k n o w l e d g e b e y on d a s m a l l
" c a t a l ogue " o f open i ng va r i a t i on s , p l a y e r s
Phi 1osophica1 Foundat i ons 13
f r om 1 8 0 0 t o 2 2 0 0 have m o r e fami l i a r i ty
w i t h t h e b a s i c s o f t he o ry , a n d a l m o s t ev
e r y o n e ove r 2 2 0 0 h a s s p e n t t i m e w i t h the
m a jo r i t y of i mp o r t a n t s t r a t e g i c and t a c t i
cal i deas . Bu t i f t h e be s t p i e c e s o f a d
v i c e o n how t o p l a y we l l h a v e b e e n a b s o r b
e d b y t h o s e r a t e d 2 2 0 0 , wh y d o e s t h e d i s
t r i bu t i o n c on t i n u e t o t a i l - o f f f o r a n a d
d i t i on a l 5 0 0 + p o i n t s ? Why i s the r e s t i l l
s u ch a w i d e g u l f s e p a r a t i n g t h e 2 2 0 0 p l a y
er and the grandma s t e r ?
S i n c e g r a n dm a s t e r s h a v e s p en t c o u n t l e s s
h ou r s t r y i ng to f o r mu l a t e the i r own
thought s ( i . e . " t h e o r i z i ng " ) , and s i nc e
nume r o u s 2 2 0 0 p l a y e r s h a v e f a i l e d t o b e
c om e g r a n dm a s t e r s a f t e r a pp r o p r i a t i n g t h i s
k n o w l e d g e , i t s e e m s r e a s on a b l e t o c o n c l ud e
th a t t h e s up e r i o r i t y o f g r a n dm a s t e r s is
g r ou n d e d i n a n e s s e n t i a l l y s u bj e c t i v e - - a n
e x i s t e n t i a l - - un d e r s t a n d i n g .
O u r s e c on d p i e c e o f e v i d en c e ha s a l
r e a d y been a l l ud e d t o i n the p r e f a ce : If
t h e c o mp l e t e t h o u g h t p r o c e s s e s o f t h e hu
m a n m i n d c a n b e p r e c i s e l y f o rm u l a t e d , why
h a v e n ' t c ompu t e r s - -w i th th e i r v a s t l y s u p e
r i o r s p e e d - - s u r p a s s e d t he s t r on g e s t h um a n s
l ong a g o ?
The f a c t i s th a t t h e t e chn i c a l " u n d e r
s t and i ng " of c ompu t e r s h a s r e q u i r e d the
a i d of a c a l c u l a t i ve f a c u l t y m i l l i o n s o f
t i m e s f a s t e r tha n t h e huma n m i n d s i mp l y t o
mea s u r e up to the average g r a n dm a s t e r .
Once a g a i n , s i n c e t e c hn i c a l f o rmu l a t i o n s
h a ve f a i l e d t o c ommu n i c a t e t h e e f f i c i e n c y
o f hum a n t h o u g h t , o n e i s t e mp t e d t o l e a n
t owa r d s o u r e x i s t e n t i a l hyp o t h e s i s .
F i n a l l y , c o n s i d e r t h e a pp r o a c h o f a t o
t a l n o v i c e t o che s s . We can i n s t ruct h i m
on t h e r u l e s , o f f e r s om e t e c h n i c a l p o i n t -
14 Phi losophica l Found a t i ons
e r s , t h e n p l a c e h i m be f o r e a b o a r d f o r a
c omp e t i t i ve t r i a l . A l l too o f ten , he ' l l
s i t t h e r e d u m b f ou n d e d - - bew i l d e r e d by the
a s t ronom i c a l n u mb e r of poss i b i l i t i e s in
e v e n t h e s i mp l e s t p a s i t i ons . M e a n wh i l e ,
t h e c omp e t e n t t o u r n a m e n t p l a y e r f e e l s p e r
f e c t l y a t h o m e i n t h e s a m e s i t ua t i o n b e
c a u s e he ' s a b l e t o u n c o n s c i o u s l y " d i s c a r d "
mo s t poss ibi l i t ies ; countl e s s l i ne s are
t e chn i c a l l y p o s s i b l e , b u t o n l y a f ew a r e
ex i s t e n t i a l l y r e a s o n a b l e . Th i s is why
e v e r y o n e m u s t f i r s t d e ve l o p a f e e l f o r t h e
g a m e b e f o r e t h e o r y c a n be o f u s e ; o r - - t o
p u t i t a n o t h e r wa y - - a n ex i s t e n t i a l u n d e r
s t a n d i n g c a n o n l y c o m e i n t o b e i n g t h r ough
s t r ug g l e s w i t h a c t u a l p o s i t i o n s b e c a u s e i t
c a n ' t b e c o mmu n i c a t e d d i r e c t l y .
Thu s f a r , we ' ve e x a m i n e d t h r e e g e n e r a l ,
though compe l l i ng , r e a s ons to po s t u l a te
the ex i s t en c e o f ex i s t e n t i a l unde r s t a n d
i ng . Next , w e ' 1 1 c o n s i d e r s om e s p e c i f i c
e x a mp l e s i n o r d e r t o d i s c ov e r f i r s thand
h o w t h e hum a n m i n d c o n c e p t u a l i z e s che s s .
St . C1oud , 1821
Cochrane Deschape1 1es

Out o f countl e s s poss i b i l i t i es , B l ack
s p i e s a w i nn i n g c o u p f ou r move s d e e p .
22 . . . . Oh4 !
2 3 . Rd7 ? Of2+
24 . Bg2 Rh3+ !
2 5 . Kh3 Oh4:fl:
The c on c l ud i ng c omb i n a t i o n ( a f te r
2 3 . Rd 7 ? ) i s p r e t t y , b u t h a r d l y ve r y c om
p l i c a t e d ; as a ma t t e r of f a c t , any c o mp e
t e n t t o u r n a m e n t p l a y e r wo u l d s t a n d a f a i r
cha n c e o f f i n d i ng t h e ma t e . The p r o b l em
th a t i n t e r e s t s u s , h o w e ve r , i s h o w t h e hu
m a n m i n d t y p i c a l l y s o l ve s s u c h p r o b l e m s .
I n t h e p r e s e n t i n s t a n c e , o n e m i g h t s ug
ge s t tha t B l a c k wa s th i n k i ng i n t e r m s o f
t a c t i c a l m o t i f s o r gen e r a l p r i n c i p l e s whe n
he f o u n d 2 2 . . . . , Qh 4 ; a f te r a l l , Wh i t e ' s
k i ng is r a th e r expo sed , a n d the d a r k
s q u a r e s i n i t s i mm e d i a t e v i c i n i t y a r e o n l y
m i l d l y gu a r d e d .
Th i s i s a l l w e l l a n d g o o d , b u t d o e s i t
f u l l y ch a r a c t e r i z e t he i n s p i r a t i o n b eh i n d
B l ack ' s pl ay? F o r e x a mp l e , s i n c e h e wa s
s e e i n g thr e e and a h a l f move s d e e p wh e n he
pl ayed 2 2 . . . . , Qh4 , can we a s s um e t h a t
eve r y p o s s i b i l i t y o f exp o s i ng t h e Wh i t e
k i ng h a d b e e n ex p l o r e d t o t h e s am e d e p th ?
Exh a u s t i ve a n a l y s e s of th i s s o r t i n -
va r i a b l y c a l l f o r a t r e m e n d o u s a m o u n t o f
c a l c u l a t i on : Even o n the f i r s t ha l f -move ,
at least two a l t e r n a t i ve s to the move
p l a y e d i mm e d i a t e l y s p r i n g to m i n d ( 2 2 . . . . ,
N f 4 and 2 2 . . . . , Q f 7 ) ; n o w , i f e a ch h a l f
move f o l l ow s s u i t - - p r o d u c i n g thr e e r e a s o n
a b l e c a n d i d a t e s - - th e t o t a l n u mb e r o f 1 i n e s
16 Phi losophi c a l Foundat i ons
t o be v i s u a l i z e d wou l d be 3 x 3 x 3 x 3 x
3 x 3 x 3 = 2 , 187 .
We ' r e d r i ven to the con c l u s i on that
B l a c k s e n s e d " s ome th i ng " i n t h e a i r a f t e r
2 2 . . . , Qh4 , s o h e f o c u s e d
. on tha t 1 i n e
pr imar i ly . A n d i f t h e r e a d e r i s h o ne s t
w i t h h i m s e l f , I th i n k he ' 1 1 a g r e e th a t
t he r e ' s a p o i n t i n c o mb i n a t i v e d i s c ove r y
whe r e t h e s o l u t i o n c o m e s " a l l a t o n c e " -
f u l l y f o r me d , instantly r e a ch i n g two o r
m o r e m o v e s d e ep .
Wh a t i s i t th a t a p l a y e r ' s e x i s t e n t i a l
under s t a nd i ng s e n s e s when h e d i s c ov e r s a
c omb i n a t i o n in th i s wa y ? S ince we ' r e
d e a l i n g he r e w i t h a p r o p e r t y t h a t ' s e s s en
tially rel ated to a manne r of t h o u g ht
wh i ch d e f i e s p r e c i s e f o rm u l a t i on , c o n s i s
t e n c y d i c t a t e s ou r r e f u s a l t o d e f i n e i t .
A l l we c a n s a y i s tha t t h e p i e c e s s e e m t o
b e w o rk i n g t o g e th e r t o b r i n g a b o u t a c om
b i na t i on ; in the a bove e x a mp l e , Bl ack ' s
r oo k ( on a 3 ) , k n i g h t , a n d q u e e n a r e s u p
ported by the c l um s i n e s s of t h e Wh i t e
k i ng , b i s h o p , a n d r o o k ( on h l ) - - a s we l l a s
Wh i t e ' s ove r - e x t en d e d p awn c ov e r . The
t e rm we s h a l l u s e t o d e n o t e s u ch a " c om
m u n i t y e f f o r t " - - i n s o f a r as i t ' s s e n s e d e x
i s t e n t i a l l y - - i s c oope r a t i on .
Now l e t ' s exam i ne a n o t h e r e x a m p l e of
coope r a t i on , th i s t i me in a s i t ua t i on
wh i c h i s n ' t p u r e l y c o mb i n a t i ve .
London , 1 883
Tchigor i n Zukertort
1 . e4 e5
2. Nf 3 Nc6
3 . Bb5 Nf6
4 . 0-0 Ne4
5 . d4 Be7
6 . d5 Nd6
7 . Bc6 ?
Be t t e r i s 7 . d c , Nb5 ; 8 . c 4 , o r e v e n the
s i mp l e 7 . N c 3 .
7. . de
8 . de f6 !
Wh i t e h a d ev i d e n t l y u n d e r e s t i m a t e d t h i s
move . Now the a pp a r e n t l y uncomf o r t a b l e
9 . Q d 5 c a n b e m e t b y 9 . . . . , bc ; 1 0 . Q c 6 + , B d 7 ;
l l . Q d 5 , Rb 8 ; 1 2 . N c 3 , c 6 ( Zuker t o r t ) , l e a v i ng
B l a c k m u ch b e t t e r d eve l o p e d .
9 . ch Bb7
1 0 . Be3 0-0
1 1 . Nbd 2
11. . . . Nf7
B l a c k h a s e m e rge d f r om the o p e n i ng w i th
a n a d v a n t ag e , a n d n o w p r e p a r e s t o s e t h i s
c e n t r a l p a wn m a s s i n m o t i o n by ove r p r o
t e c t i ng h i s e - p a w n .
The s t r e ngth o f th i s p l a n i s ve r i f i e d
b y t h e c o n t i n u a t i o n o f the g a m e . Bu t d i d
the p r e c i s e c on s e q u e n c e s of 1 1 . . . . , Nf7
have t o b e c a l c u l a t e d i n o r d e r t o sense
th a t B l a c k h a s the bet t e r pos i t i on ? As
18 Phi1osophica1 Foundat i ons
the game p r o g r e s s e s , l e t the r e a d e r a n swer

for h i mse l f whe t h e r he s e n s e s a gr ow i ng
f e e l i ng tha t B l a ck ' s p i eces a r e coope r a t
i n g t o g e t h e r i n a t t a c k ; a n d b y wa y o f i 1 -
1 u s t r a t i on , l e t h i m p l a y th r o ugh the r e
m a i n d e r o f the g a m e w i t h o u t e x a m i n i n g a n y
u n p l a y e d v a r i a t i o n s - - t h e r e by a l l ow i ng h i s
c o n s c i o u s , t e c h n i ca l t h o ugh t t o r e c e d e i n
t o t h e b a ckgr o u n d .
1 2 . Qe2 f5
1 3 . Nb3 f4
1 4 . Bc5 e4
1 5 . Nfd4 f3
16 . Qb5 ? ! Qc8 !
1 7 . Rfdl Ba6
1 8 . Qa4 Ng5 i
1 9 . Nf3 - ef
20 . Rd7 fg !
2 1 . Re7 Nh 3 +
2 2 . Kg2 N f4 +
23 . Kf3 Qh3 +
24 . Ke4 Bb7 +
2 5 . Kd4 Ne6+
26 . Kc4 Rf4+
2 7 . Nd4 Nc5
2 8 . Kc5 Qh5+
29 . Kc4 Rd4+
30 . Res igns
Of c ou r s e , f e e l i ng s a r e o f ten mis-
g u i d e d , a n d i t w ou l d b e a gr a v e e r r o r t o
c o n du c t a game o n the s o l e b a s i s o f u n c o n
s c i ou s i ns p i ra t i on ; on the o ther h a nd ,
e mo t i o n s a r e s y m p t o m a t i c o f a m i n d w o rk i ng
i n a n i r r a t i o n a l , h e n c e i mp r e c i s e a n d ex
i s tent i a l , manne r .
G e ne r a l p r i n c i p l e s c ou l d h a v e b e e n e m
pl oyed to eva l ua t e the s i t ua t i on a f te r
Wh i t e ' s e l e v e n t h m o v e : B l a ck h a s the p a i r
Phi 1 osoph i c a 1 Foundat i ons 19
o f b i sho p s , mob i l e p awns be a r i ng o n the

Wh i t e k i n g , a n d so f o r t h . B u t whe n w e t r y
t o a pp l y s u c h p r i n c i p l e s - - wo r k i n g o u t a l l
the s p e c i f i c l i n e s - - th e numb e r o f poss i
b i 1 i t i e s q u i c k l y s o a r s o u t o f s i g ht . Gen
e r a l i z a t i o n s a r e n e c e s s a r y i f che s s i s t o
be s t u d i e d a s a s c i e n c e , bu t t h e n a t u r e o f
t h e o r i e s g ove r n i ng a v a r i e t y o f p o s i t i o n s
p r e c l u d e s them f r o m exh a u s t i ve l y r e s o l v i ng
any pa r t i cu l a r s i tu a t i on . Thi s f a c t i s
m a d e c l e a r w h e n e v e r o n e h a s t o b a l a n c e the
p r o s a n d c o n s of a p o s i t i o n s t r a t e g i c a l l y ,
a s i n o u r n e x t e x a mp l e .
Cambr i dge Spr i ngs , 1 904
P i 1 1 sbury Lasker
1. d4 d5
2 . c4 e6
3 . Nc3 Nf6
4 . Nf 3 c5
5 . Bg5 cd
6. Qd4 Nc6
A s a f er r oa d to equa l i t y i s o f f e r ed by
6 . . . . , Be 7 .
20 Phi losophi cal Foundat i ons
7 . Bf6 ! . . .
Th i s i s P i l l s b u r y ' s p r e p a r e d i mp r ov e
men t ove r hi s game wi th La s k e r at
S t . P e t e r s b u rg , 18 9 6 , wh i c h ran 7 . Qh 4 ? ,
Be 7 ; 8 . 0 - 0 - 0 , Qa 5 ; 9 . e 3 , Bd 7 ; 1 0 . Kb l , h6 , and
B l a c k won b y a d i r e c t a s s a u l t o n t h e k i ng .
Wh e n c o n s i d e r i ng 7 . B f 6 , Wh i t e had to
c a r e f u l l y we i gh a n u mb e r o f s t r a t eg i c p r o s
and cons : T he B l a c k p a wn s tructure i s
c omp r om i s e d f o r the e n dg a m e , i n c i d e n t a l l y
s t r a n d i ng h i s k i ng w i t h o u t a n e n t i r e l y s e
c u r e r e t r e a t ; a t t h e s am e t i m e , h o w e ve r ,
Wh i t e i s g i v i ng u p t h e p a i r o f b i sho p s , a s
we l l a s h i s c h a n c e t o o c c u p y e 5 f o r a l ong
t i me t o c o m e . Mo r e ov e r , t h e s ou n d ne s s o f
t h e m o v e h a d t o b e v e r i f i e d f r om a t a c t i
cal p e r s p e c t i ve : 7 . . . . , Nd 4 ? ; 8 . Bd 8 , Nc 2 + ;
9 . K d 2 , N a l ; l 0 . B h 4 , a n d the k n i gh t o n a l i s
doome d .
A l l th i s p o i n t s t o t h e f a c t th a t Wh i t e
had t o b a l a n c e t h e s t r a t eg i c pr i nc i p l e s
p e r t i n e n t t o t h e g a m e , wo r k i ng t h r o ugh i t s
p e c u l i a r i t i e s w i th t h e a ss i s tance o f hi s
ex i s t e n t i a l u n d e r s t a n d i ng . In o t he r
wo r d s , g e n e r a l i d e a s can n e v e r h ope t o
p r ov i d e a c omp l e t e , d e t a i l e d s o l u t i o n of
any p a r t i c u l a r p o s i t i o n b e c a u s e the p r o
c e s s o f g e n e r a l i z a t i o n h a s a l r e a d y " we e d e d
out " the i nconven i en t p a r t i cu l a r s .
7. . . . gf
8 . Oh4 de
9 . Rdl Bd7
1 0 . e3 Ne5 ?
B l a ck also b r i ng s a b ou t a s t r a tegi c
d i scu s s i on : He offers an e x c h a nge of
p i e c e s i n o r d e r t o e a s e t h e d e f en c e , a n d
h o p e s t o s u b s e q u e n tly g a i n t i m e b y t h e e n
s u i ng " th r e a t " t o e x c h a n g e q u e e n s . Neve r
t he l e s s , h i s p a wn s t r u c t u r e i s d e s t i n e d t o
l o s e i t s p e c u l i a r r e s i l i en c y a s a r e s u l t ,
i nv i t i ng Wh i t e t o p e n e t r a t e o n t he vu l n e r
able f - f i le . Th e r e f o r e a l e s s c o mm i t t i ng
move , s u ch a s 1 0 . . . . , B e 7 ( E u w e } , wa s p r e f
e r a b l e , r e s u l t i ng i n a n a pp r ox i m a t e l y e v e n
game .
N o o b j e c t i o n c a n b e m a d e t o t h e ge n e r a l
i d e a s tha t gu i d e d L a s k e r t o p l a y 1 0 . . . ,
Ne5 . O n the who l e , exch a nge s a r e d e s i r
a b l e f o r the d e f en d e r , a n d a g a i n o f t i me
i s a l wa y s a pp r e c i a t e d . B u t i n th i s
t i cu l a r c a s e , o t he r - - mo r e i mp o r t a n t - - c o n
s e q u e n c e s l oo m o n t h e ho r i z on . A c l ea r ly
f o rmu l a t e d t he o r y c a n ' t f u l l y e x p l a i n how
i t shou l d b e a p p l i e d i n pr a c t i c e .
1 1 . Ne5 fe
1 2 . Qc4 Ob6
1 3 . Be2 ! Ob2 ? !
1 4 . 0-0 Rc8
1 5 . Od3 Rc7
1 6 . Ne4 Be7
1 7 . Nd6+ Kf8
1 7 . . . . , B d 6 ; 1 8 . Q d 6 wou l d l e a ve t h e B l a ck
m o n a r ch h o p e l e s s l y i mm o b i l i z e d .
1 8 . Nc4 Ob5
1 9 . f4 ef
2 0 . Qd4 ! f6
2 1 . Qf4 . . .
W i t h the B l ack k i ng s u f f i c i e n t l y ex
p o s e d , the Wh i t e p i e c e s m a y b eg i n to c o
he r e f o r t h e f i n a l a s s a u l t .
21 . . . Oc5
2 2 . Ne5 Be8
2 3 . Ng4 f5
24 . Oh6 + Kf7
2 5 . Bc4 ! Rc6
Obv i o u s l y no t 2 5 . . . . , Q c 4 ? ; 2 6 . Ne 5 + . Nor
i s h o p e o f f e r e d by 2 5 . . . . , B d 7 ; 2 6 . R d 7 , R d 7 ;
2 7 . Qe 6 + , Ke 8 ; 2 8 . Nf 6 + etc .
22 Phi 1osopbica1 Foundat i ons
26 . Rf5+ Of5
2 7 . Rf l Of l +
2 8 . Kf l Bd7
Once i;; a i n , 2 8 . . . . , R c 4 ; 2 9 . Ne 5 + loses
ma ter i a l .
2 9 . Qb5+ Kg8
Or 2 9 . . . , Kg 7 ; 3 0 . Q e 5 + , Kg 8 ; 3 1 . Nh 6 + .
.
30 . Ne5 Res igns
As ex i s t e n t i a l u n d e r s t a n d i ng h a s cha ng
ed ove r the t we n t i e t h c e n t u r y , s t r a t eg i c
pr i nc i pl e s h a v e e v o l v e d b e y o n d t e c hn i c a l
f o rmu l a t i o n s t o mo r e i n t u i t i ve ma n i f e s t a
t i o n s s u ch a s t h e i n i t i a t i v e a n d d om i n a
t i on . Th i s i s why t h e che s s wo r l d h a s
w i t n e s s e d a n i n c r e a s i ng n u mb e r of game s
th a t res i st ev a l u a t i o n a l ong gene ra l
l i n e s , a n d why m o d e r n gr a n dm a s t e r s p l a c e
s u c h e m p h a s i s o n t h e e x am i n a t i o n o f c o n
crete var i a t i ons . Thu s m o d e r n c he s s i s n o
l e s s s t r a t eg i c t h a n t h e c l a s s i c a l v a r i e t y ;
r a t he r , s t r a t egy h a s b e e n a p p r o p r i a t e d u n
c o n s c i o u s l y , a n d i s c on s t a n t l y a pp l i e d i n
t u i t i ve l y . ( We ' l l e l a b o r a t e o n t h i s l a t e r
i n the b o o k . )
XIX USSR Champ i onsh i p

Moscov , 1 9 5 1
Smys1ov Ke res
2 2 . Qh5 Ne5
2 3 . Rad l Bg6
24 . Qh4 Rd l
2 5 . Rd l Nd 3
M a t e r i a l i s even , the pawn s t r u c t u r e i s
s ymm e t r i c a l , a n d n e i the r s i d e i s h a n d i c a p
ped by a n o bv i o u s l y a s s a i l a bl e we a k n e s s .
Neve rth e l e s s , B l a ck i s " f o r cho i c e " , a n d
Wh i t e wou l d be we l l - a d v i s e d to pr oceed
w i th c a u t i on .
In wh a t does B l ack ' s a d v a n t age
cons i s t ? Mo s t p r om i n e n t l y , h i s k n i ght
ou t p o s t on d3 . But i s t h i s s q u a r e a n y
we a k e r f o r Wh i t e t h a n d6 i s for Bl ack?
Not c l a s s i c a l l y - - a cc o r d i ng to gene r a l
s t r a t eg i c p r i n c i p l e s ; the c r u c i a l f e a t u r e
o f d 3 a s a we a k n e s s l i e s r a t he r i n the
f a c t t h a t i t ' s exp l o i t a b l e - - t h a t B l a c k c a n
m a i n t a i n a p i e c e there . A n d s i n c e th i s
c o n d i t i o n i s h o p e l e s s l y d ep e n d e n t o n
t i cu l a r s , it c an neve r be d e r i ve d b y
t h i n k i ng a l o ng p u r e l y g e n e r a l 1 i ne s . We
m a y sa f e l y c on c l ud e th a t t h e e s s e n c e o f
K e r e s ' k n i gh t o u t p o s t a s a s t r a t e g i c r e a l
de f i e s gene r a l i z a t i on .
One m i ght f u r the r i n q u i r e a s t o why
Wh i t e ' s p a i r o f b i s h o p s - - i n an o p e n p o s i
t i on - - a r e n ' t a more s i gn i f i c a n t f a c tor .
Once aga i n , the a n s we r i s n ' t f o r th c o m i ng
i n a g e n e r a l f o rm u l a , s o we mu s t c o n t e n t
ou r s e l ve s w i t h t h e vague a n d i l l - d e f i n e d -
t h o ugh pe r f e c t l y v a l i d - - o b s e r va t i o n tha t
the y ' re " i n e f f e c t i ve " .
26 . Bd4 ? . . .
Wh i t e s h o u l d h a v e o p t e d f o r t h e a t t e mp t
24 Phi 1osophica1 Founda t i ons
a t s i mp l i f i c a t i o n by 2 6 . Q d 4 ( K e r e s ) .
26 . . Qa5 !
2 7 . h3 . . .
I n f e r i o r wou l d b e 2 7 . Bf 6 ? , Re 1 + ; 2 8 . Bf l ,
Kh 7 ! ; 2 9 . R e l , N e l ( K e r e s ) .
27 . . . . Kh7
B l a c k p r e f e r s t o m a i n t a i n the p r e s s u r e
r a th e r th a n r i s k c om i n g u n d e r a c o u n t e r
a t t a ck a f te r 2 7 . . ., Q a 2 ; 2 8 . Qg4 , Q b 3 ; 2 9 . Q g 6 !

( Keres ) .
2 8 . Bf3 Ne l !
Here too , 2 8 . . . . , Qa 2 offers Wh i t e
ch a n c e s wi th the en e rg e t i c 2 9 . Bh 5 !
( Keres ) .
29 . Bb l Nc2
30 . Bf3 Re l +
3 1 . Re l Qe l +
3 2 . Kh2 b6
3 2 . . . . , c 5 ! ; 3 3 . Bc 5 , b 6 ; 34 . Bd4 , Q d 2 ( Keres )
wou l d have b e e n mo r e f o r c e f u l .
3 3 . Qf4 c5
34 . Be3 Ne3
3 5 . Qe3 Qe3
36 . fe Bb l
37 . a3 a5 !
B l a ck h a s f i n a l l y ob t a i n e d c l a s s i c a l ,
tangible a d vant ages : a super i o r pawn
s t r u c t u r e a n d a b e t t e r b i sho p . K e r e s w ent
on to w i n a wel l -pl a yed end i n g .
S i nce gene r a l pr i nc i pl e s a r e una b l e to

a c t a s i n d e p e n d e n t , c ompr eh e n s i ve g u i d e s ,
a nd s i n c e t h e n u mb e r o f p a r t i c u l a r l i n e s
q u i ck l y m o u n t s i n t o t h e m i l l i o n s , the h u
m a n m i n d h a s h a d t o d ev e l o p t h e a b i 1 i t y t o
th i n k abou t che s s in a n o n - r i g o r ou s ,
" r o u gh - a n d - r e a d y " f a s h i o n . We i n t u i t i ve l y
feel ou r wa y t h r o u g h the s t r ugg l e , p r o
ceed i ng w i t h o u t exh a u s t i ve analyses or
a b s o l u t e l y c o nv i n c i n g a r g u m e n t s ; we j u mp
to c on e ! us i o n s a n d r e j e c t c o u n t l e s s p o s s i
bi l i t ies of fhand be c a u s e t he r e ' s s i mp l y
no t e n o u gh t i m e t o e x a m i n e e ve r y t h i ng . In
s h o r t , t h e hum a n m i n d h a s t h e c a p a c i t y t o
u n d e r s t a n d che s s e x i s t e n t i a l l y .
Tha t i rr a t i on a l i t y c a n be more e f f i
c i e n t t h a n p r e c i s e , r a t i o n a l t h o u g h t i s by
no m e a n s a new i d e a . For exampl e , i t ' s
w i d e l y a cc e p t e d th a t the hum a n r a c e h a s
deve l o p e d a f e a r o f l a r ge , cha rg i n g a n i
ma l s b e c a u s e a f e e l i n g p r ov i d e s a more
c o m p e l ! i n g u r g e t o f l e e tha n d i s i n t e r e s t
ed , s c i e n t i f i c i nqu i r y . Wh a t wou l d h a v e
b e c o m e o f o u r a n c e s t o r s i f t he y h a d c a l m l y
s u rve y e d e ve r y p o t e n t i a l d a n g e r u n t i l a r
r i v i n g a t a l o g i ca l c o n c l u s i o n ?
N i e t z s c h e w e n t even f u r t he r a l on g t h e s e
l i ne s b y s u gg e s t i n g tha t fundament a l er
r o r s p r ov i d e the f o u n d a t i o n o f a l l hum a n
thought . Thu s we wo u l d ha ve n e v e r i nhe r
i te d the g i f t o f l anguage i f o u r ances
t o r s h a d n ' t m i s t a k e n l y pe r c e i ve d i d e n t i t y
whe r e m e r e s i m i l a r i t y e x i s t s . How e l s e -
i f n o t b y e r r o r - - c ou l d the hum a n r a c e h a v e
a s s i g n e d a s i n g l e wo rd s u ch a s " t r e e " t o
a n e n t i r e g r o u p o f th i n g s wh i c h d i f f e r i n
a n y n u mb e r o f p a r t i c u l a r s ? Th i s l i n e o f
thought e v e n r e c e i ve d a n ( u n i n t e n t i o n a l )
en d o r s e m e n t f r om W i t t g e n s t e i n , who a r g u e d
t h a t a l a n g u a g e i s on l y me a n i n g f u l i n s o f a r
as i t ' s useful .
I ho p e t o a vo i d s e r i o u s ph i l o s o ph i c a l
m u d d l e s i n t h i s b o o k ; s t i l l , we ' 1 1 f o l l ow
th i s p a th a b i t f u r the r i n s e a r ch of a
c l a r i f i c a t i on as to why hum a n t h o u ght
a bou t c he s s d e f i e s p r e c i s e f o rmu l a t i o n .
I t ' s a n e mp i r i c a l f a c t tha t p e o p l e p e r
c e i ve a t t a c k s i n a va r i e t y o f p o s i t i o n s
26 Phi 1osophi c a 1 Foundat i ons
tha t a r e o n l y v a g u e l y s i m i l a r . B u t when
we t r y to de f i n e " a t t a ck " p r ec i s e l y - - i n a
wa y t h a t i n c o r p o r a t e s a l l t he s e c a s e s - - i t
s e e m s a p o s i t i o n c a n a l wa y s b e c on c o c t e d
wh i c h i s e i t h e r a t tack i n g a n d " ou t s i d e "
the d e f i n i t i o n , o r non - a t t a ck i n g a n d " i n
s i d e " the d e f i n i t i on .
The r e a s o n f o r t h i s r e s i s t a n c e t o f o r
mu l a t i o n i s t h e n a t u r e o f s i m i l a r i t y . As
l on g a s w e f e e l c omp e l l e d t o e mp l o y t h i s
term , we ' r e i mp l i c i t l y conf e s s i ng our
i nabi l i ty to p r e c i s e l y d e f i n e the m a t t e r
a t ha n d ; f o r i f w e c o u l d p i n d o w n wha t
gr oun d s the s i m i l a r i t y i n que s t i on , the
t e rm c o u l d b e d i s p e n s e d w i th i n f a vo r o f
i d e n t i t y ( th e we l l - d e f i n e d c o u n t e r p a r t o f
s im i l a r i ty ) . I ns o f a r as the m ind is
th i n k i n g e x i s t e n t i a l ly , s i m i l a r i t y i s b e
i ng r ecogn i z e d ; i d ent i ty , m e a nwh i l e , is
t h e c o r ne r s t o n e o f l o g i c a l thought . The
c o n c l u s i o n i s tha t the va l i d i t y o f o u r ex
i s t e n t i a l hyp o t h e s i s i s d i rectly rel a te d
t o the a u thent i c i t y o f s i m i l a r i t y .
De s p i t e a l l the e v i dence p r e s e n t e d thus
f a r , we mu s t n o w t a c k l e t h e p r o b l em o f
whe t h e r t h e n o t i o n o f ex i s t e n t i a l u n d e r
s t a n d i n g i s a t o d d s w i th m o d e r n s c i e n c e .
O n c e a g a i n , we ' 1 1 a vo i d the s e r i o u s p h i l o
s o ph i c a l q u e s t i o n s - - t h i s t i m e i n f a vo r o f
a f ew c o mm e n t s on h o w s u ch a c on f l i c t
c ou l d b e m a i n t a i n e d .
Ma n y phy s i c i s t s claim t h a t the h um a n
m i nd can be c omp r e h e n s i ve l y descr i be d -
prec i sely f o r mu l a t e d - - by s oph i s t i c a t e d
ma thema t i c a l m e a n s . And if thi s is so , a
g r a n d m a s t e r ' s b r a i n i n p a r t i c u l a r c ou l d b e
descr i bed . C o u l d s u c h a m a s s i v e e q u a t i on
b e m e m o r i z e d a n d u t i l i z e d by s o m e o n e w i t h
h i gh a mb i t i o n s i n che s s ?
Phi 1osophica1 Founda t i ons 27
I n pr i n c i p l e , th i s c ou r s e c o u l d b e f o l
l ow e d . The c a t c h i s t h a t , a p a r t f r om t h e
f a c t t h a t a c o mp l e t e f o rmu l a f o r t h e h u m a n
b r a i n wou l d b e f a r t o o c om p l i c a t e d t o ma
n i pu l a t e consc i ou s l y , it 's o bv i ou s tha t
g r a n dm a s t e r s s i mp l y don ' t th i nk l i ke
th i s . The p r e s e n t b o o k i s a s t u d y o f che s s
t h o u g h t f r om t he s t a n d p o i n t o f t h e p a r t i c
i p a n t ; o u t s i d e o f t h i s c o n t e x t , any p h i l o
s o ph i c a l t r u ths are i rr e l evant . Th u s
we ' r e n o t s o much c on c e r ne d w i th ph i l o
s o ph i c a l t r u th as wi th p l a y i ng we l l .
Che s s i s , i n p r i n c i p l e , r e d u c i b l e t o p u r e
c a l c u l a t i on ; t h e h um a n m i n d ma y b e , in
t r u th , a c o mp l ex c o l l e c t i o n o f m a t h e m a t
i c a l e v e n t s i n the a t o m i c wo r l d o f phy s
i cs . But i f s t rong p l a y e r s d on ' t f o c u s on
the s e i d e a s dur ing p l a y - - a n d a r e c on s e
q u e n t l y w o r k i n g u n d e r f u n d a m e nt a l e r r o r s -
" The T r u th " i s i r r e l e v a n t .
A f t e r t h e f o l l o w i n g cha p t e r o n a e s t h e t
i c s , we ' 1 1 s e t u p o n o u r p r i ma r y t a s k o f
t r a c i n g the e vo l u t i o n o f e x i s t e n t i a l un
derstan d i ng t h r ou g h che s s h i s tory . The
r e a s o n f o r t h i s a pp r o a c h i s t h a t n o g r a n d
ma s t e r c an d i rect l y g i ve a p r e c i s e d e
sc r i p t i on o f h i s exi s tent i a l und e r s t a n d
i n g ; a n d s i n c e i t ' s r e a s o n a b l e t o a s s ume
t h a t the th i nk i n g of l e a d i n g p l a y e r s h u n
d r e d s o f y e a r s a g o wa s s i mp l e r t h a n t h a t
o f t o d a y , we ' l l be g i n b y l o c a t i n g e x i s t e n
t i a l u n d e r s t a n d i n g i n i t s r e l a t i ve l y m a n
ageabl e " i n f a n cy " , then carefu l ly trace
i t s g r ow th o v e r t h e y e a r s .
B e c a u s e p u r e , we l l - d e f i ne d i d e a s a r e by
n a t u r e i n c omp a t i bl e w i t h ex i s t e n t i a l un
d e r s t a n d i n g , o u r m e t h o d mu s t b e e mp i r i c a l ;
it ' s no s e c r e t who t h e l e a d i n g ma s t e r s
h a v e b e e n , s o t h e i r g a m e s a n d i d e a s wi 1 1
28 Phi 1osoph i c a 1 Foundat i ons
p r ov i d e o u r data . The t a s k i n e a ch a g e
w i l l b e t o d i s c ove r a ch a r a c t e r i s t i c of
the l e a d i ng p l aye r s - - a n exi s t ent i a l t r a i t
th a t d i s t i n gu i s h e s the " ch a mp i o n s " f r om
the " a l s o - r a n s " . Th i s cha r a c t e r i s t i c m u s t
no t b e f o rmu l a t e d , b u t w i l l be d e s c r i b e d
as a capabi l i ty w i th an u n f a tho m a b l e
s ou r c e ; on l y i n th i s wa y c a n we h o p e t o
" k e e p h o l d " o f the e s s en c e of exi s ten
t i a l u n d e r s t a n d i n g , p a v i n g t h e wa y f o r a n
a u thent i c r e c o gn i t i on o f the next g e ne r a
t i on 1 s thought .
A s a f i n a l p o i n t o f o r d e r , we ' 1 1 b r i e f
l y c o n s i d e r how exi s t e n t i a l u n d e r s t a n d i ng
h a s b e e n a b l e t o e vo l ve . How c a n a s ub
j e c t i ve f r a m e o f m i n d b e t r a n s m i t t e d f r om
one gene r a t i o n to the next - - o r , f o r t h a t
ma t t e r , f rom one pe r s on t o t h e next ?
The e vo l u t i o n I i n t e n d t o t r a c e i n t h i s
book i s i n t e l l i g i b l e a n d p r o g r e s s i ve , s o
i t ' s e v i d e n t that ex i s t e nt i a l unde r s t a n d
i ng does e v o l ve , a n d mu s t t he r e f o r e b e
" c omm u n i c a b l e " in s om e s e n s e . B u t wha t
a r e t h e m e c h a n i s m s o f c o mmu n i c a t i o n i f t he
m a t t e r c a n ' t b e d i s c u s s e d o b j e c t i ve l y ?
F i r s t o f f , t h e hum a n m i n d h a s a c a p a c
..!..1.Y t o o p e r a t e e xi s t e n t i a l l y ; o f th i s , I
t r u s t the r e a d e r i s b y n o w c o nv i n c e d . It
f o l l ow s t h a t a n y t h i n k i ng expo s u r e t o t h e
p l a y o f o th e r s c a r r i e s a p o t e n t i a l t o e n
hanc e the unde r s t an d i n g in q u e s t i on . Thi s
exp o s u r e o c c u r s i n t h r e e o bv i o u s wa y s :
1 ) Di rect P l a y . " F l o w i n g " f r om p e r s on
t o p e r s o n , f r om c i t y t o c i t y , m e t h o d s o f
p l a y a r e e xch a n g e d u n c on s c i o u s l y . I n s om e
s o c i e t i e s , s u ch a s m e d i e va l E u r o p e , th i s
t y p e o f a c t i v i t y p r ov i d e d t h e s o l e m e a n s
o f gene r a l a dvance .
2 ) Popu l a r O p en i n g s . The g a m e s o f t h e
Phi losophical Foundat i ons 29
l e a d i ng ma s t e r s are bound to be the mo s t

c l o s e l y f o l l ow e d , s o t h e i r f a vo r i t e o p e n
i n g s w i 1 1 t e n d t o wa r d p o p u l a r i t y , p r o v i d
ing p a r t i cul arly " a r t i culate " instances of
the i r ex i s t e n t i a l u n d e r s t a n d i n g a t wo r k .
3 ) Lit e r a t u r e . Any r em n a n t s o f a g r e a t
p l a y e r ' s t h i n k i n g a b o u t che s s a r e b o u n d t o
carry s ymp t o m a t i c " g e r m s " f r om h i s ex i s
tent i a l unde r s t and i ng .
The r e a r e a n i n f i n i t e n u mb e r o f e x i s
tent i a l unde r s t an d i ng s , a n d - - a s I ' ve a l
r e a d y a rg u e d - - n o n e a r e m o r e " i n t h e t r u t h "
t h a n the o t h e r s . ( C he s s i s , o bje c t i ve l y ,
s ubje c t t o p u r e c a l c u l a t i o n - - a t e chn i c a l
qua l i ty . ) How , then , d o e s e x i s t e n t i a l un
d e r s t a n d i n g i m pr ove f r om one g en e r a t i o n to
the next ? I n wh a t i s the p r o gr e s s i ve n a
ture of our e vo l u t i o n g r ounded if not
t r u th ?
Tho u g h n o ex i s t e n t i a l u n d e r s t a n d i n g i s
o b j e c t i ve l y m o r e v a l i d t h a n t h e n e x t , s ome
a r e o bv i o u s l y m o r e e f f e c t i ve - - p o s s e s s e d by
s t r onge r p l a y e r s . An d s i n c e the g a m e s o f
the s t r on g e s t m a s t e r s w i l l b e m o s t k e e n l y
a t t ended t o , t h e y ' l l exe r t t h e grea test
i n f l ue n c e on the s ucceed i ng g en e r a t i o n ,
who s e l e a d e r s w i l l m a k e th e i r own c o n t r i b
u t i o n s t o wh a t t h e y ' ve i nhe r i te d . Thu s
we a k players a re fa ted to die w i thou t
" p r o g en y " - - the i r g a m e s w i l l b e f o rg o t t e n ;
a t the s ame t i me , the i d e a s o f the s t r ong
e s t p l a y e r s c a r r y the " gene s " for the f u
ture . T h e q u a l i t y o f che s s i mp r o ve s f r om
gene r a t i on to gene r a t i on , not bec ause o f
s ome i n e xo r a b l e m a r ch t o wa r d t r u t h , bu t
due to a pecul i a r f o rm of na tura l
select i on .
2 . The Importance of Aes thetics
We a r e emba rk i ng on a s t ud y of t h e
hi story of che s s f r om a n o n - t e chn i c a l
perspec t i ve . A s a c o n s equenc e , our f e e l
i ng s a b ou t the game mu s t be hee d e d , and
expl a n a t i o n s s h ou l d b e r e s i s ted . Th i s
m e t h o d i s cha r a c t e r i s t i c o f a e s t h e t i c s , a
d i s c i p l i n e wh i c h e n d e a vo r s t o a pp r o p r i a t e
" da t a " ex i s t e n t i a l l y .
Par i s , 1 7 50
Lega 1 1 St . Br i e
5 . Ne5 ! Bd l
6 . Bf7+ Ke7
7 . Nd5#
The r e ' s no d o u b t t h a t Wh i t e ' s pi eces

c oope r a t e t o g e the r i n thi s ma te . B u t why
d o w e f i n d th i s p a r t i c u l a r c a s e o f c o o p e r -
a t i o n a e s t h e t i c a l l y p l e a s i ng ?
The mo s t r e a s on a bl e a n s we r t o th i s
query is tha t the c o o p e r a t i on among
The Importance of Aesthe t i cs 31
Wh i t e ' s f o r c e s i s s u r pr i s i nq- - tha t o u r e x

i s t e n t i a l un d e r s t a n d i n g ha s b e e n s u d d e n l y
a w a k e n e d t o a n un u s u a l a s p e c t o f t h e g am e
wh i ch h a d b e e n p a r t i a l l y " c l o a k e d " . Who -
u p o n a m om e n t a r y g l a n c e a t t h e p o s i t i o n -
wou l d h a ve g u e s s e d t h a t t h e p i n n e d k n i ght
o n f 3 wa s d e s t i ne d to m o v e i n t o i mm e d i a t e ,
e f f e c t i ve c o o p e r a t i o n w i th t wo o t he r m i n o r
p i eces ?
S u ch e x a mp l e s s ug g e s t t h a t the o ve r - a l l
a e s th e t i c s of a player ' s games ( hi s
" s t y l e " ) wi l l tend to o u t l i ne h i s ex i s t en
t i a l under s t an d i ng b y br i ng i ng t o l i g ht
exc e p t i o n a l c a s e s of c o o p e r a ti o n . On the
who l e , t h i s i s a c o mm on - s e n s e a p p r o a ch :
I f we ' r e t o c om e t o g r i p s w i t h t he i n t u
i t i ve f e e l l e a d i n g ma s t e r s h a v e h a d f o r
c h e s s , t h e n w e s h o u l d be r e c e p t i ve t o the
f ee l i n g t h e i r g a m e s e x ud e . J u s t a s the
art hi st or i a n mu s t occa s i ona l l y " step
back " f r om a techn i c a l a n a l ys i s o f a
pa i nt i ng in order to expe r i e n c e its
b e a u t y , s o s h ou l d t h e che s s s t ud e n t a l l o w
the g r e a t g a m e s t o c om e t o l i f e a e s t h e t
ically . T o c l a r i f y , a n o t he r e x a m p l e :
32 The Importance of Aesthe t i cs
Par i s , 1 867
Neuaann Ko1 i sch

30 . . . Qe4
Th r e a t e n i n g 3 1 . . . . , d 3 .
3 1 . Qd6 Bh4
3 2 . Qb8 + Kh7
3 3 . Qe5 Ohl +
34 . Ke2 Be4 !
O bv i ou s l y , 3 5 . Qf 5 + is not to be
a l l ow e d .
B l a ck ' s b i s h ops are f o r eve r cha n g i n g
r o l e s , c oo p e r a t i n g o n a s u r p r i s i n g v a r i e t y
of d i agona l s t. o pr oduce the l i ve l y
a e s the t i c o f a n a tt a c k .
3 5 . Qd4 f5 !
B l a ck m i n i m i ze s the poss i b i l i ty of
c o u n t e r - a c t i o n a l on g t h e b l - h 7 d i a g o n a l .
3 6 . gf ? . . .
36 . Qe3 ( T a r t akowe r ) wou l d have left
B l a c k h a r d - p r e s s e d t o p r ove h i s c a s e . Af
t e r the move a c t u a l l y p l a yed , o n the o th e r
hand , the a tt a ck breaks through by f o rc e .
B u t a r e t e c hn i c a l po i nt s s u ch a s t h e s e
e s s en t i a l t o o u r s t ud y ?
Whe t h e r o r n o t B l a c k ' s a t t a ck i s p e r
f e c t l y s ou n d , t he a e s t h e t i c s o f h i s p l a y
have a l r e a d y t e s t i f i e d a s t o h i s p r o f ou n d
a pp r e c i a t i on o f t h e wa y a q u e e n a n d two
b i sho ps can s e i z e c on t r o l of an open
boa rd . J u s t a s no exi s tent i a l unde r s t and
i n g i s i n f a l l i b l e , s o a move n e e d n o t b e
s ou n d i n o r d e r t o b e a e s t he t i c a l l y p lea s
ing . F e e l i n g s a r e t o p r ov i d e a n e s s e n t i a l
c o mp o n e n t o f o u r d a t a ; o u r b u s i n e s s i s n o t
t o e x p l a i n t h e m a wa y , b u t t o p on d e r wha t
t h e i r e x i s t e n c e s u gg e s t s .
36 . . . . Qh2 +
37 . Kd l
The Importance of Aes the t i cs 33
3 7 . K f l , Be l ; 3 8 . Ke l , Qh l + t r a nsposes back
i n to the game .
37 . . . Be l
3 8 . Ke l Ohl +
3 9 . Ke2 Of3+
40 . Ke l Bd3
4 1 . Res i gns
. i n v i ew o f 4 1 . Q f 2 , Qh l + .
As I ' ve al ready i nd i cated , a t t a ck i ng

i d e a s n e e d n o t b e f oo l p r o o f i n o r d e r t o be
a e s t he t i c a l l y plea s i ng . C omb i n a t i o n s ,
m e a n wh i l e , are more 11 f r a g i l e 11 - - i f t he y
d o n ' t wo r k p e r f e c t l y , t he y r a r e l y l e a v e a n
i mp r e s s i on . In the Lega l l g ame quo ted
a bove , 5 . N e 5 wou l d n ' t b e wo r t h m e n t i o n i n g
i f B l a ck ' s k i ng had h a d a n e sc a p e s q ua r e
on f 8 ; the Ka l i sch g a m e , o n the o t he r
h a n d , i s m o r e l i k e l y t o r e m a i n i mp r e s s i ve
a f ter s l i ght a l t e r a t i ons - - i t s d r i v i ng
i dea s are l a rg e r , m o r e s u b s t a n t i a l . The
f o rm e r a e s t h e t i c w i l l the r e f o r e b e t e r m e d
f u n c t i o n a l - - t he ch a r a c t e r i s t i c of a ma
ch i n e who s e e v e r y c o g i s i n d i s pens a bl e -
whe r e a s t h e a e s t he t i c e m a n a t i n g f r om at
t a c k s w i 1 1 b e a r t h e s ug g e s t i ve l y a n i m a t e d
t i tle 1 i fe . Th i s b i o l og i c a l a na l o g y c a n
even b e c a rr i ed a s t e p f u r the r b y a pp e n d
i ng the a e s the t i c s o f po s i t i ona l pl a y , as
c a n b e s e e n i n o u r n e x t e x a mp l e .
34 The Importance of Aesthe t i cs
Stockho lm , 1 937
F i ne Stahlberg
16 . Rd l Be6
1 7 . 0-0 Rac8
1 8 . Qb2 Nd4 ?
Th i s e x ch a n g e of m i no r p i ces only
s e rves to clar i fy t he infer ior i ty of
B l a ck ' s b i s ho p .
As the game proceed s , note how the
p i e c e c oo p e r a t i on w i t h t he i s o l a t e d q u e en
p a w n a s a s t r a t e g i c r e a l i t y c a n be f e l t -
how t h e Wh i t e f o r c e s s e em i n vu l ne r a b l e on
t h e b l o c k a d i n g s q u a r e d 4 , h o w B l a c k ' s a rmy
i s i mp o t e n t l y t i e d to the d e f e n c e o f i t s
d - pawn , a n d s o f o r th .
1 9 . Rd4 Rc5
2 0 . Rfd l Rfc8
2 1 . R4d 2 h6
2 2 . Bf3 Qc6
2 3 . h3 Rc7
24 . Qe5 ! . . .
Wh i t e i n i t i a t e s t h e f i n a l a s s a u l t , a p
p r o p r i a t e l y e n o u g h , i n t h e n e i g h b o rho o d o f
The Importance of Aesthetics 35
the q u e en p awn . For the next few moves ,

e a ch m a n e uve r w i l l m o r e i n t e n s e l y i l l um i
n a t e the l a c k o f c o u n t e r p l a y at Bl ack ' s
d i s p o s a l - - a " d i s e a s e " wh i ch e m a n a t e s f r om
hi s s t a t i c a l l y weak p awn center .
24 . . . . f6
24 . . . . , R d 7 ; 2 5 . Q b 8 + ( F i ne ) is even
wo r s e .
2 5 . Of4 Rc8
2 6 . e4 !
The d e c i s i ve thrus t occurs at the
a e s t he t i c c e n te r of the p o s i t i on . If
26 , Rd 8 ,
. . Wh i t e wins i mm e d i a t e l y w i th
2 7 . e d , Bd 5 ; 2 8 . Q f 5 ( F i ne ) .
26 .. . . de
2 7 . Rd6 ef
2 7 . . . . , Qc7 ; 2 8 . Qe4 ( F i ne ) wou l d only
aggrava t e ma t te r s .
2 8 . Rc6 R5c6
29 . Of3 Re l
30. Re l Re l + !'\ \
H J..
3 1 . Kh2
. a n d Wh i t e w e n t on t o exp l o i t h i s
s l i g ht m a t e r i a l e dg e i n a s ub t l y - p l a y e d
endgame .
The s i g n i f i c a n c e o f th i s g a m e i s t h a t
we c a n s e n s e a e s th e t i c a l l y how the p i e c e s
c o o p e r a t e w i t h t h e i s o l a t e d q u e e n p aw n a s
a s t r a teg i c re a l i t y . A l though i t ma y not
r e p r e s e n t a t e chn i c a l a d va n c e ove r t u r n
o f - t he - c e n t u r y p l a y , the p r o n o u nc e d a e s
the t i c o f o u r examp l e b e a r s w i t n e s s t h a t
stra teg i c i d ea s h a ve b e e n a pp r o p r i a t e d
i n t o t h e m o d e r n g r a n dm a s t e r ' s ex i s t e n t i a l
under s t and i ng .
Whe n t h e F i n e - S t a h l b e r g game i s c om
p a r e d w i th the P i l l s b u r y - L a s k e r e n c o u n t e r
d i s c u s s e d in the l a s t chapte r , one no t i ces
36 The lportance of Aes the t i cs
t h a t P i l l s b u r y ' s c on c l ud i n g a t t a c k i s a e s
the t i c a l l y r om a n t i c - - th a t a f t e r the p r e p a
r a t o r y s t r a t e g i c g r o u n dwo r k , the g a m e d e
g e n e r a t e s i n t o a s i mp l e , d i r e c t a s s a u l t o n
t he B l a c k k i n g ; m e a n w h i l e , each m o ve o f
F i ne ' s a t t a c k h i gh l i gh t s t h e c r u c i a l s t r a
teg i c e l em e n t of the p o s i t i on - - t he
i solani . Al t h o u g h s u ch p l a y wa s n ' t a b s o -
1 u t e l y u nh e a r d o f i n the e a r l i e r e r a , the
f a c t t h a t i t p l ay e d s u ch a p r o m i n e n t r o l e
i n the s t y l e o f gr a n dm a s t e r s l i k e R u b i n
stein and C a p a b l a n c a e n d o r s e s the no t i o n
t h a t che s s h a s a d v a n c e d a l on g the l i ne s
s ug g e s t e d a b ove . ( Th i s w i l l b e d i s c u s s e d
a t g r e a t e r l ength l a t e r on . )
J u s t a s a s o u n d s t r a t e g y p r ov i d e s t h e
p r o p e r g r ou n d f o r a n a t t a c k , s o t h e 1 i v e -
1 i n e s s o f a t t a c k s a r e mo s t f i rm l y r o o t e d
in t he a e s the t i c of hea l th . Th i s , in
t u r n , s e t s the s t a g e f o r o u r f i n a l e x a m
p l e - - b e y on d b i o l o g y , t o an a e s th e t i c o f
the s p i r i t .
The Iaportance of Aesthetics 37
Hungarian Chaapionship
Budapest, 1961
Pogats Portisch
17 . . . . Nb8!
18 . Rfdl Nc6
19 . Rd8+ Rd8
20 . Rd8+ Qd8
21 . Qd2?
Wh i t e u n d e r e s t i ma t e s t h e vu l ne r a b i l i t y
o f h i s k i ngs i d e , whe r e t he q u e e n i s p r e s -
ent ly requ i re d f o r d e f ence .
21 . . . . Ng4!
22 . Ne4 Qd2
23 . Nfd2 Kc 7!
Far b e t t e r than t he i mp e t u o u s 23 . . . ,
f 5 ? ; 24 . Nc 5 , e t c .
24 . Nfl
Wh i t e prepares for f 3 , wh i ch w ou l d
o t h e rw i s e be met b y the a nn o y i ng 2 4 . , . .
Ne 3 !
24 . Nd4!
25 . , f5
is now a s e r i ou s thr ea t ,
f o r c i n g Wh i t e ' s h a n d :
25 . f3 Ne5
26 . b3 Ng6!
27 . h5 Nf4
28 . Ne 3 Nf5!
29 . Nf5 ef
30 . Ng 3 g6
. a n d B l a ck w o n e a s i l y .
A e s t he t i c a l l y , t h e o u t s t a n d i ng f e a t ure
of thi s game is not so m u ch the way
B l a ck ' s p i eces coope r a t e w i th Wh i t e ' s
we a k e n e d k i n g s i d e , b u t h o w t h e y he l p t o
create i t as a weakne s s .
The e mph a s i s h a s s h i f t e d : I n the F i n e
S t a h l b e rg g a m e , the p i e c e s c o o p e r a t e d w i t h
38 The Importance of Aesthet i cs
a cl a s s ical s t r a teg i c r ea l i t y; i n the

