Acid Sulfate Soils

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7. Acid sulfate soils
8. Acid sulfate soils explained
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Acid sulfate soils explained
Microscopic image of pyrite in soil

Common in many parts of the world, acid sulfate soils are saturated with water,
almost oxygen-free and contain microscopic crystals of iron sulfide minerals
(commonly pyrite).
Acid sulfate soils are safe and harmless when not disturbed. If acid sulfate soils
are dug up or drained they come into contact with oxygen. The pyrite in the soil
reacts with the oxygen and breaks down.
This process turns pyrite into sulfuric acid, which can cause damage to the
environment and to buildings, roads and other structures.
The acid also attacks soil minerals, releasing metals like aluminium and iron.
Rainfall can then wash the acid and metals from the disturbed soil into the
surrounding environment.
Read more on the impacts of disturbing acid sulfate soils.
A healthy mangrove forest, with the dark blue-grey soil colours common to undisturbed acid
sulfate soils
What do acid sulfate soils look like?

When acid sulfate soils are undisturbed, they are dark blue-grey (sometimes
black) and wet, with no structure. They are often high in clay, but can be sands or
sometimes even gravels.
When acid sulfate soils are disturbed, the iron released from the pyrite
breakdown forms a range of brightly coloured mineralsfirst yellow, then brown
then red. Cracks open up on the soil surface, and the soil shrinks as it dries out.
Most importantly, the soil pHdrops from nearly neutral to extremely acidic, often
below pH 2.
Read more on identifying acid sulfate soils.
How do acid sulfate soils form?

Acid sulfate soils form wherever the following conditions are present.
Sulfate-reducing bacteria
These bacteria make pyrite crystals as a side effect of their metabolism. They
can only survive when there is:
an anaerobic (oxygen-free) environmentwhich means a soil that is

saturated with water. The lack of oxygen protects both the bacteria and the
pyrite they create.
a supply of organic matterusually in the form of decaying leaves for the
bacteria to feed on
the presence of sulfur (in the form of sulfate SO42-)for the bacteria to
breathe. Sulfate-reducing bacteria use sulfate and produce hydrogen
sulfide (H2S) the way animals use oxygen and produce carbon dioxide.
Sulfate is a normal component of seawater, so acid sulfate soils commonly
develop along the coast.
Iron
Iron, in its reduced form (Fe2+), reacts with the hydrogen sulfide (H2S) produced
by the sulfate-reducing bacteria, to form pyrite (FeS2). Iron is a very common
mineral, so there is rarely a shortage in the environment.
Water movement
As pyrite forms, bicarbonate also forms from the same reaction. If it is not
removed from the environment, the pyrite-forming reaction eventually slows and
stops. Water movement (like tidal flushing of the system) will remove bicarbonate
and leave the pyrite behind, allowing it to accumulate.
The components required for acid sulfate soil formation (view large version).
Time
Time is required for pyrite to accumulate. Unlike many other soil processes
however, pyrite accumulation can happen very quickly. A few years can be
enough time for a significant amount of pyrite to form.
More information
View this animation from the Victorian Resources Online website on how acid
sulfate soils form.
Where are acid sulfate soils found?

New acid sulfate soils form naturally in swamps, especially mangrove forest
areas and salt flats.
Older acid sulfate soils can be found where mangrove forests and salt flats
existed in the past.
In Queensland
Acid sulfate soils can form in parts of inland Queensland where there are
appropriate conditions (listed above)e.g. some of the salt lakes in western
Queensland have acid sulfate soils present.
Around 35,000 years ago, the sea level in Queensland was higher and large
swamps existed in many places along the coast. Since then, the sea has
retreated and newer layers of soil have been transported from the hills, covering
the former swamps.
This is why many coastal plains have a layer of acid sulfate soil hidden below the
current soil. Coastal areas lower than 5m AHD (Australian Height Datum) are
likely to have acid sulfate soils present. Acid sulfate soils can also be found
buried beneath newer soils at elevations below 20m AHD.
Acid sulfate soils have only been mapped in some parts of Queensland. However
by looking at coastal areas below 20m AHD, estimates about the extent of acid
sulfate soil in Queensland can be made.
Around 23,000km2 of the Queensland coast is likely to contain acid sulfate soils,
with around 6600km2 in catchments that flow to the Great Barrier Reef. By
comparison, the area governed by Brisbane City Council is 1367km2.
Read more on acid sulfate soils reports and maps.
More information
Read our best-practice guidelines to find out more about managing acid sulfate
soils in Queenslandto access, search for the following titles in the library
catalogue:
Queensland acid sulfate soils technical manual: legislation and policy

guide
Queensland acid sulfate soils technical manual: laboratory methods
guidelines
Queensland acid sulfate soils technical manual: soil management
guidelines
Guidelines for sampling and analysis of lowland acid sulfate soils.
Licence
Last reviewed
9 January 2017
Last updated
24 September 2013
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Acid sulfate soils

