STB1083 BIOCHEMISTRY

Lecture 13B
GLYCOLYSIS, KREB CYCLE &
ELECTRON TRANSPORT
Glycolysis
Glucose catabolism is carried out in all cells.
What happen to glucose molecule?
- Glucose will initially undergo glycolysis.
- Glycolysis is the metabolic pathway that
converts glucose C6H12O6, into pyruvate.
- 3 final products 2 Pyruvate molecules, 2 ATP and 2 NADH.
After glycolysis there are 3 possible
fate for pyruvate:
1. Anaerobic glycolysis.
2. Aerobic oxidation.
3. Anaerobic fermentation.
Glycolysis
Glycolysis
There are two phases in glycolysis:
i. Phase I - Preparative phase.
6C sugar 3C sugar.
ii. Phase II - ATP generating phase.
Produces energy (ATPs & NADHs)
The overall reaction of glycolysis:
Glucose + 2 NAD+ + 2 ADP + 2 Pi
2 Pyruvate + 2 NADH + 2 ATP + 2 H2O + 2 H+
There is a net gain of 2 ATP per glucose
molecule.
As glucose is oxidized, 2 NAD+ are reduced
to 2 NADH.
Glycolysis The Fate of NADH and Pyruvate
Anaerobic Conditions
1. Lactic Acid Fermentation 2. Alcoholic Fermentation
Anaerobic Conditions
Alcoholic Fermentation and human consumption of ethanol.
Aerobic Respiration
When oxygen is present, most organisms will undergo two more
steps, Kreb's Cycle, and Electron Transport, to produce their ATP.
In eukaryotes, these processes occur in the mitochondria, while in
prokaryotes they occur in the cytoplasm.
Krebs Cycle (a.k.a Citric Acid Cycle)
Pyruvate is first altered in the transition reaction by removal
of a carbon and two oxygens (which form carbon dioxide).
When the carbon dioxide is removed,
energy is given off, and NAD+ is converted
into the higher energy form NADH.
Coenzyme A attaches to the
remaining 2C (acetyl) unit,
forming acetyl Co-A. This process
is a prelude to the Kreb's Cycle.
Krebs Cycle is a cyclic process in
that oxaloacetate reacts with
acetyl CoA to form citrate to start
a series of several other reactions.
The final reaction in the series
involves the regeneration of
oxaloacetate!
Krebs Cycle (a.k.a Citric Acid Cycle)
Between isocitrate and -ketoglutarate, carbon
dioxide is given off and NAD+ NADH.
Between -ketoglutarate and succinyl-CoA the
release of carbon dioxide and reduction of
NAD+ into NADH happens again, resulting in a
4C chemical, succinate.
GTP (Guanine Triphosphate, which transfers its
energy to ATP) is also formed here (GTP is
formed by attaching a phosphate to GDP).
The remaining energy carrier-generating steps
involve the shifting of atomic arrangements
within the 4C molecules.
Between succinate and fumarate, the molecular
shift releases not enough energy to make ATP
or NADH, but this energy is captured by a new
carrier, flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD).
Krebs Cycle (a.k.a Citric Acid Cycle)
FAD is reduced by the addition of two H's to
become FADH2.
FADH2 is not as rich an energy carrier as NADH,
yielding less ATP.
Between malate and oxaloacetate, energy is
given off and trapped by the reduction of NAD+
to NADH.
In the last step, oxaloacetate reforms to
complete the cycle.
The carbon dioxide released by cells is
generated by the Kreb's Cycle, as are the energy
carriers (NADH and FADH2) which play a role in
the electron transport system.
Krebs Cycle (a.k.a Citric Acid Cycle)
The Kreb's cycle converts pyruvate to CO2, NADH,
FADH2 and GTP/ATP.
Overall Kreb Cycle reaction:
2 pyruvate + 2 GDP + 2 H3PO4 + 4 H2O + 2 FAD + 8 NAD+
6 CO2 + 2 GTP + 2 FADH2 + 8 NADH.
The reduced energy is used to generate ATP using
the electron transport chain in the presence of O2.
Frequently 36 ATP are produced.
In eukaryotic cells, NAD formed by glycolysis in
the cytoplasm must be actively transported
across the mitochondrial membrane.
The cost of such active transport is one ATP for
each NADH transported.
Electron Transport System (ETS)
While Kreb's Cycle occurs in the matrix of
the mitochondrion, the Electron Transport
System (ETS) chemicals are embedded in
the membranes known as the cristae.
Kreb's cycle completely oxidized the carbons
in the pyruvate, producing a small amount
of ATP, and reducing NAD and FAD into
higher energy forms (NADH and FADH) .
In the ETS those higher energy forms are used to produce ATP.
Cytochromes are molecules that pass the electrons along the ETS
chain.
Energy released by the "downhill" passage of electrons is
captured as ATP by ADP molecules.
The ADP is reduced to ATP by the gain of electrons via the process
called oxidative phosphorylation.
Electron Transport System (ETS)
Oxidative phosphorylation is the
gradient exchange of H+ ions
across the inner mitochondrial
membrane.
This mechanism is known as
chemiosmotic coupling.
- This involves both chemical
and transport processes.

Drops in the potential energy of electrons moving down the ETS

chain occur at three points.
- These points turn out to be where ADP + Pi are converted into
ATP.
- Potential energy is captured by ADP and stored in the
pyrophosphate bond.
Electron Transport System (ETS)
NADH enters the ETS chain at
the beginning, yielding 3 ATP
per NADH.
FADH2 enters at Co-Q, producing
only 2 ATP per FADH2.
NADH and FADH2 carry protons
(H+) and electron (e-) to the
electron transport chain located
in the membrane.
Energy from the transfer of electrons along the chain transports
protons across the membrane and creates an electrochemical
gradient.
Electron Transport System (ETS)
As the accumulating protons follow the electrochemical gradient
back across the membrane through an ATP synthase complex, the
movement of the protons provides energy for synthesizing ATP
from ADP and phosphate.
At the end of the ETS, 2 protons,
2 electrons, and half of an oxygen
molecule combine to form water.
Since oxygen is the final electron
acceptor, the process is called
aerobic respiration.
Anaerobic Fermentation vs. Oxidative Phosphorylation
Anaerobic fermentation results in 2 ATP per glucose molecule.
Oxidative Phosphorylaltion can yield up to 38 ATP per glucose.
The rate of ATP production via anaerobic glycolysis can be up to
100 times faster than that of oxidative phosphorylation.
Anaerobic Fermentation vs. Oxidative Phosphorylation