P o g a t s - P o r t i s ch g a m e , t h e p i e c e p l a y p r o
vi ded the f ound a t i on of the weakne ss ' s
ve r y exi s tence . A l though th i s m a y be
m e a n i n g l e s s f r om a t e chn i c a l p e r s p e c t i ve ,
the i nd i v i du a l pa r t i c u l a r s o f t h e p i e c e
p l a y a r e o f m o r e a e s t he t i c s i g n i f i c a n c e i n
t h e l a t t e r e x a mp l e . Thi s f i na l s t a ge i n
ou r h i e r a r ch y wi ll t he r e f o r e be t e rm e d
cha r a c t e r .
T o r eca p i t u l a t e : Ex i s t e n t i a l l y s e n s e d
c o mb i n a t i o n s a pp e a r funct i on a l , r om a n t i c
a ttacks exud e 1 i fe , class i cal s t ra tegy
bea r s t h e a e s th e t i c o f he a l t h , a n d the
i n d i v i d u a l i t y of c h a r a c t e r e m a n a t e s f r om
m od e r n che s s .
I. PRE-HISTORY
( 600- 1 8 2 1)
F IRST STEPS
3 . The Eabryo Chess

A F a m i l y Tr ee
Ga m e s s i m i l a r to c h e s s c a n b e d a t e d a s
f a r b a c k a s 6 0 0 AD , i f we a r e t o h e e d a
f ew obscure l i terary references to the
I n d i a n g a m e cha t u r a n g a . I n h i s m o n um e n t a l
A History of Chess, H . J . R . Mu r r a y s p e c u
l a t e s t h a t cha t u r a n g a h a d r e p l a c e d a r a c e
g a m e o n t h e a s h t a p a d a - - th e 8 x 8 b o a r d o n
wh i ch mo s t f o rm s of che s s are now
con t e s t e d .
Whe r e a s t h e a c t u a l i nve n t i o n o f che s s
wa s a t e ch n i c a l m a t t e r ( o f w h i ch w e k now
n o t h i n g ) , the c on t i n u i n g e x i s t e n c e o f the
g a m e d e p en d e d on ex i s t e n t i a 1 f a c t o r s . For
i f a p as t i me i s t o b e c om e p o pu l a r e n o u gh
t o s u r v i ve f r om g e n e r a t i o n t o g e ne r a t i on ,
i t mu s t b e a e s t he t i c a l l y p l e a s i n g - - i n the
w i d e s t s e n s e o f tha t t e r m . A n d s i nc e , i n
che s s , a e s t he t i c a p p r e c i a t i o n i s g r o u n d e d
i n ex i s t e n t i a l u n d e r s t a n d i n g , it f o l l ows
tha t the e s t a b l i s hm e n t of our game p r o
vi des t h e e a r 1 i e s t c on c r e t e ev i d ence f o r
t h e ex i s t e n c e o f t h i s m o d e o f thought .
The p o p u l a r r e p l a c e m e n t o f the a s ht a
pa d a race game b y the undoubt e d l y more
c omp l ex cha t u r a n g a s u gg e s t s th a t ex i s t e n
t i a l u n d e r s t a n d i n g wa s evo l v i n g e ve n in
t he e a r 1 i e s t d a y s o f che s s . I n th a t e r a ,
t he r u l e s .o f c h a t u r a n g a w e r e n o t y e t s t a n
d a r d i z e d , a s i n d i c a t e d b y t h e w i d e va r i e t y
o f m o v e s a t t r i bu t e d t o t h e e l e ph a n t ( t he
40 Pre-Hi story
ance s tor of our b i sh o p ) in av a i l able

s ou r c e s . Mu r r a y g ives t h r e e e x a mp l e s :
one whe r e the p iece m ov e s t wo squares
d i a g o n a l l y i n a n y d i r e c t i o n , o n e whe r e i t
move s t wo s q ua r e s a l on g t he ranks and
f i les , and a thi rd whe r e i t m ov e s o n e
s q ua r e d i a g o n a l l y o r o n e s t e p f o r wa r d .
I t ' s i mp o s s i b l e t o s a y prec i sely how
l o n g s u ch va r i a n t s p e r s i s t e d , bu t we c a n
sti 1 1 unde rstand thi s pe r i od i n gene r a l
t e rm s a s a n e vo l u t i o n a r y c o mp e t i t i o n a m o n g
r i v a l g a m e s , e a ch d i f f e r i n g s l i gh t l y f r om
the n e x t . S i n c e p o p u l a r i t y d e t e rm i n e s the
p r ev a l e n c e o f a n y g i ve n r u l e , t h i s e vo l u
t i on t en d e d t o wa r d s a s t a n da r d i z e d game
wh i ch wa s a s c a p a b l e a s p o s s i b l e o f p r o
vid ing a e s the t i c p l ea s u re - - a game w h i ch
p r e s s e d i t s p l a y e r s ' u n d e r s t a n d i n g s to t h e
p o i n t whe r e m a n e u ve r s c ou l d b e a s s u r p r i s
i ng l y c o o p e r a t i ve as pos s i bl e . Th i s i s
why t h e m o v e o f t h e b i sho p e v e n t ua l l y s e t
t l ed on the d i a g o n a l - - a " b e h a v i o r " wh i ch
c o mp l em e n t e d o t he r p i e c e s l i k e the r o o k i n
an a e s thet i c sense .
H i s t o r i c a l f a c t s o f a more s p ec i f i c n a
t u r e o n l y b e c om e a v a i l a b l e a f t e r cha t u r
anga had evo l ve d t h r ough the Pers ian
cha t r a n g to the I slami c sha t r a n j . The
rules of sha t r anj d i ffered f r om m o d e r n
che s s i n s i x i mp o r t a n t r e s p e c t s :
1 ) The move o f t h e f i r z a n ( o u r q u e e n )
wa s one squa re d i agona l ly in any
d i rect i on .
2 ) T h e move o f t h e f i l ( o u r b i s h o p ) wa s
t wo s q ua r e s d i agona l ly i n a n y d i r e c t i on
( w i th the abi l i ty to l e a p ove r o t h e r
p i ec e s) .
3) Pawn s we r e o n l y p e rm i t t e d t o move
o ne s quar e a t a t i m e on the i r init ial
The Embryo Chess 41
turn .
4 ) C a s t l i ng w a s n o t y e t i n u s e .
5 ) O ne c ou l d w i n by s t a l em a t i ng h i s
opponent .
6) One c ou l d win by " b a r i ng " his
opponen t ' s k i ng - - by c a p t u r i ng all his
p i e c e s e x c e p t t h e k i ng .
A p a r t fr om t he s e points , the I s l am i c
shah ( k i ng ) , r u khkh ( r ook ) , fa r a s
( k n i gh t ) , a n d b a i d a q ( p awn ) move d l i k e ou r
mod e r n p i e c e s .
One m i gh t i nq u i r e why , i f che s s wa s
evo l v i ng i n a d i r e c t i o n t o cha l l enge ex i s
t e n t i a l u n d e r s t a n d i ng a s gr e a t l y a s p o s s i
b l e , i t d i d n ' t i mm e d i a t e l y be c om e t h e m o r e
d i ff i c u l t mod e r n game we k n ow . Once
aga i n , t he a e s t h e t i c a pp r o a c h p r ov i d e s a n
a n s we r : S i n c e a g a m e beyo n d a p l a y e r ' s
u n d e r s t a n d i ng c a n 1 t r e l a t e t o tha t f a c u l
ty , i t won ' t b e a e s t he t i c a l l y p l e a s i ng .
Thu s che s s evo l v e s t o a p o i n t whe r e i t
presses its p r a c t i t i on e r s ' ex i s t e n t i a l
u n d e r s t a n d i ng , b u t i t r e s i s t s b e c om i ng s o
c omp l i c a t e d t h a t t he u n d e r s t a n d i ng i s l e f t
b eh i n d .
The ext a n t wr i t i ng s of the early
I slami c ma s te r s a r e a l mo s t e x c l u s i ve l y
d om i n a t e d by p r ob l e m s , m a n y o f wh i ch a r e
qui te pretty . The f a m o u s " D i l a r am ' s M a t e "
i s a t o n c e exemp l a r y a n d t y p i c a l ( r e c a l l
t h a t t he sha t r a n j b i sho p m o v e s a s g i v e n i n
# 2 a bove ) :
42 Pre-Hi story
Composed by
as-Su1 i
( Before 946 AD}
Wh i t e B1ack
1 . Rh8 + ! Kh8
2 . Bf5+ Kg8
3 . Rh8 + ! Kh8
4 . g7+ Kg8
5 . Nh6#
The e l e g a n c e o f s u ch e x a m p l e s i mp l i e s
t h a t the I s l a m i c m a s t e r s p o s s e s s e d a n u n
d e r s t a n d i n g i n i mp r e s s i ve c omm a n d o f the
art of c o mb i n a t i on . We ' 1 1 h e n c e f o r th
r e f e r t o the s ou r c e o f t h i s a b i l i t y a s the
ex i s t e n t i a l c omb i n a t i ve u n d e r s t a n d i ng .
Desp i te the i r c o mb i n a t i v e ta lent , we
h a v e l i t t l e o r n o r e a s on t o b e l i ev e tha t
t h e m a s t e r s o f s h a t r a n j we r e a b l e t o c o n
d u c t a c o mp e t e n t g a m e f r om a n o n - c omb i
n a t i ve p e r s p e c t i ve - - wh e n e v e r no f o r c i ng
c o n t i n u a t i o n wa s a t h a n d . A d m i t t e d l y , the
l i tera ture doesn ' t offer full games on
The Embryo Chess 43
wh i ch to b a s e a ne g a t i ve j udgment , but
t h i s ve r y l a c k c a n b e t a k e n a s a va l u a b l e
p i e c e o f e v i d en c e; f o r i f a che s s c o mm u n
i t y doesn ' t s u f f i c i e n t l y apprec i a te non
c o mb i n a t i ve p l a y t o p r e s e rv e f u l l games
( r a t he r t h a n c omb i n a t i ve e xc e r p t s ) , t h e n
the g r o u n d o f i t s a e s t h e t i c a pp r e c i a t i o n -
i t s ex i s t e n t i a l unde r s t a n d i n g - - i s n o t yet
i n c o mm a n d o f t h i s a l l - i mp o r t a n t f a c e t o f
the game .
The f ew n o n - c o mb i n a t i ve i d e a s t h a t d o
s u rv i ve f r om t h e e a r l y d a y s o f sha tr anj
are a hope l e s s l y i n a dequ a t e gu i d e for
s t r u gg 1 i n g t h r ough a c o mple t e g a me .
Ta ' b i ' a , for instance , we r e r e c omm e n d e d
f o r m a t i o n s o n e p l a y e r wou l d a i m f o r i n the
o p en i n g - - i r r e g a r d l e s s of hi s o p p on e n t ' s
play . A cha r a c t e r i s t i c e x a mp l e is the
" mu j a n n a h " , a k i n d of f l a n k o p e n i n g who s e
e a r l i e s t r e f e r en c e c a n b e f ou n d i n a s u r
v i v i n g f r a g m e n t f r om t h e wo r k o f a l - A d l i
( d a t i n g f r o m a b ou t 8 4 0 AD ) :
I t ' s c l e a r t h a t s u ch m i l d o p e n i n g h i n t s
a r e i n c a p a b l e o f g u i d i n g a p l a y e r t h r o ugh
an ent i re game . L a t e r o n , i n the w o r k o f
44 Pre-H i story
a l -Lajl a j ( m i d - tenth c e nt u r y ) , o p e n i ng
r e s e a r c h a s s um e d a m o r e a d va n c e d c h a r a c t e r
b y p r o c e e d i n g w i t h a move - by - m o v e a n a l y s i s
o f b o t h s i d e s i n c on f l i c t . O n the who l e ,
howeve r , e v e n t h i s a pp r o a ch l e d t o un
s o ph i s t i c a t e d o p e n i n g s , i n d i c a t i n g l i ttle
c o mm a n d o f n o n - c o mb i n a t i ve p l a y . N o th i n g
i n a l - L a j l aj r e s e m b l e s a g e n u i n e t h e o ry o f
the game wh i c h c ou l d assi st a s t ud e n t
who ' s n o l on g e r " i n b o o k " . Wha t c o n s t i
t u t e s a weakn e s s ? Wh e n a n d whe r e s h ou l d
one a t t a c k ? H ow i s a p l a n t o b e f o rm e d ?
I n r e p l y t o t he s e q u e s t i o n s , the I s l a m i c
m a s t e r s o f f e r n o th i n g .
Che s s , unde r the rules of sha t r anj ,
move d i n t o E u r o p e a b o u t 1 0 0 0 AD , a n d w i th
in a c ou p l e hun d r e d y e a r s , a new p r o b l e m
l i t e r a t u r e b e g a n t o d e ve l o p . The m e d i e va l
European problem wa s aes thet i ca l l y dis
t i n c t f r om i t s I s l a m i c c ou s i n i na s m u ch a s
it wa s r a th e r c o n t r i ve d and u nn a t u r a l ,
s u gg e s t i n g l e s s k i n sh i p w i t h t h e p r a c t i c a l
game .
The Embryo Chess 45
From the
Bonus Socius manuscripts
( Coaposed Before 1 300 )
White Black
It's White to play and mate in exactly
two moves, a bizarre condition (White has
three different mates in one, but is re
quired to mate in two) which is not atypi
cal of the medieval problem. In the
present case (rules per pages 40 and 41) ,
the solution is a "quiet move":
1 . Rdl
. . . and mates next, the three main
possibilities being 1 .... ,Re6+;2.Nf6#;
1. ,Ra5;2.Ng5#; and 1 ....,Bf4;2.Rd8#.
.
Such an artificial problem offers lit

tle chance to test a player's existential
understanding because the condition for
bids certain pieces to exploit their full
potential. Existential understanding,
like an emotion, can't be turned on and
off as one would an electric light. Rules
may be a technical matter, but they also
provide the "playing field" on which an
effective understanding will feel at home;
thus a tendency to change rules from prob
lem to problem is indicative of a poorly
rooted existential understanding. The
best fit to the data, therefore, is that
medieval players possessed a clever and
active--though not completely refined-
existential combinative understanding.
Seen in this light, medieval chess ap
pears to have been less advanced than
shatranj. Nevertheless, a progressive
evolution can be discerned here by noting
a number orule changes: The Islamic
46 Pre-Hi story
w i n s by b a r e k i n g a n d s t a l em a t e we r e g r a d
u a l l y a b a n d o n e d ; p a w n s a cq u i r e d t h e a b i l
i t y t o m o v e t w o s t e p s o n th e i r f i r s t t u r n ;
the k i n g a n d q u e e n w e r e o c c a s i o n a l l y g i ve n
the p r i v i l e g e o f a n i n i t i a l " l e a p " o f t wo
squa r e s i n to p l a y ; and f i n a l l y , the mod ern
move s o f t h e q u e en a n d b i sho p we r e i n t r o
d u c e d s ho r t l y b e f o r e 1 5 0 0 .
All t he s e i nn o v a t i o n s i n c r ea s e d the
numb e r of p o s s i bi 1 i t i es i n c h e s s , t r ans
f o rm i n g i t i n t o the compl i c a ted game o f
toda y . A pp l y i n g t h e s a m e l i n e o f r e a s o n -
i ng we e mp l o y e d when d i s c u s s i ng
c h a t u r a n g a , w e c o n e ! u d e t h a t t h e ex i s t e n
t i a l u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f the m e d i e va l p l a y e r
g r ew p r o gr e s s i ve l y s t r on g e r - - m o r e a b l e t o
a pp r e c i a t e i n c r e a s i n g l y d i f f i cu l t i d ea s -
u n t i l t h e b i r th o f t h e m o d e r n g a m e .
B u t why d i d n ' t t h e mo r e c a p a b l e m a s t e r s
o f sha t r an j make the s e a dvanc e s ? Ev i de n t
ly , because tha t g a m e h a d d eve l o p e d a n
au then t i c t r a d i t i on - - i t s l i terature wa s
pe r s o n a l , f i ! l e d w i t h named and revered
ch a r a c t e r s . C on ve r s e l y , m e d i e va l che s s
l i t e r a t u r e wa s a l m o s t e n t i r e l y a n on y m o u s -
a state of affai rs less res i stant to
cha n g e . S e r i ou s l i te r a ture t en d s to
cement a game ' s r u l e s i n p l a ce - - a s i s a l s o
ev i d e n t f r om the l a ck of maj or rule
ch a n g e s s i n c e 1 5 0 0 .
T o s umm a r i z e , t h e e vo l u t i o n o f che s s
ru l e s h a s b e e n f u e l e d by the fac t tha t
ex i s t e n t i a l u n d e r s t a n d i n g g r o u n d s a e s t he t
i c a pp r e c i a t i o n , wh i ch i n t u r n regul a tes
p o pu l a r i ty . I n d e e d , t h e n a t u re o f th i s
e vo l u t i o n i s t h e v e r y r e a s o n why ex i s t en
t i a l u n d e r s t a n d i n g h a s b e c om e a n i s s u e i n
che s s , a n d wh y o t he r g a m e s a r e r a r e l y a s
i n t ox i c a t i n g a s o u r s .
The Embryo Chess 47
O t he r c o mp e t i t o r s i n the " e c o s y s t e m " o f

games h a ve gene r a l l y pl ayed d i ff e rent
roles t h a n c h e s s , wh i ch i s why t h e y ' ve
been able t o f i n d p l a c e s o f th e i r own .
The a n c i e n t g a m e m e r e l s ( o f w h i ch t i c - t a c
toe is the s i mp l e s t e xa m p l e ) , d r a u g ht s
( che c k e r s ) , b a c k g a mm o n , a n d c a r d g a m e s a r e
a l l abl e to be pl ayed wi th a rea sonable
d e g r e e o f c o mp e t en c e a t a f i r s t s i t t i n g ;
t o a l a rg e e x t e n t , t he i r p o pu l a r i t y h a s
f e d o f f the s o c i a l - - r a the r th a n cha l l e n g
i n g - - a s p e c t s o f c omp e t i t i o n .
C he s s i s d e p e n d e n t on the s e r i ou s p r a c
t i t i o n e r - - i t s a e s t h e t i c va l u e is o n the
a ve r a g e h i ghe r , a l th ough it ch a l l e n g e s
one ' s ex i s t e n t i a l und e r s t a n d i n g mo r e i n
tense ly . C he s s i s n ' t d e s i g ne d f o r ma s s
p o pu l a r i t y ; it ' s the un i qu e l y s e r i ous
Europea n b oa r d game .
In sho r t , a p e r s on wi 1 1 o n l y b e c om e
s e r i ou s a b o u t che s s i f h e a pp r e c i a t e s i t -
i f he p o s s e s s e s a n a b l e ex i s t e n t i a l u n d e r
s t and i ng . M e a n w h i l e , tho s e wh o c o m p l a i n
th a t a " m e r e g a m e " i s n ' t wo r t h y o f s e r i o u s
s t ud y a r e o n l y c o n f e s s i n g t h e i r own l a c k
of ta lent .
4. The Spanish Scboo 1
The Ex i stenti al C omb i nati ve U nder standing
The moder n moves of the queen and

bi shop wer e i ntr oduced in the latter
fi fteenth centur y, and wi thi n 50 -10 0 years
the medieval game was all but extinct.
D ur i ng thi s per i od of tr ansi tion, substan
ti al li ter atur e on the " new chess " appear
ed pr i mar i ly i n Spai n--the countr y which
was also reputed to possess the str ongest
player s of the day. Whether or not thi s
r eputati on was deser ved i s open to debate,
but the wor k s of th e Spanish masters--in
any event--provi de as fir m a point as any
fr om which to begi n our study.
The fi r st wor k wor thy of consider ation
was compi led by L uis Rami r ez L ucena, and
publi shed i n 149 7 . L ucena 1 s book i s com
posed almost enti rely of pr oblems--b oth
medi eval and moder n--wi th only a few open
i ng hi nts thr own in. The compositi ons
ar e, on the whole, of a high cali br e when
compar ed to the mass of medieval chess
li ter atur e pr oper . F or example, the
famous " P hi li dor 's L egacy " can fi r st be
found her e:
The Spani sh Schoo1 49
Pub1 i shed by
Lucena , 1 4 9 7
Whi te B1ack
1 . Oe6+ Kh8
2 . Nf7+ Kg8
3 . Nh6+ Kh8
4 . Og 8 + ! Rg8
5 . Nf7
F ollowi ng our di scussi on of Islam i c an d

m edi eval chess, we m ay n ow con clude th at
the composi tion an d appr eci ati on of such
aesth eti cally pleas i n g pr oblem s i s sy mp
tomati c of an acti ve exi sten ti al comb i na
ti ve un der stan di ng . A lth ough Lucen a was
li ttle m or e than a compi ler , h i s collec
ti on at the ve r y least pr ov i des evi den ce
f or the existen ce of th i s un d er stan d i n g i n
the ear 1 i est y ear s of th e m oder n g am e .
F ur ther m or e, gi ven the close pr oxi m i ty of
m edi eval pr oblem s i n L ucen a, i t ' s saf e to
speculate th at th e gr eater par t of th i s
abi li ty was i n her i ted f r om th e older g am e .
50 Pre-H i s tory
Lucena ' s t r e a tment of the open i ngs ,

l ikewi se , wa s " i nh e r i t e d " f r om m e d i e v a l
c he s s - - i n a s m u c h a s i t shows l i t t l e a p p r e
c i a t i on of n o n - c omb i n a t i ve play . He
c o ve r s on l y e l e v e n d e bu t s - - cho s en r a the r
h a ph a z a r d l y - - i n a n a l mo s t r a n d o m m a n n e r .
I n the G i uo c o P i a no , f o r i n s t ance , a f t e r
l . e4 , e 5; 2 . N f 3 , Nc 6; 3 . Bc4 , Bc 5 ; 4 . d 3 , N f 6 , he
c o n s i d e r s the purpo s e l e ss wa s t e of t i me
5 . h 3 ? , d 6 , f o l l o w e d b y the e v e n m o r e a b s u r d
6 . Bb 5 ? . J u s t a s i n t h e o l d e r va r i a n t s o f
ch e s s , n o e v i d e n c e e x i s t s he r e o f a n a b i l
i ty to c o mp e t e n t l y c on d u c t a game
n o n - c omb i n a t i v e l y .
H i s t o r i c a l l y , the f i r s t f i g u r e o f the
m o d e r n g a me who a c h i e v e d a c e r t a i n d e g r ee
of p r om i n e n c e wa s Ruy Lopez de S egura
( c . 1 5 3 0-c . 1 58 0 ) . In 1 5 6 1 , he publ i shed a
cons i d e rabl y more advanced t r ea t i s e on the
o p e n i n g s f r om the s t a n d p o i n t o f t h o r ough
n e s s; the gua l i ty of the ana lys i s ,
h o w e ve r , s u g g e s t s tha t R u y L o p e z ' s e x i s
tent i a l u n d e r s t a n d i n g wa s s t i l l c on f i n e d
t o p u r e l y c o mb i n a t i v e t h o u g h t .
A dm i t t e d l y , a k i n d o f " i d e a l " p l a n i s
ev i d e n t i n R u y L o p e z : O n e s h o u l d s t r i ve
t o o b t a i n t wo u n o pp o s e d p a w n s a b r e a s t i n
t h e c e n t e r ( o n d 4 a n d e 4 ) ; thu s o n e o f h i s
f avo r i t e s wa s the s l ow , a n d r a t h e r f a n c i
f u l , 1 . e4 , e 5; 2 . c 3 . A s i s c o mm o n l y k n own ,
s uch a d i r e c t a t t e mp t t o e mp l o y th i s p l a n
i s hope l e s s l y unrea l i s t i c ( a mod e r n ma s te r
w o u l d n e ve r p l a y s o p a s s i ve l y t o a l l o w i t s
r ea l i z a t i on ) . And s i nce Ruy Lopez o f f e r s
n o a l t e r na t i ve pl ans , we ' r e f o rced to c o n
c l ude tha t h e wa s , m o r e o f t en th a n n o t ,
l o s t i n the m i d s t o f p l a y . Th i s i s , a s
u s ua l , c o r r obo r a ted b y the f a c t th a t he
d i d n ' t s e e f i t t o p r e s e rve a n y n u mb e r o f
The Span i sh Schoo1 51
c om p l e t e g a m e s ( wh i ch h e d i d n ' t a e s t h e t i c
a l l y a pp r e c i a t e ) .
A p a r t f r om t h o s e c a s e s whe r e o n e s i d e
plays ent i rely f eebl e che s s , Ruy Lopez
g i ve s l i t t l e he l p t o t h e p l a y e r s t r ug g l i n g
th r o ugh a n o n - c o mb i n a t i ve j u ng l e . We
the r e f o r e c on c l ud e th a t the S p a n i s h S ch o o l
is c o m p r e h e n s i ve l y cha r a c t e r i z e d by the
ex i s t e n t i a l c omb i n a t i ve u n d e r s t a n d i n g , a n d
t h a t i t wa s e s s e n t i a l l y n o m o r e a d v a n c e d
than the I s l am i c S choo l o f 7 00 y e a r s
earl ier .
5 . The I t a 1 i an Schoo1
To war d a C o n ti n ui ty of S ty le
In 15 7 4 , the two Itali an master s

G i o van n i L eo n ar do d i B o na da C utr i ( 15 42-
15 8 7 ) an d G i uli o C esar e P oleri o (15 48-
16 12 ) tr aveled to M adr i d , where they each
defeated R u y L o pez i n match play . Thi s
co nven i ent date may ther efo r e be used as
the bi r th o f the I tali an S chool- - a sty le
of play that was to dom i n ate Eur opean
chess fo r n ear ly 20 0 y ear s.
The ear li est member s o f thi s schoo l
pub ! i shed n o thi n g , cho osi n g r ather to sell
pr i vate man uscr i pts to i n di vi dual pa
tr ons- - gi vi n g thei r cli en ts mo r e- o r - less
exclusi ve access to the best open i n g anal
ysi s o f the day . The bulk o f thi s wor k
that has sur vi ved emanates fr om P o ler i o ,
an d can be dated appr o x i mately 15 9 0 .
A n o table featur e o f P o leri o ' s wo rk i s
the r elati ve ease wi th whi ch i t leads to
co mbi n ati vely r i ch play . The mo st pr om
i n en t example , per haps , i s the Itali an
G ame ( 1.e4 , e5 ; 2.Nf3 , Nc6 ; 3 .B c4) , a debut
whi ch str i k es i mmedi ately a t the weak est
1 i nk i n Black ' s 11 fr onti er 11 (f7 ) , r ead i ly
b r i n gi n g abo ut an y n umb er o f di rectly com
bi n ati ve 1 i n es , such as the F ega tello
A ttack (3 .... , Nf6 ; 4.Ng5 , d5 ; 5 .ed , Nd5 ? ;
6 .Nf7 ! ? , K f7 ; 7 .Q f3 + etc.) . M ean whi le , the
subtleti es that mak e the S pan i sh G ame
( 1.e4 , e5 ; 2.Nf3 , Nc6 ; 3 .B b5 ) such a feared
weapon i n the han ds o f a mo der n master
co uld have n ever been appr ec i ated by R uy
L o pez ; h i s ado pti o n o f th i s o pen i n g was
1 i ttle mo r e than i n c i den tal- - a s suggested
b y the lack o f di r ecti on i n hi s an aly s i s.
The I ta 1 i an Schoo1 53
A n even more pronounced example of the

Itali an st yle i s t he K i ng ' s G amb i t (1 . e4 ,
e5;2.f4) , whi ch--although it h ad b een
noted by Ruy L opez--was fi rst an alyzed i n
depth by the Itali ans . Th us i t ' s i n
P oleri o t h at we fi rst fi nd th e not ori ous
" Muzi o " G ambi t (2 . . . . ,ef; 3 . Nf3 , g5; 4 . Bc4,
g4; 5 . 0 -0 ! ? ) , as well as t he Salvi o G ambi t
(2 . . . . ,ef; 3 . Nf3 , g5; 4 . Bc4 , g4; 5 . Ne5? ! ) . O nce
agai n , t hese li nes bear a di st i nct t en
dency to bri ng comb i nat i ons to li fe-
esp eci ally i n t he nei ghborhood of th e sen
si ti ve f7 .
Th e upsh ot of all th i s i s t h at t h e
Itali ans had developed a more recogni zable
st yle--t hei r ga mes exh i bi ted great er con
t i nui ty and di rect i on th an had ever b een
seen . Rather than bli ndly wan deri ng in
the vai n hop e that a comb i nati on wi ll come
along, P oleri o ' s analysi s di sp lays a gen
ui ne abi li ty to bri ng about tact i ca l com
pli cati ons . O r--echoi ng our di scuss i on of
evolut i on earli er--t he lead i ng mast ers b e
came stronger because th ey h ad developed
t he abi li ty to sense combi nat i ons b efore
th ey w ere act ually on th e b oard .
U nconsci ously , th e It ali an mas t ers h ad
begun t o appreci ate th ei r i nab i li t y to
understand chess non-comb i na t i vely , so
t hey nat urally gravi tat ed t oward tacti c
ally sharp games . A l th ough th i s led to
play wh i ch i s cert ai nly unsoph i st i c a t ed b y
modern st andards , i t at least i n di c a t es
t hat t h e leadi ng exi st ent i al un ders tan di n g
o f t he day was t ry i ng to mak e i ts elf feel
at home-- i f only b ecause i t felt lo s t---ril
non-combi nat i ve si t uat i ons . Th i s parti c
ular attri b ute of ex i sten t i al un d er s ta n d
i ng-- a " comi ng t o term s " wi th on es elf- -
54 Pre-H i s tory
w i l l be t e rmed r e c ogn i t i on , and i s des

t i ne d t o p l a y a p r o m i n e n t r o l e i n ou r d i s
cuss i on o f L a s ke r .
T h e n e w s t y l e o f p l a y wa s p e rh a p s b e s t
exemp l i f i e d by the games of G i o a c ch i no
Greco ( 1 600-c . 1 634 ) , who p l a y e d h i s wa y
t h r ough F r a n c e a n d E n g l a n d i n the first
qua r t e r of the seventeenth c e n t u r y . By
a n d l a r g e , G r e c o ' s g a m e s we r e u n d ou b t e d l y
c omp o s e d ; n e v e r the l e s s , hi s ma n u s c r i p t s
we r e f i l l e d w i t h i d e a s t h a t w ou l d i n t r o
d u c e the s ou l o f t h e I t a l i a n Schoo l to
n o r the r n E u r o p e .
c . 1 620
Greco ?
1 . e4 e5
2 . f4 ef
3 . Bc4 Oh4+
4 . Kfl Bc5 ?
Obv i o u s l y i n f e r i o r , a s Wh i t e c a n now
g a i n a t e m p o w i th t h e useful move d4 .
N e v e r t he l e s s , the move wa s n ' t e n t i r e l y
i mp l a u s i b l e t o the s ev e n t e e n th century
m i n d s i n c e i t e n t a i l s a t h r e a t o f ma t e .
5 . d4 Bb6
6 . Nf3 Qe7
Two o t he r Greco games proceeded as
f o l l ow s :
1) 6 . . . . , Qg4 ?; 7 . B f 7 + , K f 7 ( or 7 . . . . , K f 8;
8 . h 3 , Qg 3; 9 . Nc 3 , K f 7; 1 0 . Ne 2 , Qg6; 1 1 . Ne 5 + and
w i n s ) ; 8 . Ne 5 + e t c .
2) 6 . . . . , Qh 6 ; 7 . g 3 , Q h 3 +; 8 . K f 2 , f g + ? ; 9 . hg ,
Q g 4; 1 0 . B f 7 + , K f 8 ( o r 1 0 . . . . , K f 7; 1 1 . N e 5 + ) ;
1 1 . Rh4 , a n d B l a c k ' s u n f o r t un a t e l a d y f i n d s
he r s e l f i n e n e m y h a n d s o n c e a g a i n .
7 . Bf4 . . .
The I ta 1 i an Scboo1 55
7. . . . Qe4
8 . Bf7+ Kf8
9 . Bg3 Nb6
1 0 . Nc3 Qe7
1 1 . Bb3 c6
1 2 . Qd3 d5
1 3 . Re l Qf6
The c omp a n i o n game to thi s one s aw
13 , Q f 7 ; 1 4 . Bd 6 + , Kg8 ; 1 5 . Re 7 , Q f 6 ;
1 6 . Nd S ,
Qd6 ( or 16 , cd ; l 7 . Bd 5 + , K f 8 ; 1 8 . Rf 7 + , Ke 8 ;

1 9 . R f 6 , gf ; 2 0 . Q e 3 + , f o l l ow e d by Qe7# ) ;
1 7 . Nf 6 + , K f 8 ; 1 8 . Re 8 # .
1 4 . Bb4 Qg6
1 5 . Be7 + Kg8
1 6 . Qg6 bg
1 7 . Nd5 ! cd
1 8 . Bd5 + Kb7
J u s t a s d e c i s i ve i s 1 8 . . . . , N f 7 ; 1 9 . Ng 5 ,
Rh 5 ; 2 0 . B f 7 + , K h 8 ; 2 1 . B g 6 , Rh4 ; 2 2 . N f 7 + .
1 9 . Ng5:1=
The I t a l i a n S ch o o l p r ov i d e d no g r o u n d s
on wh i ch t o c o n du c t a n y g i v e n game n o n
c omb i n a t i v e l y , b u t at l e a s t i t mad e c e r -
56 Pre-Hi story
t ai n advan ces i n t hi s di r ect i on by un con

s ci ous ly r ecogn i zi n g--an d hon or i n g-- i t s
own li mi t at i on s . T he t i me had ar r i ved for
t he fi r s t es s en t i al advan ce in chess
t hought s i n ce t he ear li es t days of Islami c
ches s .
6 . Phi 1 i dor
P awn Play an d O r der
As ches s hi s tor y en ter s the ei ghteen th

centur y , mor e i n f or mati on b ecomes avai !
able r egar di n g the r elat i ve s tr en g th o f
the leadi ng mas ter s ; an d b y m i d- cen tur y , a
s i n g le n ame s tan ds out f r o m the r es t :
F r an 9 oi s Andr e D an i can , al i as P hi 1 i dor
( 1 726 - 1 7 9 5 ) . N ow, i f our i n ves ti g ati on i s
to pr ob e the depths o f ex i s tenti al un der
s tan di n g , w e mus t f i n d an ex plan at i on - - at
leas t a par ti al on e- - f or the s uper i or i ty
o f each of th e domi n an t play er s thr oug h
hi s tor y . It's w i th thi s ob jecti ve i n m i n d
that w e appr oach the pr oblem o f P hi li dor ' s
g en i us .
The mas ter s of the I tal i an S chool m us t
h a ve per cei ved ch es s to b e i n cr edi bly
chaoti c . Tr ue, w hen a co mb i n at i o n was
" ex i s ten ti ally clos e " a cer tai n deg r ee o f
con tr ol could b e ex er ted over th e pos i
ti on . B ut w hat ab out the f a r mor e common
c as e w hen a g en er al, n on - f or ci n g plan i s
c alled f or ? S i n ce the un der s tan d i n g o f
the day was con f i n ed to the wor ld of com
b i n ati on s , f ew i deas ex i s ted w hi ch could
g ui de a play er thr ough any g i ven game .
It wa s i n to thi s s t ate of an ar ch y that
P hi 1 i dor s ought to br ing or der . His
g r eates t ob s tacle to th i s amb i ti ou s un der
ta k i n g was that he ha d n o di r ect s en s e o f
h ow pi eces ar e capable of cooper ati n g
tog ether n on - comb i n ati vely . Thus hi s m i n d
was dr i ven to pon der the on e r elati vely
s table elemen t w hi ch could b e co un ted on
to con s i s ten tly g ui de hi m thr ough the tur
mo i 1 of a comp le te g am e : the p awn s tr u c-
58 Pre-H i story
tur e . By f o cus i ng on th i s elem ent,

Ph i 1 i do r co uld allo w hi s pr ev i ous ly di s
co r dan t pi eces to " f all- i n " wi th th e plan
s ugges ted by th e pawns - - s ugges ti o ns as to
wher e to mas s h i s f o r ces f o r an attack ,
wher e to bewar e o f h i s o ppo nent's ag gr es
s i o n, and wh er e combi nati o ns ar e m o s t
li k ely to o ccur . C o ns i der ho w a f ew ad
va nced pawns def i ne Ph i li do r ' s attack i n
th e f o llo wi ng gam e .
London , 1 789
Phi 1 i dor Bruh1

(R emo ve Wh i te's queen k ni ght and
B lack 's k i ng bi sh o p p awn . )
1 . e4 d5
2 . e5 Bf5
3 . g4 Bg6
4 . h4 t:5
5 . h5 Bf 7
6 . c3 e6
7 . f4 Nc6
8 . d4 cd
9 . cd Bb4+
1 0 . Kf2 Nge7
1 1 . Nf3 a6
1 2 . a3 Ba5
1 3 . b4 Bb6
1 4 . Be3 0-0?
Phi l i dor 59
B lack ' s play h as been les s th an ex em

plar y th us f a r , b ut n o w Wh i te h as g en ui n e
chan ces f o r a di r ect attac k o n the k i n g-
i n th e ver y n ei ghbo r h o o d wh er e h i s paw n s
a r e mo s t aggr es s i vely placed . And s o the
pawn s tr uct ur e h as g u i ded P h i li do r to a
n on - comb i n ati ve w i n n i n g plan .
1 5 . Bd3 Kh8
1 6 . Kg3 Od7
1 7 . Ra 2 Bg8
1 8 . Bb l Nd8
19 - Nf7
Black h as m eth o di cally wo r k ed h i s k i n g
into a co r n er . M ean wh i le , Wh i te has
c o m pleted th e mas s i n g o f h i s pi eces in
that s ecto r , s o h i s attack i s r eady t o
b eg i n i n ear n es t .
2 0 . Ng6 + ! Ng6
A ls o po s s i ble was 2 0 . . . . , hg ; 2 1 . hg + , Nh 6 ;
2 2 . g5 , N f 5 + ; 2 3 . B f 5 , R f 5 ; 2 4 . gh , an d Wh i te
r et ai n s a s tr o n g attack .
2 1 . hg Nh6
21 . . , N d8 ; 2 2 . Rh 7 + ! , Bh 7 ; 2 3 . Q h l
. o n ly
c ap i tulates m o r e eas i ly .
60 Pre-Hi story
2 2 . Rah2 , hg
2 3 . Bg6 Bh7
24 . Obl Rae8
What else? 24. . . . ,Bg6;25.Qg6 leaves
the B lack m onarch in a hopeless dilemma,
while 24.... , Bg8;25. g5 allows White to
regain hi s material and proceed with his
attack sim ultaneously.
2 5 . Bh7 Re7
26 . Bg6 Kg8
2 7 . g5 Nf 5+
B1ack Res i gns
. forbidding White the cute finale
28.Qf5 ! .
A lthough it seem s plausible, at first

sight, that P hilidor's theory of pawn play
was respons i ble for his com petitive suc
cess, we m ust inquire why others didn't
reach his level of m astery once the tech
nical ideas had been m ade public.
The answer is that techni cal ideas are
grounded in existential understanding.
R ecalling our discussion in C hapter 1, we
note that P hilidor's theorizing was a
process of g eneralization; by noticing
similarities in several particul ar gam es,
he was able to draw conclusions about
chess in g eneral. Typically, therefore,
the process of theoriz ing is the inverse
of play ing--em ploying theory; anyone who
wanted to play as well as P hilidor had to
be as adept at applying his theory in
specific gam es . S een in this li ght, it
com es as no surpri se that the m an who had
pr oven his ability to travel a road in one
di r ection (theor iz ing from the particular
to t he gener al ) should be m os t able to
t r a v e l th e o t h er way (apply ing the general
Phi l i dor 61
to the parti cular i n actual play ) .

An i n teresti n g footn ote m i ght be
appen ded at thi s poi n t as to why Islam i c
an d medi eval chess were un able to mak e
fundamental advan ces i n to the realm of
n on - combi n ati ve play . The plai n fact i s
that the modern game i s faster- - i ts agi le
pi eces are able to con form more qui c k ly to
a gi ven plan , mak i ng i ts reali z ati on
easi er to vi suali z e . Th i s leads to the
" paradox " that , even though modern chess
i s more compli cated tacti cally , i t len ds
i tself more readi ly to the developmen t of
" hi gher" , n on - combi n ati ve i deas; of
course , the art of combi n at i on has to be
reason ably m astered before th i s latter
advan ce i s possi ble . A si mi lar li n e of
thought mi ght be employ ed to hi ghli ght the
di sti n cti on between the older gam es an d
the sty le of the Itali an S chool .
I I . THE ROMANTICS
( 1 8 2 1 - 1 8 59 )
TH E D EV EL O PMENT O F NATURAL TAL ENT
7 . Bourdonna i s
The Exi s tenti al A ttack i ng U ni t
When P hi li dor s tr uggled wi th the pos s i

bi li ti es of a gi ven pos i ti on , he was
for ced to r efer to the pawn s tr uctur e i n
or der to for mulate a plan. A mor e evolved
under s tan di ng was at wor k i n the games of
the legendar y L oui s de la Bour donnai s
(1 7 9 5 -1840 ) , whos e thi nk i ng was able to
di r ectly s ens e the non- combi nati ve cooper
ati on among a gr oup of attack i ng p i eces -
a phenomenon that we s hall enti tle the
exi s tenti al attack i ng uni t.
London , 1 8 34
Macdonne1 1 Bourdonna i s
1 . e4 c5
2 . f4 Nc6
3 . Nf3 e6
4 . c3 d5
5 . e5 -( '/
6 . Na 3 Nh6
7 . Nc 2 Qb6
8 . d4 Bd7
9 . Ne3 ? !
9 .Bd3 s eems mor e ver s ati le.
9. . . . cd
1 0 . cd Bb4 +
1 1 . Kf2 0 -0
1 2 . Kg3 ? ! . . .
A r i s ky i dea , tr i ed s eve r a l ti mes by

Bourdonna i s 63
M acdonnell in this m atch--and presumably

one of the reasons for the knight ' s
presence on e3 (where it discourages ,
. .
Nf5 + ) . Still, White ' s key pawn on d4

rem ains only marginally protected, he is
underdeveloped, and his king is exposed.
12. . Race
1 3 . h4 fe
1 4 . fe Rf3+ !
A combination, true--thoug h one whose
end is l gain, but the exis
1: ence of an existenti al attacking unit
with which to harass the White king.
___
1 5 . gf ___ ..
M orphy notes that 15 .Q f3 ? ,Q d4 is even
worse.
15 . . . . Nd4
1 6 . Bd3 Rf8
1 7 . f4 Bc5
1 8 . Rf l Bb5 !
Black is struggling for control of the
crucial squares e2 and f5 . Now, after the
exit of the light-squared bishops, the
entire Black arm y wi 1 1 join in effective
cooperation.
1 9 . Bb5 Ob5
2 0 . Kh3 Ne2
2 1 . Ng2 .
M orphy suggested that White first play

2 1.a4, Q a6--and only then 22.Ng2--in order
to nudge Black ' s queen away from the
primary scene of battle.
21 . . . . Nf5
2 2 . Kh2 Neg3
2 3 . Rf3 Ne4
24 . Of l Qe8
2 5 . b4 Bd4
2 6 . Rb l Oh5
64 The Romant i cs
2 7 . Rbb3 Rc 8
Now Black ' s r ook deci s i vely enter s the
attack vi a the cr i ti cal c2 s quar e- - ther eby
cr eati ng an annoy ance fr om the flank as
well as th e fr ont.
Whi te has an extr a exchange , but his

k ing i s i n j eopar dy becaus e th e B lack
pi eces cooper ate together to for m an
effecti ve ex i s tenti al attack i ng uni t.
2 8 . Be3 Rc2
29 . Kg l Ne3
3 0 . Rfe3 . .
Equally bad would be 3 0 .Ne3 , Q g4+ !

