Timber Structures Euro Book

*uR M.
M6
* *
Commission of the European Communities
industrial processes
BUILDING AND CIVIL ENGINEERING
Timber structures
EUR 12136 EN- DE -FR

Timber structures
Proceedings of a European conference held in Luxembourg from
14 to 16 September 1988 and organized by the Commission of
the European Communities, Directorate-General for the Internal
Market and Industrial Affairs, in collaboration with the Inter-
national Council for Building Research, Studies and
Documentation.
^
industrial processes
BUILDING AND CIVIL ENGINEERING
Timber structures
Edited by
H. J. Larsen
Danish Building Research Institute
J. Kuipers
Delft University
J. Ehrentreich
1989 IZZ EUR 12136 EN - D - F R

Published by the
COMMISSION OF THE EUROPEAN COMMUNITIES
Directorate-General
Telecommunications, Information Industries and Innovation
Scientific and Technical Communications Service
L-2920 Luxembourg
LEGAL NOTICE
Neither the Commission of the European Communities nor any person
acting on behalf of the Commission is responsible for the use which might
be made of the following information.
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced,
stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means,
electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise,
without the prior written permission of the publisher.
Cataloguing data can be found at the end of this publication
Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications of the European Communities, 1989
ISBN 92-825-9944-2 Catalogue number: CD-NA-12136-3A-C
ECSC-EEC-EAEC, Brussels Luxembourg, 1989
Printed in the FR of Germany

Foreword
The CommitI on of the E u r o p e a n C o m m u n i t i e s ( C E C ) Is s u p p o r t i n g

work c o n c e r n i n g the e l a b o r a t i o n of a s e r i e s of E U R O C O D E S for the
d e s i g n and c o n s t r u c t i o n of b u i l d i n g and dlvll e n g i n e e r i n g
s t r u c t u r e s In d i f f e r e n t m a t e r i a l s . The d r a f t i n g panel of E u r o c o d e
5 d e a l i n g with Timber S t r u c t u r e s p r o p o s e d to the C E C to o r g a n i s e
In c o o p e r a t i o n with CIB ( I n t e r n a t i o n a l Council for B u i l d i n g
R e s e a r c h , S t u d i e s and D o c u m e n t a t i o n ) a s y m p o s i u m In order to have
an optimal I n t r o d u c t i o n to r e c e i v e c o m m e n t s b e f o r e the final
draf11ng .
One of the w o r l d ' s largest natural r e s o u r c e s of m a t e r i a l s Is the

f o r e s t , w h e r e the p r o d u c t i o n of wood takes p l a c e . The greatest
part by far of the wood p r o d u c t i o n la used In the b u i l d i n g
Industry. It Is for these r e a s o n s , together with the c o n c e r n
about the only limited amount of the E u r o p e a n f o r e s t s , that the
C o m m i s s i o n of the E u r o p e a n C o m m u n i t i e s has a p a r t i c u l a r Interest
In the d e v e l o p m e n t s around this r e n e w a b l e r e s o u r c e . The CEC
t h e r e f o r e a c c e p t e d the propsal of the d r a f t i n g p a n e l .
The C o n f e r e n c e on timber s t r u c t u r e s dealt f i r s t l y with the draft

E u r o c o d e S, In w h i c h the design rules for loadbearlng timber
s t r u c t u r e s have been g i v e n , and w h i c h was p u b l i s h e d some time
b e f o r e the c o n f e r e n c e took p l a c e . The c o n f e r e n c e aimed to give
the n e c e s s a r y Information about b a c k g r o u n d s , and a l s o to open a
t h o r o u g h d i s c u s s i o n h e r e a b o u t . It w a s e s p e c i a l l y hoped that the
Interested Industry and the d e s i g n e r s , a r c h i t e c t s and e n g i n e e r s ,
would take part In these d i s c u s s i o n s . T h i s aim w a s fully r e a c h e d ,
t h a n k s to the ample p a r t i c i p a t i o n of p e o p l e from all Interested
a r e a s In the use of timber for structural p u r p o s e s .
A second goal of the symposium t h e r e f o r e w a s to d e m o n s t r a t e the

p o s s i b i l i t i e s the uss of timber g i v e s for b u i l d i n g and
e n g i n e e r i n g s t r u c t u r e s . T h e r e f o r e many e x a m p l e s of h l s t r o r l c a l
and e s p e c i a l l y of m o d e r n a p p l i c a t i o n s w e r e d e m o n s t r a t e d and
d i s c u s s e d , as well as some p h l l o s o p l e s about better e d u c a t i o n In
the use and p o s s i b i l i t i e s of t i m b e r .
The third aim to Inform the p a r t i c i p a n t s about work of the
C o m m i s s i o n s e r v i c e s c o n c e r n i n g the h a r m o n i s a t i o n of c o d e s and
s t a n d a r d s and about Its p r o g r a m m e s In the field of f o r e s t r y and
uss of w o o d .
W i t h i n the three c o n f e r e n c e days some twenty p a p e r s w e r e

p r e s e n t e d , g i v i n g o p e n i n g s to the much wider amount of p a p e r s ,
r s p o r t s , p r o c e e d i n g s e t c , which exist and w h i c h are the
b a c k g r o u n d of the most Interesting d e v e l o p m e n t s In timber
e n g i n e e r i n g , e s p e c i a l l y In the coming y e a r s , w h e r e It must be
e x p e c t e d that the amount of E u r o p e a n timber In d i f f e r e n t s p e c i e s
Is g r o w i n g fast, b e c a u s e of the e f f o r t s to raise the forest areas
w i t h i n the Member S t a t e s .
For the C o m m i s s i o n of the E u r o p e a n C o m m u n i t i e s For CIB
EHRENTREICH H.J. LARSEN

CONTENTS
SESSION I
WELCOMING ADDRESS
F. BRAUN, Director-General for Internal Market
and Industrial ffairs. Commission of the
European Communities 3
EUROCODES, ESPECIALLY EUROCODE 5

H.J. LARSEN, Danish Building Research Institute,
H/rsholm, Denmark 5
EUROCODES, GENERAL DESIGN PRINCIPLES

H.J. LARSEN, Danish Building Research Institute,
H^rsholm, Denmark 15
SESSION II
EUROCODE 5 - MATERIALS
J.G. SUNLEY, Timber Research and Development Association,
United Kingdom 29
EARLY STRUCTURAL DESIGN: IDEAS FROM ABROAD

D.T. YEOMANS, Liverpool University, School of Architecture
and Building Engineering, United Kingdom 41
QUALITY CRITERIA FOR TIMBER STRUCTURES

FROM MATERIALS SELECTION TO DESIGN
J. NATTERER and W. WINTER, Department of Timber Structures,
Federal Technical University, Lausanne, Switzerland 50
SESSION III
EUROCODE 5 - CALCULATION AND DESIGN RULES FOR STRUCTURAL MEMBERS

H. BRUNINGHOFF, University of Wuppertal,
Federal Republic of Germany 75
EUROCODE 5: THE OVERSEAS VIEW

G.A. DRING, P.Eng., Chairman Canadian Standards
Association, Technical Committee 066 Engineering
Design in Wood, Canada 94
EUROCODE 5 - WILL I USE IT?

R.F. MARSH, B.Sc (Eng), MICE, CEng. AKC
Ove Arup Partnership, Consulting Engineers, London,
United Kingdom 98
SESSION IV
TIMBER ENGINEERING EDUCATION - PROPOSALS FOR CHANGE

B.O. HILSON, Brighton Polytechnic,
United Kingdom 113
VII
REQUIREMENTS FOR TRAINING IN TIMBER CONSTRUCTION
U.A. MEIERHOFER, EMPA-Abteilung Holz,
Dubendorf, Switzerland 123
AIMS AND RESULTS OF THE EEC TIMBER RESEARCH PROGRAMMES

W. HANSSENS, Commission of the European Communities,
Directorate-General Science, Research and Development 130
MODERN TIMBER CONSTRUCTION IN SWITZERLAND:

THE QUALITY OF SIMPLE DESIGN
J. KOLB, Technical Service of the Swiss Timber
Association, LIGNUM, Zurich, Switzerland 136
SESSION V
NEW TRENDS IN DESIGN CALCULATIONS OF

TIMBER STRUCTURES IN SEISMIC REGIONS
A. CECCOTTI, Department of Civil Engineering,
University of Florence, Italy 1S1
TIMBER FRAMED HOUSING - THE UNITED KINGDOM CONTEXT

D. SCOTT, Technical Director, The Timber & Brick
Homes Consortium, Managing Director - HSD,
Architects and Building Consultants, United Kingdom 169
THE DEVELOPMENT OF INDUSTRIALIZED BUILDING IN DENMARK

B. LUND JOHANSEN, The Danish Timber Information Council
Denmark 188
WOODEN DOMES
A. JORISSEN, B u r e a u L U n i n g , D o e t i n c h e m , The N e t h e r l a n d s 196
SESSION VI
THE FUTURE IN TIMBER ENGINEERING

- RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT
J. EHLBECK, Karlsruhe University, Federal Republic
of Germany 217
CLOSING ADDRESS
J. KUIPERS, Technical University Delft,
The Netherlands 223
ZUSAMMENFASSUNGEN DER VORTRGE 227
RESUMES DES EXPOSES 277
LIST OF PARTICIPANTS 330
INDEX OF AUTHORS 341
IX
SESSION I
Chairman: C.K.A.STIEDA, Forintek Canada Corporation

Chairman of CIB-W18 'Timber structures'
Vancouver, Canada
WELCOMING ADDRESS
EUROCODES, GENERAL DESIGN PRINCIPLES

WELCOMING ADDRESS
F. BRAUN
Director-General for Internal Harket and Industrial Affairs
Mr Chairman, ladies and gentlemen, it gives me great pleasure to take

part in the opening session of this conference, organised in cooperation
with the CIB. I would like first of all to make a few general remarks about
current priorities and then move on to the particular interest of this
conference.
You are probably aware that we aim to have established a single
integrated market in Europe by 1 January 1993. This is a very ambitious
undertaking, which was adopted as a constitutional objective of the EEC. The
Treaty of Rome states that one of our aims is to set up a borderless market
in which goods, services, capital and persons can circulate freely between
all the Member States.
Today we are at an important stage. There has been a great deal of
scepticism in all the Member States, and in the past decisions could only be
taken unanimously. Now that has been changed. The European Council has taken
some important decisions (which is now possible by a qualified majority) on
Community finances. The structural funds have been practically doubled,
which has enabled the Member States to play a full role in achieving the
single market. We are now on the right track. There are some areas which
have not yet been tackled, but some plans exist. It used to take about
IS years for the Council to take a decision: now it takes 18 months.
The single market is not an end in itself) it is a foundation on which
other more general things are to be built, such as European economic
convergence. The Commission and Member States have now agreed to extend free
movement to cover services and capital as well as goods. In the case of
services it is felt that we do not need 100% harmonisation. A minimum level
may be sufficient) basic requirements must be met.
All this should undoubtedly benefit the Community. At present we are
suffering from the disadvantages of a fragmented market. A survey has shown
that the costs of fragmentation are about 200 000 million ECU. Thus one
benefit of a single market is obvious. There is also the increasing
competitiveness vis--vis the outside world, from which the public
authorities can benefit.
This conference is a further step in this direction. You will be
discussing harmonisation in your particular area, Eurocode 5, and I think
that the subject matter is important. Confidence building is very important
for success. It has taken a while to build confidence between the different
Member States, but now people have come to realise that their own system is
not necessarily far superior to any other. Eurocode 5 makes a very important
contribution as regards timber structures, and provides a central foundation
for European standardisation. In the first draft, EC5 calls for comments
from all interested parties. All comments, including those put forward at
this conference, will be examined carefully.
I hope the conference will produce important findings which will
enable the drafting committee to improve its draft.
You will also be looking at research and research results. We are very
happy to see such exchanges taking place, and not only between Member
States. Widening the research community will greatly increase the potential
for beneficial innovations in the future.
I wish you every success with your conference.
H.J. LAUSEN
Hjrsholm, Denmark
Summary
Eurocode are building Standards. Their purpose, among other things,

is to promote the common internal market and to strengthen the
competitiveness of the European building industry. It is with this aim
in view that Eurocodes will be given the status of optional documents
in all Member States on a par with national standards. A description
is given of the basis for Eurocodes, their breakdown into Principles
and Application Rules and of the user's entitlement to deviate from
the code. The contents of Eurocode 5, Timber Structures, are
described. Special attention is given to problems affecting associated
standards. Ultimately only reference to CEN standards (1) will be
possible. The paper concludes with a description of further work and
of the relationship between this and Eurocode 8 for calculations for
structures in seismic zones.
1. GENERAL
Eurocodes are building standards drawn up by the Commission of the

European Communities. Work started with the development of structural
standards and it is planned to draw up Eurocodes to cover all significant
building requirements (fire safety, soundproofing, energy conservation). The
following comments relate exclusively to Eurocodes for structures although
the work plan - in addition to Eurocodes for loads - currently comprises the
following:
Eurocode 1 Common unified rules

Eurocode 2 Concrete structures
Eurocode 3 Steel structures
Eurocode 4 Composite steel and concrete structures
Eurocode 5 Timber structures
Eurocode 6 Masonry structures
Eurocode 7 Foundations
Eurocode 8 Structures in seismic zones
Eurocode 1 is the background document setting out the general thinking

behind the common rules and requirements, including the safety system
adopted. The remaining Eurocodes are operational documents intended for the
immediate use of designers.
2. OBJECTIVES
The objectives of the Eurocodes include:
to promote the internal market by removing obstacles to trade arising

from differing construction regulations;
to reinforce the competitive position of the European construction
industry in markets outside Europe;
to provide the basis for common rules for products used in the
construction industry.
3. LEGAL STATUS
It is the Commission's intention that for the time being Eurocodes

should provide an optional design code, i.e. one that a builder may apply in
any Member State as an alternative to that country's own code. In principle,
the basis has been laid for Eurocodes to achieve this status through a
Council Directive of February 1987 on the approximation in the Member States
of laws and regulations in the construction industry with a view to creating
a common internal market by 1992. It is still unclear how the decision is to
be put into practice.
Nevertheless, it has been established that each individual Member
State may determine the level of safety it desires, prescribe the extent of
control measures on design and execution, and draw up any rules on the
approval of designs and materials. It is hoped, however, that the partial
coefficients and other safety factors proposed in Eurocodes will find
acceptance.
4. STANDARDS USED AS MODELS
Before work on a Eurocode could start it was necessary to have an

internationally recognised standard as a model. The model for Eurocode 5 was
CIB's (2) structural timber design code (CIB report, publication 66, 1983),
drawn up by Working Commission W18, Timber Structures, which at the time was
chaired by John Sunley from the United Kingdom.
The section dealing with the manufacture of glued laminated timber
(Annex 3) was drawn up in cooperation with the Glulam Subcommittee of FEMIB
(3). The associated testing standards are based on the recommendations drawn
up by RILEM (4) under the guidance of Jan Kuipers from the Netherlands.
5. THE DRAFTING OF EUROCODE 5
This present draft of Eurocode 5 was compiled for the Commission by a

working party whose members were Heinz Briininghoff from the Federal Republic
of Germany, Philippe Crubill from France, Jrgen Ehlbeck from the Federal
Republic of Germany, Hans Jrgen Larsen (Chairman) from Denmark and John
Sunley from the United Kingdom. Jan Kuipers from the Netherlands also
contributed. The members were nominated by the Commission in their
individual capacity as experts and felt under no obligation to ensure the
acceptance of the proposals at national level.
To ensure that the national points of view can be expressed it is
proposed that Eurocode 5 be submitted for public comments over the
relatively long period of one year.
These - hopefully numerous - comments from Member States,
organisations and individuals will be handled by an editorial group. This
group will be slightly larger than the current one, which will in part be
absorbed by the editorial group. However, it will not be large enough to
allow all Member States to be represented. The editorial group should
therefore also work independently of national interests. To ensure that all
Member States can be informed of how the comments are treated and to make
certain that their points of view can be taken into account in the final
version, there will be for each country a nationally nominated contact
person who will be kept briefed on the work and consulted on decisions of
principle.
Drafting will presumably take between 18 months and 2 years, i.e. the
definitive version of Eurocode 5 will be ready in mid-1990, simultaneously
with Eurocode 6 on masonry structures. The Eurocodes for concrete and steel,
for which comments have been invited, are expected to be ready in the course
of 1988. The Eurocode for composite steel and concrete structures is
expected to be ready mid-1989 while the Eurocode for foundations will not be
ready before the beginning of 1992 at the earliest.
6. COORDINATION OF THE WORK
The Coordination Group for the Eurocodes is responsible for

coordinating this work with the other Eurocodes. Its members include the
chairmen of the editorial groups as well as specialists and representatives
of international organisations (including consulting engineers and
employers' associations). The Chairman is Gnther Breitschaft from the
Federal Republic of Germany.
Among the matters dealt with by this group are the divison into
Principles and Application Rules and the common section covering safety,
applicability and terminology.
7. PRINCIPLES AND APPLICATION RULES
The text of Eurocodes distinguishes between Principles and Application