Identifying acid sulfate soils
Impacts of acid sulfate soils
Managing acid sulfate soils
East Trinity remediation case study
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The easiest and most effective way to avoid the harm caused by acid sulfate soils is to leave them
aloneso identification and mapping are important. Avoiding acid sulfate soils is encouraged when
possible.
However, acid sulfate soils are common in places where humans live, and sometimes construction in
and around these sediments cannot be avoided. In such cases, the first step is to minimise the level of
disturbance as much as possible.
Minimising disturbance
Minimising disturbance can be quite easy, and may involve:
designing a construction project that limits the amount of excavationfor instance, building an above-
ground car park instead of a basement, building smaller structures on stilts or push-piles, or placing
clean fill in a thick layer before building
locating a construction project on the part of a property where acid sulfate soils are buried deepest, so
the amount of acid sulfate soil removed is reduced
using construction methods and site management procedures that don't leave acid sulfate soils exposed
to air without treatment
aligning and designing linear infrastructure in tidal areas so that natural water flows (both surface and
groundwater) are not blocked
making farm and urban drains broad and shallow so they don't dig into buried acid sulfate soil layers,
but can still remove excess surface water efficiently.
Treatment
If acid sulfate soil is disturbed, it must be treated.
The most common method of treatment is to mix an alkaline material into the soil, where it can react
with acidity and neutralise it. Agricultural lime (powdered calcium carbonateCaCO3) is the most
common neutralising material in use.
While minimising and avoiding disturbance can be easy, managing it is complex and should be done by
appropriately trained people.
More information
Read our best-practice guidelines to find out more about managing acid sulfate soils in Queenslandto
access, search for the following titles in the library catalogue:
Queensland acid sulfate soils technical manual: legislation and policy guide
Queensland acid sulfate soils technical manual: laboratory methods guidelines
Queensland acid sulfate soils technical manual: soil management guidelines
Read more on available acid sulfate soils mapping for Queensland.
Licence Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Australia (CC BY 3.0) Last reviewed 9 January 2017 Last
updated 7 August 2013
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6. Soil management
8. Impacts of acid sulfate soils
Print

When acid sulfate soils are disturbed, they can generate large amounts of
sulfuric acid, iron, aluminium and sometimes heavy metals. This can cause major
impacts to the environment and to infrastructure.
Impacts of acidity
When acidity builds up to high levels in water, it poisons plants in and around
affected creeks and ponds. It can also kill fish and other aquatic creatures if they
are unable to escape.
Lower levels of acidity will simply make aquatic plants and animals weaker and
more vulnerable to disease, and make it harder for young organisms to reach
adulthood. Over time, sensitive species may be driven out and replaced by
stronger, acid-tolerant invaders.
One example is mosquitoes, which can tolerate acidic water much more easily
than the insects that prey on them. Acidified wetlands can therefore be a source
of mosquito plagues. Acidic water is unhealthy for drinking and can cause skin
irritation.
In Queensland any incident involving a fish kill should be reported by calling the
Queensland Government on 1300 130 372 and selecting option 2.
Sulfuric acid can also attack concrete and steel, slowly destroying pipes, roads,
bridges, and building foundations. In areas where acid sulfate soils are not
treated properly before construction, (expensive) repairs may be required, or
infrastructure may need to be replaced well before the end of its intended
lifespan.
Impacts of iron
While iron is not toxic in itself, iron-laden water smells and tastes foul.
Iron can be released both by pyrite breakdown and by acid attack on the soil, and
can travel long distances in groundwater.
Iron minerals precipitate out of acid-sulfate-affected surface water as it flows

downstream, forming an orange scum that smothers vegetation on banks and
stains built structures. The scum can also clog water pumps and damage boats.
When iron is complexed with organic matter, it can flow out to sea and fuel
blooms of toxic algae.
Impacts of aluminium
Aluminium is the most common element in the earths crust. While it is safe when
bound up in rocks and soil minerals, it can be damaging when released into
water by acid.
Aluminium hydroxide compounds are toxic to fish, affecting their gills and their
ability to absorb oxygen.
Aluminium ions also hamper plant growth, damaging root systems. Aluminium
toxicity can affect both natural ecosystems and crops like sugarcane, which is
often grown on low-lying coastal land.
Impacts of heavy metals