(B our donnai s ) .
30 . . . Nd2
3 1 . Od3 . .
3 1 .Q f2 can be handled wi th the s i mp le

31 ., R cl +
. . followed by ... , Nb3 and
... , B e 3 .
31 . Re l +
3 2 . Kh2
3 2 .K f2 , Ne4+ amounts to e s s enti ally the
s ame thi n g.
32 . Nf l +
3 3 . Kh3 Ne 3
Bourdonna i s 65
34 . Ne 3 Qf3+
3 5 . Res i gns
When o n e co n s i der s th e aes th et i cs o f

the attack i n th e abo ve g am e vs . tho s e
made m an i f es t in Ph i li do r ' s m eth o d i cal
play , what appear s m o s t s tr i k i n g i s the
li f e of B o ur do n n ai s ' f o r ces . F o r - - as
o ppo s ed to m er ely f ulf i lli n g a pr o g r am
wh i ch h as b een def i n ed b y th e pawn s tr uc
tur e , B o ur do n n ai s ' pi eces co o per ate
to g ether o n th ei r o wn , ._er p'l;:_ll_?_!)-Y . c...h9 n g
Jng r o les as r equi r ed ( th e queen ' s
man euver b 5 -e8- h 5 , th e rook ' s f lan k i n g
di ver s i o n to c2 , an d b o th k n i gh t s ' us e o f
all the k e y s quar es d4 , e3 , e4 , f 2 , f 5 ,
g3 , an d h 4-- e i ther actually o r i n pr om
i n en t var i ati o n s ) . Th i s aes th eti c of
li veli n es s is t h e n atur al r es ult o f a
m o vemen t f r om th e pr edo m i n an tly techn i cal
plan s of P h i li do r to th e ex i s ten ti al
un der s tan di n g o f B o ur do n n ai s .
8 . Staunton
Exi stenti al V ulnerabi li ty
D esp i te h i s bri lli ance i n the art of

conducti ng attack s agai nst obvi ously weak
ened posi ti ons, Bourdonnai s occas i onally
fai led i n h i s efforts to topple a rela
ti vely sound enemy fortress, and often
left hi s own p osi ti on compromised i n the
process. Th ese two char acteri stics sug
gest that he had an i nadeq uate grasp of
existenti al vulnerabi li ty--th e phenomenon
due to a lack of cooperati on among a gi ven
group of defensive p i eces. We may ther e
fore expect th e next stage i n the evolu
tion of exi stenti al understanding to pro
duce a play er wh ose games are less swash
buck l i ng-- one wh o doesn ' t expose his
posi ti on as readi ly as Bour donnai s, and is
si multaneously m ore adep t at discerning
h i s opponent ' s vulnerable poi nts . A nd
i ndeed, such an advance i s to b e percei ved
in the games of the Engli sh " world champ
i on " H oward Staunton (1810-187 4) .
Par i s , 1 84 3
S a i nt-Amant Staunton
1 . d4 d5
2 . c4 e6
3 . e3 cs
4 . Nc3 Nf6
5 . Nf3 Be7
6 . Bd3 b6
7 . 0-0 0 -0
8 . b3 Bb7
9 . cd ed
1 0 . Oc 2 Nc6
Staunton 67
1 1 . a3 a6
1 2 . Rd l cd
1 3 . ed h6
Th ank s to th e passivity of th e B lack
b ish op on b 7 , White h as em erged fr om the
opening with a slight pull.
1 4 . b4 Bd6
1 5 . Re l b5
1 6 . h3 Rc8
1 7 . Qb3 Qc7
1 8 . Bd 2 Qb6
1 9 . Be3 Ne7
2 0 . Rae l Nh5 ?
2 1 . Qd l Nf6
2 2 . Nh4 Rc7
2 3 . Qd2 Nh7
24 . Qc2 Nf6
2 5 . Kh l Ne8
B lack has slipped into a r ath er uncom
for table position due to h is m istak en
k night m aneuver on m ove 20 . S till, his
r efusal to cr eate obvious weak nesses h as
k ept h im in th e gam e, and now Wh ite in
tur n m ak es a cr ucial err or--allowing h is
attack to fiz z le out b efor e it gets
s tar ted.
2 6 . Nf 5 ? Nf5
2 7 . Bf5 a5 !
2 8 . Qb3 ab
2 9 . ab Rc4 ! ?
B lack h as sk illfully cr eated a weak ness
a t b 4, and now pr oceeds to em ploy pr essur e
o n th is seem ingly insi gnifi cant pawn in
o r der to confuse Wh ite ' s pieces- - al l th e
while coor dinating th r eats on th e opposite
f lank . In sh or t, th e White positi on as a
wh ole i s m or e vulner able th an th e sum of
i ts flaws would indicate.
3 0 . Na 2 Nf6
68 The Romant ics
3 1 . Bd3 Qc6 ! ?
Of co ur s e, 3 2 . B c4 ? , de lo s es i mm edi ate
ly . N ever th eles s , des p i te th i s i n i t i al
tacti c, B lack f ully i n ten ds to s acr i f i ce
th e ex chan ge o n c4 ; af ter th e eventual
B c4 ,dc, th e ab s en ce o f Wh i te ' s li ght
s quar ed b i s h o p- - co up led wi th the o pen i n g
o f th e lon g di agon al- - wi ll p r ove i n di s
pen s ab le to th e i n cr eas i n g p r es s ur e o n the
k i n gs i de . I
3 2 . Ob2 \ Od7
3 3 . Qi Nh5
34 . Od2 f5
35 . f4 Ng3
3 6 . Bc4 de
F o r th e ex chan ge, B lack en jo y s co n tr o l
o f th e k e y s quar es d 5 an d e4 , wh i le Wh ite
h as b een s addled wi th weak p awn s on b 4,
d4, an d f 4 . F ur th e r , th e Wh i te bi s h o p i s
tr apped b y h i s o wn p awn s , an d i s co n s e
quen tly n o th i n g mo r e th an a " b i g p awn "
h i m s elf . F i n ally , th e p o s i ti o n i s n o t o n e
i n wh i ch a r o o k i s li k ely to b e gr eatly
s up er i o r to a m i no r p i ece . Admi ttedly , i f
th e s quar es b 4 , e4 , g2 , an d g3 co uld b e
mo re co n ven i en tly co n tes ted b y Wh i te, he
wo uld r etai n f ai r ch an ces f o r th e upcom i n g
s tr uggle; as th i n gs ar e, h o w ever , hi s
p i eces s i m ply do n ' t co o p er ate to geth er i n
that m an n er .
3 7 . Ob2 Rf6
3 8 . Nc 3 Ne4
3 9 . Re2 Rg6
Staunton 69
T he defens i ve co o per ati o n of Wh i te ' s

pi eces i s aesth eti cal l y cl um sy , hence they
fo rm what m i ght be cal l ed an " exi stenti al
l y vul ner abl e uni t " .
40 . Rd l ?
B l ack alr eady had a pr om i s i ng gam e , but
th i s m ak es th e w i n r ath er s i mpl e.
40 . . . . Nc 3 ;
4 1 . Qc3 Bf3 j
4 2 . Rde l . . .
No better was 4 2 .R ee l , B dl ; 4 3 .R d l , Q e7 ;
4 4 .R b l , R g2 + ! ; 4 5 .K g2 , Q e4 + ( S taunto n ) .
42 . . . . Be2
43 . Re 2 Qe7
44 . Qb2 Re6
45 . K f 2 Re4
46 . Qa 2 Kf7
4 7 . g3 Qb7
48 . Qa3 Re8
49 . Qc3 Oh l
50 . h4 g5
5 1 . Qe l Qh2+
5 2 . Kf l Qh3 +
5 3 . Kg l Qg4
70 The Romant ics
54 . hg Bf4 !
Black Won
A by no m eans flawles s gam e , but o ne

wh i ch well- i llus tr ates S taunto n ' s abi li ty
to explo i t the s ubtler flaws of hi s
o ppo nent ' s po s iti o n. A ppr o pr i ately , th e
ch ar acter i s ti c o f h i s bes t gam es i s no t
the li veli nes s o f B o ur do nnai s , but th e
co ntr ar y aes th eti c: co ns tr i cti o n and
s tr angulati o .
- --- - -
O nce agai n , th e i mpo r tance of aes thet

i cs s h o uld be s tr es s ed. B ecaus e
B o ur do nnai s ' gr eat attack s wer e i nvar i ably
di r ected to wa r ds s ever ely com pr om i s ed
defens i ve po s i ti o ns , we ' r e no t all that
s ur pr i s ed to s ee th es e defi c i enci es com i ng
to th e fo r e; h i s attack s , r ather , i m pr es s
fo r th e acr o bati c feats o f th e agg r es s ive
pieces . B ut a full appr eci ati o n of attack
r equi r es a gr as p o f defens i ve i deas . Th us
i t was left fo r S taunto n to pr o v i de a
r efi nem ent to the F r enchman ' s co ncepti o n
o f attack - - na m ely , th e complementar y i dea
o f d efence.
9 . Anderssen
A ntagonism
Although Staunton was able to apprehend

existential vulnerability alongside of the
existential attack ing unit, there's still
an element of struggle absent from his
style; in the majority of his games,
either the attack succeeds or the defence
holds out--the confrontation to b e decided
by the " playing out " of these roles. In
the games of the attack ing artist Adolf
A nderssen ( 1818- 187 9 ) , on the other hand,
it's not always immediately clear who's
attack ing and who's defending; one of his
greatest assets was the ability to sense
the existential antagonism that exists
between opposing armies--the antagonistic
" cooperation " that underlies every
encounter between White and Black forces .
It's clear that White pieces cooperate
together with White, and Black with Black .
But the ground of attack as such is only
revealed when two armies antagonistically
clash in a struggle to seize the role of
attack er. This can best be clarified by
an example .
London , 1 8S l
Staunton Anders sen

1 . e4 es
2 . Nf3 Nc6
3 . Bc4 Bes
4 . d3 d6
S . c3 Nf6
6 . BgS 0-0
7 . Nbd 2 a6
72 The Romant i cs
8 . a4 Ba7
9 . b4 Ne7 ?
1 0 . Bf6 gf
1 1 . Nb4 c6
1 2 . Of 3 d5
1 3 . Bb3 Od6
1 4 . 0-0 Kg7
1 5 . Rad l Be6
1 6 . Bc2 Ng6
1 7 . Nf 5 + Bf5
1 8 . ef Ne7
1 9 . Oh5 Kh8
2 0 . Kh l Rae8
2 1 . f4 Ng8
2 2 . fe?
B lack i s cr am ped o n the k i ngs i de, and
Wh i t e wo uld have a pr om i s i ng gam e aft er
2 2 . R f3 :
1 ) 22 , e4 ? ; 2 3 . Rh 3 ,h 6 ; 2 4 . Q g4 (th r eat
.
eni ng R g3 ) , B f2; 2 5 . de,de; 2 6 . N e4 and Wh i t e

wi ns (S t aun t o n) .
2) 2 2 . . . . , ef; 2 3 . R dfl , B e3 ; 2 4 . Rh 3 ,h 6 ;
2 5 . Nf3 (S t aunt o n) .
A ft er t h e m o ve act ually play e d, Wh i t e
i s s ur pr i s i n gly fo r ced t o co mpr om i s e h i s
k i ngs i de, and a s t r uggle fo r t h e at t ack
fo llo ws sh o r t ly .
22 fe
2 3 . g4 f6
24 . Rf3 Re7
2 5 . h4 Bb8
2 6 . Rh3 Rd8
2 7 . g5 Rdd7
2 8 . Rg l Rg7
2 9 . Oe2 Rde7
30 . g6 Ba7
3 1 . Rg2 Od7
3 2 . Oh5 Re8
3 3 . Rf3 Ne7
Anders sen 73
34 . Nf l Nc8
3 5 . Nh2 e4 !
Black h as s ei z ed th e attack , an d ca n
n o w as s ault th e Wh i te po s i ti o n di r ectly .
3 6 . de de
37 . Rf l e3
3 8 . Bb3 ?
Th i s i n vi tes an i mm edi ate cr i s i s .

S taun to n later s ugges ted th e ca uti o us
3 8 . Q e2 .
38 . Od3
Black ' s pi eces ar e in th e m i ds t o f

tr an s f o rm i n g f r om def en der s to attack er s ,
h en ce exh i b i t a dual n atur e- - o n e who s e
un i ty can be aes th eti cally appr eci a ted
th r o ugh th e con cep t o f an tago n i s m .
39 . gh? - - -
Wh i te ' s po s i ti o n wa s getti n g un co m f o r t
able , b ut th i s r eleas e o f t en s i o n allo ws
th e B lack r o o k on g7 to i n s tantly ch an ge
i ts r o le f r om a s om ewha t cl urn s y def en der
to a co o per at i ve attack er .
39
. . . Oe4 !
40 . Nf3 e2
4 1 . Re l Rg2
74 The Romant ics
42 . Kg2 Re7
43 . Be6
4 3 .Bf 7 ? ,Rf7 ; 44 .Q f7 , Q g4+ wins imm ediate-
ly fo r B lack (S taun to n ) .
43 Nd6
44 . Kh3 Rg7
4 5 . Ng5
H o w else to m eet the devastatin g thr eat
o f ...,Qf4?
45 . . . . fg
46 . Qe2 Qh4+
47 . Kg2 Ne4 !
If 48.Q e4, th en 48 . . . . , Q f 2 + fo llo w ed by
...,Rh7 leads to m ate. Ther efo r e . . .
48 . Res i gns
As can be seen in the abo ve game,

Ander ssen was less r estr icted to m etho d
than was S taun to n , an d ther efo r e disco ver
ed mo r e cr eative an d dynamic po ssi b i 1 i ties
when the situatio n called fo r a sudden
chan ge o f dir ecti o n . This fact--as well
as the excitin g aesthetics o f his play--is
m o st r eadily explain ed by o ur hypo thesis
that A n der ssen was the fir st master to
appr ehen d th e essen tial an tago n ism that
exists between attack in g an d defen din g
fo r ces.
Ther e 1 s o ften a gr eat discr epan cy
between a play er 1 s co mbatan t per sonality
an d his lack o f fi ghtin g spir it o ver the
bo ar d (e.g. S taun to n ) ; cer tain tam e
per son alities, m ean while, pr o ve to be
in cr ed ibly tenacio us in battle (e.g.
An d er ssen ) . This state o f affair s wo uld
be in expli cable i f we co uldn 1 t po in t to
the po ssibility that the play er s in
questi o n have di ffer en t con ceptio ns of
antago n i sm o n th e existen tial level. As
Anders sen 75
lo n g a s s uch pr o blem s ar e addr es s ed o n a

t echn i cal level , h o wever , they m us t r emai n
en ti r ely m y s t er i o us b ecaus e tech n i cal
i n ves ti gat i o n s r equi r e o b jecti vi t y - - th e
ps y ch o lo gi cal den i al o f tak i n g s i des .
1 0 . Morphy
T he G l ob a l E x i s ten ti a l Un der s ta n d i n g
T he tr a d i ti o n a l ex pla n a ti o n fo r the
i n vi n ci b i li ty of P a u l Mo r phy ( 1 8 3 7 - 1 8 8 4 )
i s tha t he wa s a n i n s ti n cti ve po s i ti o n a l
pla y er . T h i s theo r y s tem s fr o m two pr i n
ci pa l a s pects o f hi s pla y : ( l ) he r a r ely
i n du l ged i n u n ju s ti f i ed a tta ck s , a n d (2) he
wa s o ften co n ten t to s i mply develo p a
pi ece- - o r o th er wi s e s tr en gthen hi s po s i
ti o n - - when ever t her e wa s no ju s ti fi ed
a tta ck to en ga ge i n .
T hes e fa cets o f Mo r phy ' s pl a y ca n b e
m o r e m ea n i ng fu lly expla i n ed by fi tti n g
them i n to the evo l u ti o n a r y l i n e we ' ve b een
di s cu s s i n g (r a ther th a n m er ely a llu d i n g to
the va gu e ter m " i n s ti n ct " ) ; fo r b o th a r e
s ym ptom a ti c o f a n u n der s ta n d i n g th a t ca n
s en s e coo per a ti o n tha t ' s b o th n o n -comb i n a
ti ve a n d n o n - a tta ck i n g i n n a tu r e. A r m ed
w i th s u ch a g l o b a l ex i s ten ti a l u n der s ta n d
i ng , Mo r phy wa s pa r ti cu la r ly s en s i ti ve to
t h e pr o b l em s i n vo lved wh en ever a n u n ju s t
i f i ed a tta ck s ever ed the co o per a ti o n o f
i ts a rm y a s a who l e ; he wa s co n s equ en tly
m o r e 1 i k el y to i n cr ea s e the co o per a ti o n i n
hi s o wn camp when ever the s i tu a ti o n ca lled
fo r l es s a ggr es s i ve m a n eu ver i n g.
A n der s s en po s s es s ed a fu l l ex i s ten t i a l
u n der s ta n di n g of a tta ck , but Mo r phy ' s
u n der s t a n di n g comm a n ded the en ti r e b a ttle
fi el d. In thi s wa y , M o r phy co u ld s en s e
the di s ti n cti o n -- a s wel l a s the coo per a
ti o n - - b etween a p o ten ti a l a n d a n ex i s ten t
a tta ck . O r , to pu t i t di ffer en tl y , h e wa s
ex i s ten ti a l l y a wa r e of th e l o n g- term
s tr u ggl e b etween Whi te and B l a ck - - r a ther
Morphy 77
than the m er e encounter s b etween attack i ng

and defendi ng uni ts.
Par i s , 1 858
Anders sen Morphy

1 . e4 e5
2 . Nf3 Nc6
3 . Bb5 a6
4 . Ba4 Nf6
5 . d3 Bc5
6 . c3 b5
7 . Bc2 d5
8 . ed? . . .
Y i eldi ng the center to B lack . C ons i d
er ably b etter would h ave been 8.Q e2 or
8.Nb d2 .
8. . Nd5
9 . h3 ? ! 0-0
1 0 . 0-0 h6
1 1 . d4 ed
1 2 . cd Bb6
Black alr eady enjoys a com for table gam e
thank s to hi s centr ali zed pi eces and
Wh i te ' s i solated queen pawn . Next, whi le
Mor phy conti nues to i m pr ove the gener al
cooper ati on among h i s pi eces, note how
A nder s sen wi 1 1 pr eci pi t ate h i s own dem i se
b y envi sioni ng a far - fetched attack on the
B lack m onar ch .
1 3 . Nc3 Ndb4
1 4 . Bb l Be6 !
M or ph y r etai ns h i s advan tage th r o ugh
comm on- sense developm ent. Alter nati vel y ,
the captur e o f th e Wh i te queen pawn w ould
l ead to di saster :
1) 1 4 . , B d4 ? ; 15 .N e2 ,Bb 6 ;
. . 1 6 . a 3 ,Nd5 ;
1 7 .Q c2 etc.
2) 14 . , Nd4 ? ; 15 .Nd4 ,B d4
. . ( or 1 5 ....,
78 The Romant i cs
Q d4 ; 1 6 .Q f 3 ,B e6 ; 1 7 .a3 ,Nd5 ;18 .R d l ) ; 16 .Q f 3 ,

B e6 ;17 .B e4 ,R b8 ;18 .a3 etc.
1 5 . a3 Nd5
') , .
1 6 . )Je_l Nf6
1 7 . Qd 2 Re8
1 8 . Rd l Bd5
1 9 . Ne5 Qd6 !
O n ce agai n , Mo r ph y k eeps h i s h ead when
f aced wi th a tr ap: 19
. ,N e5 ? ;20 .de,R e5 ;
.
21.B b6 ,cb;22.B a2,Q e8 ;23 .N d5 ,Nd5 ;24 .f 4 an d

Wh i te wi n s.
S ever al o f Wh i te ' s p i eces seem to be

i deally po sted f o r a k i n gsi de attack, but
th ey ' r e actually m i splaced i n asmuch as
B lack ' s po si ti o n suf f er s f r om n o weak n ess
i n th at secto r . It f o llo ws t h at th e B lack
arm y co o per ates to geth er glo bally in a
mo r e pur po sef ul mann er than do es i ts Wh i te
co un ter par t.
20 . Qc2 .
An der ssen bur n s h i s br i dges s i n ce the

B lack super i o r i ty i s n o w clearly evi den t.
20 . . Nd4 !
2 1 . Bd4 Bd4
2 2 . Nd5 Oe5 !
Morphy 79
The alternative actually loses:

22...., Q d5? ;23 .Nc6,Re4;24.Rd4,Rd4;25.Ne7 + .
2 3 . Nf6 + Of 6
24 . Oh7 + Kf 8
2 5 . Be4 Rad8
26 . Kb l Bb2
2 7 . Rab l Rd l +
2 8 . Rd l Of2
2 9 . Qb8 + Ke7
3 0 . Oh7 Be5
3 1 . Bf3 Qg3
3 2 . Kg l Qg6
B1ack Won
M orphy ' s games may not always be as

lively as those of Bourdonnai s and A nders
sen, but his characteristic aesthetic also
indicates the fundamental strength of his
existential understanding: he mai ntained
healthy positions.
We conclude that M orphy possessed the
deepest and most profound understandin g of
all the romantics--a conclusion that ' s
perfectly corroborated b y his over-the
board results. Indeed, our whole theory
of the romantics is well-supported by the
evident strength of the player s concerned:
S taunton was more practi cal than
Bourdonnais, A nderssen more cornbative and
i maginative than S taunton, and Mor phy more
well-rounded than A nderssen . Whereas
these facts have not gone totally
unrecogniz ed in pr evious studies, th e
exi stential approach i s the first to offer
a reasonable explanati on for the
phenomena.
The romantics have b een tr adi ti onally
i gnored b y theor i sts b ecause they stated
f ew or no verbal rules fo r how to conduct
80 The Romant ics
a ga m e ; on th e o th e r hand, th i s ver y
tr a d em a r k h a s m a d e them th e per f ect to pi c
w i th whi ch to b e gi n o ur s tud y of
n o n - ver b a l- - ex i s ten ti a l- - un d er s ta n d i n g .
I I I . THE CLASS I CAL ERA
( 1 8 59- 1 9 2 7 )
C H ES S A S S C I ENC E
1 1 . Pau1sen
In er t i al Mas s
I n clas s i cal ph y s i cs , f o r ce i s pr o po r
t i onal t o acceler at i o n ; f ur t h errno r e- - f o r
an y gi ven o b j ect - - th e con s t an t o f pr o po r
t i o n ali t y h as a f i x ed value called
" i n er t i al mas s " . Th us ar e we led away
from a mo del o f un r elat ed , gr o un dles s
even t s t o a un i ver s e po pulat ed wi t h s ub
s t an t i al t h i n gs , each wi t h i ts o wn
i nh er en t r es i s t an ce t o ex t er n al f o r ce .
In a s i mi lar way , the ex i s t en t i al
wo r lds of B o ur do n n a i s , S t aun t o n , an d
An der s s en wer e co mpo s ed o f i s o lat ed co m
b i n at i o n s an d at t ack s - - en t i t i es wh i ch b o r e
no r ela t i on t o t h e po s i t i o n as a wh o le .
Wher eas man y o f t h es e i deas wer e un do ub t
edly s o un d (j us t as man y wer e n o t ) , the y
wer e all ex i s t en t i ally gr o un dles s b ecaus e
t h ey ar o s e o ut o f pr e- at t ack i n g po s i t i o n s
t h at t h e mas t er s i n ques t i o n di dn ' t com
man d; t o t h e ex i s t en t i al un der s t an d i n g o f
t h e ear ly r o man t i cs , at t ack s gr at ui t o us ly
appear ed o ut o f " th i n ai r " b ecaus e glo bal
co o per at i o n was n o t y et appr eci at ed .
Th en Mo r ph y appear ed o n t h e s cen e . He
was the f i r s t to clear ly per cei ve t h e
coo per at i o n i nh er en t i n an y gi ven po s i
t i o n - - wh et h er at t ack i n g o r n o t ; i t was h i s
global ex i s t en t i al un der s t an d i n g that
paved t h e way to r e c o gn i z i n g an ever
p r es en t " mas s " i n all s i t uat i o n s b y c orn i n g
82 The Clas s i ca l Era
to t e rm s w i th a pe r m an en t , fluctuati ng
c o o pe r at i o n . Wh i le th i s pr ovi ded Mo r ph y
wi th a s en s e for wh eth e r an attack i s
j u s t i f i e d , i t s ugge s ted to Lo uis P aulsen
( 1 8 3 3 - 1 89 1 ) th at m an y po s iti on s ar e m or e
res i l i ent than h ad p r evi o us ly been
thought . Th i s ch ar acter i sti c o f r esi s-
t an c e t o attack (a " f o r ce " i n ch ess) is
the r e as o n wh y we ' 1 1 ch o o se to call the
pe rman e n ce o f glo bal cooper ation --espe
c i ally i n th e r o le o f defen der --i n er tial
m as s .
B u t h ad n o t S taun to n alr eady developed
an ex i s te n ti al un de r stan d i n g o f defen ce?
W i th i n the con text of hi s tim e , ye s; how
e ve r , S tau n ton ' s appr eci atio n of existen
t i al vu ln e r abi l i ty was essen ti ally li m i ted
i n s co pe : If ther e was n o vuln er able un it
in s i ght , h e pe r ceived n o attack , an d
th er e fo r e n o defen ce- -in deed , n othi n g on
the ex i s te n ti al level . F or S taun ton ,
n o th i n g po s i ti ve cou ld com e o ut o f playing
t h e def en de r ; to h i m , ei ther a po sition
was attack i ng (po si tive) , defen di ng (neg
ati ve ) , o r e n tir ely o utside h i s existen
ti al un der stan di n g .
P auls e n m o ve d be yon d thi s n ar r o w
con cepti on by r ecogn i z i ng the po s i tive
s ubs tan ce o f i n er tial m ass . A s a con se
qu en ce , he o ften di s cover ed s ur pr is i n g ,
ae s th eti cally pleasi n g r es i 1 i en ce i n seem
i n gly u n f avo r able po s i t i o n s . Thus h e pr o
duce d a n um be r o f defe n s i ve m as te r pi eces
in wh i ch h i s po s i ti on as a whole pr oved
r emar k ab l y r e s i s tan t to attack - - j us t as a
he alth y b o dy i s r esi stan t to di s ease .
Pau1sen 83
Br i sto1 , 1861
Ko1 i sch Pau1sen

1 . e4 e5
2 . Nf3 Nc6
3 . Bc4 Bc5
4 . b4 Bb4
5 . c3 Ba 5
6 . d4 ed
7 . 0-0 d6
8 . cd Bb6
9 . d5?
F ar s uper i or is the r ati onal 9 .N c3 ,
leadi ng to appr oxi mately even chances .
9. . . . Na5
1 0 . Bb2 Ne7 !
Thi s i s P auls en ' s i mpr ovement over th e
clums y 10 ,Nf6? , the poi nt b e i ng t hat
. .
an i mmedi ate as s ault los es by for ce:

11.Bg7 ? ,Rg8; 12.B f6,N c4; 13 .Q a4+ , Q d7 ;
14.Q c4,Rg2+ ! .
Wher eas the k ni ght i s not as di r ectly
acti ve on e7 , it' s far mor e effecti ve
ther e due to i ts defens i ve p otenti al after
the pr os pecti ve Whi te advance on th e k i ng
s i de.
1 1 . Bd3 0-0
1 2 . Nc3 Ng6
1 3 . Ne2 c5
1 4 . Od2 f6
1 5 . Kh l Bd7 ! ?
A mor e natur al plan i s 15 ,Bc? , to
. . .
b e followed b y an advance of the b - pawn .

B ut P auls en envi s i ons an i mmedi ate con
fr ontati on in whi ch the potenti ally
aggr es s i ve Whi te fo r ces wi ll b e thr o wn
i nto confus i on.
1 6 . Rae l a6
1 7 . Ne l Bb5
84 The C1as s i ca1 Era
1 8 . f4
Black 's k i ngsi de possesses a latent

defensi ve str ength i nasm uch as i t's poi sed
for m axi mum r esi stance i n the event of a
W h i te aggr ess i on in that sector ; m ean
whi le, B lack 's oth er flank h ouses a latent
attack i ng uni t wh i ch i s ab out to com e to
li fe vi a a fr eei ng counter-sacr i fi ce. In
shor t, the Black arm y i s healthy and r eady
for acti on.
18 .
c4 !
1 9 . Bb l c3 !
R ather than allow h i s m i nor pi eces to
wi ther away on the queens i de, P aulsen
offer s b ack the sacr i fi ced mater i al--and
i n stantly clar i fi es who's attack i s m or e
substanti ally gr ounded.
2 0 . Rc3 Nc4
2 1 . Qc l Ree
2 2 . Bd3
Wh i te tr i es to contest h i s adver sar y's
dom i nance of c4 , b ut thi s only allows the
i nvasi on to penetr ate fur th er yet.
22 .
Be3
2 3 . Qc2 Nd 2
Pau1sen 85
24 . Rg l Rc3
25 . Oc3 Ob6
26 . Be l Bg l
27 . Ng l Bd3
28 . Nd3 Ne4
29 . Res i gns
Note how the Whi te attack di dn ' t mer ely

fai l i n the above game-- i t never tr uly
c ame i nto exi stence because B lack ' s p i eces
enjoyed gr eater global cooper ati on than
thei r adver sar i es; the local Whi te aggr es
si on just di dn ' t possess enough for ce to
move the enti r e, well-coor di nated B la ck
ar my .
A estheti cally, P aulsen seem s to have
gone fur ther than Mor phy i n the di r ecti on
of appr ehendi ng i ner ti al mass because hi s
defensi ve sty le m ade hi s for ces seem
" heavi er " --mor e r esi stant to movem ent; i n
P aulsen ' s games, the emphasi s i s on the
r esi li ence (or mass) behi nd hi s acti vi ty
r ather than the well-gr ounded acti vi ty
i tself.
P r i or to the pr esent ch apt er, w e ' ve
been able to tr ace a r eas onably clear ,
well-defi ned pr ogr ess i on of s tr ength :
B our donnai s, S taunton, Ander ssen, Mo r p hy .
Now, how ever , i f we ' r e to p lace P auls en o n
a n evoluti onar y level wi th Mo r p hy , we
gener ate th e sti ck y pr oblem o f how to
justi fy M or ph y ' s--as w ell as A nder s s en ' s -
super i or i ty over P aulsen.
U nfor tunately , our study i s n ' t goi n g t o
be able to r eso lve ever y p r o blem o f th i s
sor t. In th e pr esent i nstance, a ll w e c a n
do is allude to th e p os s i b i li ty t ha t
P aulsen ' s under s tan d i n g wa s h a lf - wa y
b etween M o r phy a nd S t ei n i tz ; thus he
86 Th e C1ass i ca1 Era
enjo y ed s om e o f the advantages an d dis

advan tages o f both , givin g birth to a
unique an d co mplex s tyle. (We' 1 1 dis cus s
th e pro s an d con s o f Stein itz 's advan ce
o ver Mo rph y in o ur n ext ch apter.)
To clear th in gs up a bit, let's briefly
exam in e wh at I m ean by " half- way between
M o rph y an d Stein itz " . Recalling o n e o f
o ur philo s o ph ical as ides from Ch apter 1,
we n o te that lan guage develo ps m o s t readi
ly o n ce the m in d h as con ceptualiz ed the
wo rld as being po pulated with th in g s --th e
o bjects o f noun s , o r s ubjects in gen eral.
It fo llo ws th at, if exis ten tial ph en o m en a
are to com e to lan guage, it's crucial to
perceive th em as enduring, s ubs tan tial
things . H en ce it's by no m eans un reas on
able to s ugges t th at P auls en's co ncept of
the exis ten tially perman ent in ertial mas s
was th e firs t s tep toward develo p in g ches s
as a clear, objective s cien ce. (O nce
again , th is is to be compared with th e
earlier s tages o f o ur s tudy, in wh ich
attack s pas s ed in an d o ut o f exis ten ce
s po radically--exhibiting 1 ittle or no
perman en ce.)
Whereas M o rph y un earth ed th e pro per
gro un d fo r attack, P auls en " dug h im s elf
in " an d realiz ed it was als o th e pro per
gro un d fo r defen ce. G o od ch es s is go o d
ch es s -- wheth er yo u'r e attack in g or
defen din g; th is i s wh at mak es s trategic
ideas un ivers ally applicable , an d wh y
P auls en 's realiz ation o f this fact may be
ch aracteriz ed as a s ignifican t an ticipa
tio n o f Stein itz 's th eo ries .
1 2 . Ste i n i t z
Strategi c Mas k i ng
Working out of a mode of thought s i rn

i lar to M orphy 1 s and P auls en 1 s , the fi rs t
official world champi on Wi lhelm Stei n i tz
(183 6-19 0 0 ) v erbali z ed a numb er of as pects
of the global exi s tenti al unders tandi ng;
for many of hi s theori es can , i n fact , be
appreciated as i ns tances o f co operat i on :
A n unj usti fi ed attack s ev ers the co o p era
tion among one's own p i eces , and i s there
fore undes i rable; the s uperi ori ty of a
pai r of bi s hops over two k ni ghts b ecomes
evident once their cooperati o n has b een
made mani fes t i n s ev eral concrete po s i
tions ; the importance of a foo thold i n the
center for a s ucces s ful defence i s a
noti on that s tern s from a des i re to k eep
the opponent 1 s pi ece cooperat i on i n check ,
and s o on. The co llecti on of thes e tech
ni cal rules led , i n turn , to Stei ni tz ' s
theory of " the accumulati on o f s m al l
advantages " --a po li cy that's w ell - i l lus
trated by the followi ng game.
Wor1 d Champ i onship Match

Nev Or1eans , 1 8 8 6
Ste i n i tz Zukertort
1 . e4 e5
2 . Nf 3 Nc6
3 . Bb5 Nf6
4 . d3 d6
5 . CJ g6
6 . d4 Bd7
7 . Nbd2 Bg7
8 . de Ne5
88 The Class i ca l Era
9 . Ne5 de
9 .... , B b5 ? ; 1 0 .Nf7 ! , K f7 ; 1 1 .Q b3 + si mp ly
lo ses a p awn . Th i s po ss i bi li ty fo r ces
Black t o r ecap tur e as i n th e gam e , an d
th er efo r e causes h i s k i n g bi sh o p t o beco me
r ath er passi ve.
1 0 . Qe2 0-0
1 1 . f3 a5? !
Th i s acco mp li sh es li ttle but th e cr e
ati o n o f a p o ten ti al weak n ess o n th e B lack
queen s i de.
1 2 . Bd3 Qe7
1 3 . Nf l Be6
Wh i te has th e advan tage , th er efo r e h e
m ust a t tack - - acco r di n g to S tei n i tz ' s
th eo r y- - o th e r wi se h i s advan tage wi ll di s
app ear . Th i s i mp er ati ve can be seen to be
gr o un ded i n P aulsen ' s co ncept of i ner ti al
mass i f we b ear i n m i n d that the essen ce
o f attack i s t o sever the o p pon en t ' s p i ece
co o p er ati o n i n so me way; th us fai lur e to
attack is equi valen t to allo w i n g th e
o p po n en t to " r ecup er ate " b y r e- establi sh
ing th e r esi li en t , glo bal coo per ati o n
ch ar acter i sti c o f h ealthy , i n er ti al mass.
1 4 . g4 ! Rfd8
1 5 . h4 . . .
Wh i te plays wi th th e i n ten ti o n of
cr ampi n g th e B lack k i ng ' s p o s i ti on in
gen er al- - as well as di vo r ci n g th e k i n g
pawn f r om i ts n atur al f- p awn supp o r t-
r ath er than en gagi n g i n a di r ect attack .
15. . Qd7? !
S i n ce he can ' t gai n en tr y o n th i s fi le
an yho w , th e si mple 1 5 . . . . , h 5 ; 1 6 . g5 , N d7
wo ul d have been super i o r ( th e k n i gh t
en jo y i n g mo r e act i vi ty o n d 7 than o n e8 ) .
1 6 . Bc2 h5
1 7 . g5 Ne8
Ste i n i tz 89
1 8 . Ne3 Oc6
1 9 . c4 !
Wh i te ' s acti ve k n i ght an d contr ol of d5
s er ve to mak e h i s edge mor e con cr ete .
19 . . . . Nd6
2 0 . Bd3 Rab8
2 1 . Nd5 Bd5 ?
2 2 . cd Od7
The ex ch an ge on d5 h as eas ed th e i mm e
di ate pr es s ur e , but has als o ceded th e
pai r of bi s h ops - - t h er eby clar i fy i n g
Wh i te ' s advan tage on ce agai n .
2 3 . Bd 2 Ra8
24 . Re l c6
2 5 . Rc5 ! . . .
Th an k s to h i s acti ve bi s h op s , con tr ol
of k ey s quar es s uch as b5 an d d5 i s of
mor e i mpor tan ce to Wh i te than th e r ela
ti vely mi n or pawn w eak n es s th at w ould
r es ult fr om 2 5 . dc , bc .
25 . . . . cd
2 6 . Rd5 Oa4
2 7 . a3 b6
90 The C1ass i ca 1 Era
Wh i t e ' s pi eces co o per at e b et t er than

t hei r o ppo nent s due t o t hei r p r es s ur e on
b 6 an d e5 , as well as t h ei r cont r o l o f b5
and d5 ; what i s i ni ti ally app r eci at ed as
an exi s t enti al r eali ty (glob al pi ece
coo per at i o n) can, t her ef o r e, b e ver b ali z ed
i nt o t echni cal r ules i nvo lvi ng weak pawns
and weak s quar es - - b r i ngi ng ches s i nt o the
r ealm o f s ci ence .
2 8 . Bc3 Qe8
29 . Qf2 Nc8
30 . Bb5 Qe7
3 1 . Rd8 + Qd8
3 2 . 0-0 Na7
3 3 . Bc4 Nc6
34 . Bd5 Rc8
3 5 . f4 Qd7
36 . f5 Ne7
3 7 . Ba 2 gf
3 8 . ef Bf 8
39 . Qf3 e4
40 . Qh5 Res igns
C er t ai n ly , t her e ar e m any advant ages to

ver b ali z i n g s tr ategi c laws - - i f no thi ng
els e, b ecaus e th en they can b e mani pulat ed
i n t he " li g ht o f day " . O n the o t her h and,
mani p ulat i o n o f t hi s k i nd t ak es place o n a
pur ely t echni cal level, and i s t her efo r e
o nly lo o s ely co nne ct ed wi t h t he eff i ci ency
char act er i s t i c of exi s t enti al t ho ugh t .
S t ei n i t z ' s i nno vat i o ns cr eat ed a di s ti n ct
wo rld whi ch i s n eces s ar i ly di vo r ced fr om
t he un der s t andi ng of th e r om ant i cs .
W her eas h e als o en jo y ed th i s lat t er gi ft,
he was pr o ne to b ecom e i mm er s ed in th e
wo r ld of o b ject i ve s t r at egi c laws - - a
pr o ces s whi ch allo wed hi s exi s t e n t i al
un der s t an di ng t o r ecede i nto t he b ack-
Ste i n i tz 91
g r o un d .
Adm i ttedly , an y on e can th i n k b o th
s tr ateg i cally an d tacti cally i n a tech
n i cal mann er , b ut th e es s en ti al di f fer en ce
b etween calculati o n (o r tech n i cal m an i pu
lati o n ) an d th e un def i n able natur e o f
e x i sten ti al un der s tan d i n g m ean s th at b o th
can ' t b e fully en g ag ed at th e s am e ti m e;
an d s i nce we h ave r epeatedly s een wh at a
tr emen do us advan tag e th e i n tui ti ve feel o f
ex i sten ti al un der stan d i n g can pr o v i de , i t
fo llo ws th at s tr ateg i c mask i ng (lo si n g
o n eself in techn i cal th o ug h t) ten ds to
bli n d a play er to po ss i b i li ti es wh i ch ar e
m o st r eadi ly di s co ver ed by the un co n
s c i o us .
London , 1 86 6
Anderssen Ste i n i tz
S tr ateg i cally - - acco rdi n g to g e n er al -
i z ati o n s ab o ut th i s o f po s i t i o n - - a
g en er al Wh i te advan ce i s called f o r o n th e
k i n gs i de , wh i le Black s h o uld plan a cam
pai g n o n th e o pp o s i te f l a n k (to b e i n i ti
ated b y . . . , b 5 , fo r i n s tan ce) . Th i nk i ng
92 The Class ical Era
a long th es e tec hn i c a l li n es , S t ei n i tz
m i s s es a tr a p wh i ch w o uld h a ve b een c a ught
b y a m o r e a ler t ex i s ten ti a l un de r s ta n d i ng.
15. Bc7 ?
1 6 . Bg7 ! . . .
White Won
. s ince 1 6 .... , K g 7 ; 1 7 . Nh 5 + , K h 8;
1 8.Q h 6 , R g 8; 1 9 .N g 5 lea ds to an i mm edi a te
lo s s .
D ue to th e pr o a n d c o n n a tur e of
s tr a teg i c . Ill. a s k i n g , it' s i mpo s s i ble to
dt erm.i n e a p r i o r i w h i ch i s s uper i o r :
pur e ex i s ten ti a l un der s tan d i n g or the
s tr a tegi c a lly m a s k ed un der s ta n di n g . A
r evi ew o f o ver - t h e- b o a r d r es ults , h owever ,
i n di c a tes a s li ght , b ut w ell- defi n ed edge
fo r S tei n i tz o ver h i s mo r e r om a n t i c c on
tem po r a r i es ( A n der s s en a n d Z uk er tor t , i n
pa r ti c ula r ) .
I f k n o w ledg e o f s tr a teg i c law s wa s the
c a us e o f S tei n i t z ' s s tr en g th , o n e m us t
c on c lude th a t th e publi c a ti o n o f these
la w s s h o uld h a ve led t o th e a ppea r a n c e o f
s ever a l m a s ter s a s s tr on g a s th e c h a mpi o n
h i m s elf . B ut on c e a g a i n , b o r r ow i n g a n
a rg um en t f r om o ur di s c us s i o n o f P h i li do r ,
th i s pr o blem c a n b e s o lved b y n o ti n g th a t
S tei n i tz wa s mo r e a dept at a p ply i n g
s tr a teg i c la w s i n p r a c t i c e b ec a us e h e wa s
th e o r i g i n a to r o f th es e i dea s ; th e s a m e
ta len t th a t r a i s ed th e pa r ti c ula r to t h e
gen er a l i n th eo r y wa s n a tur a lly b es t a t
emplo y i n g th es e g en er a li t i es i n p a r ti c ula r
c a s es . Thus th e po pula r c h a r a c ter i z a ti o n
o f S tei n i tz a s m o r e pr o f o un d ( s tr a t eg i c
a lly ) , b ut les s ta len t ed ( ta cti c a lly ) th a n
h i s m a i n r i va ls i s s a ti s fa c to r i ly expla i n
ed b y th e c o n c ept o f s tr a teg i c m a s k i n g .
1 3 . Tarrasch
Ideali s m
Among S teinitz ' s di s ci ples , the r i ft

b etween exi s tenti al un der s tan di ng an d
technical knowledge was nowher e m or e pr o
n ounced than in the gam es and i deas of
S i egber t Tar r as ch (186 2 -19 3 4) , whos e con
ception of s tr ategi c laws was even m or e
pur e than that of S tei ni tz b ecaus e
Tar r a s ch had i nher ited the fun dam entals o f
pos i tional play "r eady-m ade" . Thus
Tarr as ch ten ded to theor i ze ab out i deas i n
ches s which could be gr as ped indepen dently
o f the exi s tential under s tandi ng r equi r ed
to appr eci ate actual pos i tions ; thi s
affini ty with i deali s m explai ns why he
b ecam e s o concer ned wi th ab s tr acti on s s uch
as ti m e and s pace--elem ents that can be
handled wi thout alludi ng to a numb er of
s peci fi c gam es (as oppos ed to S tei nitz ' s
theor i es r egarding the pr oper gr ound o f
attack, which often _r eq ui r e 'Qj._tter E:!__Qr i
__
ence as an i ni ti ati on) . Tan.=-a sch.-1 s b es t

g-ame s ar e often bui 1 t on thes e them es , an d
ther efor e b ear the pr os ai c aes theti c o f
cal_ _ o educ:;: ti 9n_-- -as oppo s ed to the mo r e
vi b r ant color s o f cr eati ve, r omanti c pi ece
coo per ati on
Hamburg , 1 885
Tarrasch Noa
1 . e4 e6
2 . d4 d5
3 . Nc3 Nf6
4 . e5 Nf d7
5 . Nce2 c5
94 The C1ass i ca1 Era
6 . c3 Nc6
7 . f4 cd? !
Th i s i s p r e ma t u r e . The o r e t i c a l l y b e s t
is 7 . , f 6 ; 8 . N f 3 , Q b 6 w i th a
. l eve l g a m e .
The e x ch a n g e s wh i ch n o w e n s u e l e a v e Wh i t e
w i t h a we l l - d e f i ne d e dg e .
e . cd Bb4+
9 . Bd 2 Ob6
I O . Nf3 0-0
1 1 . Bb4 Ob4+
1 2 . Od2 Nb6
1 3 . Nc 3 Rde
1 4 . Nb5 Bd7
1 5 . Nd6 Rabe
1 6 . Re l Od 2 +
1 7 . Kd2 Nee ?
Wh i t e e n j o y s m o r e s p a c e a n d t h e b e t t e r
b i s h o p , h e n c e B l a c k s h ou l d a t l e a s t t r y t o
n e u t r a l i z e h i s o p p o n e n t ' s t h i r d " t r u mp " -
t h e i mp o s i n g k n i gh t o n d 6 ; t o t h i s e n d , he
c ou l d h a v e t r i e d 1 7 . , a6--and only l ater
.
. . , Nc 8 - - f o r c i ng
t he e x ch a n g e of t he
k n i ght i n que s t i on .
I e . Nb5 a6
1 9 . Nc3 Nee7
2 0 . Bd 3 Rhee
2 1 . b3
Thr e a t e n i n g 2 2 . N a 4 .
21 . . . Nb4
22 . a3 Nc6
2 3 . b4
But now if 2 3 . Na4 , B l a ck s i mp l y
r e s p on d s w i t h 2 3 . . . . , N a 5 ; 2 4 . N c 5 ? , R c 5 ! .
23 . . . . h6
24 . h4 Nbe
2 5 . Ke3 Rc7
2 6 . Rc2 Rdce
2 7 . Rhc l Kfe
2 e . g4 Bee
Tarra sch 95
2 9 . Nd2 Nd7
30 . Nb3 Nb6
3 1 . Nc5
Wh i t e e n j o y s m o r e s p a c e , a c l a s s i c a l l y
b e t t e r b i sho p , a n ou t p o s t f o r h i s k n i g h t s
a t c 5 , a n d a l a ck o f a n y t h i n g e v e n r e s em
bl i ng a weak ne s s - - a p e r f e c t p o s i t i on f o r
the i d e a l i s t T a r r a s c h .
31 . . . Nc4+? !
3 2 . Bc4 de
N o w tha t B l a c k h a s a b a n d o n e d c o n t r o l o f
e 4 , t h e c on c l u s i o n i s r e l a t i ve l y s i mp l e .
3 3 . N5e4 b5
34 . Nd6 Rb8
35 . f5 Bd7
36 . Rf2 Nd5 +
3 7 . Nd5 ed
3 8 . g5 h5
39 . Rcf l Kg8
40 . g6 f6
4 1 . Re2 Bc6
4 2 . Rfe l Rd8
43 . Kf4 fe+
44 . Re5 Kf8
45 . Nf7 Re8
96 The C1as s i ca1 Era
46 . Ng5 Rce 7 ?
Th i s l o s e s i mm e d i a t e l y . T a r r a s c h g i ve s
the f o l l ow i ng a s a n a l t e r n a t i v e f inale :
46 . . , Re 5 ;
4 7 .Jie--1 R e 7 ; 4 8 . f 6 ! , gf ; 49 . ef ,
Re l ; 5 0 . Nh 7 + , K e 8 ; 5 1 . f 7 + , Kd 7 ; 52 . f 8=Q ,
R f l + ; 5 3 . Kg 5 , R f 8 ; 5 4 . Nf 8 + , Ke 7 ; 5 5 . g7 , Kf 7 ;
5 6 . Kh6 , Kg8 ; 5 7 . N g 6 , w i th N e 7 c o m i n g n e x t
move .
47 . Nh7 + Res i gns
D e s p i t e the p e r f e c t i on o f s u ch g a m e s ,
the h a r s h r e a l i t y o f T a r r a s c h ' s ove r - a l l
career reve a l s th a t he wa s n ' t a wor l d
ch amp i o n s h i p l e ve l t a c t i c i a n - - th a t hi s
exi s tent i a l under stand ing wa s s t r a te g i c
a l l y m a s ke d ; t h i s i s f u r th e r c o r r o bo r a t e d
b y t h e f a c t t h a t h e wa s f u l l y c a p a b l e o f
br i l l i a nt t a ct i cs whe n e v e r the pos i t i on
called f o r a d i r e c t a t t a c k - - wh e n e v e r he
c on s c i o u s l y i gno red t h e wo r l d of i d e a l
i s t i c stra tegy .
A cha r a c t e r i s t i c f e a t u r e o f T a r r a sch ' s
s t r a t e g i c ma s k i n g i s h i s ove r - r a t i o n a l i z a
t i on of t i me - - a n e n t i t y wh i ch can be
t h e o r i z e d a b o u t i n a b s t r a c t i on . C on s i d e r
th i s s t an d a r d l ine in the Sicil ian
D e f en c e :
Whi te B1 ack
1 . e4 c5
2 . Nf3 Nc6
3 . Nc3 e6
4 . d4 cd
5 . Nd4 Nf6
6 . Ndb5 Bb4
1 . a3
T a r r a s c h r e a s on s a s f o l l ow s i n c on d e m n
ing Wh i t e ' s l a s t move : " O n c e Wh i t e h a s
move d h i s k n i ght t o b 5 h e o u g h t t o g o o n
Tarrascb 97
to d6 a n d g i ve che c k . B y a 3 Wh i t e l o s e s
n o l e s s t h a n t h r e e t e mp i . Because o f i ts
ve r y i n s i gn i f i c a n c e t h e move a 3 i s e q u i va
l e n t t o o n e t e mp o . T h e n t h e e x ch a n g e o f
the k n i ght o n b 5 ( a n d no t t h e k n i g h t on
c 3 ) wh i ch h a s m a d e t h r ee m o v e s , f o r the
b i s h o p , i s e q u i va l e n t to t wo t e mp i . Hence
Wh i t e h a s l o s t t h r e e t e mp i . "
T a r r a sch 1 s r e a s on i n g may be i d e a l l y
c o r r e c t , b u t i t 1 s o n l y s o m u ch s o ph i s t r y
i f Wh i t e t u r n s o u t t o h a v e a g o o d g a m e ( a s
po i nted ou t l a te r by T ch i g o r i n ) . And
indeed , m od e r n t he o r y con s i d e r s Wh i t e ' s
p o s i t i o n t o h a v e p r om i s e .
7
. . Bc3+
8 . Nc3 d5
9 . ed ed
1 0 . Bd 3 0-0
1 1 . 0-0
. w i t h a s l i gh t pu l l f o r Wh i t e .
It s ho u l d come as no surpr i s e that

T a r r a s ch 1 s brand of abs t r a c t r ea s on i n g
about t i me has g o n e en t i r e l y ou t of
f a sh i on . One m i ght say tha t t i m e i n
che s s , a s i n r e l a t i v i t y phy s i c s , i s m e a n
i n g l e s s a p a r t f r om wh a t a c t ua l l y h a pp e n s
t o the " ma t t e r " at hand .
T a r r a s ch 1 s t h e o r y o f s p a c e wa s a k i n t o
h i s c o n c e p t i o n o f t i me , a n d t h e r e f o r e a l s o
p r ov e d to be less elastic t h a n mo r e
" relat i v i st i c " c o n c e p t i o n s wh i ch r e t a i n e d
a n a wa r e n e s s o f h o w p i e c e s c o o p e r a t e w i th
the s p a c e i n q u e s t i o n .
98 The C1ass i ca1 Era
Wor1d Champ i onship Match

