ABSTRACT

Thermoelectric Fridges also called thermoelectric modules or Peltier Fridges. They are

semiconductor based electronic components that function as small heat pumps. On applying a

low DC voltage to the thermoelectric module, heat moves through the module from one side to

the other. One face of the module is therefore cooled, while the other face simultaneously heats

up. This phenomenon can also be reversed by changing the polarity of the applied DC

voltage causing the heat to flow in the opposite direction. Thereby, a thermoelectric module may

be used for both heating and cooling which makes it highly suitable for precise temperature

control applications.

Conventional Fridges used in homes and industries depend on refrigerants such as hydro fluoro

carbon, which is a threat to the ozone layer. On the other hand, thermoelectric Fridges are

environment friendly, compact and affordable. Thermoelectric Fridges are semiconductor based

devices. They have got several advantages like solid construction, quiet & reliable operation, no

CFCs, precise temperature control. A thermoelectric cooler permits lowering the temperature of

an object below ambient as well as maintaining the temperature of objects above ambient

temperatures. Thermoelectric Fridges can be used for applications that require heat removal

ranging from milli-watts up to several thousand watts. Therefore they are used for the most

demanding industries such as medical, laboratory, aerospace, semiconductor, telecom, industrial,

and consumer. Uses range from simple food and beverage Fridges for an afternoon picnic to

extremely sophisticated temperature control systems in missiles and space vehicles. A

thermoelectric cooler provide a solution that is smaller, weighs less, and is more reliable than a

comparatively small compressor system. It offers a convenient earth friendly alternative.

Researchers are working on improving the efficiency of thermoelectric devices, reducing their

cost and increasing their applications.

1. Introduction

Although the principle of thermoelectricity dates back to the discovery of the Peltier effect in

1834[1], there was little practical application of the phenomenon until the middle 1950s. Prior to
then, the poor thermoelectric properties of known materials made them unsuitable for use in a

practical refrigerating device. It is only from the mid-1950s at which the major thermoelectric

material design approach was introduced by A.V.Ioffe, leading to the inventory of

semiconducting compounds such as Bi2Te3, which is currently used in thermoelectric Fridges.

These materials made possible the development of practical thermoelectric devices for attaining

temperatures below ambient without the use of vapour compression refrigeration [1].

Thermoelectric Fridges offer the potential to enhance the cooling of electronic module packages,

to reduce chip operating temperatures or to allow higher module powers. Thermoelectric Fridges

also offer the advantages of being compact, quiet, free of moving parts, and their amount of

cooling can be controlled by the current supplied. Unfortunately, compared to

vapor-compression refrigeration, they are limited in the heat flux that they can be accommodated

and exhibit a lower coefficient of performance (COP). These two limitations have generally

limited thermoelectric cooling to be used in broad expect [1].

In recent years there has been increased interest in the application of thermoelectric to electronic

cooling, followed by efforts to improve their performance through the development of new bulk

materials and thin film micro Fridges.

2. Principle of operation

Peltier Effect- when a voltage or DC current is applied to two dissimilar conductors, a circuit can
be created that allows for continuous heat transport between the conductors junctions. The
Seebeck Effect- is the reverse of the Peltier Effect. By applying heat to two different conductors a
current can be generated. The Seebeck Coefficient is given by:
, Where x is the electric field

Figure 1 Peltier Effect

The current is transported through the charge carriers (opposite to the electron flow). Heat trans-
fer occurs in the direction of charge carrier movement. Applying a current (e- carriers) transports
heat from the warmer junction to the cooler junction.
3. Construction

A typical Thermoelectric Module consists of the following components:

3.1 Thermoelectric Material: The materials used for this purpose are generally semiconductors.

They are the optimum choice to sandwich between two metal conductors because of the ability to

control the semiconductors charge carriers as well as increase the heat pumping ability. The most

commonly used semiconductor for electronics cooling applications is Bi2Te3 because of its

relatively high figure of merit. However, the performance of this material is still relatively low

and alternate materials are being studied with possibly better performance.