Rules. Principles are general statements and definitions from which no
deviation is permitted, and rules and models which - because of their
interconnection with other provisions of the Eurocode concerned - cannot be
deviated from unless such deviation is expressly permitted.
Application Rules are generally accepted rules derived from the
general statements and fulfilling the requirements set out in the Principles
section.
Initially there are many major discrepancies between the various
Eurocodes in the way they differentiated between Principles and Application
Rules. Now, however, a reasonable degree of uniformity has been achieved.
This proposal for Eurocode 5 represents a stage on the way towards this
uniformity but it does not totally reflect the final decisions. In the final
version of Eurocode S some parts of the Principles section will be moved to
the section on Application Rules. This applies in particular to Section 5.1,
which deals with the calculation of basic members. In addition, in the
extended version the Principles will be gathered together and it may not
necessarily be the case that each separate section will start with the
Principles.
8. DEVIATION rROM THE CODE
For a particular design, the user may apply design rules other than
those set out in the Eurocode concerned, provided the appropriate
documentation can be produced to show that the reliability of the building
will not be impaired. Conversely, national authorities may not introduce
other Application Rules, either in such a way that requires then to be used
instead of Eurocodes or that, in general terms, they are approved in
conjunction with them. It remains permissible to have national sets of
standards which may require other methods of calculation, safety principles
etc. to be applied but it shall be permissible for a project to be carried
out exclusively on the basis either of Eurocodes or national rules. In the
slightly longer term is will prove increasingly difficult to maintain two
sets of rules.
9. COMMENTS
A comments section, containing explanations, justifications and

supplements for the various rules, has been included with the aim of
preventing misunderstandings or inappropriate use.
Comments on Eurocode 5 are annexed to this distributed proposal. They
consist principally of references to more comprehensive material, such as
that published by CIB W18 on the basis of its meetings. It includes
justification both for rules contained in Wl8's own model standard and for
changes and additions to that which the editorial group introduced into
Eurocode 5.
10. APPLICABILITY
The Eurocodes, in their present form, comprise general requirements

and rules valid for all structures using the material concerned, whether
buildings or other structures. They are intended to provide a complete basis
for all general buildings and structures. Eurocode 5 thus covers in
principle all timber structures, i.e. structures built mainly of timber
(rectangular structural timber, logs or glued laminated timber) or wood-
based sheet materials.
As and when necessary supplementary Eurocodes will be developed in the
future to cover special rules for specific types of structure (for example
bridges, towers, masts) and areas of application (for example agricultural
buildings or structures exposed to extreme climates).
It is estimated, however, that this proposal for Eurocode 5 will
largely cover the requirements and that the scale of any supplements will
not be too great.
11. RELATED STANDARDS
As with the other Eurocodes, the draft Eurocode 5 is very largely

based on references to ISO standards (5) and other generally accepted
documents. In the draft Eurocode 5 there are references to :
ISO standards for materials and structural components and for the
testing of these;
equivalent ISO standards in various stages of preparation;
material specifications and grading rules, e.g. for structural timber,
plywood and other sheet materials including standards for glues,
developed by national or international organisations.
It is assumed that these will be replaced by CEN standards before the

definitive versions of the Eurocodes come into force.
As a rule, when ISO standards are drawn up, only a small number of
standards organisations are involved. To participate in all committees would
be impracticable and so usually the work is split up. Normally only one or
two of the Scandinavian countries are represented. Decisions on adoption are
taken primarily by the countries involved in the work and no country is
under any obligation to accept ISO standards as national standards. If the
Commission really wants to introduce ISO standards In the Member States by
making reference to them in Eurocodes such a step would totally undermine
the basis of current work on standardisation.
This problem will not arise with CBN standards. In the case of the
latter, the standards organisation in the Community Member State has itself
decided that a CEN standard, adopted (on the basis of complex rules) by a
qualified majority, automatically enjoys the status of national standard.
Where a national standard existed beforehand, it is invalidated. Hitherto,
CEN has not been particularly active owing to financial constraints but now
an agreement has been reached on the basis of which the Commission will
finance the drafting of the standards which it requires in connection with
Eurocodes.
Highest priority has been afforded to the drafting of the following
standards :
Testing standards. Further reference to ISO standards could be made

here but it is a manageable task to convert the available ISO
standards to CEN standards and it is believed that it would be quicker
to draw up the proposal as a CEN standard rather than an ISO standard.
Grading rules for European timber (both conifer and deciduous,
including poplar). The basis for conifer would be ECE's (6) rules. In
the case of deciduous timber various national standards would apply.
Production requirements for glued laminated timber and testing methods
for the quality of glued joints. The basis for this is Annex 3 to the
current proposal for Eurocode 5. The Annex was drawn up on the basis
of a special agreement with the Commission and the Glulam subcommittee
in order to satisfy an important requirement. It is published jointly
with Eurocode 5 in order to invite comments on the rules associated
with Eurocode 5. It has, however, always been made clear that the
Annex is not to form part of the final version.
Standards for glues. For this requirement Eurocode 5 is based on the
British standard BS 1204 which has here de facto achieved the status
of an international reference document.
Standards for plywood and other sheet materials manufactured in Europe
for structural applications.
No less important are the standards relating to terminology, preferred

dimensions and timber protection (rot, fire).
For mechanical fasteners and other 'proprietary articles' it will be
necessary for a European approval system, corresponding to the UEAtc (7), to
be created.
It is still uncertain what solution can be found for the problems
associated with structural timber and plywood from countries outside the
Community since, clearly, the Community cannot do without timber and plywood
from Canada, the Scandinavian countries and the USSR. The editorial group
feels that in future it will be necessary to refer to the standards of the
producing countries.
12. CONTENTS
Eurocode 5 comprises the following four main sections:
The first section, which includes Chapter 1, (Introduction) and

Chapter 2 (Basis of Design) contains units, notations, definitions and
references, as well as basic information including a description of the
safety system chosen. This section is, in principle, the same for all
Eurocodes. The only departures are those justified on the basis of the
particular properties of the structural material concerned. In Eurocode 5 it
was necessary to include special rules to take account of the fact that both
strength and deformation in timber is dependent on load duration and
moisture content.
The second section (Chapter 3) sets out the requirements for
materials. The chapter is short - only four pages - since in the extended
version it is based on references, partly to standards and partly to
annexes, including Annex 2 (strength and density classes for timber and
grades for glued laminated timber) and Annex 3 (glued laminated timber,
production requirements).
The third section contains rules covering design calculations for all
common structural components and structures in the serviceability limit
states (Chapter 4) and ultimate limit states (Chapter 5 - Figure 1).
The fourth section sets out the requirements with regard to the
execution of work. This section is not very long because it merely states a
requirement which is the condition determining the validity of the design
calculation rules. Similarly, there is no attempt to describe timber
structures in general. Most requirements are set out in Chapter 6
(Structural Detailing and Control) but the minimum distances and dimensions
in joints are set out in Chapter 5 together with the relevant calculation
rules.
The first version of Eurocode 5 also included a section on proving the

resistance to fire of timber structures. This section has been omitted
because in the meantime it has been decided to draw up a Eurocode
specifically on fire.
Basic members: tension parallel or perpendicular to the grain *

compression parallel or perpendicular to the grain/at an
angle to the grain * bending * shear * torsion * combined
stresses * columns.
Components : tapered beams/cambered beams/curved beams * beams with
thin webs/thin flanges * composite structural components
either glued or joined with mechanical fasteners * box
columns * trusses * bracing.
Joints : nails/staples * dowels/bolts/screws * connectors.
Fig. 1. Summary table of contents for Chapter 5,

R\)les for Design Calculations
13. FRTHER WORK
Eurocode 5 has now been published in order to invite public comment

and it is on the basis of this comment that work will continue.
During the commencing period the editorial group itself will work on
improvements to certain sections, including
improvements with regard to load duration and moisture content - or

documentation more able to convince that the rules proposed are
reasonable ;
- certain rules for calculating and executing joints;
certain rules relating to the effect of volume on shear and tension
perpendicular to grain;
- models for calculating roof trusses and other more complex framework
structures.
10
14. STRUCTURES IN SEISMIC ZONES
The special requirements, for all materials, with respect to

structures in seismic zones are set out in Eurocode 8. This is at present
available only in a very provisional form. Eurocode 8 will ultimately
comprise two main sections - one containing general information on the
effects to be allowed for and the other containing special calculation and
execution rules for individual materials.
The general rules will favour materials and designs capable of
absorbing energy by means of plastic deformation. The timber elements
themselves have this capability only to a limited extent. On the other hand,
roof trusses and prefabricated structures joined by mechanical fasteners -
such as nails or connectors - presumably have a high potential energy uptake
and consequently load reducing effects.
Unfortunately little is known about the behaviour of joints during
earthquakes. Initially, therefore, the rules will probably require that the
resistance of timber structures be determined by means of elastic analysis
but that it will be possible to use the resistance of timber to
instantaneous loads.
ABBREVIATIONS
(1) CEN European Committee for Comit Europen de Normalisation

Standardization
(2) CIB International Council for Conseil International du Btiment
Building Research, Studies pour la Recherche, l'Etude et la
and Documentation Documentation
(3) FEHIB Fdration Europenne des
Syndicats de Fabricants de
Menuiseries Industrielles de
Btiment
(4) RILEH International Union of Runion Internationale des
Testing and Research Laboratoires d'Essais et de
Laboratories for Materials Recherches sur les Matriaux et
and Structures les Constructions
(5) ISO International Organization Organisation Internationale de
for Standardization Normalisation
(6) ECE Economic Commission for Union Europenne pour l'Europe
Europe
(7) UEAtc European Agreement Union Union Europenne pour l'Agrment
technique
11
DISCUSSION
Question by Wagner, C. (FRG)
You said that EC5 and national standards could be used in parallel for
a transitional period, after which only EC5 would apply. How long will this
transitional period be?
The answer is given in the following statement by Mr Ehrentreich, of the

Directorate-General 'Internal Market and Industrial Affairs'.
Our work on harmonisation began in the early seventies. I myself began

in 1977. We started on two areas : building materials and requirements for
the buildings themselves. Work on the Eurocodes for construction has
progressed well. We have had help from prestigious experts. There is a
Directive on building materials and buildings themselves which the Council
received on 22 July 1988. It is now in its second reading in the Council and
will probably be adopted in February or March 1989.
The Directive sets out the essential requirements for building
materials and the safety of the finished building. It describes how its
requirements might be met - for example by applying European standards. The
Commission has asked CEN to draft the necessary standards. It has also begun
discussions with CEN on transforming the Eurocodes into CEN standards. A
standards committee must be set up to look at issues arising from the
Directive. The Commission intends to write to the Member States to set up
this standards committee.
EC2 (steel) and EC3 (concrete) will be completed this year. The
Standing Committee will then be asked to give the Commission the mandate to
apply these Eurocodes in parallel to the national codes.
The documents from CEN could include transitional periods of four to
six years, after which they would be fully implemented in the Member States
(the national codes would then have to be withdrawn).
Question by Oleson, B.F. (DK)
We have been told that the chapter on fire (Chapter 7) has been
removed from EC5. Does this mean that fire engineering aspects of the design
of load-bearing structures in general will be set out in a special fire
safety code and not integrated into the materials codes?
If this is correct, it must be considered as a serious step backwards,
because the loading combination in relation to fire is often decisive for
the dimensioning of timber structures.
Answer by Breitschaft, G. (FRG)
The planned scope of the Eurocodes is as follows :
1 General background
2 Concrete
3 Steel
4 Steel-concrete composites
5 Timber
6 Masonry
7 Foundations
8 Structures in seismic zones
12
We assume that CEN standards are available for building materials. If
certain products are not yet covered by the standards then we will use the
European standards.
Each code is divided into the following parts:
Part 1: The basic principles and rules for the design of all common
structures.
Part 2: Special considerations for bridges.
Part 3: Towers, masts and chimneys.
Probably there will also be a special part covering agricultural
structures. Another part will cover the behaviour of structures in the event
of fire. This last section will be included in all the materials codes,
including EC5.
Question by Delos, Y. (France)

What will be the link between EC2 to EC6 and EC8 (structures in
seismic zones)?
Will EC8 cover the various building materials and will it be specific
or general?
Answer by Larsen, H.J. (DK)
The specific Eurocode for the design of structures in seismic areas,

EC8, will have two main sections. One will speak generally about the design
of structures when seismic activity can be expected.
Another will cover each building material, calculation rules and
specific requirements. In this second chapter there will also be a section
on timber structures. This will be short because normal timber design
already takes into account the effect of long term stresses, so there is no
need for special rules for fatigue.
Will ECB be printed before December 1988?
Answer by Ehrentreich, J. (EC)
Two basic parts were published in 1984: now a part is being added
which contains special analysis rules for structures made of the various
materials (steel, concrete, timber, masonry). We have completed the English
version. The official text will be published in 1989 after it has been
translated into all the European languages.
We intend to organise four symposia to present this Eurocode to the
experts. One will be held in Strasbourg for the French and German speaking
area, one in Lisbon or Madrid, one in Rome and one in Athens. Then the
period for comments will begin.
Comment by Larsen, H.J. (DK)
The calculation method set out in EC8 is based on the elastic theory.
S
earthq " S elastic /q q:
**?*** *f *
q - 1 for elastic materials
q 6 to 8 for steel
13
Since the value of q for timber structures is not known, it is taken
to be unity in the draft paper, so that timber structures fare very badly.
We hope that after we have received the comments, the drafting panel will be
convinced of the good behaviour of timber under seismic loading so that this
value can be increased.
14
H.J. LARSEN
H^rsholm, Denmark
Summary
When the Eurocodes were being drawn up special importance was attached
to the general requirement that calculation, implementation and
verification should apply equally to all materials< This general
requirement has therefore been given a chapter of its own - Chapter 2
- which as far as possible is common to all Eurocodes ; the only
departures allowed are those justified by the specific properties of
the materials in question. This paper describes this common basis and
explains why Eurocode 5 sometimes departs from it. It also supplies
the background to the proposals in Eurocode 5 for partial coefficients
and the factors that take account of the influence of moisture content
and load duration. The description of the common basis is brief and
cannot be considered an alternative to the precise description
appearing in the various Eurocodes.
1. THE BASIS FOR THE COMMON RULES
The basis for the safety principles was laid in CEB

(Euro-International Committee for Concrte/Comit euro-International du
Bton) and JCSS (Joint Committee on Structural Safety). It was published in
CEB Bulletin 116 (1976). Neither CEB Bulletin 116 nor Eurocode 1 (1984),
which follows on from its predecessor, are to be considered operational
documents. They were written for drafters of other standards to set out the
general philosophy and basic definitions; they frequently use general
phraseology and contain no specific numerical values.
In Eurocode 2 (concrete structures) and Eurocode 3 (steel structures)
the idea was to publish initial proposals for a section with common
regulations intended to give users precisely the information they require to
calculate a construction solely on the basis of the appropriate Eurocode and
a loading standard. In the light of the comments received with regard to
Eurocodes 2 and 3 a new proposal was worked out for common regulations.
These proposals are incorporated in the published Eurocode 5 (timber
structures) and Eurocode 6 (masonry structures), for which criticism is now
invited. With the changes made in response to the comments on Eurocodes 5
and 6, these proposals will also be incorporated into the definitive
versions of Eurocodes 2 and 3.
2. EUROCODE FOR ACTIONS
A prerequisite for the use of the Eurocode system is that a Eurocode

for actions should be available. Such a Eurocode is under development. A
proposal for the introductory chapter has been made which gives exact
15
definitions for, among other things, a series of fundamental concepts which
are lacking in the material-specific Eurocodes. Drafts for chapters on
permanent action, human load, snow and wind are also ready.
3. LIMIT STATES
Reliability requirements for structures are expressed with respect to

the limit states, in other words the states where a specific functional
requirement of the structure is clearly no longer satisfied.
A distinction is made between
ultimate limit states, corresponding to collapse (for example, loss of

stability, collapse of structural components) or other situations
which jeopardise life or entail major economic losses; and
serviceability limit states, corresponding to a situation in which the
structure can no longer fulfil its design function (for example owing
to major deflections or unacceptable vibrations).
Compared with what is current practice in many countries the drafting

of requirements on the basis of one of these clearly distinct states
represents a major step towards simplification.
4. SAFETY METHOD
The safety method selected is the so-called partial coefficient

method, which is one of the simplest methods available. It forms part of the
same group as the earlier most widely used method - the permissible stress
method. The difference is simply that in the case of the partial coefficient
method safety coefficients are used (partial coefficients) both for
load-carrying capacity and actions, while the desirable reliability for
permissible stresses is secured exclusively by means of a safety coefficient
for load-carrying capacity. The partial coefficients for actions normally
differ for self-weight, variable load and accidental load.
A more advanced method is the so-called safety index method. This is
authorised for application in some countries but is principally used to
calibrate partial coefficients so that a unique reliability level is
obtained for a variety of loads and combinations of loads.
Unfortunately calibration of this type has never been carried out in
conjunction with Eurocodes and the partial coefficients have merely been
selected because they correspond to practice in some Member States.
Calibration would have revealed whether the ratio of chosen partial
coefficients on variable load (normally 1.5) and self-weight (normally 1.35)
is far too small. The ratio ought to be about 1.3 instead of 1.5/1.35 =
1.11.
5. PARTIAL COEFFICIENT METHOD
The following is a brief description of the principle of the partial

coefficient method.
1. The characteristic values for permanent action G^, variable action Qi,
and accidental action A K are determined.
The self-weight is calculated using the structure's design
geometry and the average density of the material. The other actions
are taken from Eurocodes or are determined by the architect in
consultation with the building's owner. In the case of variable
actions the characteristic value is determined essentially on the
16
assumption that there is a high degree of probability (for example a
probability of 98) that in any one year no other less favourable
values will occur.
For the variable actions the values which are incorporated into the
various action combinations are also determined. These action values
are set on the basis of an assessment of the probability that they
will occur at the same time as one of the other variable actions takes
on its characteristic value. The combination values are indicated as
Qfci where II is a factor ( <1) which is indicated in the Eurocode for
actions.
The arithmetical action values Gj, Qg and A3 are determined by
multiplying the characteristic values (or the values given in 2) by
the partial coefficients y :
G (or A
d "Vk 2d V?k W d * YAAk
G
Selfweights (Gk,l' k2 ... etc.) and variable actions (Q^ j, Q^ 2
etc.) are combined on the basis of the following formula:
;YG,jok.j + Y
Q.ik.i + Y
Q.i*iQi.i
i>l
Accidental action is combined as follows:
^G,jGk(j + A
d + Mk,i +
îek,i
i>l
In combinations with accidental actions lower values than usual can
normally be set for the values in the sum t o t a l . Investigations
affected by the accidental action together with other actions or after
certain parts of the structure have been destroyed as a result of the
accident. In this latter case A<j 0 applies. Normally the combination
of actions includes all those that can occur at the same t i m e ; one of
them w i t h i t s characteristic value a n d t h e others w i t h their
The effect of actions S<j, in other words the effect of combined

actions, is calculated. This can be, for example, an average force, a
stress or a deflection.
The characteristic material property factors X^ are determined. This
For timber the characteristic values for strength and the moduli
of elasticity for calculating strength (for example in columns) is set
at about the 5% fractile, in other words lower values may not occur
more than 5 of the time.
The average values of the elasticity modulus are used for the
calculation of deformation.
In the case of timber in which the effect of an action is
dependent on the moisture content and on the duration of the load, the
characteristic values are defined on the basis of a shortterm test
(35 minutes duration) with a given moisture content (approximately
12%, which corresponds to an equilibrium moisture content at 20C and
65 relative air humidity).
17
Most strength properties of timber can also be said to depend on
the size of the test piece (in the case of a beam, for example, on its
height, cross section and volume). In particular, tensile strength
perpendicular to the grain and shear strength are largely determined
by volume and they are therefore indicated for specific volumes
subject to uniform stress. For tension perpendicular to the grain a
volume of 0.02 m3 has been selected (corresponding to piece 0.2 x 0.2
x 0.5 m) and for shear 0.08 m 1 .
7. The design value Xd of the material property is calculated as follows:
X = k
d mod x k / Y M
where Y M is a partial coefficient for material properties and kmod is
a modifying factor which takes account of the load duration and
moisture content in the structure.
The kmodj factor is specific to timber structures. For materials
such as steel and concrete, where there is no or little influence from
load duration or moisture content, Xd is determined as XK/YM-
8. The design values Rd of the resistance of structural components are
determined on the basis of the design values of the properties of the
material and the design values of the geometric dimensions ad:
R = R(X
d d,l' X d,2 a d, 1' ad,2 " )
In certain cases Rd may be calculated on the basis of the
characteristic values R^ determined by tests.
9. In the case of the geometric dimensions the design values are normally
similar to those prescribed, the (nominal) values (a n o m ). Where
deviation from the geometric size can have significant effect on
load-carrying capacity, the design values are set as:
a, = a + Aa
d nom
It is a specific requirement that supplementary values of the type Aa
are included for timber structures in one of the calculation methods
for flat frame structures and for bracings. Their inclusion is
implicit in, among other things, the formulae for calculating columns.
10. In most cases it is possible to consider load factors and material
factors independently of one another when calculating load-carrying
capacity. The requirement here is :
s
d < Rd
The requirement for stability calculation is
"d,dest d,stab
where Sd,dest is the effect of the driving forces (destabilising
forces) and Sd,stab that of the stabilising forces.
To calculate deflection the requirement is :
S < C
d d
where C , is the fixed value or function.
18
6. PARTIAL COEFFICIENTS FOR ACTIONS
Fundamentally It is up to each individual country to determine the

degree of safety and, as a result, the partial coefficients to be used for
calculations. In the context of Eurocodes, however, it is required that the
partial coefficients for actions should be non-material-specific, which is a
requirement not currently applied in all countries. The Eurocodes contain a
proposal for partial coefficients which it is hoped the Member States will
accept. This is set out in Table 1.
TABLE 1 Proposal for Partial Coefficients for Actions