Dus se1dorf , 1 90 8
Tarra sch Lasker

Wh i t e p o s s e s s e s a n i d e a l s p a t i a l a d va n
t a g e , wh i l e t h e B l a c k r oo k s e e m s t o h a v e
gone a s t r a y on i t s r a i d t o t h e c-fi le .
Neve r t he l e s s , c e r t a i n t a c t i c a l po ss i b i l i
ties offer B l ack ch a n c e s , and T a r r a s ch
t e n d s to b e c om e o b s e s s e d w i th the n o t i on
o f s t rateg i c a l l y corr ect play . . .
21 . . . . a4 !
2 2 . b4 Rc4
2 3 . g3 Rd8 !
24 . Re3 ? ! . . .
Wh i t e w ou l d h a v e r e t a i n e d t h e a d v a n t a g e
after 24 . Qe 3 , s inc e 2 4 . . . . , c 5 ! ? ; 2 5 . Nb5
l e a v e s the B l a c k c - p awn p i n n e d .
24 . . . . c5
2 5 . Nb5 ?
T e mp t i n g , but incorrect ; hi s l a st
cha n c e f o r a n e v e n g a m e wa s t h e s t r a t e g i c
a l l y c omp r om i s i n g 2 5 . b c .
25 . . . Cb
Tarrasch 99
2 6 . Rd6 Rd6
2 7 . e5 Rf4 !
2 8 . gf
L a s k e r wo u l d have had n o t r o u b l e s c o r
i n g t h e p o i n t a f t e r t h e s i mp l i f y i n g 2 8 . e f ,
R f 3 ; 2 9 . Rf 3 , Rd 5 .
28 . . . . Qg6 +
2 9 . Kh l ?
Th i s s i mp l i f i e s m a t t e r s , b u t t h e a l t e r
n a t i ve w ou l d have m a d e n o d i f f e r ence i n
the l on g run : 2 9 . K f l , Qb l + ; 3 0 . Re l , Qd 3 + ;
3 1 . Q d 3 , R d 3 , a n d B l a c k ' s a c t i ve r o o k wi 11
carry the d a y .
29 . . . . Qb l +
3 0 . Kg2 Rd 2 +
3 1 . Re2 Qa 2
Bl ack Won
1 4 . Tcb i gor in
S k e p t i c i sm
O n c e th e o r y h a d e s t a b l i sh e d a " l i f e o f
i ts own " a s ----a c o l l e c t i on of t e ch n i c a l--

ru l e s , p l a y e r s l i k e S t e i n 1 t z a n d T a r r a s c h
t e n d e d t ow a r d d ogm a t i s m i n a s m u c h a s t he s e
rules we r e c on s c i o u s l y f o l l ow e d w i t h ou t
keep i ng i n t ou ch w i t h the u n d e r s t a n d i ng
o u t o f wh i ch th e y o r i g i n a t e d ( th e e s s en c e
o f s t r a teg i c m a s k i ng ) . Thu s the a b i l i t y
to f i n d s t r a te g i c a l l y v i a bl e i dea s tha t
b r e a k t h e r u l e s wou l d b e i n d i c a t i v e o f a
m i n d wh i ch h a s r em a i n e d i n c on t a c t w i th
the g l ob a l ex i s t e n t i a l unde r s t and i ng - - a
ch a r a c t e r i s t i c mo s t a p t to c om e a b ou t
t h r o u g h a _h e a l__b.y s k e p t i c i s m t owa r d s t r a
t e g i c l aw s . Th i s t r a i t i s b e s t - e x e mp l i
f i e d b y the e a r l i e s t a n t i c i p a t o r o f modern
che s s , M i kha i 1 T ch i g o r i n ( 1 850- 1 908 ) ,
wh o s e g a m e s a r e a t o n c e s t r i k i n g l y o r i g i
n a l a n d _E e c u_!_ i aE_!X r e s i s t a n t t o g e n e r a l i
_ _
z a t i on .
London , 1 8 99
P i 1 1 sbury Tcb i gorin

1 . d4 d5
2 . c4 Nc6 ! ?
Tch i g o r i n a l r e a d y b r e a k s t h e r u l e s by
bl ock i ng hi s c - p awn , the agent who s e
act i on t yp i c a l l y p r ov i d e s B l a c k w i t h h i s
f a i r s h a r e o f the c e n t e r i n the Q u e e n ' s
G a mb i t ( t o n a m e t h r e e p r om i n e n t e x a mp l e s :
the c ou n t e r - a t t a ck i ng T a r r a sch D e f en c e ,
2 . . . . , e 6 ; 3 . Nc 3 , c 5 ! ? ; the s i mp l i f y i n g G a m
bit Accepted , 2 . . . . , dc ; 3 . Nf 3 , Nf 6 ; 4 . e 3 , e6 ;
5 . B c 4 , c 5 ; a n d the s o l i d O r th o d o x D e f en c e ,
Tchigor in 101
2 , e6 ;
3 . N c 3 , N f 6 ; 4 . Bg 5 , B e 7 ; 5 . e 3 , 0 - 0 ;
6 . N f 3 , Nb d 7 ; 7 . R c l , c 6 ) .
The i mp o r t a n c e o f t h e c e n t e r a s a b a s e
o f o p e r a t i ons i s a ha l l m a r k o f c l a s s i c a l
strategy . S t i l l - - by l im i t ing hi s " p awn
presence " i n the c e n t e r - - T ch i g o r i n i s n ' t
v i o l a t i n g th i s p r i n c i p l e , b u t i s a pp r o a ch
i n g i t f r om a n o r i g i n a l d i r e c t i o n .
3 . Nf 3 Bg4 !
Th i s i s by n o m e a n s a r a n d o m d e v e l o p
m e n t , b u t a s ou n d m e t h o d t o i n c r e a s e the
p r e s s u r e on d 4 .
4 . e3 e6
5 . Nc3 Bb4 !
T ch i g o r i n w a s n e ve r a ve r s e t o g i v i n g u p
a b i s h o p f o r a k n i gh t w h e n e v e r s om e a d v a n
t a g e m i gh t b e g a i n e d t h e r eby .
6 . Ob3 Bf3
7 . gf
B l a ck ha s c on c e d e d the m i no r e x ch a n g e
on f 3 , a n d w i l l s o o n c on c e d e ano the r on
c3 . A l though t h i s i s a t o d d s w i th the
" off icial " th e o r y of the day , it ' s in
perfect a cc o r d w i th T ch i g o r i n ' s o r i g i n a l
plan .
7. . . Nge7
8 . Bd2 0-0
9 . Bd 3 ? . . .
In the S t . P e t e r s b u rg t ou r n a m e n t of
1 895/96 , P i l l sbury pl ayed m o r e d i rec t l y :
9 . f 4 , Rb 8 ; 1 0 . 0 - 0 -0 , dc ; 1 1 . Bc4 , b5 ! ; 1 2 . Bd 3
( c a p t u r i n g o n b 5 l o s e s a p i e c e a f t e r B l a ck
excha n g e s h i s k i n g b i s h o p a n d p l a y s . . . ,
a 6 ) , Bc 3 ; 1 3 . Q c 3 , Rb 6 ; 1 4 . Kb l , a 5 ; 1 5 . Rhg l
w i t h a d ou b l e - e dg e d g a m e .
A f t e r t h e move p l a y e d i n t h e p r e s en t
e n c ou n t e r , Wh i t e ' s in dange r of l o s ing
t i me i n c omp a r i s on w i t h t h e S t . P e t e r s b u r g
g ame ( h i s b i s h o p w i l l h a v e move d t w i c e t o
102 The C 1 a s s i ca1 Era
c a p t u r e o n c4 a f t e r t h e i mp e n d i ng 1 0 . . . . ,
de ; 1 1 . Bc4 , b 5 ! } , s o he ch oo s e s t o c omp r o
m i s e b y c a p t u r i ng o n d 5 - - a l l ow i n g B l a c k ' s
p i e c e s a n i mp o r t a n t b a s e i n t h e c en t e r .
9. Rb8 !
1 0 . cd Nd5
1 1 . 0-0-0 Bc3
1 2 . Bc3 b5 !
1 3 . Bd2 . . .
1 3 . e4 wou l d have left too l i ttle
b r e a th i ng r oom o n the q u e e n s i d e : 13 . . . . ,
b4 ! ; 1 4 . Bd 2 , Nd 4 ; 1 5 . Q c 4 , Nb 6 ;
1 6 . Q b4 , c 5 ! ( Le v en f i s h } .
13 . . . . Rb6
1 4 . Rdg l a5
1 5 . f4 f5 !
B l a c k a cc e p t s a n i n s i g n i f i c a n t w e a k n e s s
o n e 6 i n o r d e r t o b l u n t Wh i t e ' s ch a n c e s i n
t h e c e n t e r a n d o n t h e k i ng s i d e .
Wh i t e h a s a p r e p on d e r a n c e o f p aw n s i n
the center --a t e ch n i c a l fact of l i ttle
c on s e q u e n c e becau se B l ack ' s we l l - c o o r d i
n a t e d a rmy i s more able t o cruc i a l
p o i n t s s u ch a s d 5 .
1 6 . Rg3 a4
Tch i gor i n 103
1 7 . Qd l Ndb4 !
1 8 . Bb4 Nb4
1 9 . Rhg l . . .
Wh i t e h a s a p a i r o f r oo k s bea r i ng on
the e nemy k i ng . H oweve r , t h i s t h r e a t i s
ea s i ly p a rr i e d by a s i ng l e r oo k wh i ch
r e m a i n s i n e f f e c t i ve c o o p e r a t i o n w i t h the
c om i n g s t o rm o n t h e o pp o s i t e f l a n k .
19 . . . . Rf7
2 0 . Bb l a3 !
2 1 . ba ?
21 .b3 ( Ho f f e r ) wou l d have kept the
p o s i t i o n r e l a t i ve l y c l o s e d .
21 . . . . Nd5
2 2 . Ob3 b4
2 3 . ab
The Wh i t e k i ng w ou l d h a v e a l s o b e en
exp o s e d a f t e r 2 3 . a 4 , c 5 ; 2 4 . d c , R c 6 .
23 . . . . Rb4
24 . Qd3 c5 !
2 5 . de Qa5 !
2 6 . Bc2 Oa 2
27 . f3 Rc4
2 8 . R l g2 Rd7
2 9 . c6 . . .
Wh i t e ' s o n l y h o p e o f c ou n t e r p l a y .
29. . . . Rc6
30 . Od4 Qa 3 + !
3 1 . Kd 2 Rc2 + !
3 2 . Kc 2 Ne3+
3 3 . Kb l Rd4
34 . Rg7 + Kf8
3 5 . Rg8 + Ke7
3 6 . Res igns
We k n o w th a t T ch i g o r i n wa s i n c o mm a n d
of the g l oba l exi s tent i a l under s t a n d i ng
b e c a u s e he wa s a g r e a t s t r a t e g i s t . A t the
s ame t i me , howeve r , he res i s ted the
1 04 The C1ass i ca 1 Era
p r o b l e m s r e l a t e d to s t r a t e g i c m a s k i n g by
ma i n t a i n i n g a he a l t h y skept i c i sm t ow a r d
t h e w o r l d o f i d e a l s t r a t e g i c l aw s . Thu s
it a pp e a r s that T ch i g o r i n had not yet
s u rm o u n t e d t h e d i f f i c u l t i e s o f s t r a teg i c
m a s k i n g ( he a vo i d e d t h e m ) , b u t he h a d a t
l e a s t begun t o s e n s e the phenomenon .
1 5 . Lasker
R e c o g n i t i on
Since T ch i g o r i n wa s l e d , v i a s k e p t i
c i s m , t o r e s i s t e n t r y i n t o the wor l d o f
s t r a te g i c l aw s , h e c ou l d o n l y b e p r i v a
t i ve l y a wa r e o f the d u a l i s m wh i ch u n d e r
! ies s t r a te g i c ma s k i n g . I ndeed , hi s
b a t t l e a g a i n s t th i s p h e n om e n o n wa s c h a r a c
ter i st i ca l l y s h a l l ow becau se it a s s um e d
the p r e d om i n a n t l y t e chn i c a l f o rm of a
c on s c i o u s res i st ance to gene r a l i z a t i on -
and wa s t he r e f o r e i n d i c a t i ve o f a m i n d
wh i ch had yet to c on f r on t the p r obl em
ex i s t e n t i a l l y . Th i s l e d t o t w o d i f f i c u l
ties : (1) an e s t r a n g em e n t f r om the
b e ne f i t s o f c h e s s a s a s c i e n c e wh i ch h a s
a b s o r b e d t h e l e s s on s o f i nn um e r a b l e g a m e s ,
a n d ( 2 ) t h e d e v e l o pm e n t of an a f f ected
s t y l e - - on e wh i ch d i d n ' t a r i s e ou t of a
n a t u r a l , unt a i n t e d und e r s t a n d i ng .
The s e o b s e rva t i o n s abou t T ch i g o r i n
s u g g e s t tha t a m o r e e v o l v e d c on f r o nt a t i on
w i th s t r a te g i c ma s k i n g w i l l r e s u l t i n a
m o r e b a l a n c e d p l a y e r - - o ne who ' s a t on c e a
cl ea r , e f f e c t i ve e mp l o y e r of strateg i c
l aw s and an alert tact i c ian . T he s e
ch a r a c t e r i s t i c s , b r oa d l y s p ea k i ng ,
d e s c r i be the l on g - t i me wor l d ch a mp i o n
Emanue l Lasker ( 1 8 6 8 - 1 9 4 1 ) , who s e v e r s a
t i l e s t y l e d om i n a t e d w o r l d c he s s f o r ove r
t w en t y y ea r s .
The a e s t he t i c s o f L a s k e r ' s g a m e s s ug
g e s t t h a t h i s wa s n o t a n i n t e g r a t e d u n d e r
standing (a t e rm t o b e i n t r o d u c e d n e x t
cha p t e r ) - - th a t he a l s o s u f f e r e d f r o m t h e
d u a l i s m he h a d i nh e r i t e d f r om S t e i n i t z a n d
T a r r a s ch . T h e ch a r a c t e r i s t i c o f L a s k e r ,
1 06 The C1as s i ca1 Era
m e a n wh i l e , i s t h a t h e wa s m o r e adept a t
empl o y i n g th i s m o d e o f t h o u g h t ; L a s k e r w a s
able to move f r e e l y - - a n d e f f e c t i ve l y -
b e t we e n the ex i s t e n t i a l and t e chn i c a l
l e ve l s o f unde r st a n d i ng , a n d wa s c o n s e
quen t l y less l i ke ly to b e c om e lost in
g e n e r a l , a b s t r a c t i d e a s ( a s wa s T a r r a s ch ) ,
o r b e c om e i mm e r s e d i n the ne a r - i n f i n i t e
d i f f icul t i es of par t i cu l a r s ( as wa s
T ch i g o r i n ) . A l l th i s m a y b e s umm e d u p b y
t h e h y p o t h e s i s t h a t L a s k e r h a d a ch i ev e d a n
e x i s t e n t i a l r e c ogn i t i o n o f s t r a t e g i c m a s k
i n g - - tha t he u n c o n s c i ou s l y s ensed the
i n a d e q u a cy of ma i n t a i n i ng the inelast ic
o u t l o o k s cha r a c t e r i s t i c o f b o t h i d e a l i sm
and skepti c i sm . ( O u r t e rm " r e c o g n i t i o n "
i s not to be c on f u s e d w i th cons c i ou s
r e c o g n i t i o n , bu t i s m e a n t t o d e s c r i be the
s t a t e whe r e by L a s k e r wa s a b l e t o u s e the
du a l i s t i c unde r s t a n d i n g of h i s d a y in a
manne r a pp r o p r i a t e to i ts pecul i a r
na ture . )
B e c a u s e f u l l r e c o g n i t i o n c ou l d n o t be
ma i n t a i ned from any o f h i s predecessors '
o n e - s i d e d p e r s p e c t i ve s , L a s k e r ' s ex i s t e n
t i a l unde r s t a nd i ng wa s e s s en t i a l l y i l l - a t
e a s e - - i t s en s e d th a t n o s i ng l e state of
m i nd c a n eve r a pp r e h e n d t r u th i n c he s s ;
i n d ee d , to La sker che s s t r u t h wa s a
d ynam i c r ea l i t y - - one wh i ch had to be
per pet ua l l y r e - d i s c ove r e d thr ough the
r e s t l e s s s t a t e o f s t r ugg l e .
London , 1 8 99
Ste i n i tz Lasker
1 . e4 e5
2 . Nc3 Nf6
3 . f4 d5
Lasker 1 07
4. d3 Nc6
5. fe Ne5
6. d4 Ng6
7. ed Nd5
a . tiCi-5? !
Wh i t e b e c om e s r a t he r u n c om f o r t a b l e
after t h i s p r em a t u r e excha n g e . A s i mp l e
d e ve l o p i n g move s u ch a s 8 . N f 3 wou l d h a v e
been b e t t e r .
8. . . . Qd5
9 . Nf 3 Bg4
1 0 . Be 2 0-0-0
1 1 . c3 Bd6
1 2 . 0-0 Rhe8
B l a ck ' s edge doesn ' t s t e m f r om any

stat i c c on s i d e r a t i o n s , but f r om the
i n t u i t i ve f a c t tha t h i s p i e c e s a r e more
a c t i ve . A f u l l a pp r e c i a t i o n o f t h i s f e a
ture requ i res a n exi s tent i a l unde r s t an d
ing , wh i ch can ea s i ly b e c om e do rmant
d u r i n g a c r u c i a l m om e n t thr ough s t r a t e g i c
ma s k i n g .
S t e i n i t z wa s no d o u b t a w a r e o f B l a c k ' s
s u p e r i o r a c t i v i t y o n c e t h i s p o s i t i on wa s
c on f r on t i n g h i m on t h e bo a r d , but th i s
1 08 The C1ass i ca1 Era
a spect of hi s opponent ' s p ieces had

ev i d e n t l y escaped hi s a t t ent i on as the
game d eve l o p e d ; c onver s e l y , L a s k e r wa s
l e s s s u s c e p t i b l e t o s u ch p r o b l e m s b e c a u s e
h e h a d e x i s t e n t i a l l y r e c o gn i z e d the n a t u r e
o f s t r a te g i c m a s k i n g .
1 3 . h3 Bd7
1 4 . Ng5 ? . .
Th i s i s a p l a u s i b l e a t t e m p t t o f r e e h i s
pos i t i on ( 1 4 . . . . , f 6 ? ; 1 5 . B f 3 , Qg8 ; 1 6 . Ne4 ) ,
b u t i s t a c t i c a l l y f l a w e d - - a f a c t wh i c h wa s
m a s k e d f r om S t e i n i t z ' s t h o u g h t .
14 . . . . Nh4 !
1 5 . Nf3 . . .
Wh i t e r e m a i n s p a i n f u l l y c r amped a f te r
1 5 . B f 3 , N f 3 + ; 1 6 . N f 3 , B g 3 ( Ma r c o ) . A f t e r the
m o v e p l a y e d , o n t h e o t he r h a n d , i t a p pe a r s
th a t B l a c k mu s t e i t h e r r e t i r e h i s k n i ght
or s w a p i t . But L a s k e r h a s a n a s t y s h o t
u p h i s s l ee v e .
15 . . . . Ng2 !
1 6 . Kg2 Bh3 + !
1 7 . Kf2
E v e n wo r s e w o u l d h a v e b e e n 1 7 . K h 3 , Q f 5 + ;
1 8 . Kg 2 , Qg4+ ; 1 9 . Kh l , Qh 3 + ; 2 0 . Kg l , Qg 3 + ;
2 1 . Kh 1 , R e 4 , w i th t h e m u r d e r ou s thr e a t of
2 2 . . . . , Rh4 + ; 2 3 . Nh4 , Q h 2 # .
17 . . . f6 !
The b i s h o p o n h 3 i s i n s t r um en t a l to
B l a ck ' s attack , so he r e f r a i ns f r om
i mm e d i a t e l y r e c ove r i n g h i s ma te r i a l w i th
t h e o bv i ou s 1 7 . . . . , B f l .
1 8 . Rg l g5
1 9 . Bg5 . .
How e l s e i s Wh i t e t o d e a l w i th the
i mp e n d i n g a d v a n c e o f t h e g - p a wn ?
19 . . . . fg
2 0 . Rg5 Oe6
Lasker 1 09
2 1 . Od3 Bf4
B1ack Won
. s i nce 2 2 . Rg 7 i s f u t i l e o n a c c ou n t
of 22 . . . . , Bf S .
I s che s s a s c i e n c e , a n a r t , o r a g a m e
( a s t r ugg l e ) ? Thi s que s t i on has pu z z l ed
pl ayers f or yea rs , but i s i n fact ea s i ly
r e s o l v e d o n c e w e c o n s i d e r t h e r e l a t i o n the
m i n d h a s to the g am e a t d i f f e r e n t t i m e s .
Wh e n p r e p a r i n g for a game , no one
expe c t s to p r od u c e , move - f o r -move , the
s t r u gg l e wh i ch i s to come . R a t he r , we
ana lyze old g a m e s , w o r k i n g t h r ough th e i r
pa r t i c u l a r i d e a s , a n d t r y t o f o rm u s e f u l
gene r a l con c l u s i on s for the f o r th c om i n g
encoun t e r . Thu s a p l ayer i n prepa r a t i on
i s p e r c e i v i n g che s s a s a s c i e n c e .
After an event , i f we ' r e unus ua l ly
p l e a s e d w i t h a p a r t i c u l a r g a m e , we p l a y i t
thr ough for the sheer p l ea sure of
a e s t h e t i c a pp r e c i a t i o n . Thu s a p l a y e r i n
r e f l e c t i o n i s p e r c e i v i n g che s s a s a n a r t .
F i n a l l y , a p l a y e r who ' s i mm e r s e d i n a
pr e s e n t e n c o u n t e r i s p e r c e i v i n g che s s a s a
g a me - - a s a s t r u gg l e i n wh i ch t h e g e n e r a l
is f o r eve r be i ng a pp l i e d to the
pa r t i c u l a r .
S e e n i n th i s l i ght , i t ' s c l e a r t h a t w e
need not f e e l obl i ga t e d t o pr onounce one
o f t h e th r e e p e r s p e c t i ve s " mo r e t r u e " t h a n
t h e o t he r s . O n the o ther hand , a ma s te r ' s
a t t i t ud e i n th i s s phe r e m a y b e t a ken a s
va l u a b l e ev i d e n c e o f h i s r e l a t i o n t o the
" gene r a l - p a r t i cu l a r " que s t i on . Th i n k i n g
a l ong t he s e 1 i ne s , we f i nd t h a t the
r om a n t i c s , on the who l e , p e r c e i ve d che s s
a s a n a r t - - ev i d en c e o f th e i r i mm e r s i o n i n
p a r t i c u l a r s ; l a t e r , S t e i n i t z a n d T a r r a s ch
1 10 The Class i ca l Era
t r e a t e d che s s a s a s c i enc e - - ev i d en c e of
the i r p r e d i l e c t i on f o r g e n e r a l i t i e s ; a n d
L a s k e r , f i n a l l y , ph i l o s o ph i z e d a b o u t c h e s s
a s s t r ugg l e - - e v i d en c e tha t h e wa s k e e n l y
awa r e of th a t u n i q u e l y i mp o r t a n t m o m e n t
wh en t h e g e n e r a l i s b r o u g h t d own t o t h e
l eve l of the parti cular . Not
s u r p r i s i n g l y , t h i s i s a l s o t h e m o m e n t when
strate g i c m a s k i n g b e c om e s a n i s s u e - - wh e n
i t ' s h a rm f u l f o r i d e a l i s t s t o l o s e t h e i r
bea r i ngs by v i s ua l i z i n g a s trateg ically
pe r f e c t game on the hor i z on .
1 6 . Rub i nste i n
Integr ati on
The gam es of S te i ni tz , Tar r a s ch,

Tchi gor i n, and Las k er all bear a cer tai n
aes theti c r es emblance to th os e of the
r omanti cs --at leas t f r om th e s tandpoi nt of
di r ect attack s and global pi ece cooper a
ti on; m eanwhi le, the s tr ategi c s i de of
thei r play has the aes theti c of logi c--of
pur ely calculati ve and tech ni cal i deas . A
genui ne s tr ateg i c aes th eti c, on the oth er
hand, i s to be di s cer ned i n the m as ter
pi eces of Ak i ba R ubi ns tei n ( 1 882-1 96 1 ) ,
whos e concepti ons can be m os t f ully appr e
ci ated by cons ulti ng our f eel f or out
pos ts , weak pawns , open f i les , and all the
s ubtle nuances th at com e i nto bei ng along
wi th the developm ent of ches s as a
s c i ence . Th i s f eatur e of R ubi ns tei n ' s
play s ugges ts that he had s om ehow m e r ged
the techni cal i deas of S te i ni tz and
Tar r as ch wi th hi s own ex i s tenti al under
s tandi ng--a m er ger wh i ch wi 1 1 hencef or th
be r ef er r ed to as an i nteg r ati on between
the two levels of under s tandi ng w e ' ve been
di s cus s i ng .
R ubi ns tei n ' s i ntegr ati on was a m ove
f or war d m ade pos s i ble by the f act that the
vali di ty of a law of s tr ategy depends . c;n:
tli e way_ n el. ghboi :i_n g pTec e :- _-co o pe rat i -- w lth.
_ _ .. ___
the s tr ategfc r eali t y { weak - - pawn , open

_ __ _ _ _
f ile-;- etc: )- iii- que s t-i on . The poi n t is

that when R ubi n sTefn 1 s m1 nd f ocus ed on a
___
s tr ategi c r eali ty dur i ng a gam e, h e s ens ed

mor e th an a m er ely tech n i cal en t i ty ;
r ather , h e ex i s tenti a ll y under s tood i t to
b e t he i ntegr ated cooper ati on between th e
o n c e o b j e c t i ve l y - d e f i n e d s t r a t e g i c e l e m e n t
and the n e i ghbo r i n g p iece act i vi t y . In
t h i s w a y , h e c ou l d f e e l i mp o r t a n t e l e m e n t s
o f s t r a t e g y wh i l e s i m u l t a n e o u s l y r e t a i n i n g
an alert exi s tent i a l und e r s t a n d i ng w i th
respect to " s i mp l e " p i e c e coopera t i on .
( C o n s i d e r how a b l o c k a d e d i s o l a n i c a n b e
f e l t i n i t s i mm o b i l i t y , o r h o w the c on t r o l
of an open file can a e s th e t i c a l l y
" ecl i pse " less i mp o r t a n t e ve n t s on the
f ield . T he r e ' s n o d ou b t tha t s t r a te g i c
r e a l i t i e s c a n b e f e l t , s o i t s h o u l d c om e
a s n o s u r p r i s e tha t c e r t a i n g r e a t p l a y e r s
e xc e l in th i s abi l i ty . ) In sho r t ,
i n t e g r a t i o n r e n d e r e d R u b i n s t e i n ' s e x i s t en
tial unde r s t an d i n g less s e ve r e l y m a s ke d
than the early c l a s s i ca l ma s te r s bec ause
h e h a d t r a n s f o rm e d a n e s s ent i a l ly dua l
i stic mode of thought i n to a s i ng l e
minded , e f f i c i ent unde rstand i n g .
Kar1sbad , 1 90 7
Janowski Rubi nste in

1 . e4 e5
2 . Nf 3 Nc6
3 . Nc3 Nf 6
4 . Bb5 Bb4
5 . 0-0 0-0
6 . d3 Bc3
7 . be d6
8 . Bg5 Oe7
9 . Od2 Nd8
1 0 . Bc4 Be6
1 1 . Bb3 Bb3
1 2 . ab Ne6
1 3 . Bh4 h6
1 4 . Rf e l a6
1 5 . Bg3 ? . . .
Rubinstein 1 13
Wh i t e wou l d h a v e r e t a i n e d a p r om i s i n g
game a f te r the d i rect 1 5 . d 4 . C on ve r s e l y ,
t h e m o v e p l a y e d a l l ow s B l a c k t o s e i z e t he
l i on ' s share o f k i n g s i d e s pace .
15. . . . Nb5
1 6 . d4 Nef 4
1 7 . Bf4 Nf4
1 8 . g3 Ng6
1 9 . Od3 Oe6
2 0 . Nd2 f5
2 1 . d5 Od7
2 2 . ef Rf5
2 3 . Ne4 Raf 8
24 . Re3 . . .
B l a ck ' s cont r o l o f the f - f i l e c au s e s
Wh i t e s om e d i s c om f o r t t h a n k s t o t h e i mp e r
f ec t i on c r e a t e d by 1 8 . g3 . The s t r o ng
k n i ght o n e 4 s e e m s , at f i r s t s i gh t , to
c o m p e n s a t e f o r mu ch o f t h i s a n n o y a n c e ; on
c l o s e r i n s pect i on , howeve r , i t t u r n s ou t
tha t B l a c k i s a b l e t o c ou n t e r t h e p r e s en c e
of thi s k n i ght , rende r ing i ts bene f i t s
i l l u s o r y - - a n d m a g n i f y i n g t he s i gni f i cance
o f the f - f i l e .
24 . . . Ne7 !
2 5 . Rd l
R u b i n s t e i n wou l d h a v e h a d a n o v e rwhe l m
i n g g a m e a f t e r t h e a l t e r n a t i v e 2 5 . c 4 , Rh 5 ;
26 . Qf l ( or 2 6 . f 3 , Nf 5 a n d . . . , Nd4 ) , N f 5 ;
2 7 . Rc 3 , Nd4 ; 28 . f3 , R5f5 ; 2 9 . Nd 2 , N f 3 + ;
3 0 . Rf 3 , Rf 3 ; 3 1 . Nf 3 , e4 etc .
25 . Kh8
2 6 . c4
Now 2 6 . . . . , Rh 5 i s u s e l e s s : 2 7 . Qf l , Nf 5 ;
2 8 . R f 3 , and t h e d i ve r s i o n i s s t o pp e d i n
i ts t ra cks . F o r t u n a t e l y , t he k n i g h t h a d
a n a l t e r n a t i ve m i s s i o n o n e 7 .
26 Ng8 !
27 . f3 Nf6
2 8 . Rf l Ne4
2 9 . Qe4
Wh i t e ' s queens i de da rk s q ua r e s are

m a r g i n a l l y we a k - - a s t r a t e g i c r e a l i t y tha t
can be made more tangible t h r ou g h the
l i ve l y c oope r a t i on o f B l ack ' s queen .
29
Qd8 !
30 . Qg4 ? !
Wh i t e d e f e n d s a g a i n s t t h e m o r e o bv i o u s
o f B l a c k ' s t w o p o s s i b l e q u e e n m a neuv e r s .
30 . . . . Qb8 !
3 1 . Kg2 Qa7
3 2 . Rfe l Qc5
33 . Qe4 Qb4
34 . R l e 2 R5f6
3 5 . Qd3 Kg8
36 . Qc3 a5
3 7 . Qb4 ab
3 8 . c3 be
39 . Rc3
3 9 . R a 2 , c 2 ; 4 0 . Rc 2 , R a 8 amou n t s to the
s ame th i n g .
39 . . . . Ra8
40 . Kh3 ?
R ub i n s t e i n h a s g o t t e n a l l h e c ou l d h o p e
Rubinste i n 1 15
f o r out o f such a d r aw i sh open i ng . Neve r -

th e l e s s , Wh i t e shou l d s t i 1 1 b e abl e to
ho l d : 40 . c 5 ! , Ra 3 ; 4 1 . cd , cd ; 42 . f4 , ef ;
43 . gf , Rf 4 ; 44 . Re 7 , R a 2 + ; 4 5 . Kg 3 , R4 f 2 ;
4 6 . R c c 7 , Rg 2 + ; 47 . K f 3 , Ra f 2 + ; 4 8 . Ke 3 , Re 2 + ;
4 9 . K d 3 , R e 7 ; 5 0 . R e 7 , Rh 2 ; 5 1 . R b 7 f o l l o w e d by
Rd 7 ( Krn a ch ) .
40 . - -
- b6
4 1 . Kg4 Ra l
4 2 . Rb2 Kh7
43 . b4 Kg6
44 . R2b3
N o w 4 4 . c 5 , R d l ; 4 5 . c b , cb ; 4 6 . R c 6 , b 5 a n d
47 , R d 5 on l y l o s e s m o r e r a p i d l y .
.
44 . . . . Rf5
45 . Rc2 Rh l
46 . f4 - - -
The th r e a t wa s 46 . , Rg 5 + ;
. . 4 7 . Kh 3 ,
Rh 5 + . O the r d e f e n c e s a r e n o b e t t a r :
1 ) 4 6 . h4 , h 5 # .
2 ) 4 6 . h 3 , R g 5 + ; 4 7 . Kh 4 , R h 5 + ; 4 8 . K g 4 , R 5 h 3 ,
thr e a t en i ng . , h5# aga in .
.
3 ) 4 6 . R bb 2 , h 5 + a n d . . . , R f 3 .
46 ef
4 7 . gf h5+
48 . Kg3 Rg l +
49 . K f 2 Rg4
B1ack Won
A c on s i s t e n t g a m e i n wh i c h a s e r i e s o f
s e em i n g l y unr e l a ted s t r a teg i c rea l i t i es
f l o w on e i n t o a n o t h e r , c r e a t i n g a p l e a s i n g
l a n d s c a p e o f p o s i t i o n a l i d e a s w i th o u t a n y
o bv i o u s t e chn i c a l c on n e c t i o n .
I n Rub i n s t e i n ' s game s , s t r a teg i c r ea l

ities c om e a l i ve a e s t he t i c a l l y - - j u s t as
a ttacks come a l i ve in t he games of
Bou rdon n a i s , S t a u n t on , and An d e r s s e n .
S t i l l , t he P o l i s h m a s t e r ' s p l a y h a s a n a i r
of f r a g i l i t y a b o u t i t - - a f e e l i ng t h a t a
s i n g l e f ou n d a t i o n b l o c k o u t o f p l a c e c ou l d
b r i n g the wh o l e s t r u c t u r e t u mbl i n g d own .
Whe r e a s th i s ch a r a c t e r i s t i c lends
Rub i n s t e i n ' s g a m e s a p e c u l i a r cha r m , it
a l s o s ug g e s t s th a t h e wa s on l y a b l e t o
succe s s fu l ly i n tegr a te hi s exi s tent i a l
c on c e p t i o n o f a t t a ck ( wh i ch i n c o r p o r a t e s
c o mb i n a t i o n s ) w i th o b j e c t i ve s t r a teg i c
rea l i t i e s ; the probl em of br i n g i n g the
gl oba 1 exi s t ent i a l under stand i ng i nt o thi s
p i c t u r e wa s n e v e r c om p l e t e l y r e s o l ve d by
R u b i n s t e i n - - wh i ch exp l a i ns hi s p e r i od i c
t r ou b l e i n d e a l i n g w i t h p o s i t i o n s i n w h i ch
no " s t r a t e g i c a t t a c k " c a n be c a r r i e d ou t .
1 7 . Capab1anca
The F u l l y - I n t e g r a t e d
Ex i s t e n t i a l U n d e r s t a n d i n g
Whe r e a s s t r a te g i c rea l i t i e s d i splay

l i fe in Rub i n s t e i n ' s g a m e s , t h e y r a d i a t e
he a l t h i n t h e p l a y o f L a s k e r ' s i nv i n c i b l e
succe s s or , Jose Raoul Capabl anca ( 1 888-
1 94 2 ) . Th i s is be s t e xp l a i n e d by the
hyp o t he s i s tha t Capablanca po s s e s s e d a
f u l l y - i n t e gr a t e d exi s tent i a l unde r s t and
i ng .
I n o r d e r t o c l a r i f y the n a t u r e o f the
great Cuban ' s s t y l e , we ' l l c o n s i d e r h i s
apprec i a t i on of the v i a b i l i t y - - the
h e a l th - - o f t h e c e n t r a l p a wn f o rm a t i o n s i n
the f o l l ow i n g p a i r o f g a m e s .
Moscow , 1914
Bernste in Capab1anca
1 . d4 d5
2 . c4 e6
3 . Nc3 Nf6
4 . Nf 3 Be7
5 . Bg5 0-0
6 . e3 Nbd7
7 . Re l b6
8 . cd I ed
9 . Oa4 1 1 Bb7
1 0 . Ba6 ( \. Ba6
1 1 . Oa6 c5? !
1 2 . Bf6? ! . . .
1 2 . 0-0 leads to a f a vo r a b l e g a m e f o r
Wh i t e : 1 2 . . . . ' h6 ; 1 3 . Bh 4 , Q c 8 ; 1 4 . Q c 8 ,
Rac8 ; 1 5 . Ne 5 ! , G o g l i d z e - M e n ch i k , Mo s c ow ,
1 93 5 .
12 . . . . Nf 6
1 18 The C1a s s i ea1 Era
1 3 . de be
1 4 . 0-0 Qb6
1 5 . Qe2
Wh i t e h a s cho s e n t o c l a r i f y t h e s i t u a
t i o n i n t h e c e n t e r , a n d h o p e s t o e xp l o i t
t h e p o t e n t i a l l y we a k h a n g i n g p a w n s o n c 5
and d5 . Capabl anca ' s " po s i t i ona l s a cr i
f i ce " o n the n e x t move , howeve r , ca l ls
th i s s t r a t e g y i n t o q u e s t i o n .
15 . . . . e4 !
A l t h ou gh th i s w e a k e n s B l a c k ' s c e n t e r a s
a s t a t i c r e a l i t y , i t s t r e n g t h e n s i t f r om
the ex i s t e n t i a l po i nt of view s i nce
Bl ack ' s p ieces now c oope r a te pe r f ec t ly
w i th the pawn f o rm a t i o n , wh i l e Wh i t e ' s
f o r c e s a r e s u d d e n l y c r a mp e d a n d c on f u s e d .
1 6 . Rfd l ? ! . . .
B e s t wa s t h e s i mp l i f y i n g 1 6 . e 4 , l e a d i n g
t o a r e l a t i ve l y e v e n g a m e .
16 . . . . Rfd8
1 7 . Nd4 ?
Whi t e mi s s es h i s 1 a st ch a n c e f o r the
f r e e i n g p a w n m ove e 4 .
B l a c k ' s p a w n s on c 4 a n d d 5 a r e n ' t w e a k
bec ause the Wh i t e p i e c e s d o n ' t c o o p e r a t e
Capab1 anea 1 19
" w i th " t h e m i n a n e f f e c t i ve ( a n t a g o n i s t i c )
m a n n e r ; a d m i t t e d l y , t h e k n i gh t s o n c 3 a n d
d4 are in i d e a l b l o ck a d i ng p o s i t i on , but
B l a c k ' s p r e s s u r e p r ev en t s t h e m f r om d o i ng
a n y th i n g c o n s t r u c t i ve ( i . e . coope ra t i ng ) .
C a p a b l a n c a w a s m o r e s e n s i t i ve t o t h i s t y p e
o f t h i n g b e c a u s e h e ex i s t e n t i a l l y s e n s e d a
p a w n c o n f i gu r a t i o n to be a n o b j e c t i ve
s t r a t e g i c r e a l i t y i n c o o pe r a t i o n w i t h the
p i e c e s i n i t s n e i ghb o rho o d .
17 . . . Bb4 !
1 8 . b3 ? !
Wh i t e ' s p o s i t i o n wa s g r ow i n g i n c r e a s
i n g l y u n c om f o r t a b l e ; s t i l l , h e s h o u l d h a ve
cho s e n a m o r e p a s s i v e c o n t i n u a t i o n s u ch a s
1 8 . Qc 2 .
18 . . Rae8
1 9 . be de
2 0 . Re2 Be3
2 1 . Re3 Nd5 !
. f o r 2 2 . Rc4 f a i l s aga i n st 2 2 I

Nc 3 .
2 2 . Re2 e3
2 3 . Rde l Re5
24 . Nb3 Re6
2 5 . Nd4 Re7
2 6 . Nb5 Re5
2 7 . Ne3 ? . . .
H e s h o u l d h a ve r e t u r ne d t o d 4 , f o r c i n g
B l a c k t o p r ov e t h e w i n .
27 . . . . Ne 3
2 8 . Re3 Re3
2 9 . Re3 Ob2 !
30 . Res igns
T a rr a sch a l m o s t a l wa y s ch o s e t o play
w i t h a n i s o l a t e d q u e e n p a wn , c ou n t i n g on
t h e s p a t i a l a d v a n t a g e i t p r ov i d e d f o r the
m i d d l e g a m e s t r u gg l e ; c o nve r s e l y , S t e i n i tz
p r e f e r r e d to p l a y a g a i n s t s t a t i c we a k n e s s
e s , a d d i n g t h e m u p l i k e mon e y i n a b a nk ;
f i na l l y , Capablanca ' s i n t e gr a te d under
s t a n d i n g move d beyond hi s p r edece s s o r s '
i n f l ex i b i l i t y by a pp r e c i a t i n g the p i ece
coope r a t i on that makes a s t r a t e g i c r ea l i t y
e i the r s t r ong o r we a k - - a n d wa s c o n s e q u e n t
l y a b l e t o wo r k b o t h s i d e s o f t h i s c on t r o
ve r s y e f f e c t i ve l y . In th i s regard ,
c omp a r e t h e C u b a n ' s p l a y i n t h e l a s t g a m e
( wi th an i s o l a n i in effect ) w i th his
c l a s s i c e x p l o i t a t i o n o f p awn w e a k ne s s e s i n
t h e f o l l ow i n g h i s t o r i c e n c o u n t e r .
r
.
Wor1d Champ i onsh i p Match
Havana , 1 9 2 1
Lasker Capab1anca
,} 1 . d4 d5
2 . c4 e6
3 . Nc3 Nf6
4 . Bg5 Be7
5 . e3 0-0
6 . Nf 3 Nbd7
7 . Qc2 cs
8 . Rd l Qa5
9 . Bd 3 h6
1 0 . Bh4 cd
1 1 . ed de
1 2 . Bc4 Nb6
1 3 . Bb3 Bd7
1 4 . 0-0 Race
1 5 . Ne5 Bb5
1 6 . Rf e l Nbd5
1 7 . Bd5 ? . . .
Th i s i n i t i a t e s a c omb i n a t i o n d e s i g n e d
t o s a d d l e B l a c k w i th a p a wn we a k n e s s o f
h i s own . A l t h o u g h t h i s p l a n i s , t e ch n i -
ca l ly , feas i ble , Lasker ha s mi ssed the
Capab1anca 121
f a c t t h a t B l a c k ' s w e a k ne s s won ' t be as

exp l o i t a b l e as Wh i t e ' s q u e en p awn - - a n
i n s i gh t mo s t ea s i ly gr a s ped by an
i n t e gr a t e d und e r s t a n d i n g .
L a t e r a n a l y s i s r ev e a l e d t h e b e s t c on
t i n u a t i o n t o b e 1 7 . B f 6 ! , B f 6 ( B l a c k a c t ua l l y
loses a f te r 17 . , Nf 6 ? ;
1 8 . Ng 6 ! , f g ;
1 9 . Re 6 , or 18 . , RfeB ;
. 1 9 . Re 6 ! , f e ;
.
2 0 . B e 6 + , Kh 7 ; 2 1 . N f 8 + , Kh 8 ; 2 2 . Qh 7 + , Nh 7 ;
2 3 . Ng 6 # ( Breye r ) . ) ; 1 8 . Bd 5 , ed ; 1 9 . Qf5
( B r e y e r ) , Bc 6 w i th even chanc e s .
17. . Nd5
1 8 . Be7 Ne7
1 9 . Ob3 Bc6
The a l t e r n a t i ve a l l ow s Wh i t e t o s t e e r
the g a m e s a f e l y t o wa r d s a d r a w : 19 . . . . ,
Ba6 ; 2 0 . Nd 7 , R f d 8 ; 2 1 . Nc 5 , b6 ; 2 2 . Na 6 , Q a 6 ;
2 3 . d5 etc .
2 0 . Nc6 be
2 1 . Re5 Qb6
2 2 . Qc2 Rfd8
2 3 . Ne2 Rd5
It ' s a l r ea d y ev i d e n t tha t B l a ck ' s
p o s i t i on i s h e a l th i e r , a s Wh i t e ' s p ieces
are s i n gu l a r l y i n e f f e c t i ve aga i ns t the
exi s tent i a l ly r em o t e p awn at c6 . Now ,
a f t e r a n u p h i l l s t r u gg l e , L a s k e r i s e v e n
f o r c e d t o r i d B l a c k o f t h i s m i no r w e a k n e s s
s i nce h i s own q u e e n p aw n wou l d b e lost
a f ter 2 4 . R e 3 , N f 5 ; 2 5 . R b 3 , Q d 8 ; 2 6 . Rb 4 , Q d 7 ;
2 7 . Rc 4 , e 5 ( 2 8 . Q c 3 , ed ; 2 9 . Nd4 ? , Rd 8 ) .
24 . Rd5 cd
2 5 . Od2 Nf5
2 6 . b3 h5 ?
Th i s g i v e s Wh i t e a ch a n c e t o ho l d the
end ing a f te r 2 7 . Ng 3 ! , N g 3 ; 2 8 . hg ( Bogo lyu
b ov ) . Once Lasker mi sses th i s f inal
o pp o r t u n i t y , t he a d d i t i o n a l p r e s s u r e f r om
a s e c u r e k n i ght on f 5 g o e s on t o m a k e a l l
122 The C1ass i ca 1 Era
the d i f f e r en c e .
2 7 . h3 ? h4 !
2 8 . Qd3 Rc6
2 9 . Kf l g6
30 . Oh l Ob4
3 1 . Kg l a5 !
3 2 . Ob2 a4
3 3 . Od 2 Od 2
34 . Rd2 ab
3 5 . ab Rb6
36 . Rd3 Ra6
Capabl anca ' s grea t endgame p r ow e s s

