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KWAME NKRUMAH UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE

AND TECHNOLOGY, KUMASI


COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
CENG 291 ENGINEERING IN SOCIETY

THE EFFECT OF POOR DRAINAGE SYSTEMS AND


THE INCIDENCE OF EROSION ON THE ROADS IN
THE POKUASE HILLS COMMUNITY

KWASI GYIMAH BEMPONG | INDEX NO. 5862816 | AUGUST, 2017


TABLE OF CONTENTS
LIST OF FIGURES....................................................................................................................... 2
ABSTRACT ................................................................................................................................... 3
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ............................................................................................................ 4
1.0. INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................................. 5
1.1 BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY ................................................................................... 5
1.2 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY ................................................................................... 5
1.3. AIM AND OBJECTIVES .................................................................................................. 5
2.0. MATERIALS AND METHODS ........................................................................................... 6
2.1. IDENTIFICATION OF PROBLEM ................................................................................ 6
2.2. MAP PREPARATION ....................................................................................................... 6
2.3. DATA COLLECTION ....................................................................................................... 6
3.0. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION ............................................................................................. 7
3.1 DESCRIPTION OF COMMUNITY ................................................................................. 7
3.2. NATURE AND CHARACTERISTICS OF THE PROBLEM....................................... 9
3.3. CIVIL ENGINEERING AND ITS BRANCHES .......................................................... 13
3.4. HOW THE PROBLEM CAN BE SOLVED WITH THE APPLICATION OF CIVIL
ENGINEERING ...................................................................................................................... 14
3.4.1. DRAINAGES AND THEIR DESIGN ......................................................................... 14
3.4.2. THE ROAD, ITS STRUCTURE AND ITS DESIGN ................................................ 17
4.0. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ............................................................. 20
4.1. CONCLUSIONS ............................................................................................................... 20
4.2. RECOMMENDATIONS ................................................................................................. 20
REFERENCES ............................................................................................................................ 21
APPENDIX .................................................................................................................................. 22

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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1. Overview of the study area(Satellite) .............................................................. 8
Figure 2. Overview of the study area(drone)...8

Figure 3. Overview of the study area(drone).................................................................. 9


Figure 4. Runoff of Excess Water into Unprofessional Constructed Drainages ....... 10
Figure 5. Flooding of Shoulders On Junctions ............................................................. 11
Figure 6. Deep Grooves into The Sides of Slope Roads ............................................... 11
Figure 7. Congestion of Excess Water On Straight Roads.......................................... 12
Figure 8. Incidence of Erosion On An Access Road .................................................... 12
Figure 9. Suggested Drainage Designs .......................................................................... 17
Figure 10. Layers of a well-paved asphalt road ........................................................... 19

LIST OF TABLES
Table 1. Flood Recurrence Interval(Years) In Relation to Design Life & Probability
of Failure (Megahan, 1977).16

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ABSTRACT
The content of this report entails the identification of one of the major
problems in my community. The report describes the nature of the roads the
Pokuasi community faces. It also describes the problems the residents of the
community face due to the poor drainage conditions. It identifies the
possible causes of these problems and the effects it has on the society. The
identification process includes a wide array of methods undertaken to gather
enough data that buttresses my view on why poor roads is a dire problem in
my community. An in-depth report is made on how the drainage systems are
designed and the optimum requirements to be considered when construction
takes place. A review on how the roads would be constructed is also
discussed.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
First and foremost, I give thanks to the Almighty God for seeing me through
this project. I acknowledge my father, Ing. Kwabena Bempong, for his
professional advice and access to the various tools and equipment I required.
I would also like to thank Ing. Richard Gamadeku of Associated Consultants
Limited, who provided me with various details on drainage design as well as
recommended materials for further research on the problem.
My heartfelt gratitude goes to my well learned supervisors, Dr. Helen
Essandor and Dr. John Kponyo, for all their help, advice and clarification of
problems I met along the way.
I am also grateful for the cooperation of all the community members.