Alternative materials include: Alternating thin film layers of Sb2Te3 and Bi2Te3, Lead telluride

and its alloys, SiGe (Silicon Germanium), Materials based on nanotechnology.

 Figure 2 A Typical Thermoelectric Module

3.2 Ceramic Plates: An electrical insulator is provided between the heats generating device and

the conductor to prevent an electrical short circuit between the module and the heat source. The

electrical insulator must have a high thermal conductivity so that the temperature gradient

between the source and the conductor is small. Ceramics like alumina are generally used for this

purpose.

3.3 TIM (Thermal Interface Material): This principle requires the heat to be transferred from

the object being cooled (or heated) to the Peltier module and heat must be transferred from the

Peltier module to the heat sink. Realistically, the interface between the Peltier module surfaces to

the object being cooled and to the heat sink will not be perfect. There will be peaks and valleys in

the surfaces resulting in tiny air pockets which conduct heat poorly. So it is required to place a

"thermal interface material" (TIM) between the Peltier module surfaces. These include mainly

silicone based greases, elastomeric pads, thermally conductive tapes, thermally conductive

adhesives, old fashioned zinc oxide silicone heat sink grease.

3.4 Heat Sink: A heat sink is required for either heating or cooling a thermal load. They are

employed either to collect heat (in heating mode) or dissipate collected heat into another medium

(e.g., air, water, etc.). Without such provisions, the TE device will be vulnerable to overheating.

Once TE device reaches the reflow temperature of the solder employed, the unit will be

destroyed. When the heat sink is exchanging heat with air a fan is usually required to minimize

the size of the sink required.

3.5 Uses of two type of Material (p and n type): A simple thermoelectric device can be made

with a single semiconductor pellet, but it can't pump an appreciable amount of heat through it. In

order to give a TE device greater heat pumping capacity multiple pellets are used together. The

initial attempt would be to simply connect them in parallel both electrically and thermally. While

this is possible, it is not suitable for a practical device. The drawback is that the typical TE

semiconductor pellet is rated for only a very small voltage as small as tens of mill volts so it can
draw a substantial amount of current. For example, a single pellet in an ordinary TE device might

draw five amps or more with only 60 mV applied, if connected in parallel in a typical 254 pellet

configuration, the device would draw over 1270 amps with the application of that 60 mV

(assuming that the power supply could deliver that much current).

The only realistic solution is to connect the semiconductors in series and doing so in a way that

keeps them thermally in parallel (i.e., pumping together in the same direction). Here we might

think to simply zigzag the electrical connections from pellet to pellet to achieve a series circuit.

This is theoretically workable however; the interconnections between pellets will create thermal

shorting that significantly compromises the performance of the device. Fortunately, there is

another option which gives us the desired electrical and thermal configuration while better

optimizing the thermoelectric effect. By arranging N and P-type pellets in a 'couple' (see Figure

3) and forming a junction between them with a plated copper tab, it is possible to configure a

series circuit which can keep all of the heat moving in the same direction.

Figure 3 N and P type pellet

As shown in the illustration, with the free (bottom) end of the P-type pellet connected to the

positive voltage potential and the free (bottom) end of the N-type pellet connected to the negative

side of the voltage, an interesting phenomenon takes place. The positive charge carriers (holes) in

the P material are repelled by the positive voltage potential and attracted by the negative pole and

the negative charge carriers (electrons) in the N material are similarly repelled by the negative

voltage potential and attracted by the positive pole of the voltage supply. In the copper tabs and

wiring, electrons are the charge carriers. When these electrons reach the P material, they simply
 flow through the holes within the crystalline structure of the P-type pellet. Thus the electrons

flow continuously from the negative pole of the voltage supply, through the N pellet, through the

copper tab junction, through the P pellet, and back to the positive pole of the supply. This happens

because two different types of semiconductor material are being used. The charge carriers and

heat are flowing in the same direction through the pellets (bottom to top in the figure 3). Using

these special properties of the TE 'couple', it is possible to combine many pellets together in

rectangular arrays to create practical thermoelectric modules (see Figure 4). These devices can

not only pump appreciable amounts of heat but with their series electrical connection are suitable

for commonly available DC power supplies. Thus the most common TE devices now in use

connecting 254 alternating P and N-type pellets and can run from a 12 to 16 VDC supply and

draw only 4 to 5 amps (rather than 1270 amps at 60 mV, for example).