~
Normal partial Reduced partial
coefficients coefficients
Permanent actions YG i
favourable in effect 1.0 1.0

unfavourable in effect 1.35 1.2
Variable actions YQ
one with characteristic value 1.5 1.35
remainder with combination values 1.5* 1.35*
may be set lower than 1.5/1.35
The application of reduced partial coefficients is restricted to

Eurocode 5. They apply to single storey buildings with moderate spans used
only occasionally, for example storage buildings, sheds, greenhouses and
agricultural buildings and small silos. Other applications include lighting
masts, light partitions, panelling and window lintels.
In all other cases the normal partial coefficients are to be used.
7. PARTIAL COEFFICIENTS FOR MATERIALS
Here, too, the Member States are entitled to determine the partial
coefficients to be used for materials, but a proposal has also been
submitted to them which is on the same lines as the proposed 'partial
coefficients for actions'. The Y M values for timber structures proposed are
those shown in Table 2.
TABLE 2 Proposal for Partial Coefficients for Material Properties, YM
ultimate limit state

- Fundamental combinations 1.4
- For glued laminated timber, factory-made materials and factory-
made structures, including machine-graded timber (subject to an
impartial external quality control, however) 1.25
Serviceability liait state 1.0
The value* are set on the assumption that in general terms there will
be no change to timber dimensions when transferring to the partial
coefficient system contained in Eurocode 5 instead of calculating on the
19
basis of permissible stresses. Account has also been taken of the fact that
the Y M values for timber should seem reasonable compared with those proposed
for steel and reinforcing steel (1.0-1.1) or concrete (1.5).
In the method used hitherto (permissible stresses) the safety factor
vis--vis characteristic values for materials for a structure subject to
self-weight and one variable long-term load is typically about 2.5. This
includes the long-term factor (kmoc:) with a magnitude of 0.55-0.60. Since
the part of the safety factor - corresponding to between 1.35 and 1.5 (on
average 1.43) - is transferred to the load side in the partial coefficient
method, the ^M/'cmod = 2.5/1.43 = 1.75. On this assumption the following
section considers that kmo<j for long-term action can be set at 0.8. The
stated value YJJ is then found to be 1.4. (If k ^ is unchanged Y M is
1.00-1.05, clearly unacceptable in view of the other materials.)
The safety factor which Y M corresponds to varies from 2.63 for a
structure with self-weight alone (1.5 x 1.4/0.8) to 2.36 if variable actions
only are considered.
For combinations with a number of variable actions it is difficult to
make general comparisons, partly because the rules for combinations differ
from country to country and partly because actions are included which have
different durations.
The reason for the lower partial coefficient in the case of
machine-graded timber (see Table 2) is the specific strength distribution
obtained with this method. In the case of machine-graded timber the strength
values of the weakest 5% of the population are much closer to the
5-percentile value than for visually-graded timber.
For glued laminated timber and factory-made materials the lower
partial coefficient should rather be seen as a benefit of tighter controls.
Controls mainly have the effect of reducing gross errors and the effect of
such can only be very marginally counteracted by higher partial
coefficients.
In Eurocode 5 the formulae for instability design (for example on
columns) should also include a partial coefficient for the characteristic
modulus of elasticity. This runs counter to tradition in many countries. The
formulae for instability design are therefore written in a way that allows
the load-bearing capacity to be expressed with the dimensionless ratio
E m ]c/fm,k between the modulus of bending elasticity and bending strength.
This ratio is clearly set out in Eurocode 5.
8. MOISTURE CLASSES
To take account r> the effect of moisture content the structures are
assigned to one of three moisture classes. This is done on the basis of the
relative humidity of the ambient air and the temperature, as shown in
Figure 1.
Moisture class 1 comprises coniferous timber with a moisture content
below approximately 12%. This class covers all indoor structures in warm,
dry areas.
Moisture class 2 comprises timber with a moisture content below
approximately 18%. This class covers indoor structures in unheated buildings
where there is no particular source of moisture, for example service
crawlways, holiday cottages, garages, unheated warehouses and carports, in
addition to free-standing outdoor structures protected against water damage.
Moisture class 3. No limits on moisture content apply in this class.
In most cases it is not necessary to protect timber against rot in

moisture classes 1 and 2. However, such action is necessary in cases of high
moisture content unless the timber is naturally resistant to rot.
20
relative humidity moisture content in wood appr.
1
oo - s 18*
a 12?
80 -
">'
65 - +++++H- ++++V^**
1
1 ,- C\J to
m
i <n
EQ
s
<e 0) 01
-1 H
O
H
O
u V
n a
+^ -p
n
H
1H i 1
0 H ' *
20 20 80
temperature C
Fig. 1. Moisture classes as a function of the average temperature

and relative humidity of ambient air
9. LOAD DURATION
Loads are classified according to their overall duration during the

life of the structure, as shown in Figure 2.
T longterm
I-
shortterm
mediumterm
instantaneous
i
1 day 1 week 6 months 10 years
Fig. 2. Classification of loads according to their overall

duration during the life of the structure
The borderlines separating classes are deliberately shown as

approximate and overlapping. This is to make allowance, inter alia, for the
need to consider the load duration over the expected lifespan of the
structure a parameter which cannot be estimated with any great certainty
(for normal buildings SO, 100 or 150 years), and also to make allowance for
21
the fact that loads can vary: the characteristic load value, which forms the
basis for calculations, normally acts during only a short period of the
overall load duration.
Snow load is normally regarded as a medium-term load in the case of
permanent structures. Wind will always be a short-term load. For medium-term
structures loads can often be assigned to a shorter-term class than in the
case of permanent structures: snow can thus be assigned to a short-term
class.
10. THE k , FACTOR

mod
The kmod values proposed in Eurocode 5 are shown in Table 3. Insofar

as the load combination includes loads of differing durations, k should
be made to correspond to the shortest-term actions. mod
TABLE 3 The k . factor

mod
Load duration Tension perpendicular to Other

the grain
Moisture classes Moisture classes

1 and 2 3 1 and 2 3
Long-term 0.55 0.45 0.80 0.60

Medium-term 0.70 0.55 0.90 0.72
Short-term 0.85 0.70 1.0 0.80
Instantaneous 1.2 1.0 1.2 1.0
For long-term loads these factors are generally lower than those shown
in standards and also lower than the results of the experiments carried out
in recent years on structural timber subjected to constant load. The reason
for these lower values - in addition to the ideas set out above in the
section on partial coefficients for materials - lies partly in the fact that
most loads can act with higher values in relatively short periods and partly
in the fact that the probability of failure - such as is reflected in the
magnitude of the partial coefficient - should be considered over the entire
lifespan of the structure and not simply in conjunction with strength
properties encountered after long-term load.
It is to be hoped that the more comprehensive experiments completed or
underway in Canada, Denmark, England, Sweden, USA and the Federal Republic
of Germany, among others, will help to clarify the time-dependent properties
of timber and produce more soundly based values.
11. SERVICEABILITY LIMIT STATES
The principal requirement regarding serviceability limit states for

timber structures concerns deflections and vibrations.
When calculating deflections, account must be taken of creep.
Deflection values derived from short-term moduli of elasticity for dry
timber should therefore be multiplied by a creep factor of kCreep shown in
Table 4. Insofar as deformation is to be determined for combinations of
loads with differing durations, deformation should be calculated for each
load separately and the appropriate creep factor should be included before
addition.
22
TABLE 4 Creep factor k.
Load duration Moisture class

1 2 3
Long-term 1.5 1.8 3.0

Medium-term 1.2 1.3 2.0
Short-term 1.0 1.1 1.5
For certain structures - for example short beams with slender profiles
- it may be necessary to take account of shear deformation.
The requirements in Eurocode 5 regarding deflection are summarised in
Figure 3. T he requirements in some instances relate to the total
deflections. T hey apply, for example, to places where deflections are
limited for the sake of appearance or to facilitate water drainage. In other
cases the requirements relate exclusively to variable action deflection.
variable: 1/300* variable: 1/150**

total: 1/125
total : 1/250
4
Jf~ *
X-
for sensitive structures: ** for sensitive structures:
1/500 or 15 mm 1/250 or 15 mm
Fig. 3. Deflection requirements, maximum values
Where a number of variable actions exist the following combination is

to be used:
z
k,l* h k.i
i>i
With floors, a frequently encountered problem is the generation of
vibration when the floor is walked on a phenomenon that provokes feelings of
insecurity. Experience has shown that no problems arise when the vibration
period is less than 0.2 seconds. T his can be converted to a conservative
requirement that deflection for total load may not exceed 13 mm.
23
DISCUSSION
You need both the load values and the resistance values. The stability
factors are from the CEN standards. Are the load values taken from another
part of the Eurocode and where do you find the resistance values? Is it in
the CEN standards?
Answer by Stieda, C.K.A. (Canada)
I do not think that you will find the resistance values in the CEN
standards. The CEN standards give the principles for determining the test
values and test methods, and sometimes the product specification. The idea
is for the suppliers of building materials to test these materials in order
to tell you what design values you can use.
Answer by Breitschaft, 6. (FRG)
The Eurocode for loads on structures is in preparation, It is divided

into 20 parts.
1. General rules 11. Silos, tanks

2. Density of materials 12. Road bridges
3. Dead load 13. Railway bridges
4. Ground-water pressure 14. Cranes
5. Settling stress 15. Dynamic loads
6. Traffic loads 16. Load during construction
7. Wind 17. Shock loads
8. Snow 18. Explosions
9. Waves 19. Seismic loads
10. Thermal stress 20. Loads under fire
We hope that the first drafts will be available for the most important
loads by the beginning of 1989.
Question by Meierhofer, U.A. (CH)
I do not find the effect of moisture content and biological factors in

the list of loads. Why are these loads not considered?
Answer by Larsen, H.J." (DK)
There are a few lines on those questions : you should keep your
structure dry or protect it. Reference will be made to CEN standards on the
protection of wood. There is little in the code on the other swelling
factors, etc. because it is well known how to handle them. Existing codes
also have very little on these factors.
Question by Vinckier, A.G. (Belgium)
How should you assess the effects of certain defects in glued timber
elements (such as delaminations that develop in glulam, cracks near bolted
steel plates under normal moisture variations, etc.) and when they should be
repaired? This is important for both newly manufactured elements and
existing structures.
24
Answer by Larger, H.J. (DK)
In an Annex there is a draft for a production standard for glued

laminated structures and requirements for testing the bonding of glued
laminated timber. There are some delamination tests and some limits (5%
delamination). If the defects are smaller we can disregard them, if they are
above the limits it will be left to individual judgement what to do. It is
assumed that the glulam beams are well produced. We do not think it is
possible to lay down general rules. It is easier for producers to produce
good glulam than for code writers to lay down rules for the design of bad
glulam.
Question by Stieda, C.K.A. (Canada)
Will there be a CEN standard indicating the desired quality of glulam?
Answer Larsen, H.J. (DK)
There will be a standard which indicates production requirements for a

high-quality bond, and there will be guidelines for the appropriate glue.
This production standard will be linked to the general principle for
certification and quality assurance in the product directive. There will
thus be a system ensuring that you will get the required quality.
Question by Arbaiza Mendoza, C.E. (Peru)
In Eurocode S there is no mention of hardwood, and Annex 4 deals only

with conifers. How are you going to manage the present imports of hardwoods
to many European countries in terms of strength values, grading rules, etc.?
We do not see it as the job of the ECS drafting group to produce

tables of densities, design values for different species, etc. We have
provided the guidelines, the framework. What is shown is only an example of
what is desired. We expect that those who are interested in selling certain
species will provide the necessary information. It would be a good idea for
developing countries to ask UNIDO for assistance to make it easier for their
materials to come in line with the Eurocode.
EC5 uses partial safety factors; the German national code uses
admissible stresses. Do I arrive at the same dimensions when I calculate
with the German code and EC5?
For a simple structure you should arrive at the same dimensions. If

there are big differences you have to find out whether your country has
built-in safety factors in the loading regulations. For special structures
you would expect differences because the new safety concept can handle those
types of structures better.
25
Question by Sagot, G. (France)
Will the partial coefficients in EC5 depend on the quality of the

checks carried out?
This will be dealt with in Mr Sunley's paper.
The strength values of EC5 are based on the 5% fractile. Will there be
rules for calculating this fractile or will this be left to the producer?
For the time being there are no rules for this in EC5, but they will
be set out in a CEN standard. There are some gaps now which we hope to fill
in before the end of the period for comments.
26
SESSION II
Chairman: P.R. COLCLOUGH, Director, Timber Department

Institute for Industrial Research and
Standards, Dublin, Ireland

27
J.G. SUNLEY
Timber Research and Development Association, United Kingdom
INTRODUCTION
The starting point for the design of timber structures is the

characteristic strength of the material modified by a partial co-efficient
Y m for the material. Solid timber is a natural material where variability
and effects of defects such as knots has to be limited and controlled to
enable the material to be used with some reasonable combination of safety
and economy. This is achieved by grading or, more specifically, stress
grading. Eurocode S is a very open code in that it permits the use of any
material as long as it has been produced to an acceptable standard,
subjected to quality control and tested to determine structural properties.
Writing a code for a large number of materials covering 12 countries,
many of whom import from a much wider range of countries, could result in a
complex code and lead to a confusing situation for designers with hundreds
of possible combinations of species and grades.
The code therefore proposes a strength class system for both solid and
laminated timber. The system for solid timber covers a full range of
species, both hardwood and softwood of different stress grades, likely to be
available. These have been accommodated into 10 strength classes from the
weakest lowest strength combination to the highest level of dense hardwoods
of a high grade. Any stress graded timber can be fitted into this system.
The code covers solid timber, laminated timber and a variety of board
materials.
The strength of timber is affected in particular by moisture content
and long-term loading effects. It is therefore necessary to control these
factors and the code gives modification values for different conditions of
use.
CHARACTERISTIC VALUES
The characteristic value for a particular property of a particular

material is represented by a value which in general corresponds to a
fractile in its assumed statistical distribution. It is assumed that the
material is specified in an acceptable standard and has been tested under
specified conditions.
Whilst a material property may have any characteristic value with both
upper and lower values, the value of major concern in most structural
applications is the lower 5 percentile value. In fact most of the properties
given in the codes are at this level.
The characteristic strength and stiffness values given in the Eurocode
for timber- and wood-based materials are defined as the population of
5 percentile value directly applicable to a load duration of 3-5 minutes at
a temperature of 20 1 2C, a relative humidity of 0.65 0.05 and at a
specific volume.
For many properties characteristic values may be estimated by taking
the mean lower S percentile calculated from data on tests on a number of
samples using a 3 parameter Weibull analytical technique.
29
MATERIAL PARTIAL FACTORS
Values for partial safety coefficients for material properties ( Ym)

which have been proposed by the drafters have been chosen on the basis of
the best experience available to them and to some extent based on
calibrations with existing structures. The partial factor Y m is also
dependent on the methods used to grade the material since for example
machine-graded timber will have a lower variability than that which is
visually-graded and hence a lower ym. Machine- and visual-graded timber are
in effect different materials with different strength distributions.
A lower Ym value is also proposed for factory made structures and
materials subject to independent external quality control. These latter
values apply particularly for example to glulam.
TABLE 1 Partial Coefficients for Material Properties
Ultimate limit states
- fundamental combinations 1.4
accidental combinations 1.1
for
glued laminated timber

factory made materials
factory made structures
the bending strength of machine
stress graded timber subject to an
impartial external quality control,
however,
fundamental combinations 1.25
accidental combinations 1.0
Serviceability limit states 1.0
It can therefore be seen that comparing machine and visual grading the
recommended partial factor is 1.4 for visual grading and 1.25 for machine
grading.
STRENGTH CLASSES
Because of the wide range and number of species and potential grades
possible on timber, a strength class system has been introduced to try and
reduce the complications of such a wide range of availability. This gives
the opportunity to place any graded material into the system. The system is
based on the characteristic strength in bending of solid timber and the
range of values likely to be achieved are divided into 10 classes. Other
properties for materials are based on an assumed relativity between the
various properties and are also linked with density classes.
The proposed strength classes and the relative values for various
properties are given in Table 2.
30
TABLE 2 Strength Classes. Characteristic values and mean E-values in MPa
Straaftll claaa
a a
- vlaaallf atraaa fraaaa' (a. 11.0 13.0 19.0 11.3 M.O 21.3 3S.0 41.0 40.0 73.0
- chl alraaa twm 11.0 13.3 17.0 19.3 11.3 23.5 34.0 43.0 34.0 M.O
taaalaa f a r . Co t r a l a tl.O.k 7.0 t.O 11.3 13.0 14.3 17.0 M.O .0 3.0 41.0
caaaraaalaa a i r . ca t r a l a Ic.O.a 13.0 13.0 17.3 19.0 11.3 M.O 30.0 3S.0 4S.0 60.0
ahaar . I.T l.f 1.0 1.1 1.3 1.7 3.B 4. .0 .0
Hoaalaa af a l a a t l c U r . B.aaaa 7000 aooo 9000 10000 11000 12000 13300 17000 12000 17000
It will be noted that different characteristic values are given for

visually- and machine-graded wood. This has been done because the partial
factor Y m is different for the two types of material and since it is
necessary for a designer to be able to use either machine- or
visually-graded wood in a particular design, the ratio of the characteristic
strengths for machine- and visually-graded wood should be in the same ratio
as their partial material factors Ym.
This means that since the characteristic strength of a particular
strength class machine-graded wood is lower, there will be a large advantage
to machine grading in the form of higher yields from a given parcel.
As well as strength classes for structural properties, density classes
are also given in the code. These again are based on minimum characteristic
values and 5 classes are given as in Table 3.
TABLE 3
Density class D 300 D 400 D 500 D 600 D 800
Characteristic
density in kg/m* 300 400 500 600 800
These values are primarily used for the development of joint strengths
but in addition they are used to develop values for perpendicular to the
grain stresses.
Table 4 gives some examples of where known grades fall in the strength
class system. These cover both the EEC grades and North American grades. It
must be emphasised here that any grading system can be fitted in a suitable
strength class assuming strength data are available.
The laying down of strength classes in the code does not preclude the
use of specially derived values through test for particular grading systems
and for example Table S illustrates how a French grading system has been
dealt with in the code. Similar systems could be used as long as test
evidence is available for a laid down grading system.
31
TABLE 4
Strength Class Density Class