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1.0. INTRODUCTION

1.1 BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY


Engineering in Society, CENG 291, is a course aimed at encouraging students
early in their programs of study to draw a link between their chosen field of
engineering and the application of this field to the issues that confront the day to
day lives of people. It encourages engineering students of Kwame Nkrumah
University of Science and Technology to investigate and analyze the various
problems in their society and think of viable solutions related specifically to their
field of engineering.

1.2 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY


This course seeks to enable students develop an appreciation of the areas of life
that their field of study can be applied to and deepen their interest in and
appreciation of their disciplines of engineering. The study requires a student to
identify and make known the problems in society and suggest ways the stated
problems can be solved. This study is done to bring to light the severity of the road
conditions in the Pokuasi Hills community and its effect on the well-being of the
society.

1.3. AIM AND OBJECTIVES


My aim is to make a positive contribution towards reducing road induced
calamities on the residents of Pokuasi Hills and its surrounding neighborhoods.

My objectives are:

a) To promote and encourage the safe use of roads by all classes of road users
through the circulation of advice, information and knowledge gained from
research
b) To improve upon the drainage conditions of the community

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2.0. MATERIALS AND METHODS

2.1. IDENTIFICATION OF PROBLEM


The problem in the project report was identified through site visits and
observation. In order to check on how common, the problem was to the residents,
a survey was undertaken using the aid of questionnaires. Analysis of the results
brought to light of just how much of a problem the poor roads and drainage in the
community is to the residents of the community.

2.2. MAP PREPARATION


The map of the community which was used for this project was obtained by two
means. Google Maps was used to get a general overview of the area and a drone
was used to get high resolution pictures of a large area of my community in order
to give a much clearer and precise picture of the situation.

2.3. DATA COLLECTION


The data analyzed for this project was obtained through observation, site visits and
surveys undertaken by the residents through the use of questionnaires. An
introduction letter was given to the Project Manager of the Tema Roundabout
Project, Ing. Kwabena Bempong of Associated Consultants Limited in order to use
one of the companys drones for the preparation of the map. An interview was
conducted with a drainage engineer, Ing. Richard Gamadeku of Associated
Consultants Limited, who provided me with various details on drainage design as
well as recommended materials for further research on the problem. Data was also
obtained from websites as well as questionnaires.

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3.0. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

3.1 DESCRIPTION OF COMMUNITY


The name of the community in which I reside is Pokuasi Hills. It is a developing
community characterized by a number of buildings still under construction and a
vast array of rough and untarred terrain. It is mostly characterized of hilly terrain
with steep slopes. The surrounding areas are thus affected by orographic rainfall.
The driest month is January with about 14 mm of rainfall. In June, the
precipitation reaches its peak, with an average of 208 mm as according to the
records of the Ghana Meteorological Agency (GMet). (During the compilation of
the report, observations were taken between the months of June and July when
precipitation is at its peak).

The study community is bounded on the East by Kwabenya, in the North by


Afiaman, on the North-West by Amasaman, the South-West by Fise and the
South-East by Ofankor. Most of the buildings in the more inhabited parts of my
community are connected to the National Grid as well as the Ghana Water
Company and have access to electricity and water. The less developed parts do not
have access to electricity and fetch water from either boreholes or public pumps.

Most of the vegetation is cultivated on top of the hills, the most popularly
cultivated crop being corn. Yet still other crops such as groundnut, okro,
kontommire and so on are also cultivated by some residents close to their
residential places.

The community is home to the African Concrete Products Limited, ACP Estates,
the Total Filling Station, Citydia Mall and various small- scale enterprises. The
study community is about 22.3 km from the Central Business District and about
22.6 km from Nsawam.

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Figure 1. Overview of the study area(Satellite)

Figure 2. Overview of the study area(drone)

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Figure 3. Overview of the study area(drone)

3.2. NATURE AND CHARACTERISTICS OF THE PROBLEM


During rain, the water infiltrates into the soil and is stored in its pores. When all
the pores are filled with water, the soil is said to be saturated and no more water
can be absorbed; when rain continues, pools may form on the soil surface. The
removal of excess water either from the ground surface or from the root zone, is
called drainage.