Figure 4 Several P and N type pellets connected together

In fabricating devices with multi pellet arrays a means to mechanically hold everything together

must be provided. A solution to this is to mount the copper tabs to thin ceramic substrates; the

outer faces of the ceramics are then used as the thermal interface between the Peltier device and

the outside world.

4. Working

Figure in the next page explains the working of the thermoelectric device. Electrons can travel

freely in the copper conductors but not so freely in the semiconductor. As the electrons leave the

copper tabs and enter the hot side of the p-type, they must fill a hole in order to move through the
 p-type. When the electrons fill a hole, they drop down to a lower energy level and release heat in

the process. Then, as the electrons move from the p-type into the copper conductor on the cold

side, the electrons are again taken back to a higher energy level and in the process they absorbs

heat. Next, the electrons move freely through the copper tabs until they reach the cold side of the

n-type semiconductor. Now when the electrons move into the n-type material they must boost up

Figure 5 Working of thermoelectric device

to a higher energy level in order to move through the n-type semiconductor. Heat is absorbed

when this occurs. Finally, when the electrons leave the hot side of the n-type, they can move

freely in the copper conductors. They drop down to a lower energy level and release heat in the

process. Thus the charge carriers, negative electrons and positive holes transfer heat.

5. Thermoelectric Design

There are various factors that have to be considered in designing thermoelectric module. These

are discussed below:

5.1 Figure of merit: The figure of merit represents the quality of performance of thermoelectric

material, sometimes it is multiplied by temperature. It is defined as:

Where is the electrical resistivity, k is the thermal conductivity, and is the Seebeck

Coefficient. So lower electrical resistivity and thermal conductivity higher the figure of merit.

These values are temperature dependent therefore the figure of merit is also temperature

dependent. P and N type material have different figures of merit and are averaged to determine

materials overall quality.

5.2 Condensation: This is the most serious fact that has to be taken in to account while designing

a TE device. A common problem with TE cooling is that condensation may occur causing

corrosion and eroding the TEs inherent reliability. Condensation occurs when the dew point is
reached. The dew point is the temperature to which air must be cooled at constant pressure for the

water vapor to start to condense. Condensation occurs because the air loses the ability to carry the

water vapor that condenses. As the airs temperature decreases its water vapor carrying capacity

decreases. Since TE Fridges can cool to low and even below ambient temperatures condensation

is a problem. The most common sealant employed is silicon rubber. Research has been performed

to determine the most effective sealing agent used to protect the chip from water. Four sealants

were used to seal a TE cooling device and the weight gain due to water entering the device

measured. The best sealants should have the lowest weight gain.

5.3 Thermoelectric Performance: TE performance depends on the following factors:

1. The temperature of the cold and hot sides.

2. Thermal and electrical conductivities of the devices materials.

3. Contact resistance between the TE device and heat source or heat sink.

4. Thermal resistance of the heat sink.

The current yielding the maximum COP is given by:

The maximum COP is given by:

Where Tm= (TH+TC)/2

The COP corresponding to the maximum heat pumping capacity is:

The current corresponding to the maximum heat pumping capacity is:

( p n )Tc
Iq
R
A simplified way of determining the voltage and the heat load are given by:
Qc ( p n ) ITc K (TH Tc ) 1/ 2I 2 R
IRL
V 2 N (Th Tc )