s t e mm e d l a rg e l y f r o m h i s p r o f ou n d a p p r e c i
a t i o n o f p o s i t i o n s l i k e th i s , wh i ch c a l l
f o r e f f e c t i ve p i e c e p l a y a g a i n s t o pp o s i n g
w e a k n e s s e s - - th e k i n d o f m a n e uve r i n g th a t
ut i l i z e s k e y p o i n t s a s " s t r a teg i c s p r i ng
b o a r d s I I f a n d i s t he r e f o r e m o s t e f f e c t i V e l y
a pp r e h e n d e d b y a f u l l y - i n t e g r a t e d e x i s t e n
t i a l understan d i ng .
3 7 . g4 hg
3 8 . fg Ra2
3 9 . Nc3 Rc 2
40 . Nd l Ne7
4 1 . Ne3 Re l +
Capab1 anca 1 23
42 . Kf2 Nc6
43 . Nd l Rb l
44 . Ke2
O f no a va i l w a s 4 4 . K e l , N a 5 .
44 . . Rb3
45 . Ke3 Rb4
46 . Nc3 Ne7
47 . Ne 2 Nf 5+
48 . K f 2 g5
49 . g4 Nd6
50 . Ng l Ne4+
5 1 . Kf l Rb l +
5 2 . Kg2 Rb2 +
5 3 . Kf l Rf 2 +
54 . Ke l Ra 2
5 5 . Kf l Kg7
56 . Re3 Kg6
5 7 . Rd3 f6
5 8 . Re3 Kf7
5 9 . Rd3 Ke7
6 0 . Re3 Kd6
6 1 . Rd3 Rf2+ '
6 2 . Ke l Rg2
6 3 . Kf l Ra2
64 . Re3 e5
6 5 . Rd3 ed
66 . Rd4 Kc5
6 7 . Rd l d4
6 8 . Re l + Kd5
6 9 . Res i gns
. i n v i ew o f the thr ea t ened 6 9 . ,
Ng 3 + ; 7 0 . K e l , R g 2 .
A r em a r k a b l y c o n s i s t e n t g a m e , e a ch move
of wh i ch h i g h l i gh t s t h e p l i g h t of Wh i t e ' s
p a w n w e a k ne s s e s a e s t h e t i c a l l y .
W i t h C a p a b l a n c a , we m u s t b e a r i n m i n d -
mo r e t h a n eve r b e f o r e - - th a t wha t h a p p e n e d
o n t h e b o a r d i n h i s cha r a c t e r i s t i c g a m e s
shou l d b e r e g a r d e d a s a m e r e s ymp t om o f
the m o d e l we ' ve b u i l t f o r h i s ex i s t e n t i a l
unde r s t a nd i ng ; indeed , the grea test
ev i d e n c e th a t the C ub a n had ove r c om e
s t r a t e g i c m a s k i n g i s the s o l i d i t y o f h i s
play f r om an o ve r - a l l , c a r ee r perspec
t i ve - - a f e a t u r e a cc e ntua ted b y the f a c t
th a t t a c t i c s a r e m o s t l i k e l y t o o c c u r i n
t h e n e i gh b o r h o o d o f s i g n i f i c a n t s t r a t e g i c
rea l i t i e s ( p r e c i s e l y whe r e a n i n t e g r a t e d
u n d e r s t a nd i ng i s mo s t k e e n l y f oc u s e d ) .
T o s umm a r i z e t h e l a s t t wo ch a p t e r s , we
m a y c h a r a c t e r i z e an i n t e g r a t e d u n d e r s t a n d
ing as o n e wh i ch h a s c omb i n e d r om a n t i c
exi s t ent i a l under s t and i ng w i th the
e l e m e n t s o f che s s s c i e n c e b y c o n c e p t u a l i z
i ng the board as a " te r r a i n " o f p i ece
coope r a t i on wi th " h i l l s " and " va l l eys " a t
strateg i c rea l i t i es . Th i s produced a
s i n g l e , un i f i e d v i e w of t h e g a m e wh i ch
boasted a p r o f ound f ee l for s t r a t e gy
w i thou t the p r obl ems o f s t r a t e g i c ma s k i n g .
IV . THE MODERN GAME
( 1927-1957 )
I ND I V I DUAL I T Y AND C H ARAC T E R
1 8 . Nimzovich
Respons i b i l i ty
Let ' s b e g i n ou r d i s c u s s i o n o f m od e r n
che s s w i t h a b r i e f ph i l o s o ph i c a l a s i d e .
Whe n ou r a n c e s t o r s - - i n the ea r l iest
s t ages of c i v i l i z a t i o n - - we r e pres ented
w i t h a n e t h i c a l p r o b l e m , th e y s e a r ch e d f o r
a s o l u t i on i n the preva i l i n g mor a l c o d e o f
the d a y . Thu s whe n a n i n d i v i d u a l w a s c on
fronted w i th a n o pp o r t u n i t y to s a fe ly
b r e a k a l aw , he d i d n ' t p r i m a r i l y c on s i d e r
the a d v a n t a g e s a n d d i s a dv a n t a g e s i nv o l ve d
i n s u ch a n a c t ; r a th e r , he cons u l t e d a
s a c r e d " b ook o f l aw s " ( though n o t a l wa y s
l iterally ) , and p r omp t l y i nv i t e d it to
make t h e d e c i s i on f o r h i m . It ' s c l ear
th a t s u ch a p e r s on - - o n e who l i ve s w i t h i n
an es tabl i shed mo r a l t r ad i t i on - -ha s
st rayed f r om the bu r d e n s t h a t c om e w i t h
person a l respons ibi l i ty ; a dm i t t e d l y , he
h a s t e chn i c a l l y m a d e a d e c i s i o n t o a l l ow a
mo r a l code to g u i d e h i s wa y , b u t th i s
yields a me r e a c a d em i c a c c ou n t a b i l i t y -
n o t h i n g th r o ugh wh i ch h e c o u l d exp e r i en c e
f u l l , ex i s t e n t i a l res pons i b i l i t y for h i s
l i fe .
Late r i n hi s t o ry , once our ancestors
began to r e a l i z e tha t m o r a l l aw s a r e n ' t
binding in t h e m s e l ve s ( s i n c e t h e y h a ve
been , a f te r all , created by hum a n i t y ) ,
the y e n t e r e d a n e r a i n whi ch r e s p o n s i b i 1 i
t y c o u l d b e exp e r i e n c e d mo r e int ima tely ,
1 26 The Modern Game
and c o n s e qu e n t l y b e c a me mo r e pr a c t i c a l
d e c i s i o n -m a k e r s . ( S u ch a m e t a m o r ph o s i s
wa s only p o s s i bl e bec ause mo r a l l aw s
a r en ' t g r o u n d e d i n t r u th , b u t a r e r a th e r
" t oo l s " w i th wh i ch evo l u t i o n h a s mo l d e d
the hope l es s l y s ub j e c t i ve a s p ec t s of
d ec i s i on -mak i n g i nt o s o m e th i n g o b j e c t i ve
a n d c omm u n i c a b l e tha t can t i e a s o c i e t y
together . ) Th i s en c ou n t e r w i t h r e s p o n s i
b i l i t y - - e s p ec i a l l y i n t h e f o rm k n o w n as
a nx i e t y - - c a n b e p a r t i c u l a r l y t r ou b l i n g f o r
m o d e r n m a n b e c au s e we ' ve b e e n b r e d i n a
wo r l d tha t t r a d i t i on a l l y a d he r e s to an
o b j e c t i ve m o r a l c od e .
Wh a t d o e s a n y o f t h i s h a v e t o d o w i t h
che s s ? D i r e c t l y , n o th i ng ; b u t i n d i r e c t l y ,
i t i n d i c a t e s a w a y i n wh i ch we m a y p r o c e e d
a f te r ou r d i s c u s s i on o f t h e ful ly- i nte
gr a t e d ex i s t en t i a l unde r s t a n d i n g .
C he s s i s , u l t i ma t e l y , s ub j e c t t o pu r e
c a l c u l a t i o n ; o b j e c t i ve l y , i t ha s n o th i ng
t o d o w i th t h e evo l u t i on we ' ve b e e n f o l
l ow i n g . Thu s e x i s t e n t i a l u n d e r s t a n d i n g i s
n o th i n g mor e th a n a " t oo l " tha t h um a n
b e i n g s u s e t o th i n k a b ou t c h e s s m o r e e f f i
c i en t l y . ( A l l ud i n g t o o u r p h i l o s o ph i c a l
aside , o n e m i ght s a y t h a t t h e wo r l d of
e x i s t e n t i a l che s s i s a s s ub j e c t i ve a s t h e
m o r a l wo r l d . ) And s i n c e C a p a b l a n c a ' s wa s
the f i r s t unde r s t an d ing to make s t r a teg i c
r e a l i t i e s c omp l e t e l y a c c e s s i b l e t o exi s
tent i a l t h o u g h t , t h e t i me o f h i s p r om i
n e n c e wa s r i p e f o r pl ayers o f gen i u s to
expr e s s the i r r e s p o ns i b i l i t y f o r che s s
t h r o u g h c r e a t i ve p o s i t i o n a l p l a y .
I t s h ou l d b e n o t e d tha t we ' r e i n d a n g e r
o f f a l l i n g i n t o a t r i v i a l i t y by r e d u c i n g
a n e x i s t e n t i a l c on c e p t - - r e s p o n s i b i l i t y - - t o
m e r e t e chn i c a l d a t a ; for wha t c o u l d b e
Nimzovi ch 1 27
c ou l d b e) m o r e o bv i ou s t h a n t h e f a c t th a t
eve r y o n e m a k e s h i s own m ove s ? B u t i n the
exi s te n t i a l s ense , r espons i b i l i ty is a
t r a i t whe r e by a p l a y e r e mp l o y s h i s r o l e a s
the " c u r a t o r " o f s t r a t e g i c r ea l i t i e s to
the f u l l e s t p o s s i b l e e x t e n t .
How , spec i f i ca l ly , wi l l r espons i b i l i ty
be man i f e s t e d i n a p l ayer ' s s t y l e ? As the
f l ex i b i l i t y t o e mp l o y s t r i k i n g l y o r i g i n a l
s t r a t e g i c c o n c e p t i o n s ove r - th e - b oa r d - - a s a
t en d e n c y t o p l a y l e s s a cc o r d i n g t o u s e d ,
p r e - c on c e i ve d pl ans . The s e cha r a c t e r i s
t i c s a r e p r om i n e n t i n t h e g a m e s a n d o p e n
i n g s y s t e m s o f A r on N i mz o v i ch ( 1 8 8 6 - 1 9 3 S ) ,
the m o s t o bv i ou s case b e i n g the N i mz o
I n d i a n D e f en c e ( 1 . d 4 , N f 6 ; 2 . c 4 , e 6 ; 3 . N c 3 ,
Bb4 ) , whe r e B l a c k r e s e rv e s h i s o p t i o n s a s
t o how h e w i l l f i n a l l y post hi s center
p aw n s u n t i l Wh i t e h a s m a d e s om e s o r t of
c omm i t me n t ( p o s s i bl e f o rma t i o n s b e i n g a s ,
d 6 and e s , c s and b6 , Ne4 a n d f S , c s and
d6 and e s , etc . ) . Th i s s h o u l d b e c omp a r e d
w i t h T ch i g o r i n ' s o r i g i n a l o p e n i n g s chem e s ,
whe r e the fate of the c en t r a l p awn
structure i s c o mm i t t e d f r om the f i rst
move s ; for i n stance , in the Old I n d i a n
De f ence - - a f te r the p r e pa r a to r y l . d4 , Nf6 ;
2 . c4 , d6 --Bl ack wi ll a lmo s t i n va r i a b l y
f o l l o w - u p w i t h a t i me l y . . . , e s .
C on s i d e r f u r th e r N i m z ov i ch ' s i n vo l ve d
and or i g ina l p l an of r e st r a i nt in the
f o l l ow i n g f a m o u s g a m e .
Dresden , 1 926
Johner Nimzovich
1 . d4 Nf6
2 . c4 e6
3. Nc3 Bb4
4. e3 0-0
5. Bd3 c5
6. Nf3 Nc6
7. 0-0 13-C:: -
8 . be d6
Now t h a t B l a c k h a s exch a n g e d h i s d a r k
s q ua r e d b i shop and d ou b l e d Wh i t e ' s
c - p a w n s , he f e e l s j u s t i f i e d i n p l a c i n g h i s
own p aw n s on d a r k s q ua r e s - - s i mu l t a n e ou s l y
bl ocka d i ng h i s opponent ' s weakne s s .
9 . Nd 2 b6
1 0 . Nb3 ?
N i m z o v i ch l a te r s u gg e s t e d 1 0 . f4 , e5 ;
1 1 . f e , de ; 1 2 . d 5 , Na 5 ; 1 3 . Nb 3 , Nb 7 ; 1 4 . e4 , Ne 8
w i th a b a l a n c e d g a m e . As wi 11 s o on be
ev i d e n t , t h e m o v e p l a y e d l e a v e s e 4 u n d e r
p r o t e c t e d a t a n i n o pp o r t u n e m o m e n t .
10 . e5
1 1 . f4 .
Now 1 1 . d 5 , e4 ! ; 1 2 . Be 2 , Ne 5 p r om i s e s
B l a c k a n exc e l l e n t g a m e .
11 e4
1 2 . Be2
Nizovich 1 29
S ince N i m z ov i ch wa s e x i s t e n t i a l l y i n
t o u ch w i t h h i s respons i b i l i ty , .hi s m i n d
wa s m o r e o p e n- t o . t oe!_ c r e a t i on o f u n i que
- fo -- g1
strate c r e_a 1_i._ i E:!_s . i n --- ms----posTETon
r e x a m p l e ; a k i n g s i d e r e s t r a i n i n g a c t i on
__ - ___ ..
w i l l b e i mp l e m e n t e d th r ou g h a n a e s t he t i c
ally pleas ing r e g r o u p i ng of B l a ck ' s
p i eces . Or , to speak in t e rm s we ' ve
a l r e a d y u s e d i n ou r d i s c u s s i o n o f c l a s s i c
a l che s s , N i m z ov i ch ' s p i e c e s a r e a b o u t t o
e n t e r i n t o c o o p e r a t i on w i t h a n o b j e c t i ve
s t r a t e g i c r e a l i t y - - on e , howe v e r , wh i ch h a s
y e t t o be " bo rn " . T h i s t yp e o f i n t e gr a
t i on pl aces a g r e a t e r empha s i s o n p i e c e
c oo p e r a t i o n a s the g r o u n d o f t h e a pp r oa ch
ing s t rateg i c r ea l i ty ; and , s i nce coopera
t i on i s a n exi s t ent i a l , e s s e nt i a l l y s ub
j e c t i ve phe n o m e n o n , s u ch a p l a n i s mos t
e a s i l y d i s c ove r e d by a m i n d tha t h a s c ome
to g r i p s w i t h i t s r e s p on s i b i l i t y f o r the
e x i s t en c e of s t r a t e g i c r e a l i t i e s on the
e x i s t e n t i a l l e ve l .
12 . . . Od7 !
1 3 . h3 Ne7
1 4 . Qe l ? ! . . .
Mo r e r e s i l i e n t wa s 1 4 . B d 2 , N f 5 ; 1 5 . Q e l ,
g6 ; 1 6 . g 4 , Ng 7 ; 1 7 . Qh 4 , N f e 8 ; 1 8 . a4 , f5 ;
1 9 . g5 , Nc7 ( N i mz ov i ch ) , whe n B l a c k e n j o y s
an e dge , th ough the p o s i t i on rema i ns
r a th e r l o c k e d - u p .
The move a c t u a l l y p l a y e d a l l o w s B l ack
t o p e r m a n e n t l y p r e v e n t Wh i t e ' s g 4 , t he r e by
r e t a i n i n g t h e a d va n t a g e o n b o t h f l a n k s .
14 . . . h5 !
1 5 . Bd 2
1 5 . Qh4 ? , N f 5 ; 1 6 . Q g 5 ? , Nh 7 ; 1 7 . Q h 5 , Ng 3
on l y g e t s Wh i t e i n t o d e e p e r t r o u b l e .
15 . . . Of5 !
1 6 . Kh2 Qh7 !
1 7 . a4 Nf 5
Th r e a t e n i n g 1 8 . . . . , Ng4+ ; 1 9 . h g , hg + ;
2 0 . Kg l , g 3 . - -!
1 8 . g3 \ 5 l
Nowa d a ys a t yp i c a l move in th i s
va r i a t i on .
1 9 . Rg l Nb6
2 0 . Bf l Bd7
2 1 . Be l -
2 2 . d5 Kh8
Now th a t t h e c e n t e r ha s b e e n s e c u r e d ,
N i m z ov i ch p r o c ee d s t owa r d t h e d e c i s i ve
brea k on the k i n g s i d e .
2 3 . Nd 2 Rg8
24 . Bg2 g5
2 5 . Nf l Rg7
2 6 . Ra 2 Nf5
2 7 . Bb l Rcg8
2 8 . Qd l gf
2 9 . ef Bc8
3 0 . Qb3 Ba6
3 1 . Re2
The p a s s i ve de f ence is no bet te r :
3 1 . Bd 2 , Rg6 ; / 3 2 . Be l , Ng4+ ! ; 3 3 . hg , hg + ;
\
3 4 . K g 2 , B_s: .t(I ; 3 5 . Q c 4 , e 3 ! a n d . . . , Q h 3 # . J\
31 . . Nh4
--

3 2 . Re3 . . .
The pr imary a l t e r n a t i ve l e ads to a
pret ty queen s a cr i f i ce : 3 2 . Nd 2 , Bc 8 ;
3 3 . N e 4 , Q f 5 ; 3 4 . N f 2 , Q h 3 + ! ; 3 5 . Nh 3 , Ng 4 # .
32 . Bc8
3 3 . Qc 2 Bb3 !
34 . Be4 . .
3 4 . Kh 3 , Q f 5 + ; 3 5 . K h 2 , Ng 4 + is o bv i o u s l y
futi le .
34 . Bf5
3 5 . Bf5 Nf5
36 . Re2 h4
3 7 . Rgg2 hg+
Niazovi ch 131
3 8 . Kg l _Q_f:L
3 9 N"e_--- O ., { ,
__
I Nh4
40 . Kf l Re8
4 1 . Res i gns
. b e c a u s e o f t h e i mp e n d i n g 41 . . . . ,
Ng 2 ; 4 2 . R g 2 , Qh l + ; 4 3 . K e 2 , Q g 2 + .
Whe n r e s p o n s i b i l i t y i s f i r s t e n c ou n t e r
ed ex i s t e nt i a l ly , the resu l t ing a nx i e t y
can be parti cularly t r ou b l i n g ( a d i l e mm a
ak i n to Ivan K a r a!!! -_QV ' !f3 ],_m e IJ,_t
__ th a t ,
r y t h i f1_g_ !_ J_ r m i!_t e_5L " - - a r e c o g n i t i o n
_ __ __
tha t t he r e ' s no o b j e c t i ve gr o u n d of
m o r a l i t y , b u t o n e a c c omp a n i e d b y a n a gg i n g
f ee l i n g tha t t he r e ' s sti ll a u n i ve -r- s-- a l
r
l e g i s l a t o r , o n l y he ' s n o t o n the j ob : i-
s u ch c a s es ' a nx i et y t en d s to man i f e st
i t s e l f a s lack of d i rect i on , i nd e c i s i on ,
and uncert a i nty . As a c o n s e q u en c e ,
N i m z o v i ch - - o n e of the f i rst masters to
exp e r i en c e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y - - o sc i l l a t e d
between emp l o y i ng the phe n om e n o n and
ge n e r a l i z i ng i t s i n s i gh t s i nt o s t r a teg i c
l aw s - - e n t i t i e s tha t c a n a t b e s t r e f l ect
the r ad i ca l ly s u b j e c t i ve nature of
respons i bi l i ty . Th i s i s why N i m z ov i ch w a s
t h e l a s t g r e a t l a w - g i ve r o f c he s s - - b e c a u s e
l e a d i n g ma s t e r s s i n c e h i s d a y h a ve m o v e d
b e y o n d a nx i e t y t o a d ee p e r , m o r e a u t h e n t i c
r e l a t i on wi th r e s pons i b i l i t y .
1 9 . A1ekhine
The I n i t i a t i ve
L i k e N i m z o v i ch , the c r e a t i ve gen i u s
A l ex a n d e r A l e kh i n e ( 1 8 92 - 1 946 ) a lso
exp r e s s e d hi s res pons i b i l i t y t h r o u gh
s t r a t e g i c f l ex i b i l i t y - - th o u g h a t t i m e s i n
a n e s s en t i a l l y d i f f e rent manne r , a s i n the
f o l l ow i n g g a m e .
The Hague , 1921
A1ekhine Rub i nstein

1 . d4 d5
2 . Nf3 e6
3 . c4 a6?
4 . c5 ! Nc6
The b a t t l e n o w c i r c l e s a r ou n d B l a c k ' s
des i re to play . . . , es . A s w e sha l l s e e ,
s u ch a p l a n i s no t f e a s i b l e , a n d t h e r e f o r e
Wh i t e ' s f o u r th move m a y b e cons i dered a
r e f u t a t i o n o f B l a ck ' s t h i r d .
5 . Bf4 Nge7
6 . Nc3 Ng6
A1ekh i ne 1 33
7 . Be3 !
Wh i t e vo l u n t a r i l y r e l i nq u i s h e s h i s i r on
bl ockad e on e 5 , suddenly ch a n g i n g the
exi s tent i a l f ea tures o f t h e c e n t r a l p a wn
ma s s - - f o r now the a g e n t o f r e s t r a i n t i s
pressure on d 4 and d 5 . R a the r th a n b r i n g
i n g a n i n c r e a s i n g l y i n t e n s e l i ght t o b e a r
on the p a wn structure ( as Capabl anca ' s
p l a y wa s a p t t o d o ) , A l e kh i n e ' s o r i g i n a l
p l a n i n th i s g a me s u c c e s s i v e l y h i g h l i g h t s
ent i r e l y new f a ce t s o f the pos i t i on . It
f o l l ow s tha t Wh i t e ' s p i e c e c o o p e r a t i on
i s n ' t m e r e l y c r e a t i ng a n o b j e c t i ve s t r a t e
gic r e a l i t y ( a s N i m z ov i ch ' s d i d i n the
l a s t ch a p te r ) , but i s crea t i ng and re
c r e a t i ng an u n ch a n g i n g p awn f o rm a t i on o n
the e x i s t e n t i a l l ev e l .
7. . . . b6
8 . cb cb
9 . h4 !
Th i s e n e r g e t i c t h r u s t on a n e w f r on t
once aga in t r a n s f o rm s the nature of
Wh i t e ' s c a mp a i g n b y a pp en d i n g a vu l n e r a b l e
d a r k s q u a r e c o mp l ex t o B l a c k. ' s wo r r i e s i n
the c en t e r .
9. . Bd6
P e r h a p s b e t t e r wa s 9 . . . . , h 5 , a l th ough
Wh i t e wou l d st i 1 1. r e t a i n t h e u pp e r h a n d
a f t e r 1 0 . Bg 5 , f 6 ; 1 1 . Q c 2 , wi th Bd 2 , e 3 , a 3 ,
a n d B d 3 t o f o l l ow ( A l e kh i n e ) .
1 0 . h5 Nge7
1 1 . h6 ! g6
1 2 . Bg5 0-0
1 3 . Bf6 ! . .
B y n o t d e a l i n g w i th the c e n t r a l p a wn
ma s s a s a f i xe d , t e ch n i c a l r e a l i t y , b u t a s
one tha t c a n b e u s e f u l l y r e - c r e a te d ex i s
tent i a l l y , A l e kh i n e h a s a l r e a d y o b t a i n e d
a n ove r whe l m i n g a d va n t a g e .
13 . . . . b5
1 4 . e3 Bd7
1 5 . Bd3 Rc8
1 6 . a4 b4
1 7 . Ne2 Ob6
1 8 . Nc l ! . . .
Wh i t e d o e s n ' t play for the o bv i ou s
k i n g s i d e a t t a c k , b u t c on s i s t e n t l y c a r r i e s
o u t h i s g e ne r a l p l a n o f r e s t r a i n t .
18 . Rc7
1 9 . Nb3 Na5
2 0 . Nc5 ! Nc4
Of no ava i l are the a l t e r n a t i ve s
20 . . , B c S ; 2 1 . d c , Q c 5 ; 2 2 . B d 4 , Q c 6 ; 2 3 . Ne 5 ,
.
Qb7 ; 2 4 . Ng 4 and 20 , Bc S ;
. 2 1 . N e 5 , Bc 5 ;

2 2 . d e , Q c 5 ; 2 3 . N g 4 ( th r e a t e n i n g B d 4 ) . Note
espec i a l ly the m e t a m o r ph o s e s of Bl ack ' s
w e a k d a r k s qu a r e c omp l e x i n t h e s e l i n e s .
-- - 2 i . :Bc4
- - de
2 2 . Ne5
Mo r e e f f i c i e n t w ou l d h a v e b e en 2 2 . N e 4 ,
w i t h t h e i d e a o f 2 3 . Nd 6 , Q d 6 ; 2 4 . B e S , n o t
t o m e n t i on B g 7 a n d N f 6 # ( A l e k h i ne ) .
22 Be5
2 3 . Be7 ! .
Winn i ng the exch a n g e - - a n d e ve n t u a l l y

t h e g a m e - - s i n c e the m e c h a n i c a l 2 3 , Re8 ;
. . .
2 4 . d e , Re 7 ; 2 5 . Ne 4 ! l o s e s qu i ck l y :
1 ) 25 , fS ;
. . . 2 6 . Q d 6 , Bc 6 ; 2 7 . Nf 6 + , K f 7 ;
2 8 . Q d S ! , B e 8 ; 2 9 . Nh 7 ( A l e kh i n e ) , o r
2 ) 25 , Be S ;
. . . 2 6 . N f 6 + , Kh 8 ;
2 7 . Q d 8 , Rb 7 ;
2 8 . R d l , Q c 6 ; 2 9 . 0 - 0 ( A l e kh i n e ) .
Whi te Won
Whe n , i n t h e m o r a l s phe r e , a m a n h a s
encountered h i s respons i b i l i t y but s t i l l
l on g s f o r o b j e c t i ve l aw s t o g u i d e h i s w a y ,
he ' s c a ug h t i n a nx i e t y ; i f , howeve r , he
ha s moved b e y on d th i s s t a t e to e mb r a c e t h e
A1ekhine 1 35
o p t i o n t o c r e a t e h i s own va l ue s , h e m a y b e
s a i d t o be t r u l y f r e e . In a n anal ogous
m a nn e r , A l e kh i n e o v e r c am e the s t a te of
a nx i e t y b y e n t e r i n g a r e a l m o f e x i s t e n t i a l
t h o u g h t wh i ch h a d b r o k e n f r e e o f a l l t e ch
---- ---
n i c a l restra i nt . --------- - -------- - ---- -
.
Whe n a p fii-ye_r l oo k s a he a d i n a g a m e , he
p o n d e r s a n u mb e r of s u b s e q u e n t , d i st inct
p o s i t i o n s , he n c e e mp l o y s h i s ex i s t e n t i a l
unde r s t a nd i ng in s e ve r a l d i f f erent con
texts . Class i cally , the on l y un i t y
b e t w e e n the s e " ex i s t e n t i a l s n a p sh o t s " i s
wh a t ' s o b j e c t i ve l y - - t e chn i c a l l y - - on the
b o a r d ; o n l y i n t h e g a m e s of A l e kh i n e do we
f ind a ma s t e r ca pabl e of exi s tent i a l ly
s e n s i n g the f l ow t h r o u g h the s e i n d e p e n d e n t
pos i t i ons . H e t he r e f o r e h a d a b e t t e r f ee l
for how the cont i nuous coope r a t i on of
pieces s uppo r t strate g i c rea l i t i e s f r om
move t o move , how t h e s e i n t e g r a t e d r e a l
ities change s ub t l y as the s i t ua t i on
p r o g r e s s e s , a n d e v e n how t h e y d e p e n d f o r
the i r e x i s t e n t i a l e x i s t e n c e o n the p l a y o f
n e i ghb o r i n g p i e c e s .
C a pabl anc a ' s c on c e p t i o n of a g i ve n
s t r a t e g i c r e a l i t y wa s who l l y e x i s t e n t i a l ,
he n c e he wa s c omp l e t e l y r e s p on s i b l e f o r
t h e e x i s t e n c e o f wha t h e s e n s e d . A l e kh i ne
moved a step f u r the r by u n c on s c i o u s l y
r e c o g n i z i n g t h i s p h e n o m e n o n , a n d wa s e v e n
a b l e t o e n t e r t a i n s t r a t e g i c r e a l i t i e s th a t
have no c l e a r l y - de f i ned " a l ter-egos " in
the wo r l d o f t e chn i c a l l aw s ( a s o pp o s e d t o
Capabl a nca ' s c on c e p t u a l i z a t i o n s , wh i ch
we r e i n va r i a bl y tied- in to o bj e c t i ve ,
we l l - d e f i ned strategi c e l em e n t s s u ch as
i s o l a t e d p a w n s , o p en f i l e s , a n d s o f o r th ) .
Th i s i s why we c a n o f t en f i nd t r a n s i ent
strateg i c rea l i t i es ( cl a ss i c a l l y ins i gni f -
i c a n t f ea t u r e s t h a t b e c om e a e s t he t i c a l l y
s i m i l a r t o i n t e g r a t e d e l e m e n t s f o r a f ew
move s ) p l a y i n g a n i mp o r t a n t r o l e i n th a t
s t r a n g e l y e l u s i ve ch a r a c t e r i s t i c o f m o d e r n
che s s - - th e i n i t i a t i v e .
Mannhe im , 1 9 14
A1ekhine Fahrn i
1 . e4 e6
2 . d4 d5
3 . Nc3 Nf6
4 . Bg5 Be7
5 . e5 Nf d7
6 . h4 ! ? Bg5
7 . hg Qg5
8 . Nh3 Qe7
9 . Nf4 Nf8?
Mod e r n the o r y r e c omm e n d s 9 . . . . , a6 ;
1 0 . Qg4 , g 6 ; 1 1 . 0 - 0 -0 , a l l ow i n g Wh i t e no
m o r e t h a n a d e q u a t e c omp en s a t i o n for the
s a c r i f i c e d p a wn .
1 0 . Qg4 ! .
A s t r a i gh t - f o r wa r d move wh i c h t h r e a t e n s
N d 5 , a s we l l a s t h e m o r e o bv i o u s Q g 7 .
Note how Wh i t e ' s i n i t i a t i ve doesn ' t
stem f r om how h i s p i e c e s c oo p e r a t e w i t h
the cent r a l p a wn c h a i n ; c o n ve r s e l y , h i s
p i e c e s c oo p e r a t e t o g e t h e r f r e e l y - - i n s p i te
of the p a wn c h a i n - - a n d i mp o s e t r a n s i e n t
s t r a t e g i c r e a l i t i e s on the boa rd . Thu s
the class i c a l ly i ns i gn i f i c a n t c 8 -h3
d i a g on a l w i l l p r ov i d e a n i mp o r t a n t s p r i n g
b o a r d f o r A l e k h i n e ' s i n i t i a t i ve ; a n d e v e n
mo r e i n s t r u c t i ve l y , B l a c k ' s p a w n a t d 5 -
the f a r the s t t h i n g f r om a c l a s s i c a l we a k
ne s s - - i s d e s t i n e d t o b e a v i c t i m f o r t h e
bu l k of the ba t t l e .
10 . . . . f5
A1ekh i ne 1 37
1 1 . ef gf
1 2 . 0-0-0 c6
Wh i t e w a s t h r e a t e n i n g N d 5 a g a i n .
1 3 . Re l Kd8
A f t e r 1 3 . . . . , Bd ? , the s t o ck s a c r i f i c e
1 4 . N f d 5 ! , c d ; 1 5 . Nd 5 wou l d b e d e v a s t a t i n g .
1 4 . Rh6 ! es
1 5 . Oh4 Nbd7
1 6 . Bd3 e4
\ 1 7 . Og3 !
P r e p a r i n g o u r o l d f r i e n d Nd 5 , a m ove
wh i ch h a s d e v e l o p e d new r a m i f i c a t i o n s due
t o t h e s p e c i f i c s of t h e p o s i t i on - -_(:i k i n d __
o f - - mu t a t i o n th a t ' s f a m i l i a r t o t h e wo r l d
- - - - - -
o f th e Tn1 t r a t 1 V e .
--- ------- --- . _ - . .-
O n 6 - a g a l n , Bl ack ' s p aw n at d5 ha s
p r ov e n vu l ne r a b l e - - s u gg e s t i n g tha t
A l e kh i n e wa s able to c o n c e p t ua l i z e a
stra teg i c rea l i ty on a p l a ne who l l y
i n d e p e n d e n t o f wha t ' s o b j e c t i ve l y o n the
boa rd .
17 . Of 7
Or : 17 . . . , Qd 6 ? ;
1 8 . Be 4 ! , d e ; 1 9 . R e4 ,
wi th Qg7 next .
1 8 . Be4 !
Once more , i n s p i t e o f the c l a s s i c a l
s t r a t e g i c e l e m en t s , e 4 ha s c h a n g e d f r om a n
i nc i d e n t a l c e nt r a l s q u a r e o u t o f Wh i t e ' s
c o n t r o l t o a s p r i n gb o a r d f o r h i s m o u n t i n g
i n i t i a t i ve .
18. . de
1 9 . Ne4 Rg8
No s a l v a t i o n w a s t o b e h a d f r om 1 9 . . . . ,
Q a 2 ; 2 0 . Nf 6 ! , Nf6 ; 2 1 . Qg7 .
2 0 . Oa3 !
A l e k h i ne c o n t i nu e s to i l l um i n a t e new
w e a k n e s s e s i n the e n e my c a mp . Of p a r t i c
u l a r n o t e i s t h e w i d e f r o n-t ove r wh i ch the
-
i n i t i a t i ve i s s p r e a d i n th i s g a me :..-.:-y 1 e ia-=-
138 The Modern Game
i n g a g l o b a l p he n om e n o n wh i ch t i e s t o g e t h
e r n u m e r ou s t r a n s i e n t s t r a t e g i c r e a l i t i e s
i n t o a n e f f e c t i ve , u n i f i e d who l e .
20 . . Og7
No b e t t e r wa s 2 0 . . . . , Q e 7 ; 2 1 . Q a 5 + , b 6 ;
22 . Qc3 .
2 1 . Nd6 ! Nb6
2 2 . Ne8 !
White Won
. t h e th r e e m a i n l i n e s b e i n g :
1 ) 2 2 . . . . , Qd7 ; 2 3 . Nf6 .
2 ) 2 2 . . . . , Nc4 ; 2 3 . Qc 5 , Q f 7 ; 2 4 . R f 6 .
3 ) 2 2 . . . . , Qf7 ; 2 3 . Qd6+ etc .
I f t h e s t r a t e g y o f R u b i n s t e i n exh i b i t s
l i f e , whi l e C a p a b l a n c a ' s r a d i a t e s h e a l t h ,
then A l ekh i ne ' s i n i t i a t i ve c a n j o i n our
a e s t he t i c h i e r a r ch y unde r the rubr i c
ch a r a c t e r - - t h a t e l em e n t o f t h e hum a n p e r
s on a t h a t a c c o u n t s f o r i nd i v i dua l i t y as
oppo sed t o m e r e ex i s t e n c e a s a p h y s i c a l
spec i men . Thu s C a p a b l a n c a p r o d u c e d g a m e s
wh i c h we r e m o d e l s o f h o w t o p l a y f o r t h a t
o f p o s i t i o n , wh i l e A l e k h i n e o f t e n w o n
i n wa y s t h a t we r e o f 1 i t t l e o r n o t e c hn i
cal use for future encount e r s . Thi s
feature i s p r o n ou n c e d i n A l e kh i ne ' s p l a y
becau s e t r ans i e n t s t r a t e g i c r e a l i t i e s - - by
the i r ve r y n a t u r e - - a r e r e s i s t a n t t o g e n
eral i za ti on ; i n d ee d , A l e kh i n e ' s c on ve r
s a nt r e l a t i on shi p w i th the s e " gho s t l y "
e n t i t i e s wa s t h e o n e s ub s t a n t i a l e d g e he
enj oyed in hi s r i va l ry w i th the great
Cuban .
A1ekhine 1 39
Wor1d Champ i onship Match

Buenos Ai res , 1 9 2 7
A1ekhine Capab1anca
1 . d4 d5
2 . c4 e6
3 . Nc3 Nf6
4 . Bg5 Nbd7
5 . e3 ?f c6
6 . a3 , . Be7
7 . Nf 3 0-0
8 . Bd3 de
9 . Bc4 Nd5
1 0 . Be7 Qe7
1 1 . Ne4 N5f6
1 2 . Ng3 c5
1 3 . 0-0 Nb6
1 4 . - cd
1 5 . Nd4 g6
1 6 . Re l Bd7
1 7 . Oe2 Race
1 8 . e4 e5
-
1 9 . Nf 3 g 7 J
B l a c k ' s p o s i t i on i s a l l r i g ht f r om a n
ana l y s i s of t y p e s , but the s p ec i f i c s of
his k i ng ' s post o n g 7 w i 1 1 s o on o f f e r
Wh i t e i mp o r t a n t t a c t i c a l ch a n c e s ( s e e the
note to B l ack ' s twenty - f i r s t move ) .
A l e kh i n e s ugg e s t s t h e a l t e r n a t i ve 1 9 . . . . ,
R e l ; 2 0 . R c l , R c S ; 2 1 . R c 8 + , Nc 8 ; 2 2 . Ng 5 , B e 8 ,
giving Bl ack a s u f f i c i en t l y res i l i ent
p o s i t i on .
2 0 . h3 h6 ?
T he r e wa s s t i l l t i m e f o r the s i mp l i f y -
ing 2 0 . . . . , Rc l ; 2 1 . Rc l , Rc S . A f t e r the
we a k e r . . . , h 6 , o n t h e o the r h a n d , B l a c k ' s
kings i de wi ll p r ov e to be an adequa te
s pr i ngboa rd for Wh i t e to s e i ze the
The p o s i t i o n i s a l l but s ymm e t r i c a l ,

and o f f e r s the cl a s s i c a l theo r i s t 1 ittle
t o th i nk about . N e ve r t he l e s s , by one
s ub t l e m o v e Wh i t e i s a b l e t o sei ze the
i n i t i a t i ve , s i mu l t a n e ou s l y br ing ing to
l i gh t t r a n s i e n t w e a k n e s s e s o n b o th f l a n k s .
2 1 . Od2 ! Be6 ?
Wh i t e ' s more s ub t l e threa t b e c om e s
ev i d e n t a f ter 2 1 . . . . , Bc 6 ? ; 2 2 . Nh4 ! , Ne 4
( 2 2 . . . . , Be 4 ; 2 3 . Qe 3 ! is similar to the
ma i n l i ne , wh i l e 2 2 . . . . , Bd7 ; 23 . QaS
a ch i e v e s noth i ng ) ; 2 3 . Nh f S + , g f ; 24 . Nf S + ,
Kf6 ; 2 5 . Qh 6 + , K f 5 ; 2 6 . g4# . Note how
B l a c k ' s h 6 , though n o t p a r t i c u l a r l y weak
f r om a c l a s s i c a l v i e wp o i n t , i s t r a n s f o r m e d
i n t o a vu l n e r a b l e s p o t by t h e w a y n e i gh
bo r i n g p i e c e s c o o p e r a t e w i t h i t .
C omp a r a t i v e l y best wa s L a s ke r ' s
s u g g e s t i o n o f 2 1 . . . . , N a 4 , a l t h o ugh Wh i t e ' s
f o r c e s wou l d h a v e s t i l l b e e n m o r e a c t i v e .
It ' s i r o n i c tha t A l ekh i ne ' s s t r e n g t h s
showed b e s t a g a i n s t C a p abl anc a in c l a s s i c
a l ly s i mp l e - - e v e n s ymm e t r i c a l - - p o s i t i o n s ;
but the f a ct i s t h a t i t ' s p r e c i s e l y when
A1ekh i ne 141
c l a s s i c a l s t r a t e g y h a s b e e n n u l l i f i e d tha t
trans i en t st rateg i c rea l i t i e s c a n have a
f ield day .
2 2 . Be6 Qe6
2 3 . Qa5 Nc4
Wh i t e wou l d a l s o r e t a i n the a d v a n t a g e
a f t e r t h e a l t e r n a t i ve 2 3 . . . . , Q b 3 ; 2 4 . Q e 5 ,
Nc4 ; 2 5 . Qd4 .
24 . Qa7 Nb2
2 5 . Rc8 Rc8
2 6 . Qb7 Nc4
2 7 . Qb4 Ra8
2 8 . Ra l Qc6 !
B l a c k i n t en d s t o e n a c t a bl o c k a d e w i th
. . . , R a 4 , a f t e r wh i ch he wou l d h a v e fai r
cha n c e s o f ho l d i n g ou t . H o w e ve r :
2 9 . a4 ! Ne4
30 . Ne5 Qd6
3 1 . Qc4 Qe5
3 2 . Re l Nd6
3 3 . Qc l Qf6
34 . Ne4 Ne4
3 5 . Re4 . . .
Whi te Won
The c omp l i c a t i o n s h a v e f i n a l l y s e t t l e d
d own i n Wh i t e ' s f a vo r . A l e k h i n e w e n t on
t o w i n t h e e n d i n g a n d t h e m a t ch .
Rub i n s t e i n and Capabl anca pe r f e c ted

class i ca l s t r a t e gy by integrat i ng the
c o o p e r a t i on o f t h e i r p i e c e s w i th obj e c t i ve
s t r a te g i c r ea l i t i e s ; s e e n a l on g s i d e the s e
ma s t e r p i e c e s of s t r a tegy , A l e k h i ne ' s
i n i t i a t i ve presen t s an aes thet i c a l l y
i nve r t e d p i c t u r e : t r a ns i ent s t r a teg i c
r ea l i t i e s emerge ou t of f r ee p i e ce c o o p e r
a t i on . Whe r e a s th i s m o d e l o f t h e i n i t i a
t i ve doesn ' t offer anyth i n g t e chn i c a l l y
d i s t i nct f r om class ical play ( t r a ns i ent
142 The Modern Game
s t r a t eg i c r ea l i t i e s r e s i s t genera l , p r e
c i se de f in i t i on ) , it does fit the data
bec ause cl a ss i c a l ly i ns i gn i f i ca n t f ea t u r e s
o f t e n d o c om e t o t h e f o r e i n t h e p l a y o f a
-
modern ma s te r w i th the i n i t i a t i ve ;
f u r th e rmo r e , the i n i t i a t i ve is a
n o t o r i ou s l y d i f f i c u l t c on c e p t t o p i n d own ,
m a k i n g a p u r e l y n o n - t e chn i c a l m od e l more
a t t r a c t i ve ; and f ina l ly , the i d ea s set
f o r th i n t h i s ch a p t e r p r ov i d e a n a pp r o p r i
a t e t r a n s i t i o n f r om t h e c r y s t a l - c l e a r p l a y
of the class i cal era to the s t rategic
c o mp l ex i t i e s th a t ch a r a c t e r i z e the e a r l y
S ov i e t S ch o o l .
The r e a d e r m i ght won d e r why I ' ve c h o s e n
t o gr ound my mode l of the mod e r n ma s te r ' s
unde r s t and i ng in r e s p on s i b i 1 i t y ; a f te r
a l l , I c ou l d h a ve s i mp l y t r e a t e d A l e k h i ne
and N i m z o v i ch as m a s t e r s who we r e s e n s i
t i ve t o mo r e evo l ve d , subtl e r f o rm s o f
i nt e gr a t i on ( w i th " unbo r n " a n d t r a n s i en t
s t r a t e g i c r e a l i t i e s , r e s p e c t i ve l y ) .
I h a ve to a dm i t tha t th i s a pp r o a ch
wou l d p r e s e n t a s i mp l e r m o d e l w h i l e s t i l l
cha r a c t e r i z i n g t h e s t y l e s o f t h e pl ayers
i nvo l ve d , h en c e p r o p e r sc i e n t i f i c me thod
wou l d s e e m t o e n d o r s e i t s a d o p t i o n . The
probl em w i th th i s r e a s o n i n g , a p a r t f r om
t h e f a c t t h a t the c on c e p t of respons i
b i 1 i t y " d r e s s e s -up " our mod e l n i c e l y , is
th a t t h e c e n t r a l t r e n d i n t h e l a s t s e c t i o n
o f t h e b o o k ( c o n t e mp o r a r y c h e s s ) wou l d b e
i n e x p l i c a b l e w i t h o u t the u s e o f a r a d i c a l
l y s u b j e c t i ve c on c e p t a s the gr ound o f
m od e r n che s s t h o u g h t . T o th i s end , the
cruc i a l d i s t i n c t i on between cl a s s i c a l l y
i ntegr ated p i ece coopera t i on and the
i n i t i a t i ve i s t h e f a c t tha t o n e i s g r o un d
e d i n a s ub j e c t i ve m o d e o f t h o u g h t , wh i l e
A1ekh i ne 1 43
the o t h e r i s g r ou n d e d i n t h e r e c o gn i t i o n
tha t s u ch thought is s ub j e c t i ve . Th i s
d i s t i n c t i o n i s wha t m a k e s i t r e a s o n a b l e t o
h yp o t he s i z e tha t the m od e r n ma s t e r ha s
p l a c e d a p s y c h o l o g i c a l b a r r i e r b e t we e n h i s
o wn u n d e r s t a n d i n g a n d h i s o p p o n e n t ' s ; thu s
w i l l we b e a b l e t o expl a i n a l a t t e r - d a y
t r end of i n c r e a s e d s ens i t i v i ty of the
a dve r s a r y ' s ch a n c e s .
Anyone who d i s l i k e s t h e m o r e s p e c u l a
t i v e p s y cho l o g i c a l c on c e p t o f r e s p o n s i b i l
i ty is we l c om e t o " e d i t " i t o u t o f my
t r e a t m e n t of m o d e r n che s s , a n d v i e w t h i s
s e c t i o n a s a s t r a i g h t - f o rwa r d p r o g r e s s i o n
o f i n t e gr a t i on . A t t h e s a m e t i me , h o w
eve r , they wi ll be left to t he i r own
d ev i c e s t o exp l a i n t h e h i g h l y - p r o n ou n c e d
s t y l e s of the ma s t e r s I wi l l d i s c u s s u n d e r
c o n t e mp o r a r y c h e s s .
2 0 . Botvinnik
S u b j e c t / O b j e c t I n t e gr a t i on
A l e kh i n e ' s p l a y w a s t h e f i r s t t o c l e a r
ly e xh i b i t the d e f i n i ng a e s th e t i c of
m o d e r n che s s - - ch a r a c t e r . S t i 1 1 , whe n we
f i n d h i m s t r u gg l i n g w i th p o s i t i o n s in a
mo r e c l a s s i c a l ve i n , t h e o l d e r a e s the t i c
o f he a l t h g e n e r a l l y c om e s t o the f o r e ; i n
a style remin i scent of Capablanca ,
A l e kh i n e prevai l ed in s u ch games by
t yp i c a l method s , and only e mp l o y e d the
s pe c i f i c s o f t h e s i t u a t i on t o the e x t e n t
th a t a class i cal master wo u l d . ( The
s p l en d i d en c ou n t e r w i th Rub i n s t e i n f r om
o u r l a s t cha p t e r i s a n o t a b l e exce p t i on . )
The net result of all thi s is th a t
A l e kh i n e a pp e a r s t o h a v e h a d a p s y c ho l o g i
c a l r e s i s t a n c e t o i n t e gr a t i n g the i n i t i a
t i ve w i th obj e c t i ve s t r a t e g i c r ea l i t i e s ;
whe r e a s h e wa s a s u p r em e a r t i s t w h e n i t
c am e to t i e i ng t o g e th e r trans i ent
s t r a teg i c r e a l i t i e s w i th t h e i n i t i a t i ve ,
A l e kh i n e s e ems to have pe rce ived p i ece
c o o pe r a t i o n w i t h cha r a c t e r to be " t oo
f r ee " to i n t e gr a t e wi th class i cal
e l em e n t s .
The f i rst widespread occ u r r en c e of
a e s th e t i c ch a r a c t e r ema na t i ng f r om
o b j e c t i ve s t r a t e g i c r e a l i t i e s wa s i n t h e
g a m e s o f the i n a u gu r a l S ov i e t wo r l d ch a m
p i o n M i kh a i l B o t v i n n i k ( 1 9 1 0 - ) Here , a t
l a s t , we f i n d n u me r ou s e x a mp l e s o f p i e c e s
c o o p e r a t i n g w i t h o b j e c t i ve s t r a t e g i c r e a l
i t i e s i n a s t y l e d e s c en d e d f r om A l e kh i ne ' s
i n i t i a t i ve . But f i r st , before cons i de r ing
the p s y cho l o g y b eh i n d s u ch an advance ,
l e t ' s e x a m i n e o n e o f t he s e m a s t e r p i e c e s .
Botvinn i k 1 45
USSR Champ i onship Sem i - F i na l

Len i ngrad , 1 9 3 8
Botvinnik Chekhover
1 . d4 Nf6
2 . e4 e6
3 . Ne3 Bb4
4 . Nf3 0-0
5 . Bg5 d6? !
The c o u n t e r - th r u s t 5 o o I C5
o wa s
indi cated .
6 . e3 Oe7
7 . Be2 e5
8 . Oe2 Re8
9 . 0-0 Be3
1 0 . be h6
1 1 . Bh4 e5
1 2 . Rae l Bg4
1 3 . Bf6 ! Of6
1 4 . Oe4 Bf 3 ? !
No b e t t e r wa s 1 4 . , Bc S ;
. . 1 5 . N d 2 , Nc 6 ;
1 6 . f4 , Bf 5 ? ; 1 7 . fe . On the other hand ,
Botvi nn i k ' s s u gg e s t i o n of 1 4 . . . . , Bf S ! ;
1 5 . Qb7 , Nd 7 wou l d have left B l ack wi th
be t t e r practical cha n c e s th a n the move
a c t ua l l y p l ayed .
1 5 . Bf3 { Ne6
1 6 . de de
1 7 . Rd l Rad8
1 8 . Rd.5_
. b6
1 9 . Rfd l Na5
20 . h3 I Rd5
2 1 . Rd5 ,
The less ene rget i c 2 1 . cd may have
s e e m e d b e t t e r to a c l a s s i c a l th e o r i s t , but
it a l l ow s t h e s e c on d p l a y e r t o e q ua l i z e
w i th the bl ockad ing 2 1 . . . . , Q d 6 .
21 . . Oe7
21 . , R d 8 b r i n g s to l i ght the l a c k o f

concre t e vu l n e r a b i 1 i t y o n Wh i t e ' s q u e e n
s i de : 2 2 . Re 5 ! , Nc4 ? ; 2 3 . Re 8 + , R e 8 ; 2 4 . Qe B + ,
Kh7 ; 2 5 . Q e 4 + .
Wh i t e ' s a d va n t a g e r eve l ve s a r ou n d h i s
c o nt r o l o f the c l a s s i c a l l y s t r on g s q ua r e
d 5 ; a t t h e s a m e t i me - - b e a r i n g i n m i n d the
n e i ghb o r i n g p a wn we a k ne s s e s - - th i s e d g e i s
p r e c a r i o u s , a n d c a n o n l y b e m a i n t a i n e d by
a e s th e t i c a l l y a t yp i c a l ma neuve r s r em i n i
scent o f A l e kh i n e ' s i n i t i a t i ve . I t fol
l o ws t h a t t h e p o s i t i on i s l e s s r e d u c i b l e
to g en e r a l pr inc i pl e s than are its
class i c a l cous ins .
2 2 . Bg4 ! Ob7
2 3 . Bf5 !
Th i s f o r c e s the pene t ra t i on of the
Wh i t e r ook t o the s e v e n th r a n k b e c a u s e
2 3 . . . . , g 6 ? l o s e s i mm e d i a t e l y : 24 . Bg6 , fg ;
2 5 . Qg 6 + , K f B ; 2 6 . Rd6 . N o t e h o w the d i a g o
na l b l -h7 , though no t p a r t i c u l a r l y weak
class i cally , ha s b e c om e a trans i ent
strategic r ea l i t y , l e n d i n g the expl o i t a
t i o n o f Wh i t e ' s cent r a l s u p e r i o r i t y the
a e s t he t i c o f c h a r a c t e r .
23 . . . Ob8
Botvinnik 1 47
24 . Rd7 Rd8
Wh i t e wa s threa ten i ng 2 5 . Bh 7 + , K f 8 ;
2 6 . Qd 5 .
2 5 . Qe5 Nc4
2 6 . Qb8 Rb8
2 7 . Be4 Na 3
2 8 . Bd5 Rf 8
2 9 . e4 a5
The pr i ma ry a l t e r n a t i ve - - 2 9 . . . . , c 4 ;
3 0 . R a 7 , Nb 5 ; 3 1 . Rb 7 , N c 3 ; 3 2 . Bc 4 , Ne4 ;
3 3 . R b 6 - - l e a d s t o a n e a s y w i n f o r Wh i t e .
3 0 . c4 b5
3 1 . cb Nb5
3 2 . e5 a4
3 3 . f4 Nd4
34 . K f 2 g5
3 5 . g3 gf
3 6 . gf Ne6
3 7 . Ke3 --
38 . f5 Nc5
3 9 . Rc7 Nd3
40 . e6 fe
4 1 . fe Res i gns
Even i n the f i n a l p o s i t i on , the i n i t i a
t i ve i n t e r t w i n e d w i th the f o c a l p o i n t d 5
makes a 1 1 the d i f f e r ence . T he exp l o i t a
t i on o f Wh i t e ' s a d v a n t a g e h a s b e e n s t r i k
i n g l y d e pendent on p a r t i c u l a r s , p r od u c i ng
t h e m o d e r n a e s th e t i c o f ch a r a c t e r .
A s we n o t e d i n t h e p o s t s c r i p t t o ou r
d i s c u s s i on o f A l e kh i n e , the i n i t i a t i v e i s
a rad ically s u bj ect i ve conc e p t - - i . e . i t ' s
g r ou n d e d i n r e s p o n s i b i 1 i t y , the r e c o gn i
t i o n t h a t i n t e g r a t i o n i s e s s e n t i a l l y s ub -
j ec t i ve . Now , whe the r o r n o t t he r e ' s a
genu i ne , sc ient i f i c d i s t i nc t i on b e t we e n
t h e s u b j e c t i ve a n d o b j e c t i ve wo r l d s , it ' s
o bv i o u s tha t people b e l i ev e th e r e ' s an
148 The Modern Game
u n b r i d g e a b l e g a p b e t w e e n s u b j e c t i v e th i n g s
l i k e l ove , d u t y , a n d i n t u i t i o n , a n d e v e r y
d a y o b j e c t s l i k e t a b l e s a n d ch a i r s . Thu s
it shou l d c om e as no surpr i s e tha t
A l e kh i n e h a d a p s y cho l o g i c a l r e s i s t a n c e t o
i n t e g r a t i n g a r a d i c a l l y s u b j e c t i ve c on c e p t
s u ch as t h e i n i t i a t i ve w i th o b j e c t i ve
s t r a t e g i c e l e men t s .
Th i s o u t l i n e s why c h a r a c t e r e n t e r e d t h e
wo r l d of cl a ss i c a l s t r a tegy l a te r th a n
tha t of the i n i t i a t i ve . And the n a t u r e of
th i s a dvance - - i n the play of Botv i nn i k-
can only be ch a r a c t e r i z e d as sub j ect/
o b j e c t i n t eg r a t i o n ; only s u ch a mod e l
expl a i n s how the great S ov i e t c h a mp i o n
b e c a m e s o s e n s i t i ve t o t h e s p e c i f i c s th a t
c a n m a k e o r b r e a k - - th a t g r o u n d - - th e h e a l t h
of obj e c t ive s t r a teg i c r ea l i t i e s .
The a b i l i t y t o i n t e g r a t e t h e i n i t i a t i v e
w i th c l a s s i c a l s t r a t e g i c e l em e n t s w i d e n e d
the mod e rn m a s t e r ' s open i ng r e p e r t o i r e to
i n c l u d e mo r e p r e c a r i ou s l y - b a l a n c e d s y s t e m s
s u ch a s t h e S a e m i s c h N i mz o - I n d i a n ( 1 . d 4 ,
Nf6 ; 2 . c4 , e6 ; 3 . N c 3 , B b4 ; 4 . a 3 ! ? , Bc 3 + ;
5 . b c ) , t h e W i n a we r F r e n c h ( 1 . e 4 , e 6 ; 2 . d 4 ,
d 5 ; 3 . N c 3 , B b4 ; 4 . e 5 , c 5 ; 5 . a 3 , B c 3 + ; 6 . bc ) ,
and the B o t v i nn i k S y s t em o f the Q u e e n ' s
G a mb i t ( 1 . d4 , d5 ; 2 . c4 , c6 ; 3 . Nf 3 , Nf 6 ;
4 . Nc 3 , e 6 ; 5 . Bg 5 , d c ; 6 . e4 , b 5 ; 7 . e 5 , h6 ;
8 . Bh4 , g 5 ) . A l l t he s e o p e n i n g s d i s p l a y a n
a l mo s t i r r a t i o n a 1 i mb a l a n c e o f c l a s s i c a l
p r i n c i p l e s tha t c a n n e v e r b e r e s o l ve d by
gen e r a l , abst ract rea son i ng , but a l wa y s
d em a n d s a n e x t r a o r d i n a r i l y c a r e f u l e v a l u a
t i on o f the pa r t i cu l a r p i ece c on f i gu r a t i on
i n que s t i on .
I n t h e T a r r a s ch D e f e n c e t o t h e Q u e e n ' s
G a mb i t ( 1 . d 4 , d 5 ; 2 . c 4 , e 6 ; 3 . N c 3 , c 5 ; 4 . c d ,
ed ) , B l ack accepts the l i a b i l i t y o f a n
Botvinn i k 1 49
i s o l a t e d q u e en p a wn i n e x ch a n g e f o r f r e e
piece-pl ay . How e a ch s i d e s h o u l d t h e r e
a f t e r p r o c e e d c a n b e f o rm u l a t e d i n g e n e r a l
t e rm s : Wh i t e p l a y s f o r a n a d va n t a g e o u s
endgame by excha ng i ng p ieces , and Bl ack
e va d e s th i s s t r a t e g y , t r y i n g t o ma i n t a i n
the p r e s s u r e i n the m i d d l e g a me . A l th ough
th i s is clearly ov e r - s i mp l i f i e d ( ev e n
cl a s s i c a l che s s had to deal w i th
s p e c i f i c s ) , i t d o e s s ugg e s t t h a t a g e n e r a l
cha r a c t e r i z a t i o n of the stra teg ies
i nv o l v e d d o e s e x i s t .
In c on t r a s t , the Botvinni k S y s t em
def ies s u ch easy g e ne r a l i z a t i o n s . In
b e c om i n g the v i rtuo s o of thi s open i ng ,
B o tv i n n i k d i s p l a y e d a r em a r k a b l e a b i 1 i ty
to d e ve l o p pl ans ov e r - th e - b o a r d - - p l a n s
tha t h a d t o s u i t t h e eve r - f r e s h p a r t i c
u l a r s o f the i n t e gr a t e d p i e c e cooper a t i on .
Rad i o Match , USSR-USA

Moscow-Nev York , 1 945
Denker Botvinn i k
1 . d4 d5
2 . c4 e6
3 . Nc3 c6
4 . Nf 3 Nf6
5 . Bg5 de
6 . e4 b5
7 . e5 h6
8 . Bh4 g5
9 . Ng5 hg
1 0 . Bg5 Nbd7
1 1 . ef Bb7
1 2 . Be 2 ? ! . . .
The m a i n l i n e t o d a y i s 1 2 . g 3 , s o t h a t
Wh i t e ' s f i a n ch e t t oe d b i shop can have a
neu t r a l i z i ng e f f ec t in the cente r .
12 . Ob6
1 3 . 0-0 0-0-0
1 4 . a4 b4
1 5 . Ne4 c5
1 6 . Ob l ?
B o t v i n n i k n o t e s tha t 1 6 . Q c 2 ? i s i n s u f
f i cient : 16 . ., c 3 ! ; 1 7 . b e ( o r 1 7 . d c , Nc 5 ;
.
1 8 . Nc 5 , B c 5 a n d 1 9 , Q c 7 ) , Q c 7 ; 1 8 . Ng 3 , c d ;
. . .
1 9 . c 4 , N c 5 , a n d B l a ck i s w i n n i n g . O f par
t i c u l a r i mp o r t a n c e f o r u s i s how a s ub t l e
shi f t o f p i eces c a l l s for an ent i rely new
p l a n of a c t i o n - - s u gg e s t i n g tha t a b r o a d ,
gene r a l s t r a t e gy doesn ' t rule o ve r the
p o s i t i on .
P e rhaps bes t wou l d have been ECO ' s
r e c o mm e n d a t i o n of 1 6 . Nd 2 , Qc7 ; 1 7 . h 4 , Bh 6 ;
1 8 . f 4 , Nb 6 , w i t h u n c l e a r p l a y .
16 Oc7
1 7 . Ng3 cd
1 8 . Bc4 Oc6
19 . f3
B l a ck ' s activity in the c e n t e r ha s

ev i d e n t l y exp o s e d h i s own k i ng , b u t a f te r
a f ew s pe c i f i c s c o m e t o t h e f o r e , i t ' 1 1 be
c l e a r t h a t Wh i t e ' s m o n a rch ha s bec ome the
Botvinnik 151
prey .
19. . . . d3 !
C l e a r i ng t h e road for 20 , Bc 5 + , a s
. . .
we l l a s t h e m o r e o bv i o u s 2 0 , Q c 5 + and

21 , QgS .