Cl C2 C4 C6 D300 D 400
European S6 S8 S10 S6S10

whitewood, redwood
North American
douglas firlarch, hemfir S6 S8 SIO S6-S10
sprucepinefir S6 S8 S10 S6-S10
douglas firlarch, hemfir No.l, Sel No.l Sel

No.2 No. 2
sprucepinefir No.l, Sel No.l Sel
No. 2
western whitewood (USA) No.l, Sel No.l, Sel
No. 2 No. 2
southern pine (USA) No.l, Sel No.l Sel
No. 2 No. 2
No.3 No. 3
TABLE 5 Characteristic values and mean Evalues in MPa for French grades
Cahier 124 Cahier 128
fir and B aritine redwood douglai

ipruce pine (pine)
grade
bending fs.k 17.0 22.5 24.5 17.5 24.5 22.5 27.5
tension
- p a r a l l e l to the grain ft.O.k 10.3 12.5 15.0 10.5 15.0 13.5 16.5
- perpendicular t o the grain ft,90,1c 0. 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.6 0.5 0.6
compresslon
- p a r a l l e l t o the grain fc.O.k 17.0 22.5 21.5 17.5 24.5 22.5 27.5
- perpendicular t o the grain fc.M.k 6.0 8.0 8.0 S.O 10.O 8.0 10.0
ahear f 2.S 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5
odulua of
e l a s t i c i t y , sewn EO.scan 6000 9500 10800 11500 11300 10100 12400
GLULAM
Like solid timber the bases for glulam design are characteristic
values modified by the material partial factor Y m and a strength class
system. The value for the partial factor Ym is 1.25 for glulam made under
factory control. Table 6 lists the bending characteristic values available
from different layups of laminated members made from a specified grade LC
in European whitewood. This shows bending strengths varying from 20 to 35
MPa.
An essential feature of the glulam design is that the end joints used
must achieve a certain minimum strength, for example, the minimum tensile
value for the outer lamination where a bending strength of 35 MPa required
is 40 MPa for the finger joint. All glulam has to be subject to
manufacturing quality control and standards for this are given in the Annex
to the Eurocode.
32
As an alternative to the use of the strength classes given, strength
and stiffness values can be determined by testing particular assemblies.
TABLE 6 Requirements to the Laminations and End Joints, and Characteristic

Strength Values and Mean E-values in MPa
Grade LC LC LC LC LC LC
2/1 2/2 4/1 4/4 6/2 6/6
Outer laminations*
- timber s t r e n g t h c l a s s C2 C2 C4 C4 ce C6
- end j o i n t s , min. fm,k 25 25 30 30 40 40
Inner laminations*
- timber strength class Cl C2 Cl C4 C2 C6
- end joints, min fm,k 20 25 25 30 25 40
Bending fm.k 20 20 25 25 35 35
* Outer laminations are the laminations in the extreme sixth of the depth on
either side. There should, however, be at least two outer laminations on
either side.
riNGER JOINTING
Except for use in principal members where failure of a single joint

could lead to the collapse of essential parts of the structure,
finger-jointed coniferous timber belonging to the density classes D300, D400
and D500 may be used. Finger joints must have been subject to testing to
prove they have the required strength and must be manufactured in accordance
with acceptable rules and control.
Proof loading of finger joints is a permissible non-destructive method
of testing finger joints and if every joint has been proof loaded to the
minimum characteristic values they can then be used in principal members.
It is a requirement of all glueing operations that assurance shall be
sought from the adhesive manufacturer as to the suitability and long-term
durability of the adhesive for the particular species and exposure
conditions.
PLYWOOD AND OTHER BOARD MATERIALS
Plywood and other board materials such as fibreboard and chipboard

must be produced to an acceptable standard, either an international or
agreed national one, in a factory subject to independent third party quality
surveillance, and each piece should carry the mark of the inspecting
agencies.
Plywood for structural purposes should be balanced and shall be glued
with adhesive meeting the requirement for the relevant exposure condition.
Characteristic strength and stiffness values for all materials shall
be determined by tests in accordance with agreed standards and appropriate
calculation models for determining strength and stiffness for the particular
plywood lay-up. An acceptable model for doing this is quoted in the
standard.
33
ADHESIVES
Adhesives for structural purposes shall produce joints of such

strength and durability that the integrity of the bond is maintained
throughout the intended life of the structure. Examples of accepted
adhesives are given in Table 7 where two categories of exposure conditions,
namely high and low hazard, are given.
TABLE 7 Permissible Adhesive Types
Exposure category Examples of

- typical exposure conditions adhesives*
High hazard
- Full exposure to the weather, e.g., marine
structures and exterior structures where the
glueline is exposed to the elements. (Glued
structures other than glued laminated members
are not recommended for use under this
exposure condition). RF
- Buildings with warm and damp conditions where a PF
moisture content of 0.18 is exceeded and where PF/RF
the glueline'temperature can exceed 50C,
e.g. laundries, swimming pools, and
unventilated roof spaces.
- Chemically polluted atmospheres, e.g. chemical
works and dyeworks.
- External single-leaf walls with protective cladding
Low hazard
- Exterior structures protected from sun and rain,
roofs of open sheds and porches.
- Temporary structure such as concrete formwork.
- Heated and ventilated buildings where the RF
moisture content of the wood will not exceed PF
0.18 and where the temperature of the PF/RF
glueline will remain below 50C, e.g. MF/UF
interiors of houses, halls, churches and UF
other buildings
*RF: Resorcinol-formaldehyde (BS 1204: Part 1, type WBP)

PF: Phenol-formaldehyde (BS 1204: Part 1, type WBP)
PF/RF: Phenol/resorcinol-formaldehyde (BS 1204: Part 1, type WBP)
MF/UF: Melamine/urea-formaldehyde (BS 1204: Part 1, type BR)
UF: Urea-formaldehyde and modified UF (BS 1204:- Part 1, type MR)
EFFECTS OF MOISTURE CONTENT, DURATION OF LOAD, AND SIZE
Moisture content, duration of load and size all have significant

effects on the strength of timber and hence have to be taken into account in
design work.
34
Moisture Content
The effects of moisture content have been taken into account by having
three moisture content classes (Figure 1). Generally these equate to
coniferous timber either below 12% moisture content, between 12 and 18% or
above 18%.
Moisture class 1: This moisture class is characterised by a moisture
content in the materials corresponding to a temperature of 20 2<>C and the
relative humidity of the surrounding air only exceeding 0.65 for a few weeks
per year.
In moisture class 1 the average equilibrium moisture content in most
softwoods will not exceed 0.12.
Moisture class 2: This moisture class is characterised by a moisture
content in the materials corresponding to a temperature of 20 2C and the
relative humidity of the surrounding air only exceeding 0.80 for a few weeks
per year.
In moisture class 2 the average equilibrium moisture content in most
softwoods will not exceed 0.18.
Moisture class 3: Climatic conditions leading to higher moisture
contents.
relative humidity
l.oo -
0.80 - ^s?r X;X;X;X;X
0.65 - fWji+:4i+ iwjjjjj*
1 ,- CM m
i to 0) to
1 to (0 to
1 cd cd
1 -I H H
1 u u o
. I) V II
S
Is * 8
1 m to
H 0)
H
0 H
8
- 20 0 20 10O
temperature C
Fig. 1. Moisture classes - Combinations of temperature and relative

humidity leading to average equilibrium moisture contents in
most softwoods of 0.12 and 0.18 respectively are shown
Generally most covered structures will fall in the moisture class 2

that is within 12 and 18% moisture. The design values given in the code are
based on this value.
35
Load Duration Effects
Load duration classes
For strength and stiffness calculations actions shall be assigned to

one of the load duration classes given in Table 8.
The load duration classes are characterised by the effect of a
constant load acting for a certain period of time. For a variable action the
appropriate class shall be determined on the basis of an estimate of the
interaction between the typical variation of the load with time and the
rheological properties of the materials.
TABLE 8
Load duration class Order of duration
Long-term 10 years
Medium-term 6 months
Short-term 1 week
Instantaneous
Figure 2 indicates how the load duration class is related to the order
of duration of ' the action.
-
- I long-term
r
short-term
medium-term
instantaneous
+
1 day 1 week 6 months 10 years
Fig. 2. Duration of load
Snow load is normally regarded as either a medium-term or a short-term

load.
Size Effects
Characteristic strength values are given in Tables 3 and 5. In these

tables the bending strength is related to a depth of 200 mm and the tension
strength to a width of 200 mm. For any other depths or widths denoted by h
the required bending or tension strength can be obtained by multiplying the
values by k. obtained from the formula below.
2oo 0.2
*h= <^>
36
The effects of moisture class and load duration are taken into account
by the factors given in Table 9.
TABLE 9 Modification Factor mod to Strength Values
Strength properties* except Tensile strength

tensile strength perpendicular perpendicular
to grain to grain
Load duration Moisture class Moisture class
Class 1 and 2 3 1 and 2 3
Long-term 0.80 0.65 0.55 0.45

Medium-term 0.90 0.72 0.70 0.55
Short-term 1.0 0.80 0.85 0.70
Instantaneous 1.2 1.0 1.2 1.0
* Inclusive of moduli of elasticity for use in instability calculations
37
DISCUSSION
Question by Nielsen, P. (DK)
With reference to Annex 2, I have a question about the strength

classes in EC5. Based on growth, characteristics and/or grading rules a
national grade, e.g. Nordic T-grades, can have other relationships between
for instance bending and tension values. Do you foresee that other
well-documented strength values will be allowed in conjunction with EC5?
Answer by Sunley, J.G. (UK)
The strength class system will be removed from EC5 and go into a CEN
standard. In the CEN standards currently being drafted, we are trying to
accommodate different profiles across the properties. There is a difficult
balance between simplifying and squeezing each drop out of each profile. We
should put a little more weight on simplifying (because in this way we could
get more timber used) rather than going into fine details about properties.
You do lose a little, but you gain overall on simplification.
Question by Meierhofer, U.A. (CH)
Why are some well-established glues not included in the list of

materials?
We took what was in many national standards. EC5 is now out for
comments. If you want a glue put in then make a comment and it will be
considered.
Question by Mettem, C.J. (UK)
About the range of loading, there is a small gap between instantaneous

and one week but a large gap between one week and six months. Would you
consider changing this one week to one month? Statistically there would riot
be a great difference, and it would lead to a more economical use of timber
over a larger geographical area.
If you drew on a logarithmic basis, you would find the values we put
in on a straight line. A greater refinement could be helpful. I suggest that
a comment is made.
Question by Raveala, A. (Finland)
Have you deliberately dropped a fourth moisture class - constant

contact with water - which for instance can occur with bridges? There is a
30% reduction in the case of constant contact with water.
Moisture class III covers all moisture contents above 18%, however
damp, however wet.
38
There are tables for sawn wood and glulam but not for other wood
products which can be used for building. What are the prospects for these?
Answer by Sunley, J.G. (UX)
EC5 is a basic design document. We expect companies to test their

products and publish their own literature about their products.
Question by Colclough, P. (IRL)
Could you please give a brief summary of the CEN standards which are
relevant to ECS?
The Community is working on a building materials Directive which is

similar to our building regulations. This lays down six essential
requirements and the materials should be able to give structures which meet
them. One of the requirements concerns structural stability. Timber
structures can meet this requirement if they are built in accordance with
EC5. EC5 has to be backed up by a large number of standards. To do this
there are CEN committees, including TC 124, which has three working parties:
1. Testing methods.
2. Solid timber.
3. Glulam (production requirements).
It is hoped that the whole package of codes and standards will be in

operation before the end of 1992.
Comment by Rocard (France)
Supplementing the information given by Mr Sunley, the committees

responsible for drawing up the standards to back up EC5 are CEN Technical
committeesi
38 Timber, S working parties

103 Glue
112 Panels, 4 working parties
1 - Partial board
2 - Plywood
3 - Fibre board
4 - Coordinating test methods
A material should preferably be covered by a CEN standard. The glues

we have mentioned are covered by accepted (national) standards. They will be
changed into a CEN standard. A glue not covered by the CEN standards can be
used if it gets European approval. It must be tested independently and shown
to be suitable.
39
North American strength values correspond to 15% m.c. and 20C. Would
you accept these as being representative of moisture class 2?
Not without adjustment in accordance with - very well-known

moisture-strength relationships.
Are the strength values quoted in the code the same as the test values
from the 5 minute test?
If not, was some adjustment made to the 5 minute test in order to
obtain the code value?
Yes. The long term values are of course lower than the test values
from the 5 minute test (80%). The instantaneous values are higher because
they only last a few seconds.
Question by Casselbrandt, S. (Sweden)
What moisture class do timber structures built in green but used in

dry belong to?
After a long period of use you would normally get moisture class 2.
However, I would never encourage the use of green timber for any interior
structure at any time.
Question by Jorissen, A. (NL)
In the text of EC5 page 32, table 3.1.3. k^jd f r tensile strength
perpendicular to the grain is smaller than kmod for other strength
properties. Is this because of the effects of the moisture content or
because of the long-term effect?
Answer by Lars en, H.J. (OK)
It is assumed that the long-term effect is greater for clear timber

than for timber with knots. Tension perpendicular to the grain results in
stresses in a clear material. The long-term effect is then greater. The
ratio between the moisture classes is the same.
40
D.T. YEOMANS
Liverpool University, School of Architecture and
Building Engineering, United Kingdom
Summary
Given the limitation on the sizes in which timber can be