Where V is the voltage and QAc is the heat load, N is the number of couples, L is the element
height. R thermal resistance, K thermal conductivity, seeback coefficient, I current required, A
area of the module.
5.4 Design methodology: There are various design methodology that is being adopted in out of
which Mollar design is mostly used.
Mollar design method: This method involves various steps and can be better explained by the
help of example. In this design a TE performance curve is used. The various steps involved are
discussed below
1. Calculations of total heat load, all the heat loads are to be taken in account. Let the heat loads
be as describe below. The heat loads are expressed in watts.
 Type of heat load Example (watts)
Active load 8.0
Radiation load 0.2
Convective load 0.8
Conductive load 0.0
Total heat load 9.0

2. Defining the temperature of hot and cold side.

Temperature Example ( 0C)
Hot side (Th) 27
Cold side (Tc) -8
DT (Th-Tc) 35
Figure 6 Performance curve
3. Determining the number of stages required. The minimum number of stages required is
selected from the table below. This should meet the required DT.
Stage DTmax (Dry N2 DT max
@ 1 atm) (Vaccum)
1 64 67
2 84 91
3 95 109
4 - 115
5 - 121

4. After doing this an appropriate TEC is selected or designed.

4(a). Determining the ratio of DT/DTmax
DT (from step 2) 350 C
DTmax (from step 3) 640 C
DT/DTmax 350/640

4(b). A horizontal line is drawn on the performance graph corresponding to DT/DTmax .

4(c). The optimum value of Q/Qmax is obtained at the intersection of the horizontal line just drawn

and the diagonal optimum Q/Qmax line. Interpolation between curves may be necessary.

Optimum value of Q/Qmax is obtained to be 0.25 in this case.

4(d). The maximum value of Q/Qmax is obtained at the intersection of the horizontal line (drawn

in step 4b) and the right vertical axis.

Maximum value of Q/Qmax is obtained to be 0.45 in this case.

Note: maximum Q refers to the maximum heat the thermoelectric device can pump which will

occur when DT = 0.

4(e). Calculation of the optimum and maximum Qmax. The total heat load obtained in step 1 is

divided by optimum and maximum value of Q/Qmax.

Optimum value of Q/Qmax = 9/0.25 = 36 watts

Maximum value of Q/Qmax = 9/0.45 = 20 watts

For this example, let us assume maximum efficiency is desired. Thus, the 5.6 amp, 8.2 volt cooler

is selected, because between these two potential TECs, its Qmax (30 watts) is closest to the

optimum Qmax (36 watts).

4(f). Select or design a TEC from standard product list with Qmax greater than the maximum Qmax

(20 watts in this example), but less than the optimum Qmax (36 watts in this example). Keep in

mind that within this range a TEC with a Qmax close to the optimum Qmax will provide maximum

efficiency and will yield smaller and possibly less expensive TECs.

5.5 Improving TE performance: Various methods have been used to improve the performance

of TE Fridges which are its major drawback. Examples: thin film Fridges or multistage (bulk)

Fridges.

5.5.1 Thin film Fridges: Thin films are material layers of about one micrometer thickness.

Alternating layers of Sb2Te3 (antimony telluride) and Bi2Te3 (bismuth telluride) are used to

produce thin film TE Fridges. An example is shown below where the highest power components

are mounted on a diamond substrate which would be the top or cold side substrate of a thin film

TE cooler. Power densities were found to be above 100W/cm2. Thin film Fridges considerably

Figure 7 Thin film thermoelectric cooler

reduce the size of TE devices because the cooling density of a Peltier cooler is inversely

proportional to its length. Smaller size is desirable

5.5.2 Multistage Modules: When the desired temperature difference between the cold and hot

side cannot be obtained with a single stage module, or when the cold side temperature must be

lower than a one stage cooler will provide a multistage module may need to be applied.
 Multistage modules are essentially single stage modules stacked up in a vertical pyramid shaped

array. As the number of stages increases, the minimum cold side temperature will decrease. Also,

increasing the number of stages increases the coefficient of performance for a given cold side

temperature.

Figure 8 Multistage Modules

The Figure below compares the three types of Fridges bulk (multistage), thin film, and current.

Figure 9 cooling power densities for different power design

5. Advantages and disadvantages

Advantages
1. No moving parts make them very reliable; approximately 105 hrs of operation at 100
degrees Celsius, longer for lower temperature.