2 0 . Oc l
B o t v i nn i k i nve s t i g a t e s t wo wa y s f o r
Wh i t e t o c on t e s t c 5 - - b o t h f u t i l e :
1 ) 2 0 . Be 3 , Bc 5 ; 2 1 . Bc 5 ( 2 1 . Qc l , d2 ;
2 2 . Q d 2 , Ne 5 ) , Q c 5 + ; 2 2 . K h l , Rh 2 + , and B l ack
wi ns .
2 ) 2 0 . Ne4 , Qc 7 ; 2 1 . g 3 , Be4 ; 2 2 . f e , Q c4 ;
2 3 . Rc l , Bc 5 + e t c .
2o . . . Bc5 +
2 1 . Khl
O n c e a g a i n , 2 1 . B e 3 wou l d h a v e b e e n me t
by 2 1 , d 2 ; 2 2 . Qd 2 , Ne 5 .

21 . . . . Od6
2 2 . Of4 . .
An a l t e r n a t i ve wa y t o l o s e i s g i ve n b y
Botv i nn i k : 2 2 . B f 4 , Rh 2 + ; 2 3 . Kh 2 , R h 8 + ;
2 4 . Nh 5 , Rh 5 + ; 2 5 . Kg 3 , e 5 ; 2 6 . Be 3 ( 2 6 . Bg 5 ,
e4+ ; 2 7 . Kg4 , d 2 ; 2 8 . Qd 2 , Nf6+ ; 29 . Bf 6 , Qd2 ;
3 0 . Kh5 , Qg 2 ) , e 4 + ; 2 7 . f 4 ( 2 7 . K f 2 , d 2 ; 2 8 . Qc 2 ,
ef ) , Qf6 ; 28 . Kf 2 , Qf4+ etc .
22 . . Rh2 +
2 3 . Kh2 Rh8 +
24 . Oh4 Rh4+
2 5 . Bh4 Of4
2 6 . Res i gns
Thu s did Botvi nn i k ' s a pp r ec i a t i o n of
t h e i n i t i a t i v e o f t e n t i p t he s c a l e s i n h i s
f avor dur ing s t rateg ically i n t r i c ate
g a me s .
2 1 . Smys1ov
The M o d e r n G r u n f e l d D e f e n c e
Wi th Botvi nn i k lead i ng the way , a

r em a r k a b l e n u mb e r o f S ov i e t p l a y e r s r o s e
t o the r a n k o f g r a n dma s t e r i n the yea r s
du r i n g and i mm e d i a t e l y a f t e r the s e c on d
wo r l d w a r . Am o n g t h i s p l e th o r a o f t a l e n t ,
a s p e c i a l p l a c e s h ou l d b e r e s e rve d f o r the
wo r l d c h a mp i o n Va s i l y S my s l ov ( 1 9 2 1 - ) ,
who s e f r e sh c on c e p t i o n s a n d i mp e c c a b l e
t e chn i q u e s e t t h e s t a n d a r d t h r ougho u t t h e
mid- 1 950 ' s .
The new , " obj e c t i ve " f o rm of the
i n i t i a t i ve m a d e i t s e l f k nown i n S m y s l ov ' s
dynam i c sys t em of r e o r g a n i z a t i o n i n the
Grun f e l d De f ence ( 1 . d4 , Nf 6 ; 2 . c4 , g6 ;
3 . Nc 3 , d 5 ) A s o pp o s e d t o t h e Botvi nni k
S y s t e m o f t h e Q u e en ' s G a mb i t , the main
l i n e s o f t h e G r u n f e l d f a vo r Wh i t e f r om the
c l a s s i c a l p e r s p e c t i ve b e c au s e the " i d e a l "
d 4 - e 4 p aw n c o u p l e c a n ' t b e d i s t u r b e d by
a n y " s t o c k " p a w n move s . Th i s , o f c ou r s e ,
d o e s n ' t p r ove t h a t t h e G r u n f e l d i s u n p l a y
able ; i t m e r e l y a cc e n t u a t e s t h e f a c t tha t
the B l a c k f o rces mu s t integrate the i r
potent i a l for crea t ing c ou n t e r - ch a n c e s
w i th the less p r o n o un c e d class i cal
f eature s present .
Wor1d Championship Tournament

The Hague , 1 948
Euve Smys1ov
1 . d4 Nf6
2 . c4 g6
3 . Nc3 d5
4 . Nf3 Bg7
Smys 1ov 1 53
5 . Ob3 de
6 . Oc4 0-0
7 . e4 Bg4
8 . Be 3 Nfd7 !
S rny s l ov ' s V a r i a t i on o f the G r u n f e l d i s
a p o t e n t we a p on i n t h e h a n d s o f a m a s t e r
who ' s s e n s i t i ve to the w a y r e l a t i ve l y
minor strateg ic r e a l i t i e s c a n b e c om e the
f o c a l p o i n t of a po s i t i o n i f c o u p l e d w i th
t h e i n i t i a t i ve .
9 . Ob3 Nb6
1 0 . a4 as
1 1 . d5 Bf 3
1 2 . gf
B l a c k i s b e g i n n i n g t o s e t h i s s i g ht s o n
b4 , t h e " s ee d " ou t o f wh i ch w i l l eme r g e a
f l owe r i n g i n i t i a t i ve o n t h e q u e e n s i d e .
12 . Od6 !
1 3 . Nb5 Ob4+ !
1 4 . Ob4 ab
1 5 . Nc7 . . .
1 5 . a 5 ? , Bb 2 ! ; 1 6 . Ra 2 , Be 5 ; 1 7 . f 4 , Bd6 ;
1 8 . e 5 , b 3 ! wou l d h a v e a c c omp l i s h e d n o t h i n g .
B l a c k ' s u n i q u e l y e n e r g e t i c d i ve r s i o n on
t h e q u e e n s i d e h a s nu l l i f i e d any a d v a n t a g e
Wh i t e m a y h a v e d r e a m e d o f w i th h i s c l a s
s i c a l l y i mp r e s s i ve c e n t e r . I t ' s interest
i ng how the r e l a t i ve l y m i nor " s t r o ng
p o i n t " at b4 h a s b l o s s om e d i n t o a f u l l
g r own i n i t i a t i ve . Whe r e a s Steinitz
a c c u mu l a t e d s m a l l a d va n t a g e s , Smys l ov wa s
able to i n tegr a t e even a s i ng l e sma l l
advan t a g e wi th a b r o a d moveme n t o f p i e c e s
b e a r i n g t h e m o d e r n a e s th e t i c o f ch a r a c t e r .
15 . . Ra4
1 6 . Rb l
Wh i t e w a s f o r c e d t o c o n c e d e the a - f i l e
s i nce 1 6 . R a 4 ? , Na 4 ; 1 7 . b 3 , Nc 3 ; 1 8 . Bh 3 , B e 5 ;
1 9 . Bb 6 , N a 6 ; 2 0 . N a 6 , R a 8 ! ( S m y s l ov ) wou l d
h a v e o n l y f u e l e d the B l a c k a c t i v i t y .
16 . N6d7
1 7 . Nb5 Rc8
1 8 . Be 2 ? . . .
Correct wa s 1 8 . Nd4 , b3 ; 1 9 . Nb 3 , Rb 4 ;
2 0 . Nd 2 , R b 2 , result i ng in a rea s on a b l y
ba l a n c e d game .
18 . . . b3
1 9 . Na 3 Bb2
20 . Rb2 Ra3
2 1 . Kd 2
N o b e t t e r wa s 2 1 . B d l , Nc S ; 2 2 . Bc 5 , Rc 5 ;
2 3 . R b 3 , Rb 3 ; 2 4 . Bb 3 , R c l + ; 2 5 . Bd l , Nd 7
( S my s l ov ) , wi th a p r om i s i n g endgame in
store for Bl ack .
21 . . . . Na6
2 2 . Rhb l Naes
2 3 . Bd4
D i r e c t a t t e mp t s t o w i n b a c k the p a wn
a l s o l a n d Wh i t e i n t r o u b l e :
1 ) 2 3 . Bb 5 , N e 5 ; 2 4 . Bc 5 , Rc5 ; 2 5 . Rb3 , Nf 3 + ;
2 6 . K e 3 , Rb 5 ! ; 2 7 . R a 3 , Rb l ; 28 . Kf3 , f6 ;
2 9 . R c 3 , h 5 ; 3 0 . R c 7 , K f 8 ( Smy s l o v ) .
2 ) 2 3 . Bd l , Ra 2 ; 24 . Ra 2 , ba ; 2 5 . Ra l , Ra B ;
2 6 . Kc 3 , e6 ; 2 7 . de , fe ; 2 8 . Bc 2 , b6 , when
Smyslov 155
2 9 . Kb2 c ou l d be met by 2 9 . . . . , Ne 5
( S m y s l ov ) .
23 . . . . e5 !
Th i s o pp o r t u n e s t r o k e f o r c e s a c o n s o l i
d a t i o n o f t h e B l a ck a d va n t a g e .
24 . de
The a l t e r n a t i ve w a s t o p a s s i ve l y a c c e p t
the e s t a b l i s hm e n t of a B l a ck center :
2 4 . B c 3 , f 5 ; 2 5 . e f , g f ; 2 6 . Bb 5 , b 6 ( Sm y s l o v ) .
24 . . Ne6
2 5 . Be3 Ndc5
2 6 . Bc5 Nc5 /
2 7 . Kc3 -a4_ .
2 8 . -Kdi -
.,
Kg7
2 9 . Ke3 Rd8
30 . Re l b6
3 1 . Bc4 Rda 8
3 2 . Bd5 . . .
Fut i l e wou l d h a ve been 3 2 . B b 3 , R b4 ;
, 1 -
3 3 . Rc 3 , Ra 3 .
f
Smy s o v wa s an unpa r a l l e l e d endg ame
tact i c i an , p r o d u c i n g c ou n t l e s s " a t y p i c a l "
ma s t e r p i e c e s w i t h t h e a e s t he t i c o f c h a r a c
t e r i n th i s pha s e o f t h e g a m e .
32 . . . Ra 2
3 3 . Rcb l R8a4
34 . Kd2 Rd4+
3 5 . Ke2 Na4 !
3 6 . Ra2 ba
3 7 . Ra l .
3 7 . B a 2 , Nc 3 + ; 3 8 . Ke 3 , Ra4 ; 3 9 . Bb 3 , R a 3
wou l d have led t o the s a me e s s ent ial
result .
37 . Nc3+
3 8 . Ke3 Rd l
3 9 . Res i gns
2 2 . Bo1es1avsky
The M o der n S i ci li an D efen ce
Amo n g t h e S o vi et m as t er s to ach i eve

pr om i n en ce i n t h e 1 9 4 0 ' s , perh aps t h e mo s t
i n n o vat i ve was Is aac B o les lavs k y ( 1919-
1977 ) , a pr o gr es s i vely-m i n ded compet i t o r
who gave b i r th t o s ever al o f t h e m o s t
dur able i deas i n t h e n o w-po pular S i ci 1 i an
an d K i n g ' s In di an D efen ces .
A clas s i cally weak s t r at egi c r eali t y
can b e a s o un d i n ves t m en t fo r a play er
wh o s e pi ece co o per at i o n is s uffi ci en t ly
i n t egr at ed wi t h t h e " weak n es s " t o pr even t
i t s explo i t at i o n ; i n o ther wo r ds , an un ex
pJ., gJ t able weg__Jg1 _i;; s i s n o weak n es s ataIT:'
Th i s_ _ _ __- cfra-ract er i s-ti_c.a i i y - - - --- m ocfein
_ _ _ i dea
ach i eves i t s m o s t plas t i c fo rm i n var i a
t i o n s o f t h e S i ci li an D efen ce wher e B lack
play s . . . , e5 --a t h r us t wh i ch con cedes a
clas s i cal h o le o n d5 ; n ever t h eles s --as was
fi r s t con vi n ci n gly dem o n s t r at ed by
B o les lavs k y -- t h e Black ar m y can o ft en
pr even t an effect i ve i n vas i o n o f t h i s
s quar e, all t h e t i m e gen er at i n g t r o uble
s om e co un t er play i n t h e " ex t en ded " n e i gh-
borhood .
-----
Groni ngen , 1 946
Sto1tz Bo1es1avsky
1 . e4 c5
2 . Nf3 Nc6
3 . d4 cd
4 . Nd4 Nf6
5 . Nc3 d6
6 . Be2 e5
7 . Nf3
Bo1es1avsky 1 57
Mo r e ve r s a t i l e i s 7 . Nb 3 , r e s e rv i n g the
opt i on of i n i t i a t i ng act ivi ty wi th the
f - p awn .
7. . . . h6
B l a c k preve n t s 8 . BgS , i n d i r e c t l y f o r t i
f y i n g the cruc i a l d S squa re .
8 . Bc4?
Wh i t e i nve s t s a t e mp o t o i n t e n s i f y the
pressure on as , bu t s ince thi s s q ua r e
i sn ' t expl o i t a ble as a we a k ne s s , the
b i s h o p i s d e s t i ne d t o p l a y a p a s s i ve r o l e
he r e i n c omp a r i s o n t o B l a c k ' s i mp e n d i n g
i n i t i a t i v e o n the q u e e n s i d e .
8 Be7
9 . Qe2 0-0
1 0 . h3 Be6
1 1 . 0-0
The b a y on e t thru s t 1 1 . g4 wou l d have
been met by 11 . , Nd4 ! ;
. 1 2 . Nd 4 , e d ;
1 3 . Nd S , N d S ; 1 4 . ed , Bd S ; l S . Bd S , Qa S + and
16 , Qd S ( Bo l e s l avsky ) .

11 Rc8
1 2 . Bb3 Na 5
1 3 . Rd l Oc7 !
158 The Modern Gaae
The B l a c k f o r c e s f o c u s i n g on the c - f i l e
are more p u r p o s e f u l l y p o s t e d t h a n t he i r
Wh i t e c ou n t e r p a r t s o r b i t i n g the c l a s s i c
ally weak , b u t u n e xp l o i t a b l e , d 5 . The
f a c t i s th a t t h e B l a c k p i e c e s n e i ghb o r i ng
d 5 c o o p e r a t e w i t h i t i n s u ch a wa y t h a t
i t ' s r a i s e d f r om t h e l eve l o f " o b j e c t i ve "
we a k n e s s t o a c r u c i a l e l e me n t o f a h e a l t hy
center . In th i s f o rm o f i n t e gr a t i on , the
o v e rwhe l m i n g a e s t he t i c empha s i s is on
p iece c oo p e r a t i on ( vs . the o b j e c t i ve
s t r a t e g i c r e a l i t y a s g i ve n ) , c a u s i n g u s t o
i n c o r po r a t e the cha r a c t e r i s t i c a l l y m o d e r n
c o n c e p t o f r e s p o n s i b i l i t y i n o u r mod e l o f
B o l e s l a v s k y ' s p s yche .
1 4 . g4? .
S ince Wh i t e ' s c o n f u s e d p i eces c an ' t

rea s on a b l y expect t o a t t a ck s ucce s s fu l l y
o n the k i ngs i d e , thi s c r ea t e s a weakne s s
f o r n o r e a s on . A t t h e s a m e t i me , h o w e ve r ,
the a l t e r n a t i ve g i v e n by B o l e s l a v s k y a l s o
l e a d s t o t r o u b l e f o r Wh i t e : 1 4 . Nb 5 , B c 4 ! ;
1 5 . Bc 4 , Qc4 ; 1 6 . Qc4 , Rc4 ; 1 7 . Nd 6 , Bd 6 ;
1 8 . Rd 6 , Rc 2 ; 1 9 . Ne 5 , Re 8 ; 2 0 . N d 3 , Ne 4 ;
2 1 . R d 5 , Nc 4 .
14 . . Nb3
1 5 . ab a6
1 6 . Kbl b5 !
1 7 . b4
A f t e r 1 7 . R a 6 , b4 , t h e Wh i t e p i e c e s wou l d
f a l l i n t o e v e n g r e a t e r c on f u s i on ( 1 8 . N a 2 ,
-- -- -
Qb7 ! ) .
17 . . . . Oc4? !
Mo r e i n c i s i ve w ou l d h a ve b e en 1 7 . ,
. .
Qb7 ( Bo l e s l avsky ) , refus ing to ease

Wh i t e ' s d i s c om f o r t t h r o u g h e x ch a n g e s .
1 8 . Oc4 Rc4
1 9 . Re l ? ! . .
Now i t ' s Wh i t e ' s turn to miss an

Bo1es1avsky 1 59
o pp o r t u n i t y . Bo l e s l avsky is of the
op i n i on tha t a fter 1 9 . Nd 2 , Rb 4 ; 2 0 . R a 6 ,
Wh i t e w o u l d h a ve ch a n c e s f o r a s u cc e s s f u l
res i st ance .
19. Bc8 !
A f t e r th i s , Wh i t e h a s n o p l a y a t a l l ,
and B l a ck i s f r e e t o b e a r d own o n the
i n c r e a s i n g l y s e n s i t i v e e - p awn .
It ' s i n s t r u c t i ve h o w Wh i t e ' s p i eces ,
o n c e s o i n t e n t o n d 5 , h a v e s l ow l y d r i f t e d
awa y f r om the i r h o p e l e s s i d e a l ; m e a n wh i l e ,
the B l a c k a c t i v i t y h a s c o n t i n u e d t o o r b i t
t h a t p o i n t - - n e ve r a c t u a l l y o c c u py i n g it ,
but ma i n ta i n i n g i t s s t a t u s a s a h e a l thy
s t r a teg i c r ea l i t y thr ough c o o p e r a t i ve
c o mm u n i c a t i on .
2 0 . g5 bg
2 1 . Bg5 Bb7
22 . Rb4
2 3 . b3 \ . Rc8
24 . Re3 , '1 1 . ,; : Rd4 !
2 5 . Rg l Kf8
2 6 . Bf6 Bf6
2 7 . Rg4 b4
2 8 . Na4
Wh i t e ' s d em o n s t r a t i o n on the k i n g s i d e
h a s o n l y c omp r om i s e d h i s p o s i t i o n i n th a t
sector , i n c i d e nt a l l y scatter ing hi s men
purpo s e l e s s l y a c r o s s the boa rd . T h e t i me
is t he r e f o r e r i pe for a c t i on , and
Bo l e s l avsky un l e a she s the fu l l p o t e n t i a l
o f h i s b i sh o p s w i th a s t r i k i n g s a c r i f i c e
o f t h e e xch a n g e .
28 . . . Rc2 !
2 9 . Nd4 ed
30 . Re l .
3 0 . R f 3 , B e 5 + ; 3 1 . K g l , R e 2 wou l d h a v e o n l y
l e f t Wh i t e m o r e g r e a t l y e mb a r r a s s e d .
3 0. . Rf2+
3 1 . Rg2 Rf3
3 2 . Rc2 d3
3 3 . Rc7 Be5+
34 . Kg l d2
3 5 . Rd l Bd4+
3 6 . Kh2 Rf2+
3 7 . Kg3 Be4
3 8 . Rc4 Rf3+
3 9 . Kh2 Be5+
40 . Kg l d5 !
Bl ack f i na l ly o ccup i e s the e l u s i ve
squa r e , a e s t he t i c a l l y punc t ua t i n g his
c o mp l e t e c o n t r o l o f t h e c e n t e r .
4 1 . Rc8 + Ke7
4 2 . Rd2 Bf4
4 3 . Rb2 Be3 +
44 . Kh2 Rf l
45 . Kg3 Rg l +
46 . Kh2 Rg6
47 . Res i gns
2 3 . Bronste i n
T h e Mod e r n K i n g ' s I n d i a n D e f e n c e
I n 1 9 5 0 , B o l e s l a v s ky c am e w i th i n one
g a m e o f q ua l i f y i n g f o r a wo r l d ch a mp i on
sh i p m a tch with Botvi nn i k . It ' s an
i ntere s t ing s i d e l i g ht on t h i s f a c t th a t
the vi ctor in th i s f i rst cand i dates
f i n a l - - D a v i d B r o n s t e i n ( 1 9 2 4 - ) - - wa s a l s o
in the p r o c e s s o f s u c c e e d i n g B o l e s l a v s ky
as the m o s t i nn o v a t i ve o f the S ov i e t
ma s t e r s .
B r o n s t e i n d r ew h i s m a t ch w i t h B o t v i n n i k
i n 1 9 5 1 , m i s s i n g t h e h i g he s t t i t l e b y the
n a r r ow e s t p o s s i b l e m a r g i n . As 1 uck wou l d
have i t , B r o n s t e i n neve r a g a i n q ua l i f i e d
f o r a t i t l e m a t ch ; t h i s d i d n ' t s t o p h i m ,
h o w e ve r , f r om c o n t r i b u t i n g a s m a n y - - i f n o t
mo r e - - o r i g i n a l t he o r e t i c a l i dea s as any
champ i o n o f h i s t i me . I n thi s rega rd , a
spec i a l pl ace is he l d by t h e d yn a m i c
m e t h o d s o f c o u n t e r p l a y he g e n e r a t e d i n the
K i ng ' s I n d i a n De f en c e - - a debut i n w h i ch
the m o d e r n m a s t e r o f t en a cc e p t s an u ne x -
--
p l o i t a p_l_ _ w e a k ne s s on d_ i n exch a n g e :for
___ _ _
actTvT t y tha f c an . r an g e a n ywhe r e f r o m the

vJg__i_], (i n t t o t h e v i o l e n t .
Prague-Moscow , 1 946
Pa chm.an Bronste i n
1 . d4 Nf6
2 . c4 d6
3 . Nc3 --
4 . Nf3 Nbd7
5 .._g3_
g6
6 . Bg2 Bg7
7 . 0-0 0-0
162 The Modern Game
8 . b3 Re8
9 . e4 ? . . .
Mo r e c i r c um s p e c t wa s 9 . Q c 2 , s i n c e the
tempo s p en t o n b3 h a s l e f t Wh i t e i n s u f
f i c i e n t ly prepa r e d t o occupy the c e n t e r a t
th i s t i me . A s th i n g s a r e , B l a c k c a n n o w
beg i n t o s e t the p a c e f o r the rema i n d e r o f
the s t r ugg l e .
9. . ed
1 0 . Nd4 Nc5
1 1 . Re l a5
1 2 . Bb2 . . .
I f Wh i t e h a d tr ied 1 2 . a 3 , a 4 ! ; 1 3 . b4 ,
Nc d 7 , the vu l ne r a b i l i t y of hi s c - p awn ,
coup l e d wi th va r i ou s t a ct i c a l nuances
a l on g the a l -h8 d i agona l , wou l d have
p r om i s e d B l a c k a g o o d g a m e .
12 . . . . a4 !
B l a c k ha s a c l a s s i c a l l y w e a k c e n t e r , s o
he . beg i ns a d e mo n s t r a t i on on the
f l ank ! ? Of c o u r s e : S i nce Bl ack ' s cen t e r
i s n o t exp l o i t a b l e , i t ' s n o t we a k - - a n d i s
t h e r e f o r e a b l e t o g r o u n d _a__ .La n k d i ve r s i o n
"
_
i n f u l l ac c 6 r cfa n c e w i th S t e i n i t z I s theory
" m od e r n i z e d " .
1 3 . Re l \.
1 3 . b 4 , a 3 ! wou l d h a ve on l y l oo s e n e d
Wh i t e ' s q u e e n s i d e m o r e d r a s t i c a l l y .
13 . . . . c6 !
1 4 . Ba l ab
1 5 . ab Qb6
Bronstein 163
The pr e s s u r e on the queens i de--

espec i a l l y b 3 - - p r ev e n t s Wh i t e f r om
ex p l o i t i n g the class ical weakne s s Bl ack
ha s c o n c e d e d a t d 6 . Thu s B l a ck ' s p i e c e s
are in " p e r i ph e r a l " , bu t e f f e c t i ve ,
coope r a t i on w i th the c e n t e r .
1 6 . h3 Nfd7 !
Bl ack thr e a t e n s to intens i fy the
p r e s s u r e on b3 b y t r a n s f e r r i n g h i s k n i ght
to e 6 .
1 7 . Rb l Nf8
1 8 . Kh2 h5 !
Th i s d i s c ou r a g e s Wh i t e f r om the
a g g r e s s i ve 1 9 . f4 , o n wh i ch wou l d f o l l ow
1 9 . . . . , h4 ! ; 2 0 . g 4 , N f e 6 .
1 9 . Re2 h4 !
2 0 . Rd2
Wh i t e h a s s e c u r e d h i s k n i g h t on d4 ,
b u t - - a s w e a r e a b o u t t o s e e - - t h e s e n s i t i v
i ty o f h i s d a r k s q ua r e s s p a n s the e n t i r e
f i e l d f r om e a s t t o we s t .
20 Ra l !
2 1 . Ra l Bd4
2 2 . Rd4 Nb3
2 3 . Rd6
Now if B l a ck h a d p l a y e d the o bv i o u s
2 3 . . . . , Na l ? , the c ou n t e r 2 4 . N d 5 ! f o l l ow e d
by 25 . Nf 6 + wou l d h a v e s o l ve d all of
Wh i t e ' s probl ems . Sti ll , Bronst e i n ha s
i n s u r e d t h e c on t i n u a n c e o f h i s a t t a c k w i t h
t h e a d v a n c e o f h i s h - p awn .
23 . t " . Of2 !
24 . Ra2 \. 1 Og3 +
2 5 . Kh l Oc3
2 6 . Ra3 .
Not 2 6 . Rd3 ? , Qc l ! , wh i ch l oses in an

u g l i e r f a sh i on .
26 . . . . Bh3
2 7 . Rb3 Bg2 +
2 8 . Kg2 Oc4
2 9 . Rd4 Oe6
30 . Rb7 Ra8 !
3 1 . Oc2 h3+ !
3 2 . Res i gns
Wh i t e ' s poo r k i n g i s too expo s e d t o
cont i nu e the s t r u gg l e : 3 2 . Kg l , Qe S ! ;
3 3 . Rd l , Ra 3 ! , w i th the i mp e n d i n g . . . , Ne 6
a n d . . . , N f 4 h a n g i n g o v e r Wh i t e ' s h e a d .
We h a ve t r ave l e d f r om the wo r l d of
Rub i n s t e i n and C a p a b l a n c a ( whe r e p iece
coope r a t i on wa s i n t e g r a t e d w i t h c l a s s i c
a l l y he a l t h y s t r a t e g i c r e a l i t i e s ) , t h r ough
t h e i n i t i a t i v e of A l e k h i n e ( who s e p i eces
c oope r a ted w i th cl a ss i c a l ly i ns i gn i f i
c a n t - - wha t we have called tran s i ent-
s t r a te g i c r ea 1 i t i e s ) , to the f u r t he s t
ext remes of Bol e s l avsky a n d Brons t e i n ,
who s e i m a g i n a t i ve m od e r n a pp r o a ch
integra ted c o o p e r a t i ve p i eces wi th
c l a s s i c a l l y we a k - - b u t d y n a m i c a l l y v i a b l e -
s t r51- t e g i c '' .I e f i c i_enc_i_ s " .
--- -
- A s h a s b e e n m e n t i o n e d i n t h e ch a p t e r o n
Bronst ei n 1 65
A l e kh i n e , the who l e o f m od e r n che s s c a n be

v i ewed as a r e a s onably s t r a i gh t - f o rw a r d
proce s s i on o f i n c r ea s i n g l y s ub t l e f o rm s of
i n t e gr a t i on . S u ch a m od e l h a s t h e m e r i t
of s i mp l i c i t y , a n d i s p l e a s a n t l y c o n s i s
t e n t w i t h o u r th e o r y o f c l a s s i c a l che s s
thought . A t the s a m e t i me , h ow e ve r , the
" opt i on a l " concept of r e s p on s i b i l i t y ha s
b e en e mp l o y e d t o g r o u n d t h i s m o d e l , not
out of any nece s s i ty , but due to a p r e s s
i n g n e e d f o r a r a d i c a l l y s u b j e c t i ve f ou n
d a t i o n o n wh i ch t o b u i l d a m o d e l o f t h e
c o n t e mp o r a r y m a s t e r ' s m i n d .
V . CONTEMPORARY CHESS
( 1957- )
T H E I ND I V I DUAL I N S T R U G G L E
24 . Ta 1
The P s y c h o l o g i c a l S a c r i f i c e
The y e a r 1 9 5 7 i s c o n s p i c u o u s th a n k s t o
t h e a r r iva l o f a br i l l i a n t new s t a r i n the
c he s s wo r l d . Th a t y e a r , t h e y ou n g M i kh a i l
T a l ( 1 9 3 6 - 1 9 9 2 ) won t h e S ov i e t c h a m p i o n
sh i p , i n a u g u r a t i n g t h e m o s t s u d d en , s p e c
t a c u l a r che s s c a r e e r s i n c e t h e d a y s o f t h e
l egenda ry P a u l Mo r ph y . F o r the ens u i ng
t h r e e y e a r s , the " Ma g i c i a n o f R i g a " d o m i
n a t e d wo r l d che s s b y e scor t i ng o pp o n e n t
a fte r o p p on e n t into d i f f i cu l t - - even
u n f a t h o m a b l e - - c o mpl i c a t i o n s ; and t h o u gh
h i s p r e c a r i o u s s a c r i f i c e s we r e n ' t a l wa y s
o b j e c t i ve l y s ou n d , T a l ' s o pp o n e n t s o f t en
s t umb l e d i n exp l i c a b l y - - a s i f t h e y h a d b e e n
d i s o r i e n t e d b y t h e s u d d e n ch a n g e o f c ou r s e
the g a m e h a d t a ken . B y 1 9 6 0 , the g r e a t
L a t v i a n wa s wo r l d ch a mp i on .
USSR Cbaapi onsbip

Riga , 1 95 8
Averbakb Ta1
1 . d4 Nf6
2 . c4 e6
3 . Nc3 c5
4 . d5 ed
5 . cd d6
6 . e4 g6
The Mod e rn Benon i wa s the perfect
open i ng f o r T a l - - h i gh l y i mb a l a n c e d and
Ta1 167
f i l l e d w i th tact i c a l nuances .
7. Be2 Bg7
8. Nf 3 0-0
9. 0-0 Re8
10 . Oc 2 Na6
11 . Bf4 Nb4
12 . Ob l . . .
B l a c k ' s n e x t move i s u l t i m a t e l y i n c o r
r e c t , b u t i t ' s i n t e r e s t i n g f r om a p r a c t i
c a l po i n t o f vi ew because i t s e i zes s o l e
e x i s t e n t i a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r the n a t u r e
o f t h e s t rugg l e ; whe r e a s Wh i t e h a s b e e n
i mp l em e n t i n g i d e a s o f h i s o w n thu s far ,
now they ' re i r r e l evant s i nce Ta! ha s
e s s e n t i a l l y r e - d e f i n e d the g a m e a l o n g h i s
own l i n e s .
12. . . Ne4 ? !
O b j e c t i ve l y better wa s 1 2 . . . . , Qe7 ,
lead i ng to a pos i t i on wi th d ynam i c a l l y
equa l ch a n c e s . N e ve r t he l e s s , w i th a
p sycho l og i c a l s a c r i f i ce , Ta l h a s d i s o r i
e n t e d h i s o p p o n e n t b y s e i z i n g r e s p o n s i b i l
i j:._y f o r t h e g a m e ; s i n c e Wh i t e i s a m o d e r n
ma s t e r who ' s ex i s t e n t i a l u n d e r s t a n d i n g i s
gr oun d e d in the r e c o g n i t i o n that he ' s
168 Contemporary Chess
r e s p o n s i b l e f o r the g a me , T a l ' s s a c r i f i c e
ha s t e mp o r a r i l y s e ve r e d an e s s en t i a l
c o mp o n e n t f r o m h i s o pp o n e n t ' s p s yche .
1 3 . Ne4 Bf5
1 4 . Nfd2 Nd5
1 5 . Bd6 ?
As wa s d i s c ove r e d l a te r , 1 5 . Bg 3 ! , Q e 7 ;
1 6 . Bf 3 , Rad8 ; 1 7 . R e l ! ( Kho l m ov ) a l l ow s
Wh i t e to c o n s o l i d a t e h i s p o s i t i o n wh i l e
s i mu l t a n e o u s l y ret a i n ing a mate r i a l
a d va n t a g e .
It ' s e a s y t o l a m e n t a b o u t how p o o r l y
Ta l ' s oppon e n t s played in compl i c a te d
s i t u a t i o n s , b u t t he b o t t om l i n e i s t h a t he
d om i n a t e d wo r l d che s s f o r a f e w y e a r s by
defea t i ng the c omp e t i t i o n in prec i s e ly
t h i s k i n d o f g am e . Thu s a n e x p l a n a t i o n i s
called for . T o th i s e n d , I s ugg e s t t h a t
T a l 1 s p s ycho l o g i c a l s a c r i f i c e s t en d e d to
e s t r a n g e h i s o pp o n e n t s f r om t h e i r s e n s e o f
respons i b i l i t y , l eaving them i n a t e m p o
r a ry s t a te of d i s o r i en t a t i on s i m i l a r to
t h a t wh i c h we a k e r p l a y e r s e n c ou n t e r eve r y
day .
15 . . . . Nf6 !
1 6 . Bf3
1 6 . Bc 5 ? , Ne4 ; 1 7 . Ne 4 , Be 4 ; 1 8 . Qd l , Qg5
( T a l ) w ou l d h a v e l o s t i mm e d i a t e l y .
16 . . Ne4
1 7 . Ne4 Be4
1 8 . Be4 Od6
1 9 . Qc2 Re7
B1ack Won
I t s h ou l d o n c e a g a i n b e e mpha s i z e d th a t
i f w e hadn ' t i n c o r po r a t e d the conc e p t o f
res pons i b i l i t y i n o u r trea tment o f modern
che s s , the r e a s on why Ta l ' s sacr i f i ce s
were p s y cho l o g i c a l l y d i sor i ent ing w ou l d
Ta1 1 69
n o t b e f o r thc om i n g . F o r why s h o u l d a n y o ne
b e t r o u b l e d by the f a c t t h a t h i s o pp o n e n t
h a s s e i z e d t h e i n i t i a t i ve ( a s s um i n g h e h a s
enough m a t e r i a l " i n the bank " t o b a l ance
t h e ch a n c e s ) ? Un d e r t h e m o d e l pr e s en t l y
u n d e r c o n s i d e r a t i o n , o n the o t h e r h a n d , a n
opponent ' s i n i t i a t i ve is less f i rrn l y
grounded than o n e ' s own , c a u s i n g i t t o
s eem mo r e ch a o t i c and unma nage a b l e ( !!!Y
r e s pons i b i l i t y i s c l o s e r a s a s ub j e c t than
o t he r peo p l e ' s r e s po ns i b i l i t y , who s e
" i n n e r " s e l ve s a r e i n va r i a b l y c on c e a l e d ) .
T a l wa s o n l y wo r l d ch a mp i o n f o r a y e a r ,
s o the span o f h i s d o m i n a n c e wa s - - r e l a
t i ve l y speak ing--only a " mom e n t " . Yet
th i s ve r y " m o m e n t a r i n e s s " wa s e s s e n t i a l l y
re l a ted to a pr inc i pa l r e a s on for hi s
s u c c e s s - - the n a t u r e o f t h e p s y c ho l o g i c a l
s a c r i f i ce ; f o r by r e p e a t e d l y c on f r o n t i n g
h i s o pp on e n t s w i t h a n e x i s t e n t i a l phe n o m
e n o n tha t h a d p r ev i ou s l y b e e n c o n f i n e d t o
t h e t w i l i ght o f the i r a pp r ehe n s i o n , T a l
p r ovo k e d a e r i s i s th a t u she r e d i n a new
era .
2 5 . Petros i an
Adve r s a r i a l R e s p o n s i b i l i t y
The next three S ov i e t s we are to

d i s c u s s a l r e a d y he l d t h e gr a n d m a s t e r t i t l e
a t the t i me Tal a r r ived o n the s c ene ;
n e ve r t he l e s s , e a ch of them f l ou r i shed
d u r i n g the 1 9 6 0 ' s - - a f t e r T a l h a d d r a wn t h e
wo r l d ' s a t t e n t i o n t o h i s r a d i c a l wa y s o f
s e i z i n g c o n t r o l o f t h e s t r u gg l e . Th i s i s
o f i n t e r e s t i n a smu ch a s ou r cha r a c t e r i z a
t i o n o f t h e s e m a s t e r s w i l l e mp l o y a d ve r
s a r i a l r e s po n s i b i l i t y - - the ve r y p h e n om e n o n
Tal had thr u s t b e f o r e the publ i c ' s eye .
O f th i s t r i o , p e r h a p s the ea s i e s t t o
f i t i n t o o u r m o u l d i s t h e t wo - t e rm wo r l d
ch a mp i o n T i gran Petros i an ( 1 9 29 - 1 9 84 ) .
Petros i an pos sessed a r enowned sense of
dange r th a t perpet ua l ly kept hi s o pp o
n e n t ' s a c t i v i t y i n che c k - - s u f f o c a t i n g a n y
p e r i l ou s i n i t i a t i ve i n i t s i n f ancy . It
shou l d once m o r e b e empha s i z e d why t h i s
s e n s e f o r the i n i t i a t i ve " o n c e r e move d "
r e p r e s e n t s a n a d v a n c e i n the e vo l u t i o n o f
ex i s t e n t i a l un d e r s t a n d i n g : A n o pp o n e n t ' s
i n i t i a t i v e i s e s s e n t i a l l y m o r e r em o t e t h a n
o ne ' s o w n be c au s e t h e i n d e p en d e n t c on c e p t
" i n i t i a t i ve " i s g r o u n d e d by r e s po n s i b i l
fu- - a r ad i c a l l y s ubj e c t i ve p h e n om e n o n
wh i ch i sn ' t a va i l a b l e for o b j e c t i ve ,
sc i e n t i f i c s t ud y .
USSR Champ i onsh i p

T i f 1 i s , 1 9 59
Petros i an Yukhtman
1 . d4 Nf6
2 . c4 g6
Petros i an 171
3 . Nc3 Bg7
4 . e4 d6
5 . Be2 0-0
6 . Nf3 e5
7 . d5 Na6
8 . Bg5 ! . . .
Wh i t e a l ready beg i ns to restrict
Bl ack ' s act ivity by p inn i ng the k n i ght
tha t s t a n d s i n t h e p a t h o f t h e a g g r e s s i ve
l y -m i n d e d f - p a w n ; a n d i f the s e c on d p l a y e r
s h ou l d pu t t h e q u e s t i o n t o t h e b i sho p by
d r i v i n g i t b a c k w i t h h i s g - a n d h - p a wn s ,
o t he r w e a k n e s s e s w i 1 1 b e c r e a t e d th a t w i 1 1
a l l ow Petros ian to keep h i s opponent ' s
a c t i v i t y i n che c k .
8. . . . h6
9 . Bh4 g5
1 0 . Bg3 Nb5
1 1 . Nd 2 Nf4
1 2 . 0-0 Nc5
1 3 . Bg4 ! . . .
By oppos i n g b i sho ps , Pe t r os i a n initi
ates a s t r u gg l e f o r the 1 i g ht s q u a r e s -
espec i a l l y f 5 - - on wh i ch his r e s t r i c t i ve
a c t i on i s t o t a k e p l a c e . H e n c e f o r th , t h i s
t h e m e w i 1 1 d e ve l o p a n i n c r e a s i n g l y i n t e n s e
l i ght .
13. a5
A m o r e a c t i ve d e f e n c e is o f f e r e d by
1 3 . . . . , Ne 4 ! ? ; 1 4 . Nde4 , f 5 ; 1 5 . f 3 , h5 ;
1 6 . Bf4 , ef ; 1 7 . BhS , f e ; 1 8 . fe , Qe7 ( E uwe ) .
A f t e r t h e II s t o c k " . . . ' a s ' h o w e ve r ' Wh i t e I s
k i ngs i d e r e s t r a i n t c a n enter h i gh gea r .
14 . f3 ! . . .
Wh i t e i n t en d s t o e v e n t u a l l y d r i ve the
k n i g h t f r om f4 w i t h B f 2 and g 3 .
14 . . . . Ncd 3 ?
-> A s l o n g a s B l a c k ' s p o s i t i o n i s p u r e l y
p a s s i v e , a n ou t p o s t o n the s i x th r a n k i s
.\Y
wo r t h l e s s . And s ince the k ings i de is
u n d e r a c l amp , i mm e d i a t e a c t i v i t y o n t h e
q u e en 1 s f l a n k wa s c a l l e d f o r : 14 , c6 ;
. . .
1 5 . Qc2 , cd ; 1 6 . c d , b 5 ! w i th unc l e a r play

( G l i g o r i c - S t e i n , MoSCO-w , 1 9 6 7 ) .
1 5 . Qc2 c6
1 6 . Khl h5
1 7 . Bc8 Rc8
1 8 . a3 cd
1 9 . cd Nc5
20 . Bf2 g4
2 1 . g3 Ng6
2 2 . fg hg
2 3 . Be3 . . .
A l t h o u g h i t ma y n o t b e o bv i ou s a t f i r s t
s i gh t , an i n ve s t i g a t i o n into conc rete
p l a n s r e v e a l s tha t t h e B l a c k f o r c e s are
e n t i r e l y p a s s i ve ; i n d e e d , m o r e t h a n o n e o f
B l a c k 1 s 1 1 a gg r e s s i ve l y 1 1 p o s t e d p a w n s a r e i n
f a c t ex p o s e d , a n d Wh i t e e n j o y s a p e rm a n e n t
a d v a n t a g e o n t he h a l f - o p en f - f i l e . Faced
w i t h a l i f e d e vo i d o f c ou n t e r p l a y o n th i s
ba t t l e f i e l d , Black dee i des to make a
despera te b i d f o r a ct i vi ty .
23 . . . . fb!){
Petros i an 1 73
24 . Nb5 Ob6
2 5 . a4 Oa6
2 6 . Nc4 . ..
I r on i c a l l y , Bl ack ' s d i ve r s i o n on the
queens i de ha s on l y a cc e n t u a t e d Wh i t e ' s
c on t r o l o f t h e l i g ht squa res in tha t
sector .
26 . . . . f5
27 . Rf5 Rf5
28 . ef
2 9 . , Og2.J Nb3
30 . Ncd6 Od7
3 1 . Rf l Res i gns
P e t r o s i a n wa s c e r t a i n l y n o t the f i rst
gr e a t player to k ee p hi s opponents '
a c t i v i t y i n c h e c k ; n e v e r the l e s s , a h i gh l y
evo l v e d s e n s e o f d a n g e r c om e s t o t h e f o r e
s o p r om i n e n t l y i n hi s games tha t the
a e s the t i c da t a en d o r s e s the i n c l u s i on o f
a d ve r s a r i a l r e s p o n s i b i 1 i t y i n o u r m o d e l o f
hi s exi s tent i a l under st and ing .
The r e a d e r ha s n o d o u b t n o t i c e d tha t
the f i rst t wo ma s t e r s we ' ve d e a l t w i th
under c o n t em po r a r y che s s have a l ready
p a s s e d a wa y . A l though t h i s i s cert a inly
unu s u a l , the p e r t i ne n t f a c t i s tha t both
T a ! a n d P e t r o s i a n o c c u p i e d s u ch i mp o r t a n t
roles i n t h e c om i n g t o l i g ht o f a d ve r
s a r i a 1 r e s p o n s i b i 1 i t y th a t t h e i r i n c l u s i on
i n thi s sect i on i s manda tory .
2 6 . Korchno i
D e f e n s i v e Cha r a c t e r
A l t h o u g h P e t r o s i a n ' s ex i s t e n t i a l u n d e r
s t a n d i n g wa s i n k e en t ou ch w i t h h i s o pp o
nent s ' potent i a l for i n i t i a t i ve , the
a e s the t i c of h i s a c t i o n a g a i n s t i t wa s
class i ca l in n a t u r e - - he a l t h y m a n e u ve r s
tha t a r e t yp i c a l f o r a who l e cl a s s of
po s i t i on s . In the games of Vi ktor
K o r c hn o i ( 1 9 3 1 - ) , o n the o t he r h a n d , we
f i n d t h e m o d e r n a e s t he t i c of ch a r a c t e r o n
the d e f en d e r ' s s i d e - - i 1 1 um i n a t i n g s p e c i f
i e s t h a t d a m p e n t h e a d ve r s a r y ' s i n i t i a t i v e
by m e a n s str ik ingly pa r t i c u l a r to the
pos i t i on .
USSR Champ i onsh i p Semi - F i na 1