Now the problem of drainage spans over a large portion of my community. Most
of the drains adjacent to the roads are unprofessionally constructed and thus are
bereft of the adequate dimensions needed to contain the volume of water that is
shed from the road and adjoining areas when there is rainfall. Apart from that,
most of these makeshift drains are filled with silt and sand and causes severe
flooding on the roads, especially the Kwabenya-Pokuasi road. The incidence of
flooding is even more prominent when there is heavy rainfall especially at the
outfalls of these drains. The water spills over unto the road causing skidding of
tires due to aquaplaning. (Aquaplaning or hydroplaning by the tires of
a road vehicle, aircraft or other wheeled vehicle occurs when a layer
of water builds between the wheels of the vehicle and the road surface, leading to
a loss of traction that prevents the vehicle from responding to control inputs. If it
occurs to all wheels simultaneously, the vehicle becomes, in effect, an
uncontrolled sled). This causes numerous accidents during the rainy season.

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Furthermore, the wave of water rushing down the slopes of the area causes
erosion of the soil which further deposits debris at the base of the hills. This causes
most of the inhabitants to start construction of their houses at the top of the hills
which are reinstated. These quarry sites have been backfilled with materials which
were not compacted. It is possible therefore, that with time the materials will
consolidate and the buildings on them are likely to suffer structural damages such
as settlement and cracks.

In Fig.5 the runoff of water on the slopes of some parts of my community creates
deep gulleys in the sides of the roads as the water cuts a path for flowing down the
hills. Left unchecked, these create deep gullies around the road which make it
increasingly dangerous to navigate using a car, especially at night. This is one of
the major effects on the hilly areas of my community. In Fig.6, one can see that
due to lack of adequate drainage systems the earth roads become large pools of
congested water which end up becoming stagnant water and breeding grounds for
mosquitoes. (At the time of the making of the report, these observations are more
conspicuous since it is in the rainy season).

Figure 4. Runoff of Excess Water into Unprofessional Constructed Drainages

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Figure 5. Flooding of Shoulders On Junctions

Figure 6. Deep Grooves into The Sides of Slope Roads

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Figure 7. Congestion of Excess Water on Straight Roads

Figure 8. Incidence of Erosion on An Access Road

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3.3. CIVIL ENGINEERING AND ITS BRANCHES
Civil engineering is a professional engineering discipline that deals with the
design, construction, and maintenance of the physical and naturally built
environment, including works like roads, bridges, canals, dams, and buildings
through the application of principles in mechanics and elements of chemistry.

It is arguably the oldest engineering discipline. It involves interaction with


the built environment and can be dated to the first time someone placed a roof
over his or her head or laid a tree trunk across a river to make it easier to get
across. The built environment encompasses much of what defines modern
civilization. Buildings and bridges are often the first constructions that come to
mind, as they are the most conspicuous creations of structural engineering, one of
civil engineering's major sub-disciplines. Roads, railroads, subway systems, and
airports are designed by transportation engineers, another category of civil
engineering. And then there are the less visible creations of civil engineers like
water flowing out of a faucet. We turn the tap and expect water but we dont think
of how the civil engineer designs the tap such that it can draw water from a
reservoir somewhere quickly and efficiently enough.

There are many branches of civil engineering:

1) Structural Engineering: Deals with structural analysis and design of


structures.
2) Geotechnical Engineering: Study of soil, foundations, slope stability, etc.
3) Transportation Engineering: Deals with planning, construction and
management of transportation facilities.
4) Surveying: Deals with surveying and levelling of lands using various
instruments, mapping & contouring of terrains, etc.
5) Water Resource Engineering: Deals with design and construction of
hydraulic structures like dams, canals, water distribution system, etc.
6) Construction Engineering: Deals with planning, construction and
maintenance of structures.
7) Environmental Engineering: Study of environment friendly designs, waste
management, pollution and their treatment.
8) Municipal Engineering: Deals with urban/city planning & management,
township, etc.
9) Coastal Engineering: Deals with coastal or marine structures like groynes
(groins), embankments etc.