2. Ideal when precise temperature control is required.

3. Ability to lower temperature below ambient.

4. Heat transport controlled by current input.

5. Able to operate in any orientation.

6. Compact size makes them useful for applications where size or weight is a constraint.

7. Ability to alternate between heating and cooling.

8. Excellent cooling alternative to vapor compression Fridges for systems that are sensitive
to mechanical vibration.

Disadvantages
1. Able to dissipate limited amount of heat flux.

2. Lower coefficient of performance than vapor-compression systems.

3. Relegated to low heat flux applications.

4. Application

The industries which use TE cooling are Electronics, Medical, Aerospace and telecommunication
and their applications are
1. Electronic enclosures

2. Laser diodes

3. Laboratory instruments, DNA synthesis, Blood analyzers, Tissue preparation

4. Temperature baths

5. Refrigerators

6. Telecommunications equipment

7. Temperature control in missiles and space systems, CCD/LED/Infrared detector cooling,

Night vision equipment

8. Heat transport ranges vary from a few mill watts to several thousand watts, however,
since the efficiency of TE devices are low, smaller heat transfer applications are more
practical.

9. Conclusion

A new dimension has been added to the cooling challenge by the requirement to reduce operating

temperatures to achieve enhanced speed. With the continued demand for improved cooling

technology to enhance the performance and reliability of CMOS applications, thermoelectric

cooling may be considered a potential candidate for cooling enhancement.

To use the equations, detailed information in terms of the parameters , , K, and R pertaining to

the thermoelectric module under consideration is required. Unfortunately, today only one

thermoelectric vendor provides such information in their data sheets. It is to be hoped that in the

future other thermoelectric vendors will also make such information available for users.

As shown in the example, the application of thermoelectric Fridges could provide cooling

enhancement for a limited range of powers. Unfortunately, in many cases MCM powers may be

simply too high for current thermoelectric modules to handle effectively. The current figure of

merit, Z, of the available candidate materials, and the coefficient of performance (COP)

attainable with existing thermoelectric Fridges, need to be increased.

Until and unless improvements can be made to enhance heat pumping capability and COP,

thermoelectric will not be a serious candidate for higher power electronic cooling applications. It
is hoped that the work being done on development of improved thermoelectric materials and thin

film thermoelectric will eventually alter this situation.

1.1 Abstract

The main objective of our project is to maintain the temperature of the selected the
area up to an ambient temperature. This system works more effectively and
stability in maintain the temperature of a cold body with

the required region. The operation of this system takes changes if polararky of
the refrigerator is reversed.

Compressor less portable refrigerator is also called solex refrigerator, which

provides a mean to keep the item stored in it to up to an ambient tempraperature.
 1.2 Introduction:

What are thermoelectric devices used for?

thermo electronic devices are lsed in a variety of applications. They are u s e d by the

military for nighi vision equipment, electronic equipment cooling, portable

refrigerators, and inertial guidance systems. Military

clarity night vision binocular retail at about$500. These products are

u s e f u l to the military during w a r and training because they are reliable, -.all. and

quiet. Another advantage to these thermoelectric products is i: they can be run on

batteries or out of a car lighter. The medical . : ~ m u n i t y uses thermoelectric

applications for hypothermia blankets,

- : ; c analyzers, and tissue preparation and storage4. The main i i ".antage of

thermoelectric devices to the medical community is that

e devices allow doctors prec.se temperature control, which is useful in

- ir.dling tissue samples. Hypothermia blankets are pads that patients rest
for greater efficiency (Figure 7). N -t ype material are heavily doped to create

excess electrons, while p -t ype mate ials are used to create a deficiency of

electrons. Melcor, the world's first manufacturer of thermoelectric coolers,

utilizes processed bismuth telluride to yield semiconductors with tl ermoel ectric

properties. The couple is connected in series electi icall y and in parallel thermall y

then integrated into modules. The modules are placed between ceramic plates to

offer optimum stabilit y, electrical insulation, and thermal conductivit y. The

modules can be either mounted in parallel to increase the heat tansfer effect or

Figure 6: A simple thermoelectric generator

Figure 7: A Thermoelectric generator using n and p-
type materials.