Tashkent , 1 95 8
Gips 1 i s Korchno i
1 . e4 c5
2 . Nf3 d6
3 . d4 cd
4 . Nd4 Nf6
5 . Nc3 a6
6 . Bg5 e6
7 . f4 h6
8 . Bh4 Ob6
9 . Od 2 Ob2
1 0 . Nb3 Qa3
The P o i s o ne d P awn Va r i a t i on l e ad s
s t r a i gh t o f f t o t h e k i n d o f i n s t a b i l i t y i n
wh i ch a p l a y e r w i t h a s u b t l e f e e l f o r h i s
o p p on e n t ' s cha n c e s w i l l o f t e n f i n d h i s o wn
a c t i v i t y s u r v i v i n g a n he r o i c d e f e n c e .
1 1 . Bd3 Be7
1 2 . 0-0 Ne4 ! ?
Korcbno i 1 75
1 3 . Be4 ?
Th i s a l l ow s B l a ck to br ing about a
s i t u a t i o n i n wh i ch t h e pa r t i cu l a r s wi l l
f ina l l y set t l e in hi s favor . A better
a t t e mp t to r et a i n the i n i t i a t i ve w ou l d
h a ve been 1 3 . N e 4 , Bh 4 ; 1 4 . Bb 5 + ! , K e 7
( 14 . . , ab ? ;
. 1 5 . Nd 6 + , K e 7 ; 1 6 . Nb 5 i s d e va
stat i ng ) ; 1 5 . Qc 3 ! wi th a d i f f icult
s t r u gg l e a he a d f o r b o t h s i d e s .
13 . . . . Bh4
14 . f5 . . .
Bl ack ' s next move s eems an a b s ur d

i n ve s t m e n t f o r a n u n d e r d e ve l o p e d a r my , b u t
t h e p a r t i c u l a r s o f t h e p o s i t i o n a r e s u ch
th a t Wh i t e c a n no l on g e r ret a i n the
14 . . Ob4 !
1 5 . fe Be6
1 6 . Nd4 Bg5
1 7 . Od 3 Bc4 !
Ko rchno i i nv i t e s the Wh i t e queen to
i nv a d e o n t h e c 8 - h 3 d i a g o n a l . As danger
ou s a s t h i s s e e m s , i t a l l ow s B l a c k t o wa l k
a t i g ht r o p e t o a w i n n i n g a d v a n t a g e .
1 8 . Oh3 Bf l
1 76 Contemporary Chess
1 9 . Oc8 + Bd8
2 0 . Ne6 Ob6 +
2 1 . Kf l Nc6 !
Wh i t e ' s a c t i v i t y i s b r e a t h i n g i t s l a s t ,
l e a v i n g t h e B l a c k s u r v i vo r s t o i nhe r i t t h e
2 2 . Ng7+ Kf8
2 3 . Oa 8 Kg7
24 . Rb l Od4
2 5 . Ob7 Na 5
The d a r k s q u a r e s i n t he n e i ghb o r h o o d o f
t h e Wh i t e k i n g a r e p a i n f u l l y w e a k , p r ov i d
i ng a perfect f o c u s f o r the d e c i s i ve
a s s au l t .
26 . Ob4 Nc4
2 7 . Bd3 Bb6
2 8 . Ne4 Og l +
2 9 . Ke2 Og2+
3 0 . Kd l Of3+
3 1 . Be 2 Oh l +
3 2 . Oe l Oe4
3 3 . Og3 + Kf8
34 . Bc4 Od4+
3 5 . Od3
3 5 . B d 3 , Rg 8 wou l d have lost more
q u i ck l y .
35 . . Og l +
36 . Of l Rg8 !
B l a ck threa tens 37 . , Qd4+ ;
. 3 8 . Kc l ,
R g l , w i n n i n g t h e Wh i t e q u e en .
3 7 . c3 d5
3 8 . Ba6 Oh2
3 9 . Of6 Rg l +
40 . Bf l Be3
4 1 . Res i gns
A tho roughl y mod e r n game w i th the
a e s t h e t i c o f cha r a c t e r . Even i n the f i na l
p o s i t i o n , B l a c k ' s k i n g l o o k s a s vu l n e r a b l e
a s Wh i t e ' s , b u t the p a r t i c u l a r s of the
Korchnoi 1 77
s i t ua t i on p r event Wh i t e f r om exp l o i t ing

th i s f a c t .
K o r ch n o i i s a d i f f i c u l t f i g u r e t o p i n
d own , b o th c o mp e t i t i ve l y a n d s t y l i s t i c a l
ly . Wh i l e many o f h i s m o s t c on v i n c i n g
r e s u l t s d a te f r o m t h e p e r i o d a r ou n d 1 9 6 5 ,
one c a n h a r d l y i gn o r e h i s l on g s e r i e s o f
i mp r e s s i ve a pp ea r a n c e s in c and i da tes
m a t ch e s f r om t h e l a t e s i x t i e s t h r o u g h the
ea r l y e i gh t i e s . A t t he s a m e t i m e - - l i k e
o t h e r g r e a t m a s t e r s who e n j o y e d l on g a n d
dur a b l e c a r ee r s ( La sker and Botv i nn i k
spr ing to m i n d ) - - K o r chn o i ' s style is
e l u s i ve l y mu ! t i - f a c e t e d . Thu s the t r a d i
t i on a l portra i t of him as the " he r o i c
d e f e n d e r " w i t h a s u b t l e f ee l f o r the w e a k
l i nk s in hi s opponen t ' s i n i t i a t i ve is
uns a t i s f actor i ly n a r r ow ; sti ll , thi s
cha r a c t e r i z a t i on h a s i t s m e r i t s i n a s m u ch
a s i t h i ghl i ghts a p r om i n e n t f e a t u r e o f
K o r chn o i ' s u n d e r s t a n d i n g , a l l ow i n g u s to
a t l e a s t p l a c e th i s a s p e c t o f h i s style
f i rm l y w i th i n o u r e vo l u t i o n a r y s t u d y .
2 7 . Spassky
The U n i ve r s a l S t y l e
P e t r o s i a n a n d K o r chn o i p o s s e s s e d e x i s
tent i a l und e r s t and i ng s tha t we r e hi ghly
s e n s i t i ve t o the i r o pp on e n t s ' i n i t i a t i ve -
a tra it wh i ch sprang f o r th f r om the i r
r e c o g n i t i o n o f a d ve r s a r i a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y .
I t wa s o n l y i n the p l a y o f t h e wo r l d c h a m
p i o n B o r i s S p a s s k y ( 1 9 3 7 - ) , howeve r , t h a t
a f u l l r e c o g n i t i on o f a d v e r s a r i a l r e s p o n
s i b i 1 i t y c am e t o 1 i gh t . F o r S p a s s ky moved
beyond hi s c o n t e mp o r a r i e s by c o rn i n g to
gr i ps w i th h i s o pp o n e n t ' s c o mp l e t e ex i s
t e n t i a l u n d e r s t a n d i n g - - no t the me r e c a p a
city for i n i t i a t i ve . Th i s is why he
d e ve l o p e d a u n i ve r s a l s t y l e - - o ne th a t
c on f o r m e d t o t h e s i t u a t i o n ( a n d o pp o n e n t )
at hand . I n d eed , S p a s s k y ' s p l a y s t yl i s
t i cally d i s t i n gu i she s i tself f r om o t he r
l e a d i n g S ov i e t m a s t e r s by i t s f l ex i b i l i t y ;
Smys l ov , B r on s t e i n , Pet ros i an , Ge l l e r ,
T a l , a n d S t e i n - - t o n a m e a f e w - - h a v e we l l
ea rne d r e pu t a t i ons f o r be i n g ou t s t a n d i n g
m a s t e r s o f t h e i r own t yp e o f g a m e , wh i l e
t h e v e r s a t i l e S p a s s k y wa s a b l e t o a d a p t t o
wha t e v e r s t y l e wou l d b e mo s t u n c o m f o r t a b l e
f o r t h e p a r t i c u l a r o pp o n e n t a t h a n d . One
m i g h t s a y th a t , in Spa ssky ' s p l a y , the
mod e r n a e s t h e t i c of c h a r a c t e r h a s f i n a l l y
t a k e n o n a p u r e l y c omp e t i t i v e f o r m .
Cand i dates F i nal Match

Tbi l i s i , 1 965
Ta l Spa s sky
1 . e4 e5
2 . Nf3 Nc6
Spas sky 1 79
3 . Bb5 a6
4 . Ba4 Nf6
5 . 0-0 Be7
6 . Re l b5
7 . Bb3 0-0
8 . h3 Bb7
9 . d3 d6
1 0 . c3 Nb8
I n t he B r e y e r R u y L o p e z , B l a c k i s o f t en
f o r c e d t o c a r e f u l l y r e o rgan i z e h i s f o rces
be f o r e u n d e r t a k i n g p o s i t i ve a c t i on . Thu s
it ' s a prec a r i ou s ch o i c e aga i n s t an
a t t a c k i ng ma s te r of Tal ' s s t a t ure ; s t i l l ,
B l a c k ' s p o s i t i o n c a n b e r ema r k a b l y r e s i l i
ent i f hand l e d correc t l y .
1 1 . Nbd2 Nbd7
1 2 . Nf l Nc5
1 3 . Bc 2 Re8
1 4 . Ng3 Bf8
1 5 . b4 Ncd7
1 6 . Bb3 a5
1 7 . a3 ab
1 8 . cb h6
1 9 . Nf 5 ? !
B e t t e r i s t h e ch a n g e o f f r o n t 1 9 . d 4 , c 5 ;
2 0 . bc , d c ; 2 1 . d e , Ne S ; 2 2 . Ne 5 , R e 5 ; 2 3 . Bb 2 ,
R e 8 ; 2 4 . Q f 3 , a s p l a y e d a f ew y e a r s l a te r
by Tal himself ( v s . Smej k a l , Tall in ,
197 1 ) .
After the move p l a y e d i n the p r e s e n t
game , Spa ssky proceed s to e s t a bl i sh an
a d v a n t a g e i n t h e c e n t e r , wh i l e T a l pre
p a r e s t h e f a m i 1 i a r S p a n i sh a t t a c k o n the
k i ngs i de .
19 . . d5
20 . N3h4 ? !
O n c e a ga i n , the m o r e b a l anced 2 0 . Bb2 ,

de ; 2 1 . de , Ne4 ( 2 1 . . . . , Be4 ? ; 2 2 . Re 4 ! , Ne4 ;
23 . QdS ) ; 2 2 . B d S ! ( S h a m k o v i ch ) wo u l d have
been super ior .

20 c5 !
2 1 . Re3 c4
2 2 . Rg3 ! Kh7
2 3 . Bc 2 d4
24 . Qf3
A fu l l a pp r e c i a t i on of a d ve r s a r i a l
respons i b i l i t y mad e S p a s sky parti cul arly
s t r o n g r e g a r d i n g the s ub t l e t i e s o f " p l a y
ing the ma n " ; i n the p r e s e n t inst ance ,
cons i der how he forti f ies hi s p o s i t i on
aga i ns t Ta l ' s i mp e n d i n g a t t a ck on the
k i ng .
24 . Ra6 !
Black re inforces the o f t en c r i t i c a l
" Span i sh " thi rd r ank .
----
----- --- 2 5 - -Nii6 'f_ _ __ _ _ gh
2 6 . Nf5 Qa8 !
T a l ' s a c t i v i t y h a s b e e n d a mp e n e d b y h i s
vu l n e r a b l e c e n t e r .
2 7 . Nh6 Bh6
28 . Qf5+ Kh8
2 9 . Bh6 Rg8
30 . Bg5 Qe8
Spas sky 181
3 1 . f4 Nh7
B1ack Won
-Qi_ - y_ _ _ t,_ '? p l a y t h e _m a _D. Q!: t h a n

____ ___
the po_i;;i_Jg gave S p a s s ky a ba l anced

-
style ; thu s he had no cha r a c t e r i s t i c
g a me s , b u t a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c a pp r o a ch to
the g a m e . I n o t he r wo r d s , the u n i ve r s a l
s t y l e c an ' t be d i s c e rned t h r ough i n d i v i
d u a l e n c ou n t e r s , b u t thr ough a s t ud y o f
t h e p l a y e r ' s c a r e e r a s a wh o l e . At l e a s t
o n e mo r e exa mp l e i s t he r e f o r e c a l l e d f o r -
i f no t h i n g e l s e , to ba l ance the g ame
a l r e a d y p r e s e n te d .
Cand i dates F i na1 Match

K i ev , 1 968
Spas sky -!orchnoi

1 . d4 Nf6
2 . c4 g6
3 . Nc3 Bg7
4 . e4 d6
s . f3
Th i s t i m e , S p a s s k y p l a y s t h e role of
a g gr e s s o r .
s. . 0-0
6 . Be3 Nc6
7 . Nge2 a6
8 . Nc l eS
9 . dS Nd4
1 0 . Nb3 Nb3
1 1 . Qb3 cs
1 2 . de be
1 3 . 0-0-0 Be6 ? !
B l a ck shou l d ins tead try the mo r e
a c t i ve , t h o u g h a e s t h e t i c a l l y l e s s r e s i l i
ent , 1 3 . . . . , Qe7 ; 14 . c5 , d5 ! ? ; 1 5 . ed , cd ;
1 6 . Nd 5 , Nd 5 ; 1 7 . Qd 5 , Rb8 ( K o r chn o i ) , w i th
c o mp e n s a t i o n f o r t h e s a c r i f i c e d p awn .
1 4 . Qa3 Ne8
1 5 . h4 f6?
K o r chn o i m i s s e s h i s l a s t o pp o r t u n i t y t o
play " n on - r e s i l i e n t l y " : 1 5 . . . . , Bf6 ! ? ;
1 6 . Bh 6 , Bh 4 ! ( T a l , B o n d a r ev s ky ) .
1 6 . c5 ! Rf7
Now 16 . . , dS? ;
. 1 7 . ed , cd ; 1 8 . B c 4 , Nc 7 ;
1 9 . Nd 5 , Nd 5 ; 2 0 . Qb 3 , Rb8 ; 2 1 . Bd 5 ! , Rb 3 ;
2 2 . B e 6 + ( K o r ch n o i ) w o u l d h a v e on l y l e d t o
a f i a sco for B l ack .
1 7 . Qa4 ! Qc7
1 8 . Bc4 Bc4
1 9 . Qc4 Bf8
2 0 . b5 ! de
2 1 . hg bg
2 2 . Qe6 Rd8
2 3 . Rd8 Qd8
24 . Rd l Qe7
2 5 . Qc6 Nc7
B l a c k h o p e s to s i mp l i f y w i th . . . , Q e 6 ,
stee r ing towa rd an endgame w i th d r aw i ng
cha n c e s .
2 6 . Qb6 !
A w o n d e r f u l e x a mp l e of how aes thet i c
Spas sky 1 83
a pp r e c i a t i on is gr oun d e d in exi s tent i a l

unde r s t and ing . A t f i r s t g l ance , Spa s s ky ' s
move s ee m s on l y to be m a r k i n g t i me ,
p e r h a p s wa i t i n g f o r Bl ack t o " s how h i s
h a n d " ; on c l o s e r i n s p e c t i on , howeve r , we
r e a l i z e t h a t 2 6 . . . . , Q e 6 ? c a n n o w b e m e t by
2 7 . B c 5 ( wh i ch p r o t e c t s the q u e en on b 6 -
t h e p o i n t ) , a n d w e b e g i n t o a pp r e c i a t e how
s e ve r e l y 2 6 . Qb6 ha s s t r a i ne d Black ' s
" res i l i ent cooperat i on " .
J u s t a s i n the p r e v i ou s g a m e Spa ssky
wa s a b l e t o d i v i n e t h e we a k 1 i n k i n T a l ' s
a t t a c k , s o he r e h e h a s b e en a b l e t o b r e e d
c on f u s i o n in the midst of Ko rchn o i ' s
def ens ive f o r t r e ss .
26 . . . . Kg7
2 7 . Nd5 ! Oe6
2 8 . Bc5 Bc5
2 9 . Oc5 Nb5
3 0 . Oe3 Oc6 +
3 1 . Kb l Nd4
3 2 . Re l Ob5
3 3 . Nc7 Oe2
34 . Ne6 + Kb7
3 5 . Oh6 + ! Res igns
All in all , the a b ove p a i r o f g a m e s

s h ou l d b e t a k en a s i s o l a t e d i n s t a n c e s o f
Spa s s ky ' s abi l i ty to " play off " hi s
i n d i v i dua l o pp o n e n t ' s pecu l i a r brand of
und e r s t a n d i ng , perpetua l l y kee p ing it
" u n d e r g ua r d " wh i l e s i mu l t a n e ou s l y d i s r u p
t i ng any d e s i gns i t may carry out .
2 8 . F i scher
I n t e r a c t i ve R e s p o n s i b i l i t y
We h a ve a r r i v e d a t t h e c u l m i n a t i o n o f
o u r s t ud y . F i r s t , h o w e ve r , w e n e e d t o d o
a b i t o f ph i l o s o ph i c a l h o u s e k e e p i n g .
T o r e i t e r a t e a p o i n t we m a d e e a r l i e r :
Adve r s a r i a l r e s pons i b i l i t y i s e s s ent i a l l y
d i s t i nct f r om !!!.Y. r e s p o n s i b i l i t y bec au s e
the i n n e r wo r l d o f o t h e r s i s m o r e r e mo t e
tha n m y own - - my f e e l i ng s , my ego , my .Q!l
sc i ousnes s , etc . Th i s i s t h e c a s e b e c a u s e
a l l t he s e p h e n om e n a h a ve t o d o w i th h um a n
be i n g s as s ub j e c t s r a the r than ob j ects .
L e t u s t he r e f o r e e x a m i n e t he s e c on c e p t s a
b i t more closely .
A n o b j e c t i s a n y t h i n g i n t h e wo r l d t h a t
you c a n " l a y y ou r h a n d s o n " - - a n y t h i ng
th a t c a n b e p u b l i c l y s e e n , d e s c r i b e d , a n d
put i nt o cl ea r terms c o mmu n i c a b l e to
o the r s . Thu s I c ou l d d e s c r i b e a p a r t i c u
l a r t a b l e i n m y home , a n d y o u w ou l d h a v e
an i mage of it i n y o u r m i n d ; I c ou l d
d e s c r i b e s om e o ne ' s b o d y , a n d o n c e a g a i n a
p i c t u r e c om e s t o m i n d ; e v e n a b r a i n c o u l d
b e d e s c r i b e d , c on j u r i n g up a v i s i on o f
s o l i d , o b j e c t i ve g r e y m a t t e r . But how ,
f o r i n s t a n c e , c ou l d a n e g o b e d e s c r i b e d ?
How c ou l d a p e r s o n ' s d e e p e s t s e l f c om e t o
l i g ht ?
Whe n I " l o o k i n t o " my s e l f t o d i s c ov e r
who " I 11 a m , n u m e r ou s i d e a s s p r i n g t o m i n d .
I th i n k o f my w i f e a n d ch i l d r e n , o f my
h o m e and my j o b . But c e r t a i n l y , n o ne o f
the s e a r e me . So I p r e s s on , ponde r i n g
mo r e " p e r s o n a l " th i n g s s u ch a s m y b o d y -
e s pec i a l l y m y b r a i n . Is thi s me?
I f w e w e r e t o l oo k a t ah um a n b r a i n , we
F i s cher 185
w ou l d f i n d a v a r i e t y o f ob j e c t i v e p h y s i c a l
phe n o m e n a - - n e u r o n s , che m i c a l react i ons ,
a n d s o f o r th . S t i 1 1 , the m o r e we w ou l d
" d i s s e c t " t h e b r a i n i n q u e s t i o n , t h e mo r e
pu z z l i n g w ou l d s ee m the q u e r y : Why i s i t
c on s c i o u s ? Sure , it f un c t i o n s , but so
does a clock . Why i sn 1 t a cl ock con
sc i ou s ? No ma t t e r how deeply s c i ent i st s
have probed i nt o the bra in , they have
n e v e r b e e n a b l e t o p i n - d own a n y s ub j e c t i ve
p h e n om e n a - - n o f ee l i n g s , no e g o , n o c on
s c i o u s n e s s ; a t t h e s a m e t i m e , howeve r , we
c o n t i n u e t o expe r i e n c e t he s e th i n g s . Why ?
I d o n ' t k n o w t h e a n s we r t o t h i s . Wha t
I d o k n o w i s tha t p eo p l e , i n th e i r e ve r y
d a y 1 i ve s , a r e c o nv i n c e d tha t t h e y h a v e a n
ego - - a self tha t 1 s r a d i c a l l y u n l i k e a n y
p i ece o f g r e y ma t t e r a sc i en t i s t m i ght
place i n a j ar . I n t h e s am e wa y , eve r y o ne
g o i n g a b ou t t h e i r d a i l y b u s i n e s s b e l i e ve s
the y 1 r e con s c i ous , they 1 re r e s po n s i b l e ,
the y h a ve i n t ang i bl e f e e l i ng s of l ove ,
ha te , hope , a n d despai r . And b e c au s e
p e o p l e l i ve t h e i r l i ve s i n th i s s t a t e o f
c on v i c t i on , a l l the s e n o t i o n s h a v e a p l a c e
i n p r a c t i c a l p s ycho l ogy . I n o t h e r wo r d s ,
i t 1 s i r r e l ev a n t whe t h e r the s ub j e c t i ve
wo r l d r e a l l y e x i s t s - - whe t h e r a n y o f t h e s e
c onv i c t i o n s a r e b a s e d i n t r u t h . Wh a t m a t
t e r s he r e i s tha t the f r ame of m i nd
be l i eve s - - howeve r e r r o n e ou s l y - - i n the
s ub j e c t i ve wo r l d .
Th i s is why I ' ve a c c e p t e d s u bj e c t i ve
phenom ena as i n t a ng i bl e , n o n o b j e c t i ve
" t h i n g s " t h a t c a n ' t b e p i n n e d - d own . But
i f we 1 r e on l y i mm e d i a t e l y a wa r e o f o u r -own
s e l ve s a s s u b j e c t s , h o w c a n the c on c e p t of
a dve r s a r i a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y b e m a i n t a i ne d ?
H o w c a n a s u b j e c t b e c om e a w a r e o f a n o t h e r
s ub j e c t ?
O n c e a g a i n , we d o n ' t h a v e t o k n o w h o w
thi s o cc u r s , on l y tha t it does . Of
cour s e , as l ong as we ' r e l o o k i n g at
a n o t h e r p e r s on a s a n ob j e c t - - a s a b r a i n
u n d e r a m i c r o s c o p e , f o r i n s t a n c e - - we w o n ' t
f i nd a n o the r s u bj e c t . N o n e the l e s s , in
th e i r e ve r y d a y l i ve s , peo p l e do b e c om e
c o nv i n c e d tha t o t he r p e o p l e a r e s ub j e c t s -
that they ' re c on s c i o u s , have fee l i ngs ,
etc . H um a n b e i n g s h o n e s t l y b e l i e ve th a t
t h e y c a n r e l a t e t o e a ch o t h e r a s s u b j e c t s .
P e r h a p s th i s f e e l i n g i s gr ou n d e d i n t r u th ,
a n d s o m e t h i n g w i l d l y m e t a ph y s i c a l i s g o i n g
on he r e ; or m a yb e we j ust e r r o n e ou s l y
i ma g i n e o u r s e l ve s i n e a ch o th e r ' s shoe s .
B u t e v e n i f th i s i s the gr o s s e s t " c o mmu
nity error " i n hi s tory , it ha s been
repea ted ly c o mm i t t e d for t h ou s a n d s of
yea r s , and i s cons equent l y of s i gn i f i c ance
i n hum a n p s y ch o l o g y .
B a ck to ch e s s . The l ea d i ng S ov i e t
ma s t e r s o f t h e s i x t i e s c o mm a n d e d a s o ph i s
ti cated exi s t ent i a l und e r s t a n d i n g wh i ch
wa s k e e n l y a wa r e o f a dve r s a r i a l res pon
sibi l i ty . B u t d i d th i s a w a r e n e s s m e a n
they w e r e mak i n g f u l l u s e o f t h e i r c om
pet i to r ' s exi s t en t i a l " ;? r e s e n c e " ? A f te r
all , one can be a wa r e of an art ist ' s
c r e a t i v i t y w i t h o u t t e s t i n g i t o r qu e s t i o n
i n g i t - - w i th o u t e n g a g i n g i t i n s t r u gg l e .
We h a v e a l ready a l l ud e d t o the f a c t
th a t , n o t on l y d o p e o p l e b e c om e a w a r e o f
o t he r s a s s u b j e c t s , t h e y a l s o r e l a t e to
them i n a n i n t a n g i b l e , pu r e l y s u b j e c t i ve
manne r . S ub j e c t s do mee t " s om e whe r e " -
t h e y e x c h a n g e i d ea s , t he y s h a r e f e e l i n g s ,
t h e y s t r u gg l e w i t h e a ch o t h e r p o l i t i c a l l y .
B u t whe r e d o t h e y m e e t ? It ' s absurd to
F i scher 187
s u gg e s t tha t m y s ubj e c t meets a n o the r

s ub j e c t h e r e o r t he r e - - o n t h i s t a b l e o r i n
t h a t ch a i r . I t ' s e q u a l l y p r e p o s t e r ou s t o
c l a i m m e e t i n g s o c c u r i n !!!.Y b r a i n o r i n h i s
br a i n - - a s if egos f l oa t m y s t e r i ou s l y
through space , p a y i n g visits on s ubj ect
a f te r s ub j e c t , a l l t h e t i me l eav i n g a n
u n c on s c i o u s s h e l l a t " hom e " . The p o i n t i s
tha t t h e wh o l e p h e n o m e n o n i s s ub j e c t i ve :
Just a s the p r e c i s e l o c a t i o n o f the ego
c a n ' t b e p i n ne d - d o w n i n t h e b r a i n , s o the
pl ace whe r e t wo e g o s m e e t i s e l u s i v e l y
s u bj e c t i ve . In any event , s ub j e c t s do
r e l a t e , a n d mu ch o f wha t o u r c i v i l i z a t i o n
c a n b o a s t s t e m s f r o m s u c h i n t e r a c t i on .
Th i s i s h o w I p r o p o s e t h e m o s t d o m i n a n t
wo r l d cha mp i o n o f a l l t i m e , R o b e r t F i s c he r
( 1 9 4 3 - ) , wa s a b l e t o t r a n s c e n d e v e n h i s
s t r on g e s t c o mp e t i t o r s ' u n d e r s t a n d i n g . In
our l ast ch a p t e r , it wa s a rgued tha t
Spa ssky made an e s s ent i a l c ompe t i t i ve
a d v a n c e by " p l a y i n g off " h i s o pp o n e n t ' s
und e r s t and i n g . N e ve r t he l e s s , the c oncept
o f a u n i ve r s a ! s t y l e - - o n e wh i ch i s u l t i
ma t e l y d e t e rm i n e d by o ne ' s o pp o n e n t - - i s
s ugg e s t i ve of an essent i a lly p a s s i ve
r e l a t i o n t o t h e a d ve r s a r y . A l t h o u g h th i s
i s o f 1 i t t l e o r n o t e chn i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e ,
i t c a n h a r d l y b e i g no r e d s i n c e ou r i n ve s
t i ga t i o n ha s e n t e r e d the pu r e l y c omp e t i
t i ve l e ve l o f exi s t en t i a l unde r s t a n d ing ,
whe r e a n y l o s s o f i n t e n s i t y i s o f i mp o r
tance . In c omp a r i s on , F i s c he r d i dn ' t
m e r e l y r e a c t t o h i s o pp o n e n t ' s u n d e r s t a n d
i n g ; c o nve r s e l y , h e " m a d e t h e f i r s t move "
and e n g a g e d h i s a d ve r s a r y d i r e c t l y . For
F i s che r , che s s wa s n ' t an i n d e p en d e n t
b a t t l e f i e l d t o wa r d wh i c h t wo e g o s r e a ch e d
o u t t o c o mp e t e ; r a the r , t h e r o y a l g a m e h a d
b e c o m e s t r u gg l e i t s e l f - - the who l l y s u b j e c
t i v e e v e n t t h a t o c c u r s whe n e v e r two e g o s
c o l l i d e i n i n t e r a c t i ve r e s p o n s i b i l i t y .
The s e o b s e rva t i o n s a r e e n d o r s e d by t h e
f o l l ow i n g g a m e , i n wh i ch F i s che r en g a g e s
hi s opponent in a seem i ng l y end less
s t r u gg l e to settle the c e nt r a l p awn
c o n f i g u r a t i o n i n h i s f a vo r .
Le i pz i g Olymp i ad , 1 960
Lete l i er F i scher
1 . d4 Nf6
2 . c4 g6
3 . Nc 3 Bg7
4 . e4 0 -0 ! ?
5 . e5? !
Wh i t e a c c e p t s F i s c he r ' s i nv i t a t i o n t o
crea te a s c e ne of battle on wh i ch to
s t rugg l e for the game ' s d e t e rm i n i n g
s t r a teg i c r ea l i t i es .
5. Ne8
6 . f4 d6
7 . Be3 c5 !
Th i s s a c r i f i c e o f a p awn w i l l k e e p the
c e n t r a l s t r u g g l e a l i v e f o r s e ve r a l m o v e s .
8 . de Nc6
9 . cd? . . .
F i s c he r l a t e r s u gg e s t e d t h a t Wh i t e now
r e t u r n the p aw n in as e c o n o m i c a l a w a y a s
p o ss i bl e : 9 . N f 3 , B g4 ; 1 0 . B e 2 .
9. . . . ed
1 0 . Ne4 ? !
Once a ga i n , the l e s s a mb i t i o u s 1 0 . N f 3
wa s c a l l e d f o r .
10. . . . Bf5 !
1 1 . Ng3 ? !
Mo r e r e s i l i e n t wou l d h a v e b e e n 1 1 . N d 6 ,
Nd 6 ; 1 2 . Qd6 , Qd6 ; 1 3 . e d , Bb2 ; 1 4 . R d l , Nb 4 !
F i scher 1 89
( th r e a t e n i n g . , Bc 2 ) ;
. 1 5 . K f 2 ( 1 5 . Ne 2 , Bc 2 ;
1 6 . Rd 2 , Nd 3 + ) , Na 2 ; 1 6 . Ne 2 ( 1 6 . Rd 2 , Nc 3 ) , a 5
( F i s che r ) , th ough Bl ack ' s p a s sed a - p awn
shou l d t e l l i n the end .
11 . . Be6
1 2 . Nf 3 Oc7
1 3 . Ob l de
14 . f5
Thr o u g h o u t the f o l l ow i n g c o m p l i c a t i o ns ,
F i s ch e r c o n t i n u e s t o m o u l d t h e c e n t e r i n a
manner f a vo r a b l e t o h i m s e l f , g i v i n g the
e n c o u n t e r the f u l l - b l o o d e d a e s t h e t i c o f a
s t r u gg l e b e t w e e n i n d i v i d u a l s .
14 . . . . e4 !
1 5 . fe
No be t t e r wou l d have been 1 5 . Qe4 , gf ! ,
s ince 1 6 . Nf 5 ? drops a p iece to 16 . . . . ,
Qa5+ .
15 . . . . ef
1 6 . gf f5 !
1 7 . f4 Nf6
The s m o k e h a s f i n a l l y c l e a r e d : Wh i t e ' s
p i eces a r e p a s s i ve , h i s p a w n s a r e we a k ,
a n d h i s k i n g i s exp o s e d .
1 8 . Be 2 Rfe8
1 9 . Kf2 Re6
20 . Re l Rae8
2 1 . Bf 3 ?
Wh i t e wa s h a r d - p r e s s e d , b u t t h i s ove r -
s i g h t p e rm i t s a n i mm e d i a t e c on c l u s i on .
21 . . Re3 !
2 2 . Re3 Re3
2 3 . Ke3 Qf4+ !
24 . Res i gns
A poss i bl e f ina le : 24 . Kf2 ( 24 . Kf4 ,
Bh 6 # ) , Ng 4 + ; 2 5 . Kg2 , Ne 3 + ; 2 6 . K f 2 , Nd4 ;
2 7 . Q h l , Ng 4 + ; 2 8 . K f l , N f 3 ( F i s c h e r ) .
A s F i s c he r m a t u r e d , h i s s t y l e evo l v e d ,
a n d he b-e c a m e r e c e p t i ve t o s u :Qt], e r , ress
--
c o mb i n a tT v e w ayi;; Qf. e ri g9- g i ng hi s opp onenc
_ _ __
i n t h e a b ove k i n d of t r u gg le
- ---
World Champ i onship Match

Rej kavik , 1 97 2
Spas sky F i scher

1 . d4 Nf6
2 . c4 e6
3 . Nf 3 c5
4 . d5 ed
5 . cd d6
6 . Nc3 g6
1 . Nd 2
----- --
Nbd7
8 . e4 Bg7
9 . Be2 . . .
- / T h i s i s a d e q u a t e f o r e q u a l i t y , a l t h o u gh
r e c e n t l y 9 . N c 4 , Nb 6 ; 1 0 . Ne 3 ! ha s had B l ack
i n a n e mb a r r a s s i n g p o s i t i o n i n t h i s l i ne . 1
9. . . . 0-0
1 0 . 0-0 Re8
1 1 . Qc 2 ? . . .
Wh i t e a ! l ow s a n u n u s u a l k n i g h t m a n e uve r
wh i ch w i l l s o o n l e a d t o a n n o y i n g t h r e a t s
F i scher 191
o n the k i ngs i d e . B e t t e r w ou l d h a v e b e en a
wa i t i n g move s u ch a s 1 1 . a 4 , a s p l a y e d i n
G l i g o r i c - K a va l e k , S k o p j e O l y mp i a d , 1 9 7 2 .
11. Nh5 !
As in the p r ev i ou s g ame , F i s che r
i nv i t e s a s t r u gg l e f o r the e s t a b l i s hmen t
of a pr i nc i pa l s t r a teg i c r ea l i t y - - a
re-de f i ned k ings i de p aw n s t ructur e . A
move o f th i s s o r t i s b ou n d t o b e r e j e c t e d
by an exi s t en t i a l unde rst and ing tha t
a cc e p t s the s i t u a t i on a s " g i v en " , a n d i s
s i mu l t a n e o u s l y m o s t r e a d i l y d i s c ove r e d by
a m i n d tha t p e r c e i ve s e ve r y s i t ua t i o n a s a
p e r s on a l s t rugg l e in an e ve r - ch a n g i n g
game .
1 2 . Bh5 gh
1 3 . Nc4 Ne5
1 4 . Ne 3 Oh4 !
1 5 . Bd 2 Ng4
1 6 . Ng4 hg
1 7 . Bf4 Qf6 !
1 8 . g3? . . .
A s t h e b a t t l e c l o s e s , Wh i t e c o mm i t s the
d e c i s i ve m i s t ake , c o n d emn i n g hi s k i ng
p a wn - - a s we l l a s t h e l i g ht s q ua r e s o n h i s
k i n g s i d e - - t o the s t a t u s o f static weak-

nes s e s . C o r r e c t w a s 1 8 . Bg 3 .
18 . . . . Bd7
1 9 . a4 b6
20 . Rfe l a6
2 1 . Re2 b5
2 2 . Rae l . .
Mo r e a g g r e s s i ve - - bu t u l t i ma t e l y no
b e t t e r - - wa s 2 2 . ab , ab ; 2 3 . Ra 8 , Ra 8 ; 24 . e5 ,
Ra l + ; 2 5 . Kg 2 , de ; 2 6 . Re 5 , b4 ; 2 7 . Ne 4 , Q a 6 ;
2 8 . Nd 2 , Be 5 ; 2 9 . Be 5 , Q e 2 .
22 . . . . Qg6 !
2 3 . b3 Re7
24 . Qd3 Rb8
2 5 . ab ab
26 . b4 c4
2 7 . Qd2 Rbe8
The res u l t s of the f o r m a t i ve battle
have n o w c l a r i f i e d , a n d Wh i t e i s c l e a r l y
o n t h e d e f e n s i ve .
2 8 . Re3 h5
29 . R3 e2 Kh7
30 . Re3 Kg8
3 1 . R3e2 Bc3
-
3 2 . Qc3 Re 4
3 3 . Re4 Re4
34 . Re4 Qe4
3 5 . Bh6 . .
3 5 . Bd 6 ? , Qd 5 l ets Bl ack ' s b i shop i nt o

t h e g a m e w i t h d e c i s i ve e f f e c t , f o r e xa m
ple : 3 6 . Q f 6 , Qd l + ; 3 7 . Kg2 , Bc 6 + .
35 . . . Qg6
36 . Be l Qbl
3 7 . Kf l Bf5
3 8 . Ke2 Qe4+
3 9 . Qe3 Qc 2 +
40 . Qd 2 ? . . .
G l i go r i c s ugg e s t s tha t Wh i t e , though

s t i l l wo r s e , c ou l d o ff e r a s t i f f res i s -
F i scher 1 93
t a n c e w i th 4 0 . K e l .
40 . . . . Qb3
4 1 . Qd4 ?
Once aga i n , 4 0 . Ke l wou l d have left
B l ack p r e s s e d f o r the w i n .
The S ov i e t p r e s s o f t h e e a r l y s e v e n t i e s
l am e n t e d about how " p oor ly " F i s c he r ' s
o p p on e n t s my s t e r i o u s l y pl ayed , a t t r i bu t
ing th i s phenomenon to ev e r y th i n g f r om
" p s y c h - o u t " t a c t i c s t o the l a r g e a m o u n t o f
m o n e y i nvo l ve d i n t h e p r e s e n t m a t ch . The
t r u t h , h o w e ve r , i s much s i mp l e r : F i s c he r
made f e wer m i s t a k e s th a n h i s opponen ts ,
and r e l ent l e s s l y pun i shed t he i r errors ;
a n d i n a l l l eve l s o f c o mp e t i t i on , e r r o r s
c a p i t a l i z e d on a r e f a r more memo r a b l e than
tho s e t h a t g o u n exp l o i t e d . As a p s ycho
l og i c a l expl an a t i on f o r F i s che r ' s s u p e r i o r
c o m p e t i t i ve cha r a c t e r , ou r mode l puts
f o r th t h e i d e a t h a t h i s e x i s t e n t i a l u n d e r
stand ing f e l t che s s t o b e a n essent ial
s t rugg l e be t we e n h i m a n d h i s a d ve r s a r y ;
thu s he wa s c o n s t a n t l y " on hi s toes " -
keenl y on the wa tch f o r h i s oppon e n t ' s
m i s - s t e p s , a n d c o n s t a n t l y wa r y o f h i s own .
41 . . . . Bd3 + !
42 . Res i gns
Reshevsky g i ve s the f o l l ow i n g as a
" c o n c l u s i on " : 42 . Ke 3 , Qd l ; 43 . Qb2 , c 3 ;
4 4 . Q c 3 , Q f 3 + , w i t h m a t e i mp e n d i n g o n e i t h e r
e 2 or e4 .
A s s t r i k i n g a s t h e s e e x a mp l e s m a y b e ,
the m o s t c o nv i n c i n g ev i d en c e tha t F i s c he r
c o n c e p t u a l i z e d c he s s a s a " c l a s h o f e g o s "
i s the en d l e s s e ne r g y h e wa s a b l e t o p o u r
into e ve r y e n c o un t e r . No m a t t e r whe t h e r
the g a m e wa s a t e c h n i c a l d r aw , F i s c he r
s t i 1 1 p r e s s e d f o r mo r e - - a s i f he r e f u s e d
t o a c c e p t t h e o b j e c t i v e d r a w a s g i ve n , a n d
wa s s om eh o w a b l e to i mpo s e a s t r u gg l e o n
hi s o pp o n e n t by con t i nua l l y set t i ng
problem a f te r probl e m .
I t m i ght b e o b j e c t e d a t th i s p o i n t t h a t
o u r p r e s e n t a t i on o f S p a s s k y a n d F i s c he r i s
hope l e s s l y s p e c u l a t i ve , based on l i ttle
m o r e e v i d en c e tha n the f a c t tha t S p a s s k y
w a s ve r s a t i l e e n o u g h t o p l a y a n y k i n d o f
g a m e , a n d F i s c he r.:_ wa s the f i e r c e s t c o mp e t -
- - --
i tor i n t-he h i s t o r y- of- che ss .
--
BuT _ _ _ the
b T h a- t
r e a d e r s h ou l d e a r i n m n cr--t. b o t h t he s e
m a s t e r s a r e n ' t known f o r th e i r radically
i n n o v a t i ve p l a y , a n d t h e i r s u c c e s s i s p o p
ularly a t t r i bu t e d to purely c o m p e t i t i ve
f eature s ; and s i nce the e vo l u t i o n a r y
p s y c h o l o g y we ' ve been tra c i n g grace f u l l y
f i t s t h e s e cha r a c t e r i z a t i o n s , we have a
mu t u a l agreement wh i c h endorses both
p o pu l a r o p i n i on a n d t he t h e o r y o f i n t e r
a c t i ve r e s pons i b i l i t y .
2 9 . Karpov
D om i n a t i on
L i ke F i sche r , wo r l d c h a mp i o n An a t o l y
K a r p ov ( 1 9 5 1 - ) wa s a b l e t o d om i n a t e wo r l d
che s s b y w i nn i ng g a m e s th a t wou l d h a v e
" no r m a l l y " b e e n d r awn , and by d r aw i ng
g a m e s th_a_t_ .wou l d _ h a v e b e e n l on g l o s t by
!ess =-g_r a n d m a s t e r s . - - - - tn. -- te c h n :L c a l p o s i
_ _
_ _
tTons , _K a. r p o v h a ci no - p- e e r s ; s t i IT ,
_ _ th i s
wa-sn i t m e r e l y d u e t-o su p e r i o r t e c h n i q u e '
but a l s o to h i s a b i l i t y to keep t e s t ing
the o pp o s i t i on thr ough l i t t l e _s k i rm i s h e s
s t a g e d a c r o s s _ t;be b o a r d . T h i s h a s-Te-a-- m e
- c a t o r :i ze -
to e-g K a r p ov w i th F i s c he r - - a s a
ma s t e r who conceptua l i z ed che s s t h r ou g h
i n t e r a c t i ve r e s p o n s i b i l i t y , t he r e by i mp o s
i n g a n e ve r - e n d i n g s t r ugg l e on h i s a d ve r
sar i es .
A e s t h e t i c a l l y , a n e ve n s t r o n g e r r e a s on
t o ch a r a c t e r i z e K a r p o v i n t h i s wa y i s h i s
s t r i k i ng use of t h e d om i n a t i o n theme .
O f t en d u r i n g h i s g a m e s , we f i n d K a r p ov ' s
pieces s l ow l y , a lmost i mp e r c e p t i b l y ,
d r i v i n g the e nemy back . One by one ,
o p p o s i n g t r o o p s a r e c on f r on t e d , r e s t r i c t
e d , a n d d r i v e n t o p a s s i ve p o s t s . And a l l
t h e wh i l e , u n d e r t h e s u r f a c e , a m i gh t y
s t r u gg l e for the i n i t i a t i ve is t ak ing
p l a c e , r e a d y t o e r u p t t h e momen t a f i s s u r e
opens .
Cand i dates Semi -Fina1 Match

Leni ngrad , 1 9 74
Karpov Spas sky

1 . e4 c5
2 . Nf 3 e6
3.
d4 cd
4.
Nd4 Nf6
5.
Nc3 d6
6.
Be2
K a r p ov pre fers a game tha t d ev e l o p s
m o r e s l ow l y t o t h e v i o l en t t a c t i c a l l i n e s
av a i l a b l e a t t h i s p o i nt .
6. . . . Be7
7 . 0-0 0-0
8 . f4 Nc6
9 . Be3 Bd7
Spassky refra i ns f r om 9 . . . . , eS , w i th
wh i ch he w o n b r i l l i a n t l y ea r l i e r i n the
m a t ch . T h i s t i me , he p r e p a r e s f o r the
s a m e a d v a n c e b y ove r - p r o t e c t i n g d S .
1 0 . Nb3 a5
1 1 . a4 Nb4
1 2 . Bf3 Bc6
A l th ough th i s f i ts i n w i th Bl ack ' s
p l a n , he wou l d h a v e b e e n b e t t e r o f f p l a y
ing . , es
. i mm e d i a t e l y - - f o r b i d d i n g the
Wh i t e k n i ght a c c e s s to d 4 .
1 3 . Nd4 g6
Now S p a s s ky i s forced to gua rd fS
be f o r e c o mm i t t i n g the l on g - p l a n n e d
advance .
1 4 . Rf2 e5
1 5 . Nc6 be
1 6 . fe de
1 7 . Qf l ! .
K a r p ov a l m o s t a l wa y s p l a c e s h i s p i e c e s
as e f f e c t i ve l y a s poss i bl e . He r e , he
d i s c ov e r s an u n u s u a l e mp l o y m e n t f o r the c 4
s q ua r e ; a n d a f t e r a s ho r t s k i rm i sh , t h i s
w i l l r e s u l t i n a m o r e a c t i ve queen for
Wh i t e .
17 . . .
Qc8 ?
Thi s thr e a t e n s . . . , Ng 4 , but does
n o t h i n g a g a i n s t Wh i t e ' s i n tended Qc4 . A
Karpov 1 97
better a l t e r n a t i ve wa s 1 7 . ., Nd 7 ! ,
. as
g i ve n b y B o t v i n n i k :
1 ) 1 8 . Q c 4 , Nb 6 ; 1 9 . Q b 3 , Bg 5 ; 2 0 . B c 5 , B e 7 .
2 ) 1 8 . Rd l , Qc 7 ; 1 9 . Qc4 , Rab8 ; 2 0 . Kh l , Kg7 ,
wi th . . , Nb 6 t o f o l l ow .