obtained, the history of developments in structural carpentry is
largely, although not entirely, the history of jointing methods.
However, it is important to recognise that early carpentry techniques
developed differently in different regions; differences which can
still be seen in some carpentry today and which occurred in response
to varying functional requirements. Subsequent changes have been a
mixture of evolution through native design, the direct copying of
ideas from other countries and the adaptation of these to local
circumstances.
In this paper such developments will be illustrated using
Britain as an example. It will describe the early medieval roof forms
and the changes that were introduced from Italy in the seventeenth
century, it will describe the effect of the introduction of iron and
the influence from France of ideas of laminated timber in the
nineteenth century and will also briefly cover the development of
mechanical fasteners in the inter-war period.
1. INTRODUCTION
The sizes of available timbers and the means of fixing have always
limited the designers of wooden structures whether this was the medieval
carpenter or the modern structural engineer and any history of structural
design in timber must at least in part be a history of the means of
jointing. A feature of early timber structures is that the traditions of
carpentry varied greatly throughout Europe and differences in practice which
are most marked in these earliest structures continue to influence design.
Even now the roof forms used for small buildings in France, for example, are
quite different from those used for similar sized buildings in England. An
historical study of timber structures must take this into account and what I
intend to do is to look at the development of structural carpentry in
England and to show how the history of timber structures has been a mixture
of the development of early carpentry methods, the adoption of ideas from
other countries and the adaptation of these imported techniques to suit
native carpentry traditions. Before embarking on this, however, it is useful
to explore briefly the extent to which early structural carpentry methods
varied across Europe.
Even a cursory look at early timber structures in Europe shows a wide
diversity of forms, the most obvious being the division between frame and
log construction. Log construction predominated in the softwood growing
countries which form a continuous chain to the north and east of Europe -
from Scandinavia down through Switzerland and into the Balkans, while to the
41
south west of this line timber buildings were framed. Within the area of
framed buildings a wide variety of styles of carpentry flourished. T he
Fachwerk of Germany could not be mistaken for the half timber building of
England, while each has its own variations. English framing varies from the
simple close studding of the south east to the richly decorative framing of
the north west with its complex chevron and quatrefoil braced frames.
Even greater differences can be seen in roof carpentry partly because
roof construction depends upon the need to provide shelter so that the form
of roof must be adapted to suit the covering materials available, tiles
slates or even thatch, and the climate and these two together affect both
the steepness of the pitch that is needed and the weight to be supported.
But the variations seen cannot be fully explained by these differences
alone. T he steep pitched roofs of Germany and Holland used a combination of
principal rafters and collars to carry purlins while in northern France
common rafters without purlins were used for similar steep pitches. In
England common rafter roofs were used in some areas and purlin roofs in
others even though the pitches were similar. However, these various forms
were all constructed using just a few basic types of joint.
2. MEDIEVAL STRUCTURES
The largest structures that the medieval carpenter had to deal with
were the roofs of the great cathedrals and the great monastic barns. Roof
structures often used braced pairs of rafters with no purlins so that the
load on each of the frames was small and so were the sections of the timbers
used. Nevertheless quite large spans could be achieved with these small
scantling timbers with the jointing often by simple lap joints secured by
pegs. While roofs in some areas used these simple braced rafters, in others
the rafters were supported on purlins which in turn were carried on heavy
frames and large frames, whether they are the frames of roofs or the basic
structure of large buildings, such as barns, gather and concentrate the
loads making the jointing problem more difficult. Joints in these structures
relied much more upon the mortice and tenon joint for intersecting members
while the plates and purlins, continuous members running the length of the
building, had to be jointed with scarf joints to form long lengths.
My examples here are taken from England where many of these early
structures still survive like the monastic barns, which were often large
enough to dwarf the nearby church, although there are market buildings in
France on much the same scale and which use similar framing arrangements.
But although we may admire the scale of these structures the distortions
that are sometimes apparent on close examination show the weakness of some
aspects of their design. T here was no difficulty in transmitting the loads
at joints when members were in compression because there were adequate
shoulders on either the lap joints or the mortice and tenon joints to
transmit the forces, but where members were in tension dovetail joints had
to be used to avoid the loads being carried on the fixing pegs. T he
performance of this type of joint was affected by shrinkage in the timber,
an effect that was exacerbated by working it while green.
This can be seen most clearly in the joint at the top of wall or aisle
posts which had to carry both the tie beam and the wall or aisle plate. A
large section of timber was obtained for the complex joint needed here by
cutting the tree close to the ground to include the wide base of the trunk
and turning the piece upside down. The joint was then fixed to both tie beam
and plate with mortice and tenon joints. Outward movement of the plate was
supposed to be prevented by the dovetail on the end of the tie beam but
shrinkage of the timber loosened the joint and allowed outward movement of
42
the plate. This resulted In tension forces across the grain of the wood at
the head of the post, and splitting at the top of these posts is the
commonly seen consequence of this.
A further problem in these structures is that rafters fere brought
onto the outer edge of their supporting plates producing torsion as well as
bending loads. Because these plates had to be formed in several lengths this
torsion has caused extensive movement at the scarf joints which were poorly
designed to carry this kind of load.
In spite of such problems, many of these structures have survived five
or six hundred years and some are still in use today, but for the building
designer at the time the greatest weakness of the roof framing was its
reliance on the tie beam. Because the loads from struts to the purlins, or
principal rafters, were brought onto this beam it was in bending and,
because the scarf joints could not transmit bending moments, it had to be of
one piece of timber. The span of the roofs was therefore limited by the size
of the tie beam that could be obtained and this in turn restricted the
planning of the building. Spans of up to 10 metres could be built but these
required beams half a metre deep, sizes that could not have been easy to
acquire or to handle.
3. THE TRUSSED ROOF
Apart from flat roofs, which were popular because of the availability
of lead in England, the framing arrangements evolved to suit the other
available roofing materials and favoured pitches of about 45. But in the
seventeenth century new ideas of architecture were imported into England
from Italy) ideas that required new roof frames of shallower pitch as well
as larger span. Thus buildings like the Banqueting House in London, built by
Inigo Jones in 1622 or Wren's Sheldonian Theatre, Oxford of 1664, required
something other than traditional roof structures and it was essential if
Britain was to adopt the new architectural fashion to import, together with
these architectural ideas, the structural ideas that made them possible.
This was essentially to use the principal rafters as an 'arch' of timber
from which the posts were suspended and which in their turn supported the
tie beam so forming the trussed roof, the ancestor of those which we still
use today.
The carpenters, and many of the architects, who began building such
roofs in England had never seen the Italian roofs upon which the new designs
were based and adapted the basic structural arrangement to suit their own
carpentry tradition, but the adoption of these roof trusses did involve some
changes to established jointing methods. The lowering of the roof pitch
naturally increased the forces in both the rafters and tie beam while at the
same time the change in geometry reduced the bearing area of the mortice and
tenon joint at their ends. To solve this problem metal strapping was
introduced to assist the joints. With the posts in the truss now in tension,
metal straps were used at their feet to 'truss up' the tie beam and, as the
tie beam was in tension rather than in bending, it no longer had to be in
one length providing a satisfactory joint could be devised to transmit
tensile forces. Wren's design for joints in the long spanning tie beam of
the Sheldonian Theatre roof was the most complex piece of carpentry devised
to do this and relied upon two layers of timbers to transmit the forces but
a much simpler joint was used for subsequent roofs.
In spite of this improvement in the basic design of the roof structure
traditional carpentry practices persisted. Many traditional English roof
structures had been built with the purlins tenoned into the principal
rafters and this rather inefficient system continued with the introduction
of the trussed roof even though it clearly meant that the principal rafter
43
had to be large enough to accommodate these mortices. It was not until quite
late in the eighteenth century that a more economical practice of placing
the purlins above the principal rafters was adopted which naturally allowed
the principals to be made smaller as they no longer had to accommodate the
mortices. It seems likely that this change was adopted in Britain after
British architects had seen it in use in France where it had been the
commonly used arrangement for some time. Another modest change that occurred
during this period was in the jointing of tie beams where.long bolted scarf
joints superseded the keyed scarf.
We should also note that as the new roof forms were introduced there
was also a change in the materials used. Oak was replaced by fir as the
structural material at the end of the seventeenth century although this was
not a deliberate choice by carpenters, who preferred the greater strength
and durability of oak. The change was occasioned by the Fire of London and
the consequent demand for supplies for rebuilding the city. (No doubt oak
was also in demand for shipbuilding at that time because, coincidentally,
the Dutch had burned part of the English fleet at Sheerness.)
4. THE USE OF IRON
The next major change that took place in English carpentry was the
more extensive use of iron in timber roofs allowing still greater increases
in span. The growth of industrialisation and trade in the nineteenth century
not only created the need for new building types; the mills, warehouses and
eventually railway stations which produced a demand for longer spanning
structures, it also provided cast iron that began to be used in the
structures in combination with timber. The first step in this direction was
the use of castings at the joints to replace the complex carpentry and the
earliest example so far found of this device is in the Porter Tunn room at
Whitbread brewery in London built in 1785 where castings were used at the
head of the king post to receive the principal rafters. Iron connectors like
this reduced the labour required for forming complex carpentry, allowed
larger loads and spans and, in the case of king posts, reduced the size of
timber that was needed because they no longer had to be cut with wide
splayed joggles for the struts and principal rafters to bear against.
However, to do this they had to be properly fastened to the timber. In this
early example the castings were each fixed to the king post with just six
wood screws, hardly sufficient for the large span involved. Bolted
connections were most commonly used but it was some time before structural
understanding was sufficiently well developed to design joints properly.
The introduction of iron also favoured the development of new forms of
truss because the tension members could be replaced with iron rods connected
to iron fasteners. (This example is of the nineteenth century replacement
roof of the Banqueting House.) Perhaps the best known example of these are
Brunei's designs for some of his roofs of railway buildings but such
combinations were also used in more modest structures and these roof trusses
in a restored warehouse are not significantly different from those used by
Brunei in his great goods stations and illustrated by Bourne (1).
Furthermore, as the tie beam no longer had to be of timber, it no longer had
to be straight and a much wider variety of structural forms was now
possible.
The king post and queen post types of roof truss which had become
almost the standard roof structures by the beginning of the nineteenth
century were well suited to being developed in this way but my impression is
that this was largely a British development which was not paralleled in
other countries. Krafft's encyclopaedic work on carpentry (2) which was
published in Paris at the beginning of the nineteenth century shows that
44
elsewhere development had been different. He showed a number of roof
structures from several countries quite different from those in Britain and
it seems as if these differences continued because Continental writers on
carpentry show quite different roof structures well into the nineteenth
century, illustrating the English type as a distinct form.
The other change that occurred in the nineteenth century was the
application of scientific enquiry to the behaviour and the design of
structures. When Wren adopted the trussed roof for his structures in the
seventeenth century he had the benefit of an Italian book on mechanics that
explained the behaviour of the truss and certainly there were others who
also had a clear idea of the behaviour of these structures. But such
knowledge was probably not very widely shared as we can see from this
mid-eighteenth century drawing of a trussed partition where the designer has
taken liberties with the framing to make room for the doors. It grieves me
to have to admit that Britain was not noted for its scientific approach to
the design of timber structures. The simple level of understanding remained
sufficient for many structures, sometimes because of the reserves of bending
strength in the sizes of timbers used. But as spans increased and engineers
found a need for a more scientific approach to design they had to look first
to Continental sources, as Nicholson (3) did when he attempted to introduce
a rational approach to the sizing of structural members in his carpentry
manuals that he began to publish at the very end of the eighteenth century.
The first published results of experimental work carried out in Britain on
the behaviour of timber were by Barlow (4) in 1817 but by the 1840s, when
Waddington (5) demonstrated how to apply this and elementary principles of
mechanics to timber roof trusses, iron was becoming more important as a
structural material and was being used in combination with timber for long
spanning floor structures as well as roofs. It is perhaps symptomatic of
this that Barlow's later editions dealt more extensively with iron rather
than with timber.
Something of the character of the transition from timber to iron can
be seen in the development of the roof structures for the shipbuilding slips
in the British navy yards. Samuel Bentham (6) suggested using these after
observing shipbuilding practices in Sweden where lean-to covers seem to have
been used to protect workmen from the weather. Bentham's idea was for much
larger structures and his original proposal was for cast iron roofs: a
modern material for a modern structure perhaps. In the event the first
structures were built of timber, perhaps because this material was better
understood for with such novel structures on such a scale the designers
would surely have been happier to work with a familiar material. Several
such structures were built at Chatham, Devonport, Portsmouth and Pembroke
but in the 1840s many were replaced by iron roofs as this became the more
common structural material.
5. LAMINATED TIMBER
In spite of this inexorable change, there were situations in which

timber offered a cost advantage over the new materials and designers still
sought new structural forms in wood. Brunei (whose roof designs we have
seen) chose timber as the structural material for a number of his railway
bridges and viaducts. The best known of these are the viaducts on the line
west of Plymouth where timber structures were adopted to reduce the capital
cost. A number of railway engineers also used laminated timber to form
arched bridges, again an idea that was imported from the Continent, this
time from France.
As d l'Orme (7) had realised, large spanning timber structures can be
built if some means is found to connect small timbers together and although
45
such structures were used in France there is little evidence of an interest
in this kind of structure in England until its use in the nineteenth century
when the planks could be nailed together. It was used in this way in the
Crystal Palace and it is ironic that this palace of iron and glass should
have had a structure relying upon timber for the vaulted transept which was
its principal architectural feature. The arches that supported this roof
were each constructed of three layers of planks and this technique was
repeated for the ribs of the domes at the South Kensington Exhibition halls.
The method may have been used fairly extensively for utilitarian structures
because an example of a vertically laminated arch roof of over 70 ft span
still survives in the premises of a builders' merchant in Norwich, built in
the 1860s as a roller skating rink.
In contrast the laminated timber railway bridges used horizontal
laminations as we do today but with the laminations bolted together. The
first practical uses of this approach were by Emy and Ardents in France in
1819 for the roofs of riding schools, bending planks to shape and bolting
them together to form arches of the required thickness. Ardent (8) conducted
experiments on the structural behaviour of such arches and this work
attracted the attention of British engineers.
Railway bridges were built both in France and England by this method
but they showed signs of decay after a few years despite the precautions
that were taken to preserve the timber. A railway station in Newcastle and
Kings Cross station in London in 1852 also used this method of construction
but unfortunately the latter was not to last because steam from the engines
caused deterioration of the roof and the laminated timber had to be replaced
with the present iron roof within a few years. Curiously, however, a roof of
a very similar form was built very near to the station in what was known at
the time as the German Gymnasium - an athletic club for German immigrants.
Although no longer used as a gymnasium, this building and its laminated
timber roof still survive. The Yorkshire architect Broderick used laminated
timber of this kind in the roofing of Leeds Town Hall and in the domed roof
of the Corn Market in Leeds (although here it was combined with iron). Like
the vertically laminated arches it may have been a fairly popular form of
construction for longer spanning roofs but it is difficult to assess the
popularity of either form because, apart from a few notable examples, they
were used for modest utilitarian buildings ; not the kind of architecture
that is reported in contemporary literature and so often demolished when
obsolete without being recorded. In many situations it may have been
attractive to designers because it would have had a cost advantage over cast
iron and would have been simpler to erect but the problem of establishing
the extent to which ideas like this were taken up as a common method of
construction is a general problem for historians of technology.
Laminated timber had also been used in Germany in the nineteenth
century and it was from there that glued laminated timber was to develop in
this century when in 1905 Otto Hetzer took out a patent for a system using
casein adhesive. This form of construction spread rapidly to countries
adjoining Germany and is still known as the Hetzer system in parts of Europe
today. Hetzer construction was introduced into Switzerland in about 1909
where it was used extensively in the construction of railway stations. It
appeared in Denmark in 1913, in Norway in 1918, and in Sweden in 1919. The
idea also spread to America from where we have a good account of the state
of the art here in the inter-war period. Wilson (9) who reported on
experimental work which was carried out in America on the laminated timber
arch also visited Europe in 1936 and reported on the condition of many of
these structures. Although he noted some deterioration in adverse conditions
and the poor performance of butt joints in laminations (scarf joints were
not introduced until later), the structures that he saw were generally
46
performing well and his prognosis for their continued life was good.
Although the system of laminating originated in Germany the industry does
not appear to have developed there as much as elsewhere. Hetzer went into
liquidation in the 1920s.
Wilson (10) suggested that this was because war conditions resulted in
a shortage of casein, stimulating the invention of mechanical fastening
devices and its use seems to have declined generally in Europe so that it
was in America that glued laminated timber structures then developed and
from where the techniques were reimported. In the 1950s with the curious
exception of Britain there was little use of laminated timber in Europe.
Britain was an exception because its use had been encouraged by Admiralty
orders during the 1950s. Of course now the position has been reversed and
laminated timber in Britain competes poorly with the industry on mainland
Europe.
6. MECHANICAL TASTENERS
The development of large timber structures has also been stimulated by

the invention of mechanical fasteners which one might have expected to have
occurred first in America, the country that had come to rely so heavily on
the material for its early development. However, it seems that the supply of
timber was so abundant there that there was little incentive to look for
ways to improve its economy of use and although a simple bulldog connector
was patented in the United States in 1889 it was not widely adopted. It was
not until the first world war in Europe that there was any rapid progress in
the use of these devices and major inventions of timber connectors came from
Sweden and Germany. Here their adoption has been linked to the economic
constraints of the war and to the timber shortages that it brought about.
The important years were 1916-1922 with 60 European patents taken out. The
bulldog connector was invented by Theodorsen and the advantages of the split
ring connector were separately discovered by Samuel Voss of Germany and
Kreuger of Sweden, the rights of the Voss patent of 1919 being taken up by
Carl Tuchscher of Breslau.
It is these mechanical fasteners and the improvements in glued joints
and methods of laminating timbers that have shaped the timber structures
that we use today. As Antoine Hole (11) pointed out in his 'Histoire des
Charpentiers', properly triangulated frames cannot be built easily without
metal connectors of some kind and the resulting bending stresses with
so-called 'traditional' methods must limit the scale of structures that are
possible. The major structures that his firm produced were only possible
with modern connectors.
In the last examples the focus of my attention has had to shift away
from Britain to other European countries because Britain, with poor native
timber supplies, has not shared quite so much in recent developments.
Development is of course always affected by such local conditions and the
substitution of imported fir for native oak was an early response to the
difficulties of supply. At the same time the examples that I have given show
that structural ideas were also imported in response to changing structural
needs which were beyond the range of native carpentry methods. These were
then developed and adapted but I am not in a position to know to what extent
they were then exported, or the extent to which there may have been similar
exchanges between other countries in Europe, and I cannot pretend that I
have been able to demonstrate unequivocally the importance of such a trade
in ideas. Nevertheless, it is clear that inventions may not only find ready
acceptance outside their countries of origin but in some circumstances may
then be more extensively developed there and I should like to suggest that
if there is a lesson to be drawn from this fact it is that in an age of
47
increasing regulations governing design it is important to ensure ways of
encouraging the free passage of technical development across national
boundaries.
REFERENCES
(1) BOURNE, J.C., 1846. The History and Description of the Great Western
Railway, London.
(2) KRAFFT, J.C., 1805. Plans, Coups et elevations de diverse productions
de l'art de la Charpente, Paris.
(3) NICHOLSON, P., 1797. The Carpenter and Joiner's Assistant, London.
(4) BARLOW, P., 1817. An essay on the strength and stress of timber,
London.
(5) WADDINGTON, C , 1842. The Doctrines of Carpentry examined, in their
Application to the Construction of a Roof. Professional Papers of the
Royal Engineers, 72-152.
(6) BENTHAM, Sir Samuel, 1812. Description of a design for naval
improvements at His Majesty's Port of Sheerness.
(7) DE L'ORME, P., 1561. Nouvelles Inventions pour Bien Bastir, Paris.
(8) ARDENT, P.J., 1840. Etudes sur l'Etablissement des Charpentes Grande
Porte, Metz.
(9) WILSON, T.R.C., 1939. The Glued Laminated Wooden Arch, U.S. Dept. of
Agriculture.
(10) Ibid.
(11) MOLE, A.', 1949. Histoire des charpentiers: leurs traveaux, Paris.
48
DISCUSSION
Comment by Stieda, CK.A. (Canada)
Some structures showed by Mr Yeomans had very poor connections but

they nevertheless lasted for over a hundred years. This is interesting for
those who develop codes and standards. It says something about the
assumptions we make when we design structures.
Answer by Yeomans, D. (UK)
The fact that structures have stood for more than a hundred years does
not necessarily mean that they have stood without distress. Some joints
showed great movement and now programmes have been started to strengthen
these joints.
Many older structures have suffered decay. Nowadays several techniques

have been developed to restore these old joints. What has been done in
research laboratories to study these repair techniques?
Answer by Yeomans, D. (UK)
There are those who believe that the repairs should be using
traditional methods. The decayed timber should be removed and replaced by
new timber. This technique often means the removal of considerable amounts
of sound timber in order to make the necessary joint. The other approach is
to keep the structure as it is and use epoxy as a strengthening device. Some
refuse to use this because of the unknown long-term effects. Very little
work has been done to study the long-term behaviour of these various repair
methods. Now we are experimenting with actual repairs instead of
experimenting in laboratories. This is not satisfactory.
Comment by Bell, T.J. (UK)
A link between the paper by Mr Yeomans and EC5 is paragraph 2.5.2.1.

of ECS. This refers to filling up holes in bending timber members with
stiffer material. This will cause stress concentrations around such areas
and requires further investigation.
49
J. NATTERER and W. WINTER

Department of Timber Structures
Federal Technical University, Lausanne, Switzerland
Summary
In spite of being highly regarded, timber is only rarely used for

load-bearing structures in central Europe nowadays, accounting as a
rule for less than 10% of the market. The future of timber
construction depends on the extent to which the public at large can be
convinced of its advantages from the point of view of architectural
merit, the environment, energy and the economy, and on how far
designers can exploit the advantages of timber as a building material
in individual projects. This paper deals with some of the advantages
of wood as a material for load-bearing structures and entire
buildings.
The general conclusion is that timber is ideal to meet the main
demands which society will make on the building methods of the future.
However,' in spite of its great merits, timber will have to prove its
worth time and time again with every new project. It is argued that
timber construction will not win people over in the short and medium
term by simply selling itself as a 'cheap way to build', but only by
presenting itself as a construction method which can use its qualities
of adaptability, versatility, good workability and pleasing appearance
to provide 'tailor-made' solutions to complex design briefs. At the
same time, however, much progress has to be made on the price front.
Choosing the right material and making the best use of its various
properties especially through improved strength grading, are crucial
elements in this.
1. AWARENESS OF QUALITY - THE OPPORTUNITY FOR TIMBER CONSTRUCTION IN THE

FUTURE
1.1 The Role of Timber Building Today
Timber plays only a minor role in building in Europe today. Timber

construction accounts for a mere 10-15% of total investment in building, and
for no more than 2-5% in the case of buildings constructed using industrial
methods.
In spite of the long European tradition of timber building and the
considerable esteem in which it is held, buildings nowadays are constructed
almost exclusively out of reinforced concrete, masonry and steel.
The timber construction sector is attempting to promote the use of
wood by appealing to the fundamentally positive feelings which clients have
about it, proclaiming how 'cosy' and 'natural' it is. The various slogans
certainly have some effect but are still not enough to establish wood more
firmly.
50
The people making the real decisions about the choice of building
methods and materials, such as the construction departments of industrial
concerns or housing societies and public administrations or governments,
which decide on subsidies or environmental requirements for sectors of the
building industry, do not allow themselves to be influenced by the fact that
people tend to be fond of wood.
Timber construction cannot break out of its 5% market niche by itself,
since its turnover - and hence its budgets for advertising, R&D and lobbying
- are too small compared with the powerful steel and concrete lobby, which
is already represented at every level of decision-making, from
standardisation to economic policy, and which, for reasons of perfectly
legitimate self-interest, will only be prepared to treat wood as an 'exotic'
exception.
Timber construction needs strong allies if it is to gain a stronger
position in the market. The sector must become aware of the social
significance of building and come up with suitable arguments. Appeals to the
emotions are not enough.
The use of wood in building will only increase if we can prove that
this makes good sense given the economic and ecological conditions in
Europe, and when experts and laymen alike can be convinced that timber
structures can offer better quality at a similar price, and meet modern
requirements better than traditional building methods. Unless we make these
points convincingly, timber construction could end up in a well attended
open air museum, where it could look out and see everyone continuing to
build in steel and reinforced concrete.
1.2 Decision Criteria for Timber Construction
Anyone planning to build must select, regroup, invent and decide. What
criteria do clients, architects, engineers and contractors apply? Meeting
functional requirements, availability of materials and methods, time,
appearance, available know-how and experience, costs, compliance with
building regulations or standards etc., integration with other buildings in
the vicinity and avoidance, as far as possible, of undesirable side effects,
are only some of the criteria which can determine the design and choice of
materials.
Obviously, timber construction is subject to the same decision
criteria and processes as other methods.
Nevertheless, we shall try in this paper to indicate specific design
criteria for timber buildings, simply because there are various possible
explanations as to why timber has fallen almost entirely out of fashion as a
building material in Europe today.
1. According to the majority of the decision criteria, timber is inferior

to other methods in the light of present day requirements and is
therefore only used in exceptional cases.
2. Timber construction methods are inadequately understood and therefore
come off badly in comparisons.
3. Important decision criteria, which would be favourable to timber
construction, are left out of account.
The authors are engineers engaged in practical research in the Timber