As acid attacks the soil structure and releases iron and aluminium, it will also
release any other metals attached to soil minerals.
Many elements that are stable at neutral pH become mobile under acidic
conditions, and can be toxic to plants and/or animals, including humans. Arsenic
is one example, as are zinc, lead and manganese.
Impacts on the physical soil

Construction projects in acid sulfate soils areas can be difficult to manage even
when the soil is not acidified.
As many acid sulfate soils are unconsolidated estuarine muds and clays with gel-
like properties and low load-bearing capacity, foundations or earthworks built on
these materials may settle or subside unevenly and slowly.
Careful engineering is required to avoid problems with subsidence, which can

cause roadways to slump and foundations to crack.
Impacts on health
Though not yet fully documented, the possible health impacts of acid sulfate soils
are under investigation. Effects could include:
stunted growth, poor health and mental impairment caused by drinking or

bathing in aluminium-rich waters
dermatitis as a result of skin contact with acid soil materials.
Heavy metals in acid sulfate soils can also become soluble when sulfuric acid is
produced, ending up in toxic quantities in leachate and nearby waterbodies.
Licence
Last reviewed
8 December 2016
Last updated
5 August 2015
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6. Soil management
8. Acid sulfate soils explained
Print
Microscopic image of pyrite in soil
Common in many parts of the world, acid sulfate soils are saturated with water,
almost oxygen-free and contain microscopic crystals of iron sulfide minerals
(commonly pyrite).
Acid sulfate soils are safe and harmless when not disturbed. If acid sulfate soils
are dug up or drained they come into contact with oxygen. The pyrite in the soil
reacts with the oxygen and breaks down.
This process turns pyrite into sulfuric acid, which can cause damage to the
environment and to buildings, roads and other structures.
The acid also attacks soil minerals, releasing metals like aluminium and iron.
Rainfall can then wash the acid and metals from the disturbed soil into the
surrounding environment.
Read more on the impacts of disturbing acid sulfate soils.
A healthy mangrove forest, with the dark blue-grey soil colours common to undisturbed acid
sulfate soils
What do acid sulfate soils look like?

When acid sulfate soils are undisturbed, they are dark blue-grey (sometimes
black) and wet, with no structure. They are often high in clay, but can be sands or
sometimes even gravels.
When acid sulfate soils are disturbed, the iron released from the pyrite
breakdown forms a range of brightly coloured mineralsfirst yellow, then brown
then red. Cracks open up on the soil surface, and the soil shrinks as it dries out.
Most importantly, the soil pHdrops from nearly neutral to extremely acidic, often
below pH 2.
Read more on identifying acid sulfate soils.
How do acid sulfate soils form?

Acid sulfate soils form wherever the following conditions are present.
Sulfate-reducing bacteria
These bacteria make pyrite crystals as a side effect of their metabolism. They
can only survive when there is:
an anaerobic (oxygen-free) environmentwhich means a soil that is

saturated with water. The lack of oxygen protects both the bacteria and the
pyrite they create.
a supply of organic matterusually in the form of decaying leaves for the
bacteria to feed on
the presence of sulfur (in the form of sulfate SO42-)for the bacteria to
breathe. Sulfate-reducing bacteria use sulfate and produce hydrogen
sulfide (H2S) the way animals use oxygen and produce carbon dioxide.
Sulfate is a normal component of seawater, so acid sulfate soils commonly
develop along the coast.
Iron
Iron, in its reduced form (Fe2+), reacts with the hydrogen sulfide (H2S) produced
by the sulfate-reducing bacteria, to form pyrite (FeS2). Iron is a very common
mineral, so there is rarely a shortage in the environment.
Water movement
As pyrite forms, bicarbonate also forms from the same reaction. If it is not
removed from the environment, the pyrite-forming reaction eventually slows and
stops. Water movement (like tidal flushing of the system) will remove bicarbonate
and leave the pyrite behind, allowing it to accumulate.
The components required for acid sulfate soil formation (view large version).
Time
Time is required for pyrite to accumulate. Unlike many other soil processes
however, pyrite accumulation can happen very quickly. A few years can be
enough time for a significant amount of pyrite to form.
More information
View this animation from the Victorian Resources Online website on how acid
sulfate soils form.
Where are acid sulfate soils found?