1 8 . h3 Nd7
The p r o b l e m i s t h a t B l a c k c a n ' t c o n t e s t
c 4 w i th 1 8 . . . . , Q e 6 : 1 9 . Rc l , R a d B ; 2 0 . Be 2 ,
a n d i f B l a c k t r i e s t h e p r om i s i n g e x ch a n g e
sacr i f i ce 20 . ., Rd4 ! ,
. the s i mp l e
2 1 . b 3 ! ! ( Bo t v i nn i k ) l eaves Wh i t e in
c omp l e t e c o nt r o l .
1 9 . Bg4 h5
2 0 . Bd7 Od7
2 1 . Oc4 . . .
At l a st the s q u a r e i s g a i ned , and
Wh i t e ' s q u e e n i s m o r e a c t i ve l y p l a c e d .
21 . Bh4
2 2 . Rd 2 Qe7
2 3 . Rf l Rfd8
W i th a s ubt l e r e o r g a n i z a t i on o f f o r c e s ,
K a r p ov wi l l now beg in to d r i ve his
o p p on e n t ' s m i n o r p i e c e s t o t h e e d g e o f the
boa r d , all the t i me c a p tur ing cruc i a l
s q u a r e s o n e - by - o n e .
24 . Nb l ! Ob7
2 5 . Kh2 Kg7
2 6 . c3 ! Na6
2 7 . Re2 !
Wh i t e ' s p i e c e s a r e mo r e a c t i ve , s o he
ev a d e s e x c h a n g e s .
T h r o u ghou t t h i s g a m e , K a r p ov k e e p s t h e
s t r u gg l e a l i ve , p e r p e t ua l l y test ing his
a d ve r s a r y ' s p i eces wh i l e s i mu l t a n e o u s l y
w a i t i n g f o r a n o pp o r t u n e m om e n t t o s e i z e
t h e i n i t i a t i ve .
27 . Rf8
2 8 . Nd 2 Bd8
B l a ck pl ans to gua rd the i mp e n d i n g
a tt a ck on hi s e - p awn w i th . . . , f6 . An
a l t e r n a t i v e w a s to ch a r g e p i e c e s w i t h th i s
task , c on d e m n i n g t he m t o p a s s i ve p o s t s :
2 8 . . . . , Ra e S ; 2 9 . Nf 3 , Bd 8 ; 3 0 . Rd 2
( Botv i nn i k ) .
2 9 . Nf 3 f6
Th a n k s t o t h i s a pp a r e n t l y s l i gh t w e a k
e n i n g o f t h e l i gh t s qua r e s , the l a t en t
i n i t i a t i ve i n t he Wh i t e f o r c e s c a n f i n a l l y
c om e t o l i f e .
30 . Rd2 Be7
3 1 . Oe6 ! Rad8
3 2 . Rd8 ! Bd8
Or : 32 . , Rd S ; 3 3 . Ne 5 ! , Qc 7 ; 3 4 . Q f 7 + ,
. .
Kh8 ; 3 5 . Qe 7 .
3 3 . Rd l Nb8
34 . Bc5 Rh8
3 5 . Rd8 ! Res i gns
. bec aus e o f 3 5 . . . . , Rd S ; 3 6 . Be 7 and
the B l a c k k i n g d i e s a l l a l o n e wh i l e hi s
wea ry p i eces l ie sca t tered across the
boa rd .
30 . Kasparov
C ommunal Responsibility
In che ss , as else where , we 1 ive in the

age of infor mation. Each year , thousands
of annotated games are published , filled
with valuable hints for the avid competi
tor. As far as we ' re concerned , the
precise technical advances are irrelev ant;
w hat matters here is how all this infor
mation is appropriated e xistentially .
When a player examines a new game in a
periodical , he takes in a certain amount
of clear , w ell-defi n e d te chnical data.
T hus he may have foun d th at on the tenth
move of a par ticular 1 i n e , he should play
Ne5 or else ... , Bg4 w i 1 1 g enerate unplea
sant threats; then , if the opponent should
meet Ne5 with this , he should play that ,
and if his opponent should play that , he
should try this. Specific moves li ke this
can be memorized by anyone , but can any of
the new ideas be appropriated i n a way
which benefits a player's existential
understanding?
In one sense , we've already answer ed
th is in the affirmative by assertin g th at
existential understanding does evolve , and
must therefore be comm un i cable fr om one
generation to the next. At the s am e ti me ,
however , it ' s w ell-k now n that chess
players don ' t study as i ntensely as they
compete. True , e veryone tr ies to simulate
their compe titive m ode of thought as
closely as possible w hen r evi ewi ng the
latest b ts of theory. This way , th ei r
exi stenti al un de rstan di n g i s em ploy ed , an d
r ecei ves ex p os ur e to a type of thought i t
200 Conteaporary Chess
may n o t h a v e c o mp l e t e l y ma s t e r e d . O n the
o th e r hand , if we a r e to accept the
portr a i t of c o n t e mp o r a r y che s s we have
d r aw n , a n e s s e n t i a l c om p on e n t i s m i s s ing
f r om the s o l i ta ry ma s te r ' s t h eo r e t i c a l
f r ame o f m i n d : adver s a r i a l respons i b i l
ity . Thu s a n a d d i t i o n a l c o mp o n e n t mu s t b e
i n t r o d u c e d t o a l l ow t h e c o n t e mp o r a r y c h e s s
s cho l a r the f u l l u s e o f h i s ex i s t e n t i a l
unde r s t a nd i ng : c ommu n a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y .
F o r the s a m e r ea s o n s i n t r o d u c e d i n the
ch a p t e r s on T a l and P e t r o s i a n , th i s c on
c e p t i s r en d e r e d n o n t r i v i a l b y t h e e s s en
t i a l l y s ub j e c t i ve nature o f respons i b i l
i ty . I t s h ou l d c om e a s n o s u r p r i s e t h a t a
mind i mm e r s e d i n a game i s mo s t k ee n l y
a wa r e o f h i s own unde r s t an d i ng , sec ond l y
hi s oppon e n t ' s unde r s t a n d i n g , and on l y
t h i r d t h e u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f o t he r s . Tho s e
c o n t e mp o r a r y ma sters who are abl e to
a cc e s s t h i s th i r d l e ve l o f r e s p o n s i b i 1 i t y
w i l l p e r p e t u a l l y e x p o s e t he i r m i n d s t o the
und e r s t and ing of o t he r l e a d i n g ma s te r s
t h r o u g h th e o r e t i c a l i n qu i ry , y i e l d i n g a n
o pp o r t u n i t y t o i mp r ov e th e i r t h o u g h t w h i ch
i n f i n i t e l y o u t we i ghs the m e r e a s s i m i l a t i o n
of t e c hn i c a l i n f o r m a t i on . Thu s t he y ' l l
d i s c ove r s t r i k i n g n e w i d e a s wh i ch wou l d
have p r ev i ou s l y e m e rg e d in a n o t he r ' s
hand s . F u r t h e rmo r e , they ' l l deve l o p a
h i gh l y i n d i v i d ua l , eclectic s t y l e - - o ne
" p a t ch e d t o g e t h e r " f r o m b i t s a n d p i e c e s o f
the s t r on g e s t m i n d s o f the d a y . It ' s in
th i s w a y t h a t I ' d l i k e t o c h a r a c t e r i z e t h e
current leade r in wo r l d che s s , Gary
K a s p a r ov ( 1 9 6 3 - ) .
Un f o r t u n a t e l y , all w e have t o g o on
he r e i s K a s p a r o v ' s r e p u t a t i o n a s the ou t
s t a n d i n g o p e n i n g the o r e t i c i a n o f a 1 1 t i m e ,
Kasparov 20 1
a s w e l l a s the gr e a t e r b r e a d th of his
s t y l e ( wh e n c omp a r e d t o F i s c h e r a n d K a r p ov
in p a r t i c u l a r ) . The p r o b l e m i s th a t , t o
g i ve o u r hy p o t h e s i s g r e a t e r cred i b i l i t y ,
we w ou l d n e e d t o t r a c e the g e n e s i s of
K a s p a r ov ' s o p e n i n g i n n o va t i o n s t o a e s t h e -
t i c - - not me r e l y t e c hn i c a l - - a s p e c t s of
o t he r e n c ou n t e r s . B u t th i s i s a b o o k i n
i t s e l f , s o f o r n o w we ' 1 1 s e t t l e f o r the
a dm i s s i o n t h a t t he s e r em a r k s a r e purely
s p e c u l a t i ve - - e v e n though t he y s e em to
round - o f f ou r s t u d y i n a ne a t , conc i s e
m a n ne r .
G i ve n t he s e d i f f i c u l t i e s , I ' l l r e s t r i c t
m y s e l f t o o n e e x a mp l e o f a K a s p a r ov i n n o
v a t i o n t h a t s t a n d s o u t by i t s i n d i v i d u a l
i t y - - by i t s r a d i c a l d i s t i n c t i o n f r om a l l
p r ev i o u s t e ch n i c a l i dea s i n the open i ng
c on c e r ne d .
Match Tournament of USSR Teams

Moscow , 1 9 8 1
Kasparov Romani shin

1 . d4 Nf6
2 . c4 g6
3 . Nc3 d5
4 . cd Nd5
5 . e4 Nc3
6 . be Bg7
7 . Nf3 c5
8 . Be3 Qa5
9 . Qd2 Nc6
1 0 . Re l cd
1 1 . cd Qd2 +
1 2 . Kd2 0-0
Out o f th i s s e e m i n g l y i n no c uou s p o s i -
ti on , K a s p a rov manages t o s c a r e - up a l a rm-
ing compl i c a t i ons .
1 3 . d5 Rd8
1 4 . Ke l !
T h i s i n nova t i on p u t s the B l a c k k n i ght
on c6 i n an e mb a r r a s s i n g s i t u a t i o n , f o r i f
e i the r 1 4 . , Ne S ? ;
. . 1 5 . N e 5 , B e 5 ; 1 6 . f 4 , Bg 7 ;
1 7 . Kf2 ( K a s p a r ov ) , or 1 4 . . . . , Nb4 ? ;
1 5 . Bd 2 ! , Na 6 ; 1 6 . B c 4 ( K a s p a r ov ) , Wh i t e i s
clearly better . Ove r the boa rd ,
R o m a n i sh i n f inds the mo s t te s t ing
cont i nu a t i on .
14 . . . . Na5 !
S u d d en l y , w i th . . . , f 5 a n d . . . , e 6 i n the
a i r , t h e Wh i t e c e n t e r h a s b e c o m e f r a g i l e .
For instance , 1 5 . B b 5 ? , f 5 ! ( K a s p a r ov )
a c c om p l i s h e s n o th i n g , and 1 5 . Rc7? , e6 ;
1 6 . Bg 5 , Rd 7 ( K a s p a r ov ) l eaves Wh i t e ' s
p i e c e s s c a t t e r e d purpo s e l e s s l y a c r o s s the
boa r d . Luck i ly , K a s p a r ov d i s c o ve r s an
i n t e rm e d i a t e m ove tha t t e mp o r a r i l y con
f u s e s t he B l a c k a r my .
1 5 . Bg5 ! Bf6? !
Mo r e t o t h e p o i n t i s 1 5 . . , Bd 7 ! , a f te r
.
wh i ch Wh i t e mu s t i n ve s t t i me count e r i ng
B l a c k ' s th r e a t s a l on g t h e c - f i l e .
1 6 . Bd2 b6
Kasparov 203
W i th hi s nex t thr ee mov e s , K a s p a r ov

a l mo s t ma g i c a l l y m ou l d s a n a e s t h e t i c a l l y
r a n dom c o l l e c t i on of p ieces i nto an
a gg r e s s i v e l y c o o p e r a t i v e u n i t .
1 7 . Rc7 ! Bg4
Mo r e c i r c um s p e c t w a s t h e mo d e s t 1 7 ,
. .
Rd7 .
1 8 . Ba6 e6 !
The mom e n t of t r u th ; the o n s e t o f
s t rugg l e .
1 9 . Ng5 ! .
U n e xp e c t e d l y , f 7 h a s b e c om e the f o c a l
p o i n t o f a b l o s s om i n g i n i t i a t i ve . I f now
19 , ed ? ;
20 . Nf 7 , Rd7 ; 2 1 . Nh 6 + , K g 7 ;
2 2 . R c 8 ! ( K a s p a r ov ) , Wh i t e w i n s e a s i l y .
19 . Be5
20 . R f 7 ! ed
The a pp a r e n t l y e mb a r r a s s i n g 2 0 . . , h6 ?
.
a c c omp l i s he s n o t h i n g o n a cc o u n t o f 2 1 . N f 3 .
2 1 . f4 ! . . .
Yet ano the r r e s e rv e c om e s out of
n o whe r e t o k e e p the Wh i t e p i e c e s c oo p e r a -
t i ve .
21 . Bg7 !
A f u r t he r m i r a c l e b r i n g s the k i n g r o o k
into the fray in the a l t e r n a t i ve l i ne
2 1 . . . . , Bd4 ? ; 2 2 . Rh 7 , N c 4 ; 2 3 . e 5 , Re 8 ;
2 4 . h3 ! , Be 5 ; 25 . fe , ReS+ ; 2 6 . Kf 2 , Rf8+ ;
2 7 . Kg 3 , Nd 2 ; 2 8 . hg ! , R g 5 ; 2 9 . Rh 8 + , K f 7 ;
3 0 . R l h 7 + , K e 8 ; 3 1 . Bb S + e t c .
22 . f5 ! ? .
I t wa s l a t e r d i s c ov e r e d t h a t 2 2 . h 3 ! i s
s u p e r i o r , l e a d i n g e v e n t ua l l y t o a n en d g a m e
e d g e f o r Wh i t e . I n a n y eve n t , t h e a e s t he
t i c con s i s t e n c y o f 2 2 . f 5 ! ? i s mo s t a t t r a c
t i ve .
22 . de?
The d e c i s i v e e r r o r . B l a c k s h ou l d h a v e
pl ayed 22 . , gf ! ;
. 2 3 . h 3 ! , Bh 5 ; 2 4 . Rg7+ ,
K g 7 ; 2 5 . N e 6 + , K f 6 , so th a t a f t e r 2 6 . e f ( a s
i n t e n d e d b y K a s p a r ov ) , B l a c k c ou l d r e l i e ve
the p r e s s u r e w i th 2 6 . . , Re S ; 2 7 . g4 , Re 6 + ! ;
.
2 8 . f e , Bg6 .
2 3 . Ba5 ba
24 . Bc4 Bc3+ !
25 . Kf2 e3+ !
2 6 . Kg3 Be5+
2 7 . Kg4 Rd4+
2 8 . Kh3 Rc4
2 9 . f6
and d e s p i t e h i s r e s ou r c e f u l n e s s ,
B l a c k wa s n o w f o r c e d t o g i ve u p h i s b i s h o p
f o r t h e p awn on f 6 b e c au s e 2 9 . . . . , R c 7 ;
3 0 . Rc 7 , Bc 7 ; 3 1 . f 7 + , Kh8 ; 3 2 . Ne 6 , Bd 6 ; 3 3 . Re l
w ou l d be d e va s t a t i n g . So , a f te r s om e
f u r th e r a d v e n t u r e s , .
Whi te Won
A s m e n t i o n e d a b ove , o n e w o u l d h a v e t o
r e l a t e th i s g a m e t o t h e a e s t h e t i c t r en d s
o f t h e t i m e t o c o n f i r m t h e hy p o t h e s i s o f
c o mmu n a l r e s p o n s i b i 1 i t y . On the o t he r
hand , the i nexpl i cabl e s ou r c e of
K a s p a r ov ' s p l a y , c o u p l e d w i th h i s w e a l th
of f r esh open i ng ideas ( he r e as else
whe r e ) , p r ov i d e a t t r a c t i ve c o r r o b o r a t i o n -
i f n o t c o n f i rrn a t i o n - - o f o u r t h e o r y .
The r e a r e f a r t o o m a n y f e a s i b l e wa y s t o
o p e n a che s s g a m e f o r a n y o n e t o m e m o r i z e
them a l l . Adm i t te d ly , i t ' s p o s s i b l e th a t
o n e d a y o p e n i n g t he o r y w i l l d e ve l o p t o t h e
p o i n t whe r e e v e n we l l - ve r s e d i n t e r n a t i o n a l
p l aye r s wi l l abandon hope o f an a dvan t age
a t t h e ou t s e t . S t i 1 1 , t he r e w i 1 1 a l wa y s
be n e w l i n e s t o t r y - - l i ne s tha t may not
t e ch n i c a l l y i mp r ove t h e o r y , b u t n e ve r the
l e s s cha l l en g e the opponent ' s exi s t e n t i a l
und e r s t and i n g i n a new , u n i que s t yl e . The
Kasparov 205
q u e s t i on , t he r e f o r e , i s n ' t whe the r che s s

w i l l e v e r b e p l a y e d - o u t , b u t w he t h e r t h e r e
w i l l a l wa y s b e ma s t e r s w i th a f r e sh p e r -
s p e c t i ve on the game .
31 . overvi ew
Thr ough o u t the b o o k , I h a v e t r i e d t o

empha s i z e t h e f a c t t h a t n o n e o f m y p r i n
c i p a l i d e a s a r e a b s o l u t e l y t r u e , bu t th a t
the y merely c om e r e a s on a b l y close to
ch a r a c t e r i z i n g the e vo l u t i on o f e x i s t en
tial und e rs t a n d i ng . Before procee d i ng
w i th the s umm a t i on , I w i 1 1 c l a r i f y th i s
p o i n t by d r aw i n g a n a n a l o g y w i t h t h e w o r k
o f Fr eud .
T r a d i t i o n a l l y , r a t i o n a l i s t ph i l o s o ph e r s
h a ve p r o c ee d e d c a r e f u l l y : T h e y ' ve c l e a r l y
d e f i ned key t e rm s , p r ov e n a s s e r t i on s
b e f o r e p r o n ou n c i n g t he m , a n d s o on . All
t h i s s ou n d s f i n e o n t h e s u r f a c e , b u t a f t e r
t wo t h ou s a n d years of r i g o r ou s t h o u g ht
fai led to produce even one p o s i t i ve ,
abs o l u te ly true i d ea , N i e t z s che s te pp e d
f o rw a r d a n d a r g u e d t h a t t he r e a r e n o t r u e
m o d e l s o f t h i n g s 1 i k e t h e huma n m i n d , a n d
t he r e f o r e t h e s e a r ch f o r t h e g r e a t r i d d l e
o f t h e u n i ve r s e i s i n v a i n . As a result ,
N i e t z s ch e s tee red awa y f r o m s y s t em a t i c
p h i l o s o p h y , a n d b e c a m e a th i n k e r p r i ma r i l y
conce rned w i t h e t h i c s - - w i t h wha t m a n k i n d
i s 11 s u pp o s e d 11 t o d o now tha t t he r e a r e no
a b s o l u t e s to c l i n g t o .
F r om s i m i l a r o r i g i n s , F r e ud move d in
anothe r d i rect i on . C e r t a i n l y , he w a s o pe n
t o the p o s s i b i l i t y th a t s t ud e n t s o f the
m i n d a r e g r a pp l i n g w i t h the u n f a th o m a b l e -
th a t a n y m o d e l o f the p s yche he p r o du c e d
m i gh t be necess a r i ly f l awed . N e v e r the
l e s s , he d i d c o n s t r u c t m o d e l s - - no t a cc o r d
i n g t o r i g o r o u s , ph i l o s o ph i c a l m e t h o d , b u t
a cc o r d i n g t o wh a t eve r r ou g h l y f i t t h e d a t a
o f h u m a n b eh a v i o r . F r e u d wa s n ' t i n t e r e s t -
overview 207
ed i n p r e c i s e l y d e f i n i n g the c on c e p t o f
t h e u n c on s c i o u s , o r w i th p r ov i n g t h a t o u r
" s ense o f s e l f " o r " e g o " i s g r oun d e d i n
t ruth . S t i 1 1 , he c on s t r u c t e d m o d e l s w i t h
t he s e e l em e n t s th a t e x p l a i n e d a sp e c t s of
the m i nd . In sho rt , o n l y by a b a n d o n i n g
t h e q u e s t f o r a bs o l u t e t r u t h d i d i t b e c om e
p o s s i b l e t o s a y s om e t h i n g po s i t i ve about
the p s yche . F r om th i s ori g in , s ev e r a l
p a t h s a r e o p e n t o t h e m od e r n p s y c h o l o g i s t ,
o f wh i ch I w i l l b r i e f l y exam i n e t w o o f the
d e ge n e r a t e v a r i e t y .
The f i r s t i s t h a t o f r a t i o n a l ph i l o
s ophy - - wh a t m i ght prope r ly be ca ! l ed
c r i t i gu e . Thu s i t ' s b e e n a r g u e d t h a t t h e
n o t i o n o f u n c o n s c i ou s t h ou g h t s a n d d e s i r e s
is nonsens i ca l , and t he r e f o r e F r eud ' s
a s s e r t i on th a t d r e a m s h a ve a l a t e n t c on
tent is u n f ou n d e d . Th i s a pp r o a ch has
truth on i t s s i d e , bu t - - l i k e mo s t of
mod e r n ph i l o s o phy - - i t asserts n o t h i ng .
Wh a t ' s p e r t i n e n t i n t h i s c a s e i s t h e f a c t
t h a t p r ev i o u s l y n o n - c o n s c i o u s i d e a s have
o f t e n c om e t o l i ght ( i n i n d i v i d ua l p s y ch o
a n a l y s i s ) wh i ch p r ov i d e a c o n s i s t e n t , u s e
ful p i c t u r e a s the l a t e n t c o n t e n t o f a
g i ve n d r e a m . O n the o t h e r h a n d , a c r i t i
c a l e y e c ou l d p i c k a w a y a t s u c h a t h e o r y
u n t i 1 t h e r e w a s n o t h i ng l e f t ; th i s m i ght
l e a d to a t r u e r m o d e l , bu t d o e s i t f i t t h e
data bet ter?
A s e c on d p a t h i s t h a t t a k e n b y p o pu l a r
p s y ch o l o g y . H e r e , the hum a n m i n d i s a l l
t o o - o f t e n c h a r a c t e r i z e d a s a n e n t i t y wh i ch
i s " r e a l l y " b e n e vo l e n t , c r e a t i ve , a n d m a n y
o t he r wo r. d e r f u l t h i n g s . Whe r e a s th i s c e r
ta inly sells we l l , it ha r d l y fits the
data . Thus p a c i f i s t s a r e f on d of r e j ect
i n g t h e n o t i o n th a t h u m a n s h a v e a n a g g r e s -
208 overvi ew
s i ve i n s t i nct , bu t t he y fail to o ffer

a n o t h e r m o d e l wh i ch e x p l a i n s t h o u s a n d s o f
y e a r s o f wa r ; mo r a l i s t s s k o f f a t t h e i d e a
that sex pl ays a c e n t r a l r o l e i n h um a n
p s y cho l o g y , c onven i e n t ly i gnor i n g the
state of m o d e r n m a s s m e d i a ; t h e c u l t o f
s e l f - e s t e em r e f u s e s t o a l l ow g u i 1 t a p l a c e
i n t h e i r o f f i c i a l d o gm a , y e t t h e y f a i l t o
r e p l a c e i t w i t h a n y th i n g th a t c ou l d c i v i l
i z e a spec i e s a s s e l f i sh a s homo s a p i en s .
The m i n d , l i k e the wo r l d , i s n o t a l wa y s
wh a t w e wou l d 1 i k e i t t o b e , s o p o pu l a r
p s y cho l o g y h a s m ou l d e d i t i n t o a m a r k e t
abl e product .
I don ' t mean to g i ve t h e i mp r e s s i o n
th a t I ' m a d i e - h a r d F r e u d i a n . I ' ve on l y
cho s e n t o p r e s e n t h i s c a s e b e c a u s e c omm o n
m i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g s i n th a t s p he r e c ou l d b e
a p p l i e d in s p i r i t t o the g r e a t e r p a r t o f
t h i s wo r k . I h o p e t h i s h a s c l a r i f i e d why
I d o n ' t c a r e whe t h e r c o u n t e r - ex a mp l e s c a n
be p r o duc e d w h i ch refute my f in d i ngs .
Sure , T a r r a s ch created ma s t e r p i eces
s u gg e s t i ve o f i n te gr a t i on , a n d C a p a bl a n c a
p r o d u c e d g a m e s i n t h e s t y l e o f A l e kh i n e ' s
i n i t i a t i ve . Wh a t m a t t e r s , h oweve r , is
whe t h e r my cha r a c t e r i z a t i o n s fit the
d a t a - - h o w w e l l t h e y a g r e e w i th t h e o ve r a l l
a e s t he t i c s o f the m a s t e r s ' s t y l e s c o n c e r n
ed . S o l e t ' s b r i e f l y r e c a p i t u l a t e wh a t ' s
been s a i d wi th a m i l d l y cr i t i c a l eye .
P r i o r t o P h i l i d o r , the r e r e a l l y i s ve r y
l i t t l e e v i d e n c e o f a n y c he s s t a l e n t b e y o n d
a f l a i r f o r c omb i n a t i o n s , thu s ou r h y p o
thes i s of the ex i s t e n t i a l c omb i n a t i ve
u n d e r s t a n d i n g p r ov i d e s a g o o d f i t t o the
data .
The n , a f t e r a p r e d o m i n a n t l y t e ch n i c a l
i n t e r l ud e w i th P h i l i d o r , we ch a r a c t e r i z e d
overview 209
B ou r d o nn a i s , S t aunton , and Ander s s en as

h a v i n g v e r y 1 i t t l e a b i 1 i t y ou t s i d e t h e a r t
of attack . C o n s i d e r i n g the a e s t h e t i c s o f
t he i r g a m e s , thi s a lso fits the d a t a
we l l - - a l though S t a u n t on o cc a s i o n a l l y
essayed i dea s w h i ch ant i c i pated later
d e ve l o pm e n t s . Mo r e p a r t i c u l a r l y , S t a u n t on
a n d A n d e r s s e n ' s r e f i n e me n t s t o t h e c o n c e p t
of a tt a ck ( vu l ne r a b i 1 i t y a n d a n t a g o n i s m ,
r e s p e c t i ve l y ) a r e , o f c o u r s e , n o t a p p l i c
a b l e t o a l l t h e i r g a m e s , bu t t he s e i d e a s
do h i ghl i ght p r om i n e n t f e a t u r e s o f t h e i r
r e s pe c t i ve s t y l es .
R o u n d i n g o f f o u r s t u d y o f t h e r om a n t i c s
i s Mo r p hy , who s e r e pu t a t i o n a s a n i n s t i n c
t i ve p o s i t i o n a l p l a y e r i s we l l - s e r v e d by
o u r m o d e l o f the g l o b a l ex i s t e n t i a l u n d e r
stand i ng .
Unt i l th i s po int , one pr imary hypo
t he s i s ha s ca rr i e d the ent i r e ana lys i s :
t h e ex i s t e n c e o f exi s t ent i a l und e r s tand
i ng . B u t n o w - - a f t e r a p r e p a r a t o r y ch a p t e r
o n P a u l s e n - - we f o u n d t h e n e e d f o r a s e c o n d
f u n d a m e nt a l a s s u mp t i o n : th a t t h e e x i s t e n
t i a l a n d t e chn i c a l l e v e l s o E u n d e r s t a n d i n g
c a n i n t e r - r e l a t e a n d c on f u s e e a ch o t he r -
tha t s t r a t eg i c ma s k i ng occu r s . Th i s
d o e s n ' t s e e m a 1 1 th a t f a n t a s t i c a n a s s e r
t i o n f o r t wo r e a s o n s : ( 1 ) In our day-to
d a y l i ve s , i t ' s c omm on p l a c e th a t l o g i
_ -
p oug!:t.. _ ti n d e m o t i o n s a r e a t o d d s , a n d ( 2 )
Mo r p h y ' s style c l e a r l y a.nti c i p a t e d the
f u n d a m e n t a l t e n e t s of che s s a s s c i e n c e , s o
i t ' s r e a s on a b l e th a t t e c h n i c a l i d e a s r o s e
o u t o f a p r ev i o u s l y ex i s t e n t exi s tent i a l
u n d e r s t a n d i n g - - t he r e by pu s h i n g i t i n t o the
background . F u r the r , t h e e vo l u t i o n of
s t r a te g i c ma s k ing as a p r o bl em c an be
i n te l l i g i bl y t raced through Ste i ni tz ,
210 Overv i ew
T a r r a s ch , T ch i g o r i n , a n d L a s k e r - - e a ch o f
whom e mp l o y e d h i s own u n i q u e a b i l i t i e s i n
d e a l i n g w i th t he s e t wo l e v e l s . T o wh a t
d e g r e e i n t e gr a t i on m a y have been ant i c i
p a t e d by a n y o f t he s e ma s t e r s , I l e a v e i t
t o the r e a d e r t o dee ide ; in any case ,
t he r e d o e s a pp e a r t o b e a g en u i ne t r en d
h e r e t o wa r d r e c o g n i t i o n o f s t r a t e g i c m a s k
i ng .
O u r n e x t h y p o th e s i s wa s t h a t o f i n t e
g r a t i o n - - t he i d e a th a t ou r t wo pr i nc i pa l
l e ve l s o f t h o u g h t c a n r e l a t e p o s i t i ve l y ,
th a t t h e y c a n b e e n t e r t a i ne d s i mu l t a n e o u s
lY I n m a n y w a y s , t h e cha p t e r s o n Rub i n
s t e i n a n d C a p a b l a n c a a r e the f o c a l p o i n t
o f t h e b o o k , p r ov i d i n g a p e r f e c t t r a n s i
t i on f r om the ea r l y cl a s s i ca l s ch oo l
( t e chn i c a l s t rategy ) to A l e kh i n e ( th e
r e c o g n i t i on o f t r a n s i e n t s t r a teg i c r ea l
i t i e s v i a res pons i b i l i t y and the i n i t i a
t i ve ) . Wh a t ' s mo r e , g i v en the n u m e r ou s
f o rm s o f i n t e g r a t i o n tha t h a v e a pp e a r e d
throughout the ea r l y Sov i et S ch oo l , it
s e e m s a l l b u t i mp o s s i b l e t h a t th i s s a m e
d a t a s h ou l d b e exp l a i n a b l e w i t h a d i f f e r
ent concept .
R e s p o n s i b i l i t y ( a s we l l a s the a c c om
p a n y i n g a n x i e t y a n d f r e e d om ) wa s ou r n e x t
m a j o r bu i ! d i n g bl ock . After a pre! iminary
f o r mu l a t i on i n the ch a p t e r o n N i m z o v i ch ,
we emp l o y e d th i s c o n c e p t a s t h e p s y c h o l o
g i c a l gr ound o f A l e k h i ne ' s f e e l f o r the
i n i t i a t i ve - - th i s by wa y of i n t e gr a t i on
w i th p u r e l y s u b j e c t i v e t r a n s i e n t s t r a t e g i c
rea l i t i e s . A s h a s b e e n r e p e a t e d l y emph a -
s i zed , the i n i t i a t i ve c ou l d h a ve b e en
presented a s an " ungr ound e d " var i e t y of
i n t e gr a t i on ( i n d e p en d e n t of r espons i b i l
i ty ) , but th i s wou l d have left us no
overvi ew 211
g r o u n d s f o r why a s e n s e f o r t h e o p po n e n t ' s
i n i t i a t i v e s h o u l d b e c ome p r eva l e n t th i r t y
years l a te r . Once aga in , a pr i nc i pa l
h y p o th e s i s i s c o r r o b o r a t e d by t h e wa y i t
f i t s i n t o o u r evo l u t i on a s a who l e . On
t h e n e g a t i ve s i d e , h o w e ve r , th i s pha s e o f
t h e a n a l y s i s p r e s e n t s A l e kh i ne mo r e un i
d i me n s i o n a l l y t h a n h i s s t y l e a c t u a l l y wa s .
W i th t h e n e c e s s a r i l y i n c r e a s i n g e mp h a s i s
on s p ecul a t i ve psycho l og i c a l concepts
( respons ibi l i ty , a nx i e t y , s ubj e c t i v i t y ,
e t c . ) , the ch a r a c t e r i z a t i o n s beg i n t o be
mo r e s t r a i ne d - - b u t t h e y d o f i n d a p l a c e i n
t h e c o r e o f t he g r e a t m a s t e r s ' s t y l e s .
The c on c e p t o f s u b j e c t / o b j e c t i n t e gr a
t i o n i s , o f c ou r s e , d e r i ve d f r om i n t e g r a
t i on p r op e r - - i t s d i s t i n g u i sh i n g f ea ture
being no th i n g m o r e th a n a p s ycho l og i c a l
e mp h a s i s on t h e r a d i c a l d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n
t h e s u b j e c t i ve c on c e p t o f p i e c e c oo p e r a
- -o
t i on --aria: b} e c t i ve s t r a t e g i c r e a l i t i e s .
T hTs is cons equen t l y not a pr i nc i pa l
h yp o t h e s i s , b u t i t d o e s he l p t o e x p l a i n
B o t v i n n i k ' s u n u s ua l s t r e n g t h i n i mb a l a n c e d
s t r a teg i c pos i t i ons . Fur the r co rrobora
t i o n wa s f ou n d i n t h e c h a p t e r s o n S m y s l ov ,
Bo l e s l avsky , and Brons t e i n --a l l of whom
i n t e gr a te d mod e rn , a e s thet i c a l l y p l e a s ing
p i e c e c oo p e r a t i o n w i th o b j e c t i v e s t r a t e g i c
rea1 iti es . I a m prepared t o adm i t , once
aga i n , tha t t he s e ch a r a c t e r i z a t i o n s on l y
f i t an a s pec t o f the p l a y e r s ' s t y l e s i n
que s t i on ; b u t a g a i n , t he s e ch a r a c t e r i z a
t i o n s o c c u p y c en t r a l r o l e s i n t h e d e ve l o p
ment of the mod e r n game .
A f t e r a f i n a l i n t e r l ud e t o d i s c u s s T a l ,
w e i nve s t i g a t e d a t r e n d i n t he s t y l e s o f
P e t r o s i a n , K o r chn o i , a n d S p a s s k y t ow a r d a
s e n s i t i v i t y o f the o pp o n e n t ' s u n d e r s t a n d -
212 overvi ew
i n g - - e s p e c i a l l y the i n i t i a t i ve . Th u s the
hypothe s i s of a d ve r s a r i a l r e s po n s i b i l i t y
f i t s t h e d a t a he r e t o o , a l th o u g h t h e w i d e r
s t y l e s o f T a l a n d K o r chn o i r em a i n u n e x -
pl a i ne d .
A e s t h e t i c a l l y , t h e a n a l y s i s o f c o n t em
p o r a r y c he s s c l o s e s n e a t l y w i t h a p o r t r a i t
of F i s c he r , Ka rpov , and i n t e r a c t i ve
r e s po n s i b i 1 i t y . I t m i g h t b e o b j e c t e d th a t
b o t h o f t he s e n e a r - p e r f e c t m a s t e r s ' s t y l e s
a r e b e y o n d cha r a c t e r i z a t i on , a s mu ch of
th e i r s u p e r i o r i t y s t e m s f r o m s u p e r i o r c om
p e t i t i ve ch a r a c t e r . Bu t t h i s i s p r e c i s e l y
whe r e o u r m o d e l f i t s t h e d a t a m o s t c l e a r
ly .
F i n a l l y , the cha p t e r on K a s p a r ov h a s
r e m a i ne d pur e ly s p e c u l a t i ve , so the
hy p o t h e s i s of c ommu n a l r e s po n s i b i l i t y mu s t
awa i t a future ana l ys i s of a e s the t i c
t r e n d s i n m o d e r n o p en i n g t h e o r y .
A p s y cho l o g i c a l theory is a t t r a c t i ve
i n s o f a r a s i t e mp l o y s a s f ew h y p o t h e s e s a s
p o s s i b l e t o f i t the d a t a . I n the p r e s ent
c a s e , w e h a v e u s e d s e ven pr i n c i pa l i d e a s
a s f ou n d a t i o n b l o c k s : exi s t e n t i a l un d e r
stand i ng , st rateg i c masking , i n tegra t i on ,
respons i b i l i ty , adve r s a r i a l respons i b i l
ity , i n t e r a c t i ve r e s p on s i b i l i t y , and
c ommu n a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y . I f a n y o n e s h ou l d
d e ve l o p a m o d e l wh i ch c h a r a c t e r i z e s t h e s e
ma s t e r s ' thought in a s i mp l e r , mo r e
c o mm on - s e n s e f a s h i o n , t h e n my th e o r y w i l l
have b e c om e o b s o l e t e . U n t i l th a t t i me ,
howeve r , m a y t h e s e i d e a s b e j u d g e d o n how
we l l they f i t t h e d a t a - - t he a e s th e t i c s o f
the g r e a t m a s t e r s ' g a m e s a s a wh o l e ; t o
th i s e n d , I t h r ow m y s e l f o n t h e m e r c y o f
the c h e s s p u b l i c , a n d t r u s t t h a t t h e y ' 1 1
p r o ve mo r e d i sce r n i ng than the many
Overv i ew 213
p a t r o n s o f p o p p s y cho l o g y .
- - C a ry Ut t e rberg
July , 1 9 94
Append ix 1
O n the R a t i n g o f C he s s p l a y e r s
A f e w c omm e n t s on the l e g i t i m a c y o f
c ompa r i n g p a s t a n d p r e s e n t p l a y e r s v i a the
E l o r a t i ng s y s t em .
A proper s t a t i s t i c a l s y s t em c an ' t be
c r i t i c i z e d o n the b a s i s o f p u r e n u mb e r s
because e ve r y th i n g is c o n s i s t e n t - - e ve r y
11
th i n g a d d s up " . Ma thema t i c a l mode ls ,
howeve r , a r e a l wa y s p o t e n t i a l l y vu l n e r a b l e
a t the po i nt whe r e t h e y " m e e t " r e a l i t y .
Thu s i t ' s he r e t h a t I w i l l focus on a
pecu l i a r i t y o f Pro f e ssor E l o ' s sys tem .
I h a ve c o n s i s t e n t l y a r g u e d th a t exi s
t e n t i a l u n d e r s t a n d i n g h a s evo l v e d t h r o u g h
ou t t h e h i s t o r y o f c he s s - - th a t t h e u n c o n
s c i ou s thought proc e s ses o f the l e ad ing
m a s t e r s h a ve p r o g r e s s e d f r om y e a r t o y e a r .
I f th i s i s i n d e e d t h e c a s e , t h e n n o t on l y
does the future offer more t e c hn i c a l
i n f o rma t i o n t o c a rr y i nt o ba t t l e , but a l s o
a b e t t e r f e e l f o r t h e g a me , a m o r e c a p a b l e
i n tu i t i on - - a s t r on g e r exi s t ent i a l under
s t a nd i ng . I n th i s s e n s e , w e ' r e j u s t i f i e d
i n a s s e r t i n g th a t p l a y e r s o f the p r e s e n t
are , gene r a l l y s p e a k i n g , s t r on g e r than
p l a ye r s o f the pa st . Thu s i f Mo r p h y wa s
a b l e t o t i me - t r a v e l t o 1 9 9 4 , but me r e l y
memo r i z e d the t e chn i c a l k n ow l e d g e o f t o d a y
( t he c o r r e c t open i ng mov e s , i n p a r t i c u
l a r ) , h e wou l d s t i l l b e a n n i h i l a t e d b y a l l
the t o p gr a ndm a s t e r s . B u t wha t i f Mo r phy
d i d n ' t o n l y t a k e in th i s k n ow l e dg e a s a
c omp u t e r wo u l d , a n d a s s i m i l a t e d i t i n a
m a n n e r th a t ch a n g e d h i s ex i s t e n t i a l u n d e r
s t a n d i ng i n t o a m o r e m o d e r n f o rm ?
I h a ve n o d o u b t th a t Mo r p h y wou l d h a ve
Append ix 1 215
d o ne h i m s e l f j u s t i c e i f h e h a d b e e n b o r n
in 1 9 6 0 , and had an ex i s t e n t i a l u n d e r
s t a n d i n g f o r m e d i n a m od e r n che s s a t mo s
phe r e . O n t h e o t he r h a n d I ' m h e s i t a n t t o
a dm i t th a t , i f h e b r o u g h t a m a t u r e n i n e
teenth century unde r s t an d i n g into today ' s
w o r l d , he c ou l d t r a n s f o r m i t i n t o a c o m
p l e t e l y e f f e c t i ve m o d e r n f r a m e o f m i n d .
We ' r e speak i ng he r e of f e e l i ng s and
i n tu i t i on , and i t ' s by no mea n s c l e a r that
s u ch t h i n g s c a n b e e j e c t e d f r om t h e m i n d
and c a s u a l l y r e p l a c e d t h e wa y t e chn i c a l
da ta can . It ' s mani f e s t ly u n c l e a r wh a t
exi s tent i a l und e r s t a n d i ng i s , whe r e it
c om e s f r o m , a n d h o w i t wo r k s ; thu s w e h a v e
n o bu s i n e s s c l a i m i n g tha t an e s t a b l i shed
u n d e r s t a n d i n g c a n t r a n s f o r m i t s e l f a cc o r d
i ng t o a n e w m o d e o f t hought .
On a l e s s d r a s t i c s c a l e ( th a n Mo r phy
v s . 1 9 9 4 ) , we m i gh t a l s o wo n d e r h o w we l l a
ve t e r a n ' s u n d e r s t a n d i n g w i l l a d a p t t o new
i d e a s ; m e a n wh i l e , we k n o w tha t the mo s t
t a l ented young un d e r s t a n d i n g w i 1 1 f o rm
itself in as e f f e c t i ve a m a n n e r a s p o s
s i bl e . C omb i n i n g t he s e t wo o b s e rv a t i o n s ,
we f i nd a po t e n t i a l - - i f not probab l e -
a d v a n t a g e o n the s i d e o f y ou th . And i f
t h i s h y p o t h e s i s i s i n d e e d t r u e , i t wou l d
m e a n tha t y ou n g p l a y e r s have a b u i 1 t - i n
e d g e ove r t he i r o l d e r o pp o n e n t s ; a d m i t t e d
l y , b o th a r e a b l e t o a s s i m i l a t e n e w t e ch
n i c a l i n f o rm a t i o n e q u a l l y we l l , b u t o n l y
o n e c a n c e r t a i n l y c on f o r m t o the un d e r
l y i n g e x i s t e n t i a l un d e r s t and i n g .
For t he s e r ea s o n s , I s u gg e s t it ' s
po s s i bl e tha t E l o r a t i n gs shou l d i nc r ea s e
f r om g e ne r a t i o n t o g e n e r a t i on . Pe rhaps ,
yea r a f ter yea r , younger pl ayers rea l l y do
b e c ome mo r e t a l e n t e d , s o t he y d e s e r ve t o
216 Append ix 1
b e h i ghe r r a t e d . A n d a s che s s i n f o rm a t i on
ha s m u l t i p l i e d , t h e exch a n g e o f ex i s t e n
t i a l a b i l i t y h a s t a k e n o n a f a s t , a l mo s t
frant i c , pace . S o tha t f i n a l l y , i n the
m i d s t o f a ch a o t i c " wh i r l p oo l " o f t r a n s -
f o rma t i o n , a p r ev i o u s l y un f a thomabl e
numb e r of t e enage gr a n d m a s t e r s have
a p p e a r e d , t r a n s c e n d i n g a l l p r ev i o u s r a t i n g
r e c o r d s th a n k s t o t h e i r YQJ:!th_fJJ. l__ a b i 1 i t:Y
- ---- - -- -
t o a Q, gQt _ Q . new _y i:; o_r t h i n k i f1_g

_ _ _ _ _ ___
A m I c l a i m i n g tha t t he -gra n d m a s t e r s o f
today have more r a w t a l en t than M o r phy
did? B y n o m e a n s ; I r e p e a t th a t I b e l i eve
Mo r phy c o u l d h a ve he l d hi s own i f b o r n
toda y . I a m c l a i m i n g tha t t o d a y 1 s u n d e r
stand ing is i nhe r e n t l y supe r i o r to the
p a s t tha n k s t o t h e p r o g r e s s i ve n a t u r e o f
na t ur a l s e l ect i on . Hence I ' ll concl ude
w i th wha t all hone s t i nqu i ry s h ou l d - - a
que s t i on : C a n the young g r a n dma s t e r s o f
t o d a y c o n t i n u e t o m ou l d th e i r un d e r s t a n d
i n g s i n t h e m o s t e f f e c t i ve wa y p o s s i b l e ,
o r w i l l the ch a n g i n g t i m e s l e a ve t h e m , i n
turn , repl aced b y more pl i a bl e m i n d s ?
Append ix 2
O n T r a i n i n g Ex i s t e n t i a l Un d e r s t a n d i n g
The p r i m a r y p u r p o s e o f tr. i s b o o k h a s
b e e n t o d r aw a p o r t r a i t o f the gr e a te s t
ma s t e r s ' ex i s t en t i a l underst and i ngs . To
wha t ev e r d e g r e e the r e a d e r may f e e l I ' ve
s v c c e e d e d , i t ' s c l e a r t h a t t h e m e r e k n ow l
edge o f the pr e s ent w o r k c a n ' t i n c r ea s e
an) one ' s ta lent ; for our central hypo
t h e s i s ha s b E e n tha t t t e " i n ne r me ch a n i s m "
of the che E' s ma s t e r ' s m i n d cannot be
p r e c i s e l y f o rmu l a t e d .
S i n c e t h e r e ' s n o f o rmu l a f o r how one
c a n s e e O O d mov e s w i th h i s e x i s t e n t i a l
unde r s t a n d i n g , we ' r e f o rc e d t o a d m i t tha t
t he r e ' s a p a s s i ve e l em e n t of che s s
t h o u g h t ; a t r e gu l a r i n t e r va l s d u r i n g p l a y ,
e ve r y s t r on g p l a y e r mu s t " s i t b a c k " , " t a k e
a b r e a th " , and s u rve y the boa rd l i ke a
l a n d s c a p e - - the wa y a p e r s o n i n a n a i r p l a ne
m i ght s p ot a p a r t i c u l a r l andma rk w i thou t
c o n s c i o u s l y e x am i n i n g eve r y b i t o f s e n s o r y
i n pu t . Al though th i s proce s s occ u r s p r i
m a r i l y u n c o n s c i ou s l y , i t ' s s t i l l t r u e tha t
ex- i _s t e n t i a l - u- -n d e r s- t a n d i ng.. , l i k e aes thet i c
a p p r e c i a t i on 1 s e s se nt i a 1 l y p a s s i ve .
--
O f c o u r s e , the a b i l i t y t o t h i rik c l e a r l y
a n d a c t i ve l y o n a t e c h n i c a l l e ve l - - a cc o r d
i n g t o a - - w e l l - d e f i n e d a l g o r i thm - - i s a p r e -
r equi s i te f o r - -eiil-ry _ _ __ fr;to th e h i g he s t
r anks . A s a c on ; e q u e n c e , o ve r - a l l , i t ' s
desi rable t o b e a d e p t a t mov i n g b e t w E e n
our t wo l e ve l s of understand i n g - - f i rst
a c t i ve l y a pp l y i n g p e r t i nent f ea t u r e s of
t e chn i c a l k n ow l e d g e , t h E , n pa s s i ve l y a l l ow
i ng a l l v i a b l e c a n d i d a t e move s t o p r e s e n t
t h e m s e l ve s exi stent i a l l y , and so f o r th .
218 Append ix 2
( It s h ou l d b e p o i n t e d ou t th a t a l l the
essent i a l e l emen t s of our ana lys i s are
o n l y a pp l i c a b l e t o t h e " e x i s t e n t i a l i n t e r
va l s " i n th i s scena r i o . Thu s s t r a t e g i c
ma s k i n g wa s an " i nva s i on " of techn i c a l
i d e a s w h e n ex i s t e n t i a l t h o u g h t s h o u l d h a v e
b e en i n c o n t r o l ; a n d i n t e gr a t i on o cc u r r e d
when R u b i n s t e i n a n d C a p a b l a n c a d e ve l o p e d
t h e a b i 1 i t y t o th i n k o f s t r a te g i c r e a l i
t i es ex i s t e n t i a l l y dur ing ex i s t e n t i a l
i n te rva l s . ) I n o t he r wo r d s , i f a l l a
p e r s o n d o e s d u r i n g p l a y i s th i n k a c c o r d i n g
t o a w e l l - d e f i ne d a l g o r i thm , he ' s try ing
t o c omp e t e o n t h e l ev e l o f c omp u t e r s - - a
hope l e s s i d ea l .
The s e o b s e rva t i o n s p o i n t t h e wa y t ow a r d
h o w o ne ' s che s s t a l e n t c a n b e u n l e a s h e d ,
i f not i mproved . Whe r e a s i t ' s n e c e s s a r i l y
uncl ear h o w a n ex i s t e n t i a l u n d e r s t a n d i n g
c a n b e d i r e c t l y e n h a n c e d , we a t l e a s t k no w
tha t th i s c r u c i a l e l e m e n t o f a che s s p l a y
e r ' s p s yche c a n be o f l i t t l e h e l p i f i t ' s
b e i n g c o n s t a n t l y c on f u s e d w i th t e c h n i c a l
data . Thu s o u r o b j e c t i ve i s t o d i s s o c i a t e
the a c t i ve ct_n d__ pa s s_ i ve- -- rn-ode-s-:=91---che
t h o ug_!'lJ;:._ .
-f
o thi s en d , a pl ayer s h ou l d f i rst
a cc u mu l a t e pos i t i ons in w h i ch h i s t wo
f o rm s of thought bec ame con fused . The
o bv i ou s s ou r c e he r e is e rrors made in
a c t u a l p l a y - - e s p ec i a l l y tho s e tha t one
w ou l d h a v e c a u g h t i f h e h a d o n l y " t a k en a
b r e a th " a n d l ooked a t the s i t ua t i on non
t e chn i c a l l y .
O n c e t h i s d a t a h a s b e e n a c c umu l a t e d , a
care f u l , me thod i c a l ana l ys i s o f the p o s i
t i on s shou l d be und e r taken ; I r e c omm e n d
s u rve y i n g a " n e i ghb o rh o o d " o f f i ve t o t en
move s a r ou n d e a ch e r r o r . A s the a n a l y s i s
Append ix 2 219
p r o c ee d s ( a n d b e t w e en e a ch s t e p of the
t e chn i c a l c a l c u l a t i o n ) , p a r t i c u l a r e mp h a
sis s h ou l d b e p l a c e d o n a l l ow i n g o ne ' s
ex i s t e n t i a l unde r s t an d i n g to ex e r c i s e
i tsel f by c o n s c i ou s l y r e p r e s s i l'1: g
__ __ _JJ,
t e ch n i c i!_.l. . t;, h o u g h_t_:;; f o r a s p ecTf l. ecf p e r i o d
o f t i m e:... - th i r t y s e c on d s o r o n e m i nu t e , f o r
exa mp l e . I n t h i s wa y , p r a c t i c e w i l l be
g a i n e d i n d i s s o c i a t i n g a c t i ve a n d p a s s i ve
thought - - an d i n a pr e c i s e s i t ua t i on tha t
ha s a l ready p r ov e n d i ff icult for the
pl ayer in thi s respect ; f u r the r , his
ex i s t e n t i a l u n d e r s t a n d i n g w i l l have been
e x p o s e d t o a t y p e o f p o s i t i o n w i t h w h i ch
i t h a d n e ve r b e f o r e i n t e r f a c e d .
W e ' ve f r a n k l y a d m i t t e d t h a t t h e r e ' s n o
f o rmu l a f o r h o w t o i n c r e a s e che s s t a l e n t ;
s t i 1 1 , i t ha s been a s s e rted tha t a n exi s
t e nt i a l unde r s t an d i ng i n t e r t w i ne d w i th
t e chn i c a l t h o u g h t i s o f n o u s e wha t s o e ve r .
I n o t he r wo r d s , the p r o bl e m i s n ' t how t o
i n c r e a s e che s s t a l e n t , b u t how t o g i ve
free r e i gn t o the t a l e n t o n e h a s . For
a n y t h i n g m o r e , a pp e a l t o C a i s s a .
ISBN 0 - 87568 - 256 - 1
51 750
9 780875 682 563

I ISBN: f>-87568-256-1
$17.50

Dynamic of Chess Psychology

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Dynamic of Chess Psychology

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The Dynamics of

Copyr i ght 1 994

1 . Phi 1osophica1 Founda t i ons 10

2 . The Importance of Aesthet i cs 30

I . PRE-HI STORY ( 600 - 1 8 2 1 )

3 . The Embryo Chess 39

4 . The Span i sh Schoo1 48

5 . The Ita1 i an Schoo1 52

III . THE CLASS ICAL ERA ( 1 8 59 - 1 9 2 7 )

1 6 . Rub i nste i n 111

IV . THE MODERN GAME ( 1 9 27- 1 9 5 7 )

c i ency o f a pl ayer ' s ex i s t e n t i a l u n d e r

USCF Over-the-Board Ra t i ngs

Rat i ng Popul a t i on Over-a l l

Cochrane Deschape1 1es

the game p r o g r e s s e s , l e t the r e a d e r a n swer

o f b i sho p s , mob i l e p awns be a r i ng o n the

Cambr i dge Spr i ngs , 1 904

30 . Ne5 Res igns

XIX USSR Champ i onsh i p

S i nce gene r a l pr i nc i pl e s a r e una b l e to

l e a d i ng ma s t e r s are bound to be the mo s t

The r e ' s no d o u b t t h a t Wh i t e ' s pi eces

Wh i t e ' s f o r c e s i s s u r pr i s i nq- - tha t o u r e x

Neuaann Ko1 i sch

As I ' ve al ready i nd i cated , a t t a ck i ng

the q u e en p awn . For the next few moves ,

a cl a s s ical s t r a teg i c r ea l i t y; i n the

3 . The Eabryo Chess

ance s tor of our b i sh o p ) in av a i l able

Such an artificial problem offers lit

O t he r c o mp e t i t o r s i n the " e c o s y s t e m " o f

The moder n moves of the queen and

F ollowi ng our di scussi on of Islam i c an d

Lucena ' s t r e a tment of the open i ngs ,

In 15 7 4 , the two Itali an master s

A n even more pronounced example of the

w i l l be t e rmed r e c ogn i t i on , and i s des

t ai n advan ces i n t hi s di r ect i on by un con

As ches s hi s tor y en ter s the ei ghteen th

tur e . By f o cus i ng on th i s elem ent,

Phi 1 i dor Bruh1

B lack ' s play h as been les s th an ex em

A lthough it seem s plausible, at first

to the parti cular i n actual play ) .

When P hi li dor s tr uggled wi th the pos s i

A r i s ky i dea , tr i ed s eve r a l ti mes by

M acdonnell in this m atch--and presumably

Nf5 + ) . Still, White ' s key pawn on d4

M orphy suggested that White first play

Whi te has an extr a exchange , but his

Equally bad would be 3 0 .Ne3 , Q g4+ !

3 1 .Q f2 can be handled wi th the s i mp le

When o n e co n s i der s th e aes th et i cs o f

D esp i te h i s bri lli ance i n the art of

T he defens i ve co o per ati o n of Wh i te ' s

A by no m eans flawles s gam e , but o ne

O nce agai n , th e i mpo r tance of aes thet

Although Staunton was able to apprehend

Staunton Anders sen

eni ng R g3 ) , B f2; 2 5 . de,de; 2 6 . N e4 and Wh i t e

Th i s i n vi tes an i mm edi ate cr i s i s .

Black ' s pi eces ar e in th e m i ds t o f

As can be seen in the abo ve game,