Construction Department of the Federal Technical University of Lausanne.
They have also designed and carried out a number of special timber
engineering projects in Germany and Switzerland in cooperation with
engineering consultants.
51
Our experience has led to the conclusion that, because of lack of
knowledge, timber construction is often underestimated or performed less
than ideally, or that important criteria are not taken into account or are
underestimated at the decision-making stage. This paper addresses these
questions with two aims:
firstly, to illustrate aspects of design and decision criteria which

do not receive sufficient attention in the context of a specific
project; and
- secondly, to give examples of how timber construction is underrated as
a whole.
1.3 New Building Requirements - An Opportunity for Timber Construction?
Even in the modern 'post-industrial' service-oriented societies in

Europe, building still occupies a central position alongside all the supply
industries, accounting for between 10 and 20% of the gross national product.
Buildings form the material basis of the life and economies of our
societies, and the efficiency of a society depends on how well they work and
what they cost. They provide both individuals and societies with a way of
finding and asserting their own social, aesthetic, historical and cultural
identities and affect the quality of life.
Last but not least, building is an all-important element in the
relationship between man and the environment, from which we take raw
materials and energy and which we change either directly or as a result of
side effects of our production methods. We leave waste behind us and attempt
to 'correct' natural processes in our own interests by means of buildings.
Societies develop in a dynamic fashion: they attempt to adapt to the
changing environment and to achieve optimum conditions within a shifting
system of values. Building - that is to say what is built, how it is built
and what it is built with - is subject to the same dynamic processes.
Although structures are amongst the most lasting of all industrial
products, even the building industry is in a constant state of flux.
Since the beginning of the seventies, the building sector has been
confronted with fundamental economic and social changes, including, to name
but a few:
the energy crisis;

disenchantment with the 'concrete jungle';
a resurgence of individuality and the rediscovery of aesthetic values
in architecture;
environmental awareness ;
awareness of health aspects of building;
quality of life;
the shift of emphasis from quantity to quality.
These phrases reflect new currents which affect, among other things,
the choice and assessment of building methods and the design of individual
structures. He intend in this paper to illustrate a number of individual
aspects which may be important for a reassessment of timber construction.
In the first section, we discuss criteria which relate to the
assessment of timber construction in comparison with other methods, while in
the second and third sections we consider criteria which should be taken
into account when designing a load-bearing structure or individual building.
52
2. QUALITY ASPECTS TIMBER BUILDING IN GENERAL
2.1 Architectural Criteria
A survey carried cut in 1980 involving 230 Swiss architects showed
that architects rate wood higher than all other building materials because
of its aesthetic advantages. However, they had serious doubts about its
durability though it was nevertheless rated higher than steel.
4 S 6 w/
3
ftffMrtWI 1 1I'
Mill
M
11 H
i
it
M
1 1
tw*J
mimntit
1 aesthetically appealing 9 low durab ility

2 aesthetic shortcomings 10 appearance
3 steel 11 workability
4 aluminium 12 insulation
5 synthetic materials 13 price
6 brick 14 maintenance
7 wood 15 durability
8 high durability
Fig. 1. Attitude of 230 Swiss architects to wood. Aesthetic
qualities (left), durability (centre), overall (right). The proportion of
positive and negative opinions is indicated in each case (1)
The architects feel that wood has a particularly promising future for
roofing mainly because of its good workability and aesthetic merits.
3 6
3
I IbrMtfW
.1 5
1 1 1 !
7
i I Ii 1
I I I I I ! i
a
1
%
1 increased use 5 synthetics
2 reduced use 6 concrete
3 steel 7 wood
4 aluminium 8 brick
Fig. 2. Prospects of the various materials for
loadbearing roof structures (1)
53
They were less optimistic about the prospects for wooden facades, and
thought that brick had the greatest chance of success for this purpose.
Nevertheless, in spite of the almost exclusive use nowadays of steel or
aluminium for the facades of industrial buildings, for example, wood came
out better.
Uli */*
1
4
S 5 6 7 8 7 a
3 f;; .1 S 3 s I .! S
s ! I l i IkrMWr s ! I I I I
Vrwtaduag IftewtoOung 1 I I i
u
a
t
.11
:~li !. -tnr m
n
-
2 Vtrmin/trti ,0 Iftrmndirli
ttrwtndvtg V. YtnrMdung %
1 increased use 6 durability

2 reduced use' 7 insulation
3 price 8 appearance
4 workability 9 wood
5 maintenance
Fig. 3. Prospects of materials for facades (1)
The positive assessment of the workability and appearance of wood

shows where we can begin to promote this material. Architecturally ambitious
buildings with their complex geometries and considerable aesthetic demands
can give timber construction a new image and win it a more important place
in the market. Large numbers of buildings to be constructed from one design,
for which price is a liasic decision criterion, will follow automatically.
However, particular care must be exercised because of architects' fears
regarding the durability of wood. A few bad experiences could bring timber
construction as a whole into disrepute.
For this reason, particularly high priority should be given to
durability criteria in the initial phase.
2.2 Energy Criteria
In the future, more attention will be paid to how much primary energy
is needed to construct a building by the various methods and how much is
subsequently required when the building is in use.
Timber construction comes out excellently in this comparison. The
following figures are taken from the proceedings of the 14th conference of
the Schweizerische Arbeitsgemeinschaft fr Holzforschung, held in 1982 (see
reference 2). They relate to detached houses with the same usable area and
the same heat insulation:
54
Energy consumption wood panelling lightweight brickwork
concrete
construction
(turnkey): 127000 kWh 155000 kWh 192000 kWh
(100%) (122%) (151%)
use (heating,
water, light) annual: 27400 kWh 27500 kWh 29000 kWh
Energy consumption for the use of a building should not be

disregarded, even if the building is well insulated. Here, wood has
additional advantages since it lends itself very well to building buffer
zones, conservatories or the complicated geometries of solar heated houses.
The relatively small amount of energy required to build a timber
structure is particularly noticeable when large spans are involved.
5 Vtaww. tartlm 6 MW1 7 bM*|KaM#wW

* HoifttMMff
muctw.Maata, Wifcwwi D.T)' IUa n i l twvw mtkwii
TrMtpwt u.lw 5 kwvio U7:kw
lllkWk
OU
b SUMUMHE
Skl tbftjff M * I n * J.I0' MOW
too '
Tianpofi MOW 5 kwiuw aoMkwii
lOMMkWt
rtfqj twa. HMd*r mi SltUM

Bcltrwi|
Tliwpgil
HMm> IIJ.Ow
2.00' IJ.7W
llUw
I M kWtla'
sua kwv>
11 kWVw
UtjOkWk
ii:u4iwk
is>kwk
1 cross section a timber :

2 wood glulam, frames
3 steel transport
4 concrete
5 v a r i a n t , item b steel :
6 quantity steel, beams and columns
7 energy consumption galvanising
transport
c concrete :
concrete, beams and stanchions
reinforcement
transport
F i g . 4. Comparison of amounts of b u i l d i n g materials and energy

consumption for the manufacture and assembly of t y p i c a l
load-bearing s t r u c t u r e s for standard h a l l s with a
20 a span and a 75 kg/m' snow-load (3)
The f a c t that timber construction requires up t o four times l e s s

energy than s t e e l or reinforced concrete i s s t i l l not f u l l y r e f l e c t e d i n the
p r i c e . As r u l e , s t e e l and timber s t r u c t u r e s c o s t about t h e same. However,
changes i n energy c o s t s could work i n the favour of timber i n t h e f u t u r e .
55
2.3 Ecological Criteria
Forests are a central factor in maintaining an ecological balance.

Without sufficient afforestation our ecosystem would collapse. In addition
to their importance for keeping the air clean and regulating the water
economy, providing habitats for animals and recreational areas for humans,
our forests are a quite fundamental part of the central European landscape
and last but not least perform important protective functions, particularly
in mountainous areas, where they help to prevent erosion or landslides etc.
The entire area under forest in central Europe, between 20% and 30% of
the total area, has been planted by man and must be constantly tended. This
continues to demand substantial investments which have largely been borne by
society.
Healthy forests demand constant exploitation. Old, under-used stands
are a health risk to the forest as a whole.. The forests in central Europe
have been dangerously under-used in recent decades. For example, in
Switzerland, only 60% or so of the required amounts of timber are felled.
Our forests are growing old and one of the reasons for this is the low
selling price for round timber, which often is not even enough to cover
production costs. This situation will get worse in the next few years, since
the market will be flooded with timber which has had to be felled in damaged
areas. If no market can be found for this timber, the felling costs must be
borne by society in the form of subsidies. A sensible solution would be
partly to replace 'artificial' building materials such as steel and
reinforced concrete by wood-based materials. The building industry is
already the main consumer of wood with approximately 50% of the total amount
felled. However, the share of timber construction in the building market is
so small that the amount of timber required is not enough to permit the
increasing amounts felled to be consumed.
Consequently, major ecological and economic criteria speak for an
increase in the use of timber in building. Furthermore, the production of
steel and concrete in densely populated areas such as central Europe gives
rise to significant ecological problems, such as air pollution from heavy
industry (steel, cement), extraction of large quantities of raw materials
and additives, high primary energy consumption and substantial transport
requirements.
2.4 Economic Criteria
The building sector in central Europe is structured in terms of the

most common methods used, i.e. steel and concrete. Large and medium-sized
units produce raw materials and semi-finished goods using plant requiring
very substantial investment, which has led to business concentrations and
monopolies. These raw materials and semi-finished products are further
processed in medium-sized or small units with an industrial structure and
relatively high capital costs, which also tend to result in concentrations,
standardisation and mass production.
In principle, a very different production structure would be possible
in the timber construction sector, in that all the production stages would
be less capital intensive and more labour intensive, and firms could be
smaller and decentralised etc. Such a structure - more like a trade than an
industry - has important advantages in a time of increasing unemployment. In
addition, clients can take charge of a greater proportion of the work
themselves than with industrialised structures and it has been shown in
Scandinavia and North America that timber construction is absolutely
superior to industrialised construction from the economic point of view,
provided a suitable production chain can be built up.
56
Obviously, it will take time before these advantages can make
themselves felt and it would be inadvisable to reduce the market share of
industrialised constructions to American proportions in central Europe,
since the production structure is already there and must be used in the
interests of the economy. Nevertheless, timber construction has such
advantages for a 'post-industrial economy', that it can play a more
important role in complementing industrialised construction and in future
projects (renovation, energy saving, building methods etc.).
3. QUALITY ASPECTS IN THE DESIGN OF TIMBER LOAD-BEARING STRUCTURES
When designing a timber load-bearing structure for a specific

building, the engineer must make a whole series of individual decisions. For
example, he must decide on a load-bearing system, i.e. the principles and
geometries to be applied for load transmission, and secondly decide how this
system, which is basically only a theoretical construct, is to be turned
into a physical artefact. This involves decisions on the choice of
materials, shapes, fasteners, design of joints, etc.
Generally speaking the load-bearing structure or the entire
'materialised' load-bearing systems are crucial to the entire structure. The
quality of a timber load-bearing structure depends partly on the extent to
which it fulfils the specific requirements and conditions and partly on the
extent to which it takes account of the peculiarities of the building method
used and manages to meet the requirements and quality criteria with the
least possible effort or expense.
3.1 Criteria Governing Choice of Materials
Quality of buildings, i.e. the performance obtained for a given effort

or cost, is largely dependent on the raw materials and semi-finished
products used and the way in which they are prepared.
A whole range of products and techniques is available for timber
construction with finely graded performance characteristics (e.g. strength,
drying behaviour, durability etc.).
The range of products available is many times greater than with
industrialised construction or steel construction, which are much more
standardised. One need only think of the wide range of wood species and
wood-based materials and the endless scope for different cross sections and
shapes thanks to the great workability of wood.
Nevertheless, timber construction in Europe has hitherto restricted
itself to a minimum number of products. Pine is used as squared timber with
relatively large cross sections, which do not dry out readily, and expensive
glued laminated timber is increasingly being used to avoid drying problems.
No advantage is taken of the differences in strength - indeed, in
practice, no strength category is even defined as a rule. This is
indefensible both from the economic point of view and as regards the
efficiency of the structure. The quality of timber structures can be
substantially improved if account is taken of the great diversity of
products.
Ne will go into only a few aspects of choice of materials according to
strength criteria in this paper.
57
Bououfgobe
2 Anforderungen
Rondbedingungen a
3 4 5 6 ^
ililiiillil]
17
I Forafltarq n (hat-
n
u
Print ta IMtoblrofluni
schalt lodAratffel alrun*ifl
I I Virbndumwittlt frni dtr lostobtroguM
1 2 OfioJ fctan
13 W-IHI*IIH Frawy- SrkunoWiyitt
Ifon u(4 Sfomwilil
14 miluni Ttftidrtyltta
1 5 lttflliifwg IFara und SpoNwfitf)
1 6 port Mtfogi Slobiliiifrung
roiMlicfitl sfcjlrtcnfl Sylt
Tragwerk als Bestandteil

des Bauwerks
1 Building project 17 Foundations

2 Requirements and conditions 18 Principle of load transmission
3 Landscape and site in plan
4 Functions space profile 19 Principle of load transmission
5 Interior S exterior design in section
6 Lighting installations 20 Primary and secondary system
7 Terrain loads (form and span)
8 Protection against cold, 21 Tertiary system (form and span)
damp, fire, etc. 22 Stabilisation
9 Choice of building materials spatial static system
10 Design (cross-section 23 Planning
and elevation) 24 Materialisation
11 Fasteners 25 Choice of load-bearing system
12 Detail 26 Load-bearing structure as
13 Finishing, cladding building component
14 Manufacture
15 Components
16 Transport, assembly
Fig. 5. Conditions and design decisions in the planning

of load-bearing structures
58
a mm v/Him
3 HIM h M m 1 M I I N N
J *
M 4
11
mi i n
15 few* HHIWÎ| | Ulf* M*! | Mriftf IMI I
1 6 trNMMMIMM.
17 NH.n>m.iiAi*Mtt
'Ail i
19 llH'.NtW, t^WW, IIMIII
Sawn timber : 13 Plywood e.g. 122 x 244

Battens (less than 14 Web plates (Kmpf, Wolff,
60 nu wide) Poppensieker systems) 1.20 wide,
Boards from 5 x 88 mm any length (fingerjointed)
Planks from 35 mm thick 15 N.B. Choice of most suitable
Squared timber max 22/26 cm dimensions leads to reduced cost.
up to 8 m long. Sensible, 16 Glued laminated timber :
still economical dimensions 17 Maximum 22 x 220, length
Round timber : theoretically unlimited thanks to
Pole: diameter 1030 cm up fingerjointing, but dependent on
to 25 m long transport and assembly considerations
8 Log 18 Working:
9 Sawn logs 19 Sawing, milling, drilling,
10 Halflogs morticing
11 Glued boards:
12 Chipboard 185 410 cm
205 505 cm
Fig. 6. Diversity of timber construction products
59
3.1.1 Strength of squared timber
The strength of construction timber depends mainly on its density (the

proportion of loadbearing material), the knot area (weakening of cross
section) the angle of the grain (additional stresses resulting from
deflection of forces) . The strength parameters can vary over a wide range
depending on the growth conditions.
A series of tests conducted in Switzerland with ungraded trade timber
(5 m long, various cross sections) has shown that the flexural strength of
the best squared timber was five times higher than that of the worst. On
average, the timber ruptured at 55.0 N/mm2 , which is still twice as high as
the rupture stress of 22.5 N/mm2 required for a design stress of 10.0 N/mm'
with a safety margin of 2.25
3 5X litkiilt Hltlttmtrt
tt.3M/ma' SO */'
0
r
n.o
1 a.o
i w" s no ' ; KMtllt III /.' 6
i ocimorm Ktl/mrn' 7
I* I '"
I* i. w
s s; st s? s 9 s a a a B ' s s g
MHiMt If/cm1) SitetvuclispoHfiiHi IKtirnc ln/mm'l
2 8
1 Modulus of rupture (N/mm ) 5 Mean value 54.5 kN/mmJ

2 D ensity (g/cm3 ) 6 Mean value 11.4 kN/mm2
3 Modulus of elasticity in 7 According to standard
bending (kN/mm2 ) 10 kN/mm2
4 5% Fractile 8 Modulus of rupture
22.3 kN/mmJ 1st climate (N/mm2)
Fig. 7. Bending strength as a function of density (left)

and modulus of elasticity as a function of bending strength
(right) 4). The figures relate to Swiss pine beams
The most common permissible flexural stress in the majority of

European countries is 10.0 N/mm2. This relates to the 5% fractile and
according to the Swiss tests is on the safe side even for ungraded timber.
3.1.2 Current grading regulations for squared timber
The Swiss tests have shown that the visual grading criteria in general
use or at least set out in the standards in central Europe are very
imprecise for most beams and column cross sections. They do not permit the
rupture behaviour to be predicted reliably enough. Consequently, the
admissible stresses for the highest quality (Class 1) are only slightly
(approximately 14%) higher than for the normal category (Class 2), even
though the best timber is 500% better than the worst.
A second series of tests carried out in 1986 and 1987 in the timber
construction department of the ETH Lausanne, using 480 pine beams from
throughout Switzerland, was particularly intended to investigate the
efficiency of grading rules. The 480 beams were graded according to the
60
grading regulations In force In the Federal Republic (DIN 4074), France
(NFB 52001) and Switzerland (SIA 164). They were then loaded until failure
(moisture content 12%). The results show great differences between the
various standards as regards the proportions graded in the various
categories (with SIA 164 only 6% ended up in Class 1 as against 61 with
DIN 4074) while none of the standards provide sufficiently clear divisions.
Values 5 Basic Safety Mean Grading % in

Standards fractile value of factor value coefficient Class
admissible of
bending class
stress
Class I
DIN 4074 32.1 13.0 2.47 52.0 1.10 61

NFB 52001 35.7 14.2 2.51 56.5 1.19 19
SN 553 164 31.8 12.0 2.65 50.2 1.06 6
Class II
DIN 4074 24.1 10.0 2.41 39.6 0.84 25

NFB 52001 29.6 10.9 2.72 49.5 1.05 42
SN 553 164 31.3 10.0 3.13 50.7 1.07 50
Class III
DIN 4074 23.4 7.0 3.34 40.4 0.86 17

NFB 52001 24.9 8.7 2.86 41.6 0.88 39
SN 553 164 25.0 7.0 3.57 44.9 0.95 17
Fig. 8. Comparison of standards as regards bending strength

of 480 pine beams (5)
Visual grading is not suited to reducing the wide range of strengths.