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10) Tunnel Engineering: Deals with planning, design, construction, safety and
maintenance of tunnels.
11) Material Engineering: Study of Material Strength, properties of materials
used in construction, ceramics, etc.
12) Earthquake Engineering: Study of seismic forces, earth-quake resistant
structures etc.
13) Pavement Engineering

3.4. HOW THE PROBLEM CAN BE SOLVED WITH THE APPLICATION OF CIVIL
ENGINEERING
The solution for this problem in my community requires application of drainage
engineering(hydraulics and hydrology) and transportation and structural
engineering. In order to find a solution to this problem I asked myself. What
structure can be constructed to hold the volume of water that runs off the roads?
How will this structure be constructed? Where will the excess water be distributed
to? Is there an alternative solution? What of the roads? What methods must be
used? Is excavation required? and so on.

3.4.1. DRAINAGE SYSTEMS AND THEIR DESIGN


Obviously, more drainage channels need to be constructed in order to hold the
excess flow of water from rain and other sources which are harmful to the roads.
Now road drainage design has as its main objective the reduction and/ or
elimination of energy generated by flowing water. The destructive power of
flowing water, increases exponentially as its velocity increases. Therefore, water
must not be allowed to develop sufficient velocity so as to cause excessive wear of
ditches, below culverts, or along exposed ruining surfaces, cuts, or fills.

Provision of adequate drainage is of paramount importance in road design and


cannot be overemphasized. The presence of excess water or moisture within the
roadway will adversely affect the engineering properties of the materials with
which it was constructed.

Hillslope geomorphology and hydrologic factors are important considerations in


the location, design and construction of a road. Slope morphology impacts road
drainage and ultimately road stability. Important factors are slope shape (uniform,
convex and concave), slope gradient, slope length, stream drainage characteristic
(e.g. Braided, dendritic) and soil texture characteristics. Slope shape gives an

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indication of surface and subsurface water concentration or dispersion. Convex
slopes (e.g. Wide ridges) will trend to disperse water as it moves downhill.
Straight slopes concentrate water on the lower slopes and contribute to the buildup
of hydrostatic pressure. Concave slopes typically exhibit draws. Water in these
areas is concentrated at the lowest points on the slope and therefore represent the
least desirable location for a road.

A road drainage system must satisfy two main criteria if it is to be effective


throughout its design life:

1) It must allow for a minimum of disturbance of the natural drainage pattern


2) It must drain surface and subsurface water away from the roadway and
dissipate it in a way that prevents excessive collection of water in unstable
areas and subsequent downstream erosion.

Note: The design of drainage structure is based on the sciences of hydrology and
hydraulics, the former deals with the occurrence and form of water in the natural
environment while the latter deals with the engineering properties of fluids in
motion.

Estimating runoff

Any drainage installation is sized according to the probability of occurrence of an


expected peak discharge during the design life of the installation. This, of course,
is related to the intensity and duration of rainfall events occurring not only in the
direct vicinity of the structure but also upstream of the structure. The proportion of
rainfall that eventually becomes streamflow is dependent on the following factors:

1) The size of the drainage area: The larger the area, the greater the volume of
the runoff
2) Topography Runoff volume generally increases with steepness of slope
3) Soil: Runoff varies with soil characteristics, particularly permeability and
infiltration capacity

The probability of occurrence of peak flows exceeding the design capacity of a


proposed stream crossing installation should be determined and used in the design
procedure. The risk of failure over the design life must be specified to incorporate
this information into the design. By identifying an acceptable level of risk, the
drainage engineer is formally stating the desired level of success (or failure) to be

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CHANCE OF FAILURE (%)
DESIGN LIFE
(YEARS)
10 20 30 40 50 60 70

RECURRENCE INTERVAL (YEARS)

5 48 23 15 10 8 6 5

10 95 45 29 20 15 11 9

15 100+ 68 43 30 22 17 13

20 100+ 90 57 40 229 22 17

25 200+ 100+ 71 49 37 28 21

30 200+ 100+ 85 59 44 33 25

40 300+ 100+ 100+ 79 58 44 34

50 400+ 200+ 100+ 98 73 55 42

Table 1.0. Flood Recurrence Interval(Years) In Relation to Design Life & Probability of
Failure (Megahan, 1977)

achieved with road drainage structures. The table above lists flood recurrence
intervals for installations in relation to their design life and probability of failure.