stacked to achieve high differential temperatures

Global makes a thermoelectric t enerator (Figure 8). In the center of the generator

is a thermoelectric module, which contains le ad-tin-telluride semiconductor

elements. On one side of the module there h a gas burner. The other side has

aluminum cooling fins or a heai pipe to keep it cool. The hot side maintains a

temperature of 5 -0 degrees Celsius, while the cold side stays at abou t 140 degrees

Celsius. Thermoelectric devices can also b> - used as refrigerators on the bases of

the Peltier effect. To create a thermoelectric refrigerator (Figure 9), heat is

absorbed from i refrigerated space and than rejected to a wanner environment. T he

difference between these two quantities is the net electrijal work that needs to be

supplied.

These refrigerators are not overl y popular bee ruse they have a

low coefficient of performance. The coefficient of performance

for thermoelectric refrigerators can be calculated by dividing the

cooling effect by the work input as shown in tlu

Figure 8: Global's thermoelectric generator

Figure 9: A Thermoelectric refrigerator based on the Peltier

effect.

on during surgery to keep their body at a t ertain temperature. Many people have

thermoelectric products in theii homes such as beer keg coolers, wine cellar chillers,

water coolers, . ad picnic basket coolers. Water Coolers like Advanced

Thermoelectri - Product's ,M- retail for about $350. The M-5 holds 0.74 gal lor - of

water and weighs 14.7pounds without the bottle. Consumers like the M -5 because it

constantly keeps water at an ideal drinking tei iperature of 39 -52 degrees

Fahrenheit.
 Figure 1: Night vision binoculars.

Thermoelectric devices are prob abl y most well known for their contribution to

powering spacecrafts like the Voyager (1980). Radioisotope Thermoelectric

Generators provided all of the on board electrical power for NASA.s Voyager. The

Thermoelectric devices proved reliable since they were still performing to

specification 14years after launch. The power system provided the equivalent of

100-300 watts electrical power and multiplesthereof.NASA is i ow requiring

higher efficiency rates out of smaller units.

What is a thermoelectric device?

A thermoelectric device is one that operates on a circuit that incorporates both

thermal and electrical effects to convert heat energy into electrical energy or elet

trical energy to a temperature gradient. Thermoelectric elements perform the

same cooling function as Freon -based vapor compression or absorption

refrigerators. Energy is taken irom a region thereby reducing its temperature. The

energy is than rejected to a heat sink region with a higher temperature.

Thermoelectric elements are in a to all y solid state, while vapor cycle devices

have moving mech inical parts that require a working; fluid.

Thermoelectric modules (Figure 3) ire small, sturdy, quiet heat pumps operated

by a DC power source. They usuall y last about200, 000 hours in heatin g mod or

about 20 hours if left on cooling mode. When power is supplied, the surface where

heat energy is absorbed becomes cold; the opposite surface where heat energy is

released becomes hut. If the polarit y of current flow through the module is

reversed, the cold side will become the hot side and vice -versa. Thermoelectric

modules can also be used as thermocouples for temperature measurement or as

generators to suppl y power to spacecrafts and electrical equipment

C h a p t e r 2 LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Thermocouples, Generators, a n d Refrigerators

Thermoelectric modules can also be used a^ thermocouples for measuring

temperature or providing the temperature -sensing element in a

thermostat. To measure temperature the thermoelectric circuits

broken so the cunent quits flowing. When the current ceases, voltage is measured
 by a voltmeter 1 (Figure 5).The voltage generated is a functior of the temperature

difference and the Figure 4; See beck effect: Two wires of different metals

are connected at bo th ends to create a closed circuit. If one end is heated a

current will flow continuousl y. Figure 5: The voltage generated is a functior of

the temperature difference and the materials of the two wires used. Materials of

the two wires used. Two wires us ed to measure temperature in this manner form a

thermocouple. Thermoccuples are the most prevalent device for temperature

measurement. Thermoelectric modules can also be used as power generator,. A

thermoelectric generator (Figure 6) has a power cycle clos e y related to a heat

engine cycle with electrons serving as the wo -king fluid. Heat is transferred from

"a TiTgh temperature heat soutve to a hot junction and than rejected to a low

temperature sink from the cold junction. The difference between the two

quantities is the net electrical work produced. The voltage output has been

increased significantly with the use of semiconductor, instead of metal pairs.