The range within a given strength class is almost as wide as the range found
with ungraded wood. The improvement of the 5\ fractile value from one class
to the next is so slight that it calls the economic sense of such grading
into question.
An answer to this problem has already been found in practice. In all
the countries of Europe, calculations are based on the admissible stresses
for Class II, and Class I is hardly called for. However, the grading rules
are only used in simplified form and with the minimum possible effort, if at
all. According to the results of a study, this is in fact justified in
practical terms, since even the 5% fractile of Class III still gives a
safety margin of 2.3 to 2.5 in terms of the admissible stresses for Class II
(10 N/nrn*).
The designer can assume that the wood actually used in the
construction will on average be appreciably better than the outliers on
which the design was based. This means that safety as regards rupture and
deformation is substantially higher than calculated for individual elements,
particularly in the case of statically indeterminate load-bearing systems
such as grilles; load-bearing structures with differently stressed elements,
such as trusses) and systems with high load distribution capacity, such as
joisting with transversely distributing slabs.
61
3.1.3 Mechanically assisted grading
The imprecision of visual grading methods has led certain countries

with high wood consumption, and consequently an economic interest in
improving the yield, to develop mechanically assisted methods of strength
grading. Most of these processes (such as stress grading) have been
developed for plank cross sections and are not readily applicable to central
European squared timber cross sections.
Europe could possibly adopt methods based on measurements of the
propagation characteristics of sound or ultrasound in the wood. Tests
carried out at IBOIS on 130 beams involving ultrasound waves at 50 kHz
transmitted along the longitudinal axis gave very encouraging results.
Values 5% Basic Potential Mean Grading % in

Classes fractile value of basic value coefficient Class
admissible value of of
bending the class
stress admissible
bending
stress
Class I 38.4 12 17 55.8 1.17 42

Class II 30.3 10 13.4 46.4 0.97 32
Class III 22.7 7 10 36.5 0.76 26
Fig. 9. Results of ultrasound grading of 130 pine beams
The average speed varied between 4 500 m/sec and 6 000 m/sec.
Assigning timber with speeds of over 5 600 m/sec to Class I, between 5 250
and 5 600 m/sec to Class II and less than 5 250 m/sec to Class III, gave
both reasonable yields for each class and much . clearer distinctions than
visual methods.
,,.. . .IUI. Sill TRIAGE us

.04
035
" m
/i*\
v;,'
.03
"vf^K
BZS
.82
^\
15
\ \
.01
\ \
\ \
BBS
\
a 1 tt> \ B iee
SIC. ftt.
Fig. 10. Visual grading according to SIA 164 (left),

possible ultrasound grading right (6)
62
3.2 Selection Criteria for Load-bearing Systems
The choice of load-bearing systems involves deciding on the geometry

and load transmission principles. Obviously, the basic criteria are the
effectiveness of load transmission - basically involving minimum use of
materials - and consideration of the geometrical requirements of the
project. If these basic criteria are ideally fulfilled, a whole range of
individual decisions must be made and coordinated. We will mention only a
few here.
3.2.1 Positioning of supports and load transmission in plan
One of the first decisions must concern what load transmission

directions are basically possible in plan. Essential factors are the
permissible positions for the columns, in the light of the use of the
building, and the types of foundations possible in the light of the type of
terrain.
A basic distinction can be made between branching and non-branching
systems, such as beams on two columns. Timber is excellent for the
construction of branching systems such as grilles or rigid derricks, which
help to solve many architectural problems, such as large hipped roofs or
roofs cantilevered in two directions.
3.2.2 Load transmission in elevation, bearing forces
The design of the load-bearing system in elevation is usually the most

important decision. The main considerations include: vertical clearance
required, possible clearance profile, illuminated areas, fixtures,
installations and, not least, whether or not a suspended ceiling is
required. All these factors affect the geometry and hence limit the places
where the load-bearing elements can be positioned.
The problem is to determine the statical principles and geometries
which will permit the loads to be transmitted within the scope afforded by
the geometry thus imposed.
The range of possible variants is virtually infinite but they are all
largely determined by four basic decisions concerning:
Position and type of bearing.

Number and connection of independent load-bearing units such as panels
or two or three-hinged frames.
Shape of load-bearing units (straight or curved).
Rigidity of the components (cable, rod, beam, panel, board, etc.).
These factors determine what forces, particularly bearing forces, will

act on the individual load-bearing components.
The bearing forces axe important criteria in the selection of a
load-bearing system, since there is no point in choosing a load-bearing
system with good statical properties for the roof, when it transmits very
large horizontal stresses to the substructure, which can only be borne by
using large amounts of materials.
When the building terrain is poor, load-bearing systems without
horizontal shear are an advantage, since otherwise ties are required. The
distance between load-bearing structures should be increased on poor ground
so as to reduce the number of individual foundations. A small number of
large foundations can prove more economical than a large number of small
ones, if they can be built on deeper and firmer strata.
63
, StutztniUMung behindert
durch bestehende Bouta.
TT P nn Etnztln. StOUtfltttllung
im Nutzraum
Einbauten. Nutzung. o 0
Tor* tie.
o o
o
irai 1
Linear* System
2 StDUen-Binder
3 Varzwtlgtt 5ytiw
l .. a.
Positioning of columns hindered 5 Linear additive

by existing buildings, installations 6 Tangential
use, doors, e t c . 7 Radial symmetric
Linear systems column beams 8 Radial asymmetric
Branched systems 9 Crossed
Single column in usable area 10 Diagonally crossed
Fig. 11. Principles of load transmission in plan, on the

basis of the possibilities for position supports (7)
64
o d
t., V-
^ Jr /TK A~A % lekrtVil
n AA/\C /TN
m A J^VPI ffi^/fN j*1*.
n -Ar>r\ r^P*
n A-AR
<^gVJ\
kMM'w(M
^ 4gfc
JwWmN
f HI < ^ < # ^
1 Load-bearing systems in a Beam

elevation, bearing forces b Tied frames
under vertical load c Frames
transmission byi d Arches
2 Mainly compression e Cantilevers (from 1-4)
3 Mainly tension f Suspended systems (from 1-4)
4 Mainly compression and tension g Suspension systems
5 Mainly bending
6 Radially arranged
7 Made up of plane surfaces
Fig. 12. Families of load-bearing systems with bearing forces
65
3.2.3 Connection of primary and secondary load-bearing systems
Another crucial decision is the way in which the primary and secondary
load-bearing systems are to be connected. Structures depend on a skilful
combination of primary and secondary systems and primary and secondary
supports if they are to be statically efficient and at the same time
architecturally attractive. Particularly interesting results can be obtained
by departing from the parallel arrangement of the main load-bearing systems
and devising diagonal or radial arrangements.
i.A-(-"ff<>.* i fjV^lTf>t '

H> < <H i
!*>...<>...<>? : .J. ... ...
bY. o n 1 0 O J ..J3. 0 JQ.
Fig. 13. Principles for connecting primary and

secondary load-bearing systems //
As a general rule, the geometries of primary load-bearing systems are

often determined by the required spans and headroom to a much greater extent
than the secondary systems, which often afford much greater scope for
interesting geometries. However, this does not mean that they should have a
purely ornamental function, although a carefully chosen secondary system
can, for example, serve to prevent a featureless roofscape or can provide
stability while at the same time making for a lively interior structure.
I Houptlrflgtr |
r I f
/l\/\/l\
<kz<l>
1 Secondary beam level 2 Primary beam
Fig. 14. Adapting primary and secondary load-bearing

systems to the roof shape
66
4. QUALITY ASPECTS IN THE DESIGN OF TIMBER STRUCTURES
AB described in section 2.1, architects regard the prospects for

timber construction as very promising for reasons including, in order of
importance, appearance, workability, insulation and price. This means that
architects - who after all ultimately decide whether a building will be made
of timber or another material - are working on the assumption that they can
build batter with wood but not necessarily more cheaply.
At the design and construction stage, the engineer must be aware of
the significance of the criteria affecting the structure as a whole. He need
not look for the cheapest solution but rather for the one which fulfils the
requirements most effectively without being disportionately costly. The
requirements which a building as a whole must fulfil are shown in schematic
form in Figure 15.
ni** tftimt
Jifiottimfmdit 5
9 SlUtrH
KUnUmt
Ooutialilflnli
JbvpmAtfct
rmtll Uoliitl
HymtMmt . 10
tnUrnt
tUkmrnf
*MWf
/ A S flBWpTRftWvw
Afyn&f*t U J 4 '
11 CrlMfvay
(KMMtfKMA
1 Site 9 Safety
2 Use Durability
3 Installations 10 Statical requirements
4 Building physics 11 Design
5 Adaptation to natural environment 12 Fire protection
Adaptation to surrounding buildings Damp-proofing
Microclimate 13 Traffic
Site development Wind
6 Function Snow
Space Span
Lighting Foundations
Ventilation Load transmission
7 Fittings 14 Interior structure
Suspended loads Shape of components
Partitions Facade structure
Suspended ceilings Roofscape
8 Heating
Acoustics
Vapour permeability
Fig. 15. Design requirements for an entire building
Ne will show on the basis of a number of individual aspects, how the

aesthetic, workability and insulation qualities of timber construction can
be exploited to meet the various requirements.
67
4.1 Building Physics
Nowadays, damage to timber structures inside buildings mainly results

from roof and facade structures which have been badly designed or
constructed from the point of view of building physics.
The load-bearing timber components which are often found inside
facades or roof superstructures are completely exposed to the major
temperature differentials between the outside and inside f the building as
a result of the excellent heat insulation materials available today. They
are also exposed to the often extremely high humidity which occurs at the
interface between warm, moist air inside the building and the cold, dry
atmosphere outside.
An unventilated wood construction which is fully exposed to
condensation can rot within a few years since the constant humdiity and
constant high temperature provide ideal living and 'working' conditions for
the fungi responsible. Changes in humidity as a result of factors such as
large amounts of condensation in winter and drying out in summer can result
in the wood working substantially, which can lead to problems with the
fixing of the boarding and facing and the tightness of the vapour seal.
In most cases, the whole interior of a modern timber frame
construction is heated which means that both the roof and facade structures
must provide the same heat insulation. They should therefore form a
continuous unit. Highly insulated wall and roof components are also
particularly susceptible to condensation, the main problem being not so much
vapour diffusion through the materials as defects in the interior sealing
which permit the warm, moist air inside the building to penetrate into the
insulation materials and condense, producing large quantities of water.
Fig. 16. Multi-layer roof and facade construction

with continuous sealing layer
68
The facades and roofs of a well designed timber frame building must
therefore be properly sealed off fron the interior, particularly vulnerable
points being the point where the ceiling meets the exterior facade, where
the facade meets the roof (eaves) and the piercing points for chimneys,
windows and balconies. This is only possible with timber constructions if
the airtight vapour seal can be m a d e with a minimum of joints.
The heat insulation of a modern timber construction must be designed
in such a way as to guarantee a comfortable climate inside the building both
in winter (with a constant flow of heat from inside to outside) and in
summer (with short term but intense flow of heat from outside to inside as a
result of the absorption of solar energy by the s h e l l ) . This means that:
the heat absorbed must be dispersed via ventilation layers, and

the material used for the outer shell must be highly reflective (light
colours) or poor heat conductors.
<
Fit) T[C]
Fig. 17. Temperature gradient for facades with and without air space
4.2 Use, Lighting and Ventilation Criteria
The use for which a building is intended determines minimum clear

heights required, the possible positions for columns (spans) and the number
of storeys and openings (doors, staircases, e t c . ) . Generally, the designer
will try, if possible, to arrange the load-bearing and cladding structures
in such a way as to provide the necessary interior volume with a minimum of
exterior surface area. In this way substantial savings can be made on
heating costs and facade a r e a s . Conflicts arise when a single building is
required to perform several different functions (e.g. a hall with changing
rooms and catering f a c i l i t i e s ) . Different spans call for load-bearing
components of different heights, leading to great lack of uniformity in the
building, which is often undesirable from the aesthetic and structural
viewpoints.
In such cases, timber structures have the great advantage that they
can be left visible, with the result that the requisite construction space
can partly overlap with the usable space. For example, it is well worth
considering whether or not the bottom chord of a girder can be allowed to
protrude as much as 4-5 m into the usable area if this has major advantages
for the building as a w h o l e , the roofspace or the volume of the building.
With timber, complicated designs and load-bearing geometries can be
constructed without much additional cost, so it is worthwhile devising the
optimum shapes for buildings in the light of their intended u s e .
69
The use for which a building is intended gives rise not only to
geometric requirements as regards plan, clearance and spatial arrangements,
but also as regards lighting and ventilation, which can often only be met
with artificial lighting and ventilation systems where large buildings are
concerned. This, however, leads to high maintenance costs.
In many cases it is economical to design buildings in such a way as to
permit a maximum of natural lighting (by means of sawtooth roofs and
fanlights, for example) and natural ventilation (by the thermosyphon
principle, for example). The extra expense for a more complicated
load-bearing geometry can often be offset in a short time by savings on
maintenance costs.
1 Hiililn>imninMH.|||| li iiAMh
1 Timber structures meeting special

requirements 4 Lighting
2 Grandstand for stadia 5 Clearance
3 Stadium installations
Fig. 18. Examples of designs adapted to meet

special use-determined requirements
70
REFERENCES
(1) SELL, KROPF, WIEGAND, ZIMMER et al. Study 'Bolz im Bauwesen'. EMPA
Report No. 210, Dubendorf, 1982.
(2) Schweizerische Arbeitsgemeinschaft fr Holzforschung (Ed.).
'Energiesparendes Bauen mit Holz'. Proceedings of the conference,
1982.
(3) BAIER, B. Energetische Bewertung Luftgetragener Membranhallen im
Vergleich mit Holz-, Stahl- und Stahlbetonhallen. Verlagsgesellschaft
Rudolf Mller, 1982.
(4) NATTERER, MARCHANT, FUX. Statisch gesicherte Untersuchungen von
Verformungskenngrssen biegebeanspruchter Bauteiler aus Schweizer
Holz. Forschungsbericht IBOIS, Eidg. Technische Hochschule, Lausanne,
1983.
(5) NATTERER, KESSEL, SANDOZ. Caractristiques mcaniques du bois suisse -
Triage. Report NFP 12 No. 4.756.0-84.12, EPFL/IBOIS, 1987.
(6) NATTERER, SANDOZ. Evaluation des caractristiques physiques et
mcaniques des bois scis, avec des mthodes non destructives. Report
NFP 12 No. 4.456.1-84.12, EPFL/IBOIS, 1987.
(7) Holzbautaschenbuch: Natterer, Hinter. Entwurf von Holzkonstruktionen,
8th Edition, 1987, pp.205-273.
71
DISCUSSION
Question by Colclough, P. (IRL)
In certain parts of Europe, fire and wood are synonymous. Has this
been an inhibiting factor in any of the structures you have built?
Answer by Winter, W. (CH)
Normally for these big halls fire rating is required. With the
structural dimensions we need this is not a problem. We can prove that we
can make a timber structure with a 90 min. fire resistance.
Question by Ehlbeck, J. (FRG)
You compared the strength of solid wood and glulam, and the glulam,
according to you, did not come out better. How did you determine the
strength of the glulam and what were the failure modes?
Answer by Winter, W. (CH)
We tested glulam beams and solid wood beams in two-point bending

tests. The cause of failure was a knot in the outer lamella. The conclusion
was that glulam cannot match the best solid wood.
Reply by Ehlbeck, J. (FRG)
I cannot agree that the results for glulam are worse than those for
solid wood. Glulam beams have smaller original imperfections than solid
wood. If the woods are classified appropriately and the material selected
carefully, then you get much better results. Other experiments show that
glulam has greater strength.
72
SESSION
Chairman: G.BREITSCHAFT, Director, Institut fr

Bautechnik Berlin, Federal Republic
of Germany
EUROCODE 5 - CALCULATION AND DESIGN RULES

FOR STRUCTURAL MEMBERS
EUROCODE 5: THE OVERSEAS VIEW
EUROCODE 5 - WILL I USE IT?
73
EUROCODE 5 - CALCULATION AND DESIGN RULES FOR STRUCTURAL MEMBERS
H. BRUNINGHOFF
University of Wuppertal, Federal Republic of Germany
1. INTRODUCTION
Eurocode S, Common Unified Rules for Timber Structures, October 1987

Edition, has basically adopted the proposals contained in the CIB Structural
Timber Design Code (1) for calculating and designing structural members. The
Eurocode 5 draft also takes into account technical and theoretical
developments since the CIB Code appeared in 1983.
This paper explains the procedures set out in Eurocode 5 for
calculating the common types of structural members in the light of various
stresses.
The terms and symbols conform to Section 1.4 of Eurocode 5.
2. TENSION PARAL L EL TO THE GRAIN AND BENDING WITHOUT COLUMN EFFECT
The verification formulae are
f
Ot . 0 . d t , 0 , d (1)
and
a f
m . d - m . d (2)
The bending strength refers to beams 200 mm depth, the tensile

strength refers to cross sections whose longest side is 200 mm. The
characteristic strength depends on the size of the stressed volume.
For calculating tensile and bending stresses and for comparisons with
design strength in accordance with Eurocode 5, the influence of the cross
section dimensions can be ignored. This results in increased safety for
dimensions under 200 mm. Individual members of larger dimensions usually
consist of glulam. The characteristic strengths of glulam beams are mainly
determined by features not connected with cross section size, e.g. by the
strengths of the finger joints.
In addition, the size of width factors are influenced by the grading
method. Thus, the effect in question can be countered via suitably adapted
grading regulations (which do not form part of Eurocode 5 ) .
If studies are carried out on test pieces with dimensions other than
200 mm, then a check has to be made to see whether the results require
adjustment. Thus, the characteristic bending strengths of visually
strength-graded softwood - set out in Figure 1 - can be adapted (2) for
cross sectional depth h using the depth factor
kh - (200/h) 0 - 4 (3)
The wide scatter in the test results is due, inter alia, to the fact
that strength depends not just on depth but also on the width of the cross
sections.
Because of this it was decided to play safe and use the formula
kh (200 h ) 0 - 2 (4)
in the Eurocode annex (A 2.3).
75
1.8 - "
1.7 -
~~
1.6 _
1.5 _
\
1.4 _ \ i
1.3_ *
1.2- v H-.WA
H
O
P
u 1.1 _ * ^ ;
m h
1.0-

0.9-
1 I I I I I I 1 I I I I I I I H- I " |
50 100 150 200 250 300
D e p t h (h) mm
Fig. 1. Characteristic bending strength for

visually strengthgraded softwood
3. TENSION PERPENDICULAR TO THE GRAIN
Eurocode 5 uses the following formula:
a k k
t , 90 , d = vol disf t , 90 , d (5)
k vo i takes account of the effect of the stressed volume V, and k<jis the
effect of stress distribution on strength. The strength itself is determined
using test pieces with a volume of 0.02 m3 .
Tensile strength perpendicular to the grain depends upon the stressed
volume. Weibull's failure theory for brittle materials (3) is used to
calculate strength. Under Eurocode 5 the twoparameter Weibull distribution
FCX) - 1-Bxp c - c ^ k w e l : (6)
can be assumed for distribution of characteristic strength. O" and k we are

the distribution parameters and a = (J (x,y,z) is the distribution of the
stresses over the stressed volume.
If the maximum value of a stress distribution, given by G(x,y,z), is
O-^, then
a(x , y , z) a! G(x , y . z] m
76
The collapse probability (P) for a volume is then
a.G kwel
1 Bxp( '.(J) dV) (B)
v, l T
Assuming that a volume Vj has the same stress distribution as a volume V^,
but with a maximum value 0., then it follows from (8) that
^wei, ^wei. (9)
V1 1/kwei
(10)
V
The characteristic strength is thus inversely proportional to the stressed
volume with the exponent lA we ^ Thus, the strength of a volume V can be
determined from the known strength of the test piece with V Q 0.02 m'
through multiplying by the factor
v0 1'W
tu)
k we ^ S can be assumed on the basis of tests. \,ei depends only on the
variation coefficient v of the strength distribution, since
kwei 1.15/v (12)
applies.
Thus a kwej 5 value is based on a variation coefficient of about v " 0.23.