N.B. Based on the formula = ( ) where

n= design life(years)

P= Chance of failure (%)

T= Peak Flow Recurrence Interval (Years)

When streamflow records are not available, peak discharge can be estimated by
the rational method or formula and is recommended for use on channels
draining less than eight hundred thousand (800000) square metres.

= . .

Where Q = Peak discharge (3 / )

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I = Rainfall Intensity(millimeter/hour) for a critical time period

A = Drainage Area

C = Runoff Coefficient

Figure 9. Suggested Drainage Designs

3.4.2. THE ROAD, ITS STRUCTURE AND ITS DESIGN


According to the Organization for Economic Cooperation and
Development(OECD), a road is a defined as a line of communication (travelled
way) using a stabilized base other than rails or air strips open to public traffic,
primarily for the use of road motor vehicles running on their own wheels, which
includes bridges, tunnels, supporting structures, junctions, crossings, interchanges
and toll roads, but not cycle paths. There are five functional classifications of
roads according to the Ministry of Roads and Highways:

1) Highways: These are main roads, especially one connecting major towns or
cities.
2) Arterials (Major and Minor): An arterial road or arterial thoroughfare is a
high-capacity urban road. The primary function of an arterial road is to
deliver traffic from collector roads to freeways or expressways, and
between urban centers at the highest level of service possible.
3) Collectors/ Distributors: A collector road or distributor road is a low-to-
moderate-capacity road which serves to move traffic from local streets to

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arterial roads. Unlike arterials, collector roads are designed to provide
access to residential properties.
4) Local Roads: It is a road used primarily for access to adjacent property.
5) Access Roads: It is a road that provides access to a specific destination, as
to a main highway or to a property that lies within another property.

The roads that were considered under my study are a combination of access roads
and local roads. Since most of the roads are on hilly terrain, the runoff from rain
erodes the soil leaving deep gullies and holes which are dangerous to navigate
through at night. In order to solve the problem, I would first like to describe how
the road is structured and designed in order to fit the problem at hand.

Construction of a road mainly involves five phases.

Phase 1(Planning): This involves evaluation of the transportation services, the


volume of traffic the road would take, expenses and so on.

Phase 2(Design): This involves a survey of the area. Many factors affect the
design of a road such as: location, terrain and soil properties, drainage capabilities,
traffic volume, the ratio of cars to trucks and buses, possible future development in
the area, effects on the environment or nearby residents. With the design in hand,
the engineering firm advertises for a contractor to do the actual construction.

Phase 3(Earthwork): With a contractor on board, earthwork can begin. Earthwork


is one of the most important elements in road construction because it establishes a
stable foundation. A roadway with a substandard foundation will fail prematurely.
That is why the road's base layers are as important as the finished surface. In my
case study, the road to be constructed does not require excavation because the base
material is made of rocks which makes the road naturally strong. All that needs to
be done is fill the roads with sand and compact it. Drains are also designed at the
edge of the road. Like most roads, the hilly roads need camber since it is on a
slope and the water would run off parallel to the road towards the drainages.
Straight roads would also have camber sloping to both sides of the road into the
drainages in order for the water to flow from the road into the drainages.