Some use n-t ype and p-t ype materials connected in series

Project r

Page 5
2.2 COMPARISON BETWEEN CONVENTIONAL REFRIGERATION AND
COMPRESSOR LESS PORTABLE REFRIGERATOR

2.2.1 CONVENTIONAL REFRIGERATION

Refrigeration is a process in which work is done to move heat from one location

to another. This work is traditionall y done b> mechanical work, but can also bt

done by magnetism, laser or other means. Refrigeration has many applications,

including, but not limited to: household refrigerators, industrial freezers,

cryogenics, air conditioning, and heat pumps.

the thermodynamic power cycle. In the power cycle, heat is supplied from a

high-temperature source to the engine, part of the heat being used to produce work

and the rest being rejected to a low -temperature sink. This satisfies the second law

of thermodynamics.
A refrigeration cycle describes the change - that take place in the refrigerant as it

alternatel y absorbs and rejects heat as it circulates through a refrigerator. It is

also applied to HVACR work, when describing the "process" of refrigerant flow

through an HVACR unit, whether it is a packaged or ^pHt system.

Heat naturall y flows from hot to cold. Work s applied to cool a living space or

storage volume by pumping heat from a lower temperature heat source into a

higher temperature heat sink. Insulation is used to reduce the work and en ergy

required to achieve and maintain a lower temperature in the cooled space. The

operating principle of the refrigeration c>cle was described mathematicall y by

Sadi Carnot in 1824 as a heat engine.

The most common types of refrigeration systems use the reverse-Rankine

vapor-compression refr gcration cycle, although absorption heat pumps are used

m a minorit y of applications.

Cyclic refrigeration can be classified as:

1. Vapor cycle, and

2. Gas cycle

Vapor cycle refrigeration can further be classified as:

1. Vapor-compression refrigeration
2. Vapor-absorption refrigeration
Vapor-compression refrigeration

A simple vapor compression refrig :ration system consists of the following

equipments:

*' Simple vapour compression system

Figure 10
The schematic diagram of the arrangement is as shown in Fig. 10.
The low temperature, low pressure vapor at state B is compressed
by a compressor to high temperature and pressure vapor at state C.
This vapor is c mdensed into high pressure vapor at state D in the
condenser and then passes through the
i) Compressor ii) Condenser iii) E> pansion valve iv) Evaporator.

expansion valve. Here, the vapor is throttled down to a low pressure liquid and

passed on to an evaporator, where it absorbs heat from the surroundings from the

ci culating fluid (being refrigerated) and vaporizes into low pressure vapor at

state B. The cycle then repeats. The exchange of energy is as follows:

a) Compressor requires work, 5w. The w irk is supplied to the system from the

surroundings.

b) During condensation , heal 5Q1 the equivalent of latent heat of condensation

etc, is lost from the refrigerator.

c) During evaporation, heat 8Q2 equiva em to latent heat of vaporization is

absorbed by the refrigerant.

d) There is no exchange of heat during throttling process

through the expansion valve as this process occurs at constant

enthalpy.

Vapor-absorption refrigeration

Vapor Absorption Refrigeration S ystem:

Some liquids like water have great affinit y for absorbing large quantities of

certain vapors (NH3) ind reduce the total volume greatl y. The absorption

refrigeration system differs fundamentally from vapor compr* -ssion system onl y

in the method of compress ing the refrigei int. An absorber, generator and pump in

the absorption refrigerating system replace the compressor of a vapor

compression ystem. Figure 11 shows the schematic diagram of a vapor ab -orption

s ystem. Ammonia vapor is produced in the generato i at high pressure from the

strong solution of NH3 by an extern.il heating source. The water vapor carried

with ammonia is removed in the rectifier and onl y the dehydrated ammonia gas

enter into the condenser. High pressure NH3 vapor is condensed ir the co ndenser.