New acid sulfate soils form naturally in swamps, especially mangrove forest
areas and salt flats.
Older acid sulfate soils can be found where mangrove forests and salt flats
existed in the past.
In Queensland
Acid sulfate soils can form in parts of inland Queensland where there are
appropriate conditions (listed above)e.g. some of the salt lakes in western
Queensland have acid sulfate soils present.
Around 35,000 years ago, the sea level in Queensland was higher and large
swamps existed in many places along the coast. Since then, the sea has
retreated and newer layers of soil have been transported from the hills, covering
the former swamps.
This is why many coastal plains have a layer of acid sulfate soil hidden below the
current soil. Coastal areas lower than 5m AHD (Australian Height Datum) are
likely to have acid sulfate soils present. Acid sulfate soils can also be found
buried beneath newer soils at elevations below 20m AHD.
Acid sulfate soils have only been mapped in some parts of Queensland. However
by looking at coastal areas below 20m AHD, estimates about the extent of acid
sulfate soil in Queensland can be made.
Around 23,000km2 of the Queensland coast is likely to contain acid sulfate soils,
with around 6600km2 in catchments that flow to the Great Barrier Reef. By
comparison, the area governed by Brisbane City Council is 1367km2.
Read more on acid sulfate soils reports and maps.

More information
Read our best-practice guidelines to find out more about managing acid sulfate
soils in Queenslandto access, search for the following titles in the library
catalogue:
Queensland acid sulfate soils technical manual: legislation and policy

guide
Queensland acid sulfate soils technical manual: laboratory methods
guidelines
Queensland acid sulfate soils technical manual: soil management
guidelines
Licence
Last reviewed
9 January 2017
Last updated
24 September 2013
Share:
Acid sulfate soils

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Seniors
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Acid sulfate soils explained

Microscopic image of pyrite in soil

Read more on the impacts of disturbing acid sulfate soils.

What do acid sulfate soils look like?

Read more on identifying acid sulfate soils.

How do acid sulfate soils form?

an anaerobic (oxygen-free) environmentwhich means a soil that is

Where are acid sulfate soils found?

Read more on acid sulfate soils reports and maps.

Queensland acid sulfate soils technical manual: legislation and policy

Acid sulfate soils

Jobs in Queensland Government

Espaol (Other languages)

The State of Queensland 19952017

Skip links and keyboard navigation

Site headerQueensland Government home

For QueenslandersBusiness and industry

You are here:

Managing acid sulfate soils

Minimising disturbance can be quite easy, and may involve:

If acid sulfate soil is disturbed, it must be treated.

Queensland acid sulfate soils technical manual: laboratory methods guidelines

Queensland acid sulfate soils technical manual: soil management guidelines

Guidelines for sampling and analysis of lowland acid sulfate soils.

Read more on available acid sulfate soils mapping for Queensland.

FeedbackShare: Facebook Twitter LinkedIn More

Acid sulfate soils

Acid sulfate soils explained

Identifying acid sulfate soils

Managing acid sulfate soils

East Trinity remediation case study

Explore this site

Have your say

How government works

Queensland Government data

Queensland Government publications

For government employees

Transport and motoring

Employment and jobs

Homes and housing

Education and training

Health and wellbeing

Emergency services and safety

About Queensland and its government

Parents and families

Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples

Environment, land and water

Your rights, crime and the law

Recreation, sport and arts

Business and industry

Regional investment opportunities

The State of Queensland 19952017

Impacts of acid sulfate soils

Iron minerals precipitate out of acid-sulfate-affected surface water as it flows

Impacts of heavy metals

Impacts on the physical soil

Careful engineering is required to avoid problems with subsidence, which can

stunted growth, poor health and mental impairment caused by drinking or

Jobs in Queensland Government

Franais (Other languages)

The State of Queensland 19952017

Skip links and keyboard navigation