Phase 4(Paving): This is the most important step in road construction. During this
final phase, the asphalt is poured and laid. Depending on the estimated traffic
volumes and regional climate conditions, the paving job will require:

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Surface Layer: Responsible for providing friction, smoothness, noise control,
and drainage, the surface layer is composed of the highest quality materials.
Materials used are: asphalt, bituminous surface dressing, concrete or gravel)
Base Layer: Using bitumen, cement or lime as the predominant binder, a
bound base course is laid over the unbound base course. Materials used are:
bituminous dense macadam, gravel or crushed rock.
Subbase: It is the main load-bearing layer of the pavement. It spreads load
evenly to the subgrade.
Subgrade: Subgrades are commonly compacted before the construction of a
road, pavement or railway track, and are sometimes stabilized by the addition
of asphalt, lime, Portland cement or other modifiers. The subgrade is the
foundation of the pavement structure, on which the subbase is laid.

Figure 10. Layers of a well-paved asphalt road


N.B. Another material that can be used for paving is concrete but I chose asphalt
because it is more economical and less time-consuming.

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4.0. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

4.1. CONCLUSIONS

After observation and considering the problem, it has come to light that the roads
in my community are poor and undeveloped. There is also little to no adequate
drainage as well which leaves the rainfall runoff to erode the surface of the road
creating gullies and potholes which make the road even more dangerous to use
especially at night. For some straight roads, the rainwater that cannot run off the
surface becomes stagnant and breeds mosquitoes.

In order to solve this problem efficiently, there must be construction of well-


designed structures which consider all the factors required in the construction of
good drainages which drain excess runoff water from residential areas as
mentioned in Section 3.4. Primary and secondary drains must be constructed to
serve as outfall(collectors) of runoff from roads. The roads must also be well-
tarred and paved with asphalt because they are a combination of access and local
roads and so have a constant flow of traffic. Channels can be constructed such that
the excess water can rerouted into farm lands on the hills. Lastly, retention ponds
should be constructed to manage storm water runoff to prevent flooding and
downstream erosion. The water rerouted into retention ponds can be used for
recreation, fish farming, irrigation of farmlands, etc.

4.2. RECOMMENDATIONS

One problem in Ghana is that when a project is implemented in the form of public
construction which help make life better for citizens, the very citizens are unable
to maintain the structure well and end up degrading the structure. Public education
should be implemented to the residents of the community educating them on road
maintenance in order for the road to live out its longevity. Rubbish must be
refrained from being dumped into the drains as this will end up clogging them and
create even more problems. The residents and public should be made aware of all
these regulations as this project makes the roads safe, the community comfortable
to live in and brings Ghana one step closer to development.

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REFERENCES

1) Amimoto, P.Y. 1978, Erosion and sediment control handbook. California


Division of Mines and Geology. Department of Conservation

2) Beschta, R.L. 1981. Streamflow estimates in culverts. Oregon State University,


Forest Research Laboratory, Res. Note.67.4p

3) Megahan.W.F.1977.Reducing erosional impacts of roads. In Guidelines for


Watershed Management. Food and Agriculture Organization, United Nations,
Rome. Pages 237-261

4)U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of Public Roadsw.1963. Hydraulic


Charts for the Selection of Highway Culverts, Hydraulic Engineering Circular
No.5

5 )www.thecivilengg.com

6) www.wikipedia.com

7) www.uniquepavingmaterials.com

8) www.michigan.gov

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APPENDIX
SAMPLE QUESTIONNAIRE

SURVEY ON THE POOR ROADS AND DRAINAGE COMNDITIONS IN


THE COMMUNITY

Please Answer All the Questions Below

1) Gender
o Male
o Female
2) Age Group
o 13-17
o 18-30
o 31&Above
3) What type of vehicles ply the roads on a daily basis?
o Buses
o Trucks/Goods Vehicles
o Passenger vehicles
o Others
4) What do you normally use the roads for?
o For moving from one part of the community to the other
o For getting into the main road
o For accessing your resident
o Others
5) How would you rate the condition of the roads in our community?
o Excellent
o Good
o Average
o Bad
6) What do you think are the causes of the poor road conditions? [IF
YOU CHOSE BAD]

7) How would you rate the drainage conditions in our community?


o Excellent
o Good
o Average
o Bad

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8) What are the main problems caused by the poor drainage?
o Erosion
o Flooding in areas
o Damage to vehicles
o Other
9) Are there any suggestions has to how the road conditions can be
improved?

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