The cooled NH3 solution is passed through a thiottle valve and the pressure and

temperature of the refrigerar i are reduced below the temperature to be maintained

in the evaporator. The low temperature refrigerant enters the t vaporator and

absorbs the required heat from the evaporator and leaves the evaporator as

saturated vapor. Slightl y superheated, low pressure NH3 vapor is absorbed by the

weak solution of NH3 which is sprayed in the absorber as shown in Fig...

Weak NH 3 solution (aqua -ammonia) entering the absorber becomes strong

solution after absorbing NH 3 vapor and then it is pumped to the generator through

the heat exchanger. The pump increases the pressure of the strong solution to

generator pressure. The strong NH 3 solution coming from the absorber absorbs

heat form high temperature weak NH3 solution in the heat exchanger. The solution

in the generator becomes weak as NH 3 vapor comes out of it. The weak high

temperature ammonia solution from the generator is passed to the heat exchanger

Project renort

through the throttle valve. The pressure o f t ie liquid is reduced to the absorber
pressure by the throttle valve

Designing of thermal emf refrigeration

 Where

Th= the temperature of hot sidi T a m b = the ambient temperature 0=thermal

resistance of heat exchanger Q h =heat released heat released to the hot side of the
thermoelectric (watts).

Qh = Qc + Pin
Where

Q h = the heat released to the hot side of the thermoelectric (watts).

Q c = the heat absorbed from the cold side (watts).

Pin = the electrical input power to the thei moelectric (watts).

The temperature difference across the thermoelectric (T) relates to T h and

T c according to Equation

T = Th - Tc

The thermoelectric performance curves - in Figures 2 and 3 shows the

relationship between T and tl e other parameters.

Estimating Q c , the heat load in watts absorbed from the cold side is

difficult, because all thermal loads in the design must be considered.

Among these them al loads are:

Active: I2R heat load from the electronic devices Any load

generated by a chem cal reaction

Passive: Radiation (heat loss between two close objects with different

temperatures) Convection (heat loss through the air,

where the air has a different temperature than the object) Insulation

Losses Conduction Losses (heat loss "hrough leads,

screws, etc.) Transient Load (time required t ^ change the temperature of an

object)
 As the thermoelectric operates, the current flowing through it has two effects:

(1) The Peltier Effect (cooling); nd

(2) The .Joulian Effect (heating).

We know that joulian effect is p oportional to the square of the current so

heating effect v ill dominates the cooling effect that why we can not ncrease the

current to a maximum value called Imax for *hermo -electric.

The thermal resistances of 'he heat sink causes a temperature rise above

ambient, i f the thermal resistance of the heat sink is unknown, then estimates

of acceptable temperature rise above ambient ai e:

Natural Convection20C to 40C

Forced ConvectionlOC to 15C

Liquid CooIing2C to 5C (rise above the liquid coolant temperature)

Our main aim to maintain the emperature of container 15C which contain 16

litres of aii in 0.5minute.

We know lOOOlitres =lm3

 MECHANISM

3.1 WORKING PRINCIPLE:

Consider an open circuit in w h i c h two ends of a metal are held at different

temperature-;. The temperature difference
10. References

1. Nolas, G.S., Slack, G.A., Cohn, J.L., and Schujman, S.B., The Next Generation of
Thermoelectric Materials, Proceedings of the 17th IEEE International Conference on
Thermoelectrics, PP. 294-297, 1998.

2. Tellurex (2002) The 12 Most Frequently Asked Questions About Thermoelectric

Cooling. Retrieved May 2006, http://www.tellurex.com/12most.html

3. Wikipedia the Free Encyclopedia (May 2006). Semiconductor Retrieved May 2006,