If the volume studied is uniformly stressed, the distribution factor
is kdi 8 " 1 ' If the tensile stress perpendicular to the grain is not
uniformly distributed over the volume,
t . 90 " 0(x . y . z) (13)
with a maximum value of OQOX , and the distribution factor according to

Weibull's theory is
\jis (14)
1/k
1 ' v 0 ( x . y . z)**! dV) wei
Application of the method is illustrated by the beam depicted in Figure 2,

where
pan L 20 m
roof slope a 10
load q. 8 kN/m
a
radius r 20 m
bending moment M. 400 kN
a, max
77
bending moment
H = 352 kN m
at point of tangency T
h = 1.0 m
cross section depth
b = 0.2 m
cross section width
Design load q. 8 kN/m
IJIIJIIJIJUIIUIUUIIIUUI
Cross section and

n distribution of o.
Fig. 2. Curved beam under tensile stresses

perpendicular to the grain
The volume stressed by tension perpendicular to the gram is V 40 m 5 ;

it follows from this that
k = (0.02/1.40) 0 2 = 0.43.
The transverse tensile stress is distributed parabolically over the cross

section depth. For constant cross sections 1/k^g can be calculated from
Figure 3 derived from (4). In case 6, k = k = 5 gives
1/k.. t = 0.82.
dis*
This value can also be obtained from Figure 4 (likewise from (4)).
78
itr.js-dlitrlbution [ / l k ( e ) d e ] , / k
c0
U 1 lm 1.0
k-1
1<W
*< C ^ . 1 L W 1 " 1 .1/k

6 k-1 Wbil
^vj -"
NS^ [-fct'^^f
i'1!'*'11
I -0,027- k20,OOQ-k3}l
Fig. 3. Solidity parameter \ as a function

of exponent k k .
79
0.95
0.80
0.75
-l.O -0.8 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2
CT,
l,r
/CTmax
Fig. 4. Solidity parameter X" of a parabolic stress

distribution (maximum stress in span)
In the case of a parabolic bending moment in the curved area, the

axial stress is almost the same. Therefore, 1/^dis** = ^ c a n ê a s s u m e ( .
With the reduction in the moment from M<jm a x = 400 kNm to M T = 352 kNm,
then, with OjL/aaBLX = Or/amax = 0.88, Figure 4 yields
1A.. ** = 0.97,
dis**
Thus, for the whole stressed body
k
dis = (1/0.82) . (1/0.97) = 1.26.
The maximum tensile stress perpendicular to the grain in the concentrically

curved area is
1, Sn^.max
= 0.15 MPa
't . 90 , max rbh
60
Therefore,
0.15 - 0.43 1.26 f t , g 0 > d<
with
f f
t , 90 , d - t . 90 , k'Snod/fM
For the example used the minimum must be

f
t.90.d * - 2 8 nPa
If the geometry remains the same but the apex is pointed (Figure 5) ,
then on the basis of Eurocode Fig. 5.1.13c the maximum stress increases by
the factor k " 1.6, so that
a. n n O. o n . - 1.6 0.15 - 0.24 MPa

t,90,max t,90,Apex
However, the distribution factor k d i g will also increase, since the

transverse tensile stress is at its greatest only in the central part of the
apex and decreases towards both sides.
Apsx
Cross section
Fig. 5. Cambered beam. The shaded area is

used for the calculation of k ,
vol
4. SHEAR
Eurocode S proposes the traditional method for solid timber beams and
glulam beams where V < 0.1 m' .
As is already the practice in several countries, loads near supports
do not have to be taken fully into account (Figure 6 ) .
81
Influence line for V
Reduced influence line
Fig. 6. Reduced influence line
A method put forward by Foschi and Barrett (5,6) is used for glulam
beams. This is based on the same assumptions as for tensile strength
perpendicular to the grain (Section 3). Brittle failure behaviour is
assumed, which can be described using a two-parameter Weibull distribution
with the exponent kWei = 5.
Here the characteristic strength relates to a volume of 0.08 m3 with
constant stress distribution. If the shear strength is determined for beams
on two supports with a concentrated load in the centre, the volume should be
0.1 m3 . This derives from the shear stress which is spread parabolically
over the cross section depth, and for which
'Mis 1.22
applies, as set out in the example in Section 3. Therefore, for a stressed

volume V-^ with parabolic shear stress, the same characteristic shear
strength is assumed as for the constantly stressed volume V 0.08 m3 ,
V1 = 1.22 0.0 = 0.1 m 3
In accordance with Eurocode 5, the following must hold true for the total
load (not for the shear force) of a beam:
0d< "S/ol.v kdis,vkl (

-3- b h f v,d' C15)
kyQ^ v takes account of the size of the stressed volume while kdis,v takes
account of the effect of the shear stress distribution.
The length factor
kx = 1/(1 -2h) C1B]
takes account of the effect of the stress distribution at the supports.
82
The volume factor
Vn 1/k wei
t17)
S/ol.v " V
and the distribution factor
0.5 0efid
(181
Mia.v
{1 ^ChVjj/hCx)]^ 1 [htx)/h] dx} 1/k
wel
correspond to equations (11) and (14).
For beams on two supports one can assume for the sake of approximation
that kdig v " l0f which is on the safe side. Compared with the traditional
method, this approach produces more economic solutions. For example, if one
takes a beam on two supports bearing an evenly distributed load, then the
calculation from Figure 3, Case 4 (Page 9) is kdis.v " 1.43. Since the shear
stress distribution along the beam length is not constant, the design load
can be increased by the factor of 1.43.
5. BENDING WITH COLUMN EFFECT
Equation (2) is extended for bending with column effect to

(19)
m, d inst* m, d
k
inst t a * e s account of the reduction in strength due to the additional
stress resulting from lateral deflection.
A beam of rectangular cross section, simply supported on both sides
but with restrained notation with respect to the Xaxis, and subjected to a
constant moment, is used to illustrate this (Figure 7).
/
H /* a
CroM action
Top via
Fig. 7. Beam with imperfection
83
In the stress-free state the beam has a sinusoidal lateral deflection
with the maximum value e. If
e = n r X (20)
X = 1/i, member slenderness,
r = W/A, core radius of cross section,
n = eccentricity factor,
then for n = 0.006 (21)
e a 1/300 (22)
The moment My gives rise to the edge stress 0"m 3. The imperfection
with the maximum value e produces a moment M z and thus the edge stress Oz,
which, by applying the equilibrium conditions to the deformed system, gives
the following for rectangular cross sections :
. m,d
CT
eu.z-e- )2
0"
m . c r.,4.
it
a = (23)
z 2
1 J
m,crit
with
TT 2 -E-I z
a =
eu, z (24)
12A
e = r*
(25)
n
/EI (26)
m.crit 1 Wy z-G-Itor
The design values should be applied for the material constants E and G, for
example,
E =
E n . = k . E n . / YM (27)
0 , d mod O.k. '
The following expressions have been formulated in such a way as to
give only the ratios of constructional material properties. These are
equally large for the characteristic values and the design values. It is
therefore proposed that the characteristic values be used in practice.
The bending slenderness X m is defined as
(28)
*m ^ m ,k/%,crit
For rectangular cross sections the following applies:
A - h fm k . / En m e a n
1 - Y ** ' J ' (29)
^n .2 ,- G
TT b E. . mean
The stress calculation i s
a . a
J O i l + L- < i (30)
f "F
m,d m,d
84
Using equations (23) to (29) in (30) gives the ratio (shown in
Figure 8) of the bending coefficient kinst ta t h e bending slenderness Xm.
The ratio between the cross section sides h/b is included as a parameter.
The diagram is based on h/b 4 and h/b 10. Also included are the
approximation solutions proposed by Eurocode 5.
With the aid of the k values, verification is possible using
ln8t
equation (19).
Burocoda 5 approximation
. h/b4
Fig. 8. Bending coefficient k i n s t

a function of slenderness X m
6. COLUMNS
6.1 Columns Intended for Central Loading
It is assumed that when stressfree, the axis of the columns has an

initial sinusoidal curvature of
e nr X (20)
(see Section S and (7)).
An eccentricity factor of X) 0.006 for solid timber corresponds to a

maximum imperfection cf about 1/300, an eccentricity factor of T) 0.004 for
glulam corresponds to a maximum imperfection of about 1/450.
Loadcarrying behaviour is assumed to be linearly elastic up to the
point of failure. Collapse can occur when
c.O.d m,d m . (31)

fO f
c.0,d m,d
with f c , 0 being the compression s t r e n g t h for s l e n d e r n e s s X 0.
B5
K A
,, Eurocode 5
I I 1 1 I 1 I I 1 1 I I I I I 1 1 I I 1 >;
lO 2a 30 U SO 70 BO 90 100 UO 120130 140 ISO 160170 1G0190 200
Fig. 9. k values according to Eurocode and DIN 1052
66
According to Eurocode 5 the compression strength is to be determined
in conjunction with ISO 8375 using test pieces with a slenderness of about
X 20. In accordance with (7) it can be assumed that
f
r n * f, n (1 * n X) (32)
C, U C,U
The calculation for compression members with a tendency to buckle is then
0, _ . k .f _ . (33]
c.o.d c c.o.d
with k c being c a l c u l a t e d by using equations ( 2 0 ) , (31) and (32) a s
{1 f k
K mln
c " { 0 . 5 ( 1 20n) : i (1 nXd 2o n ) f c , ' k ) TT^;- (34)
/ m, K
T
m, K 1+ZOTl
kc is shown in Figura 9 for
n - O.0O6
- 19 MPa
c,o,k
m,k 2 1 . 5 MPa
0,k' c,rO, ,k - 370
By way of comparison the corresponding value is given for DIN 1052,

Edition 1988 (for the approximately comparable strength class II according
to DIN 4074).
6.2 Columns Intended for Eccentric Loading

The required verification is
' l_d . -Tr ^-.

* T
r
K

<T n _i
< 1 (35)
c c.O.d m,d . c c.O.d
eu c.O.d
The enlargement ratio of the bending moment O^ d/fm,d takes account of

the increased eccentricity of the compressive force brought about by the
lateral loads. Figure 10, taken from (7), gives the possible utilisation
factor combinations for members under compressive and bending stress. The
dotdash line for X 40 represents the simplified calculation
c c.O.d m.d
found in most countries ' standards.
87
CT
m.d/fm.d
1
f& (Equation 34)
1\\ \ ^V
_ (Equation 35)
IV
l\\
^ w X-O
\
\
X-40 \\
\ \
a+Aa \\\ 1
a :
\ *
t
ffi
\N
* S
\ y
\ y\ \
\ 120
\ \\
0
*-2op
\
10
\
\
\ \
c,Dfa c,o
Fig. 10. Possible combinations of 'compression'

and 'bending' load factors
Members stressed by bending and axial force (Figure 11) may reach the
limit of load-carrying capacity - given corresponding load and geometry -
through vertical deformation, lateral deflection or a combination of both!
(8) is recommended as a good approximation in determining the values k c and
k e u for the greater slenderness X of the two main directions, and thus for
carrying out the necessary verification.
rnTTTTTTTTTrriTTTTnT^
;5T Z
Fig. 11. Member, stressed by bending and axial force
88
7. PLANE FRAMES
The methods, set out in Sections 5 and 6, of calculating beams

susceptible to lateral instability are put forward in Eurocode as
Application Rules which follow the statements and satisfy the requirements
given in the Principles. In line with the Principles it is also possible -
assuming initial curvature in the stress-free state - to take into account
stresses other than the intended lateral loads by using Second Order Theory.
Recommendations are given for the imperfections to be applied.
For calculating the stresses in plane frames, inclination of the
system must be assumed in addition to the initial curvature of individual
members. Figure 12 gives examples of the kinds of initial deformation to be
assumed. For initial curvature e of the individual members the value
a 0.003 1 [37)
and for system i n c l i n a t i o n t h e angle

for h < 5m (38)
*P 0.005
and
P 0.005 i/5/h for h >.5 m (39)
are recommended.
b)
Fig. 12. An example of assumed initial deformations of a frame
By assuming these imperfections it is possible to calculate the stress

resultants for the deformed system. The design values of the material
constants (not the mean values) have to be used to calculate the
'89
deformations, since it is the limit states of load-carrying capacity (not of
serviceability) which count here. The design value of the modulus of
elasticity can be assumed to be
E E /f [40)
" 0,kVd m .k
Depending upon the geometry and type of loading on the frame, the
initial deflection given in Figure 12b or Figure 12c can be used to
calculate the determining stresses. If there is any doubt about which
initial deflection will produce the maximum stress, various imperfections
should be applied to the system and the corresponding calculations carried
out.
8. BRACING
In many cases members subjected to compression, e.g. compression

flanges of trusses, need to be stiffened against lateral deflection to
provide sufficient stability. Such support can be given by bracing capable
of taking up external loads, such as wind, in addition to the loads
supported (Figure 1 3 ) .
N IN >N
N ., /
n Members
Fig. 13. Bracing system
A deflection from straightness u Q in the stress-free state is to be

assumed for the compression members. The lateral load q occurring under
loading and the external loads cause the bracing structure to deflect by the
value u. A large deflection causes large lateral loads. On the basis of (9)
Eurocode 5 proposes the following formula:
nN
1 k. k.
C41)
b,r, c br, m
90"
For supporting compression members the following are given:
(42)
br,c 12 [K .k-.u *u)
n 1 o
and
br,m
The following can be used for k^ and kn:
1
k, - min \ (43)
1
/Ts7T (1 is span in m)
k - 0.5(1+i) (44)
n n
Beams with lateral support at the compression flange can also be

calculated using equations (41) and (42), with N representing the flange
compressive force.
For beams of rectangular cross section, N - 1.5 M/h can be assumed.
The favourable torsional stiffness can be taken into account by means of
2
K.br.m . (1*1.5(1-0.B3]
32 h
()
h
^Ji JÎL_
f . E_
(45)
m, k O.mean
Example
Calculating the lateral load for glulam beams.

The following are assumed:
Span 1 - 20 m
Number of members n "6
Maximum moment M - 400 kNm
Cross section h/b - 1.0/0.16 m
External load (wind) w - 4 kN/m
Imperfection u - 1/450 - 44 m
Thus
k - 0.58
n
kl - 0.87
N - 600 kN
For calculation (42) u has to be estimated initially. It is assumed here
that the bracing deflection does not exceed the value
u 30 m
91
Thus
31.9
*br.
2.86
"br.
with
E /G = 1 fi
0,mean 0,mean '
E 33
o W k -
The lateral load amounts to
6. BOO 2.0 kN/m
20.31,9.2,66
The deflection of the bracing is then checked. Given a stiffness (assumed)

for the bracing structure of
EI. = 500 MNm 2 ,

br, d
it is
5 C4.0+2.0).2Q 4
384 500 = 25 ran < 3D mm
as assumed.
REFERENCES
(1) CIB, 1983. Conseil International du Btiment. CIB Structural Timber

Design Code. CIB Report Publication 66.
(2) FEWELL, A.R. and CURRY, W.T. D epth factor adjustments in the
determination of characteristic bending stresses for visually
stressgraded timber. PRL 1982.
(3) WEIBULL, W. A statistical theory of the strength of materials. Swedish
Royal Institute, Eng. Proc. Stockholm, 1939.
(4) COLLING, F. Influence of volume and Stress distribution on the shear
strength and tensile strength perpendicular to grain. CIBW18/19123.
Florence, Italy, 1986.
(5) FOSCHI, R.O. and BARRETT, D. Longitudinal shear in wood beams : a
design method. Canadian Journal of Civil Engineering, Vol.4, No.3,
1977.
(6) FOSCHI, R.O. Longitudinal shear design of glued laminated beams.
CIBW18/18102. Beit Oren. Israel, 1985.
(7) LARSEN, H.J., Eurocode 5 and CIB Structural timber design code.
CIBW18/191022. Florence, Italy, 1986.
(8) LARSEN, H.J. and THEILGAARD , E. Laterally loaded timber columns. ASCE.
Journal of the structural division, Vol.105, No'.ET 7, 1979.
(9) BRUNINGHOFF, H. Bemessung von Aussteifungsverbnden fr D ruckstbe und
fr Blegetrger. Ingenieurholzbau fr Forschung und Praxis.
Bruderverlag Karlsruhe, 1982.
92
DISCUSSION
Question by Hartl, H. (Austria)
The assumed imperfection of 1/300 according to EC5 - the limit volume

for glulam beams on page 57, ECS - is taken as 0.1 m1 but BrUninghoff
mentioned 1.5 m1 . Which is the correct value?
Answer by BrUninghoff, H. (FRG)
Whether you take 1/300 or 1/400 does not make a great difference. The
imperfections given are provisional and are open to discussion.
On page 57 the lower limit for shear verification is 0.1 m1 . The
volume of the part considered in the example was 1.5 m', perhaps that is the
reason for the confusion.
93
EUROOODE 5: IKE OVERSEAS VIEW
G. A. DRING, P. ENG.
Chairman Canadian Standards Association
Technical Committee 086 Engineering Design in Wood
Summary
A description of Canada's climatic zones and resulting design para-

meters are compared to those of Europe. The methods used by Canada to
provide a unifying codification process are described and compared to
the developing Eurocodes. Eurocode 5 and its Canadian equivalent are
discussed with particular emphasis on those sections where Eurocode 5
is seen as more advantageous to the designer. Areas where viewpoints
differ are pointed out and encouragement is offered in the difficult
process of unifying design rules across political barriers.
Canada's Codes
To put some of ray later comments in context I would like to give a general
description of Canada and it's code system.
Canada stretches some 5800 km in an East West direction and slightly

less from North to South. The climate varies from that of a semi desert in
parts of the prairies to that of a temperate rain forest on our Pacific
coast; from the Continental climate of Southern Ontario to the dry cold of
the high Arctic. Maximum design parameters would be in the range of;
3300 mm/year for rainfall; +35 to -50 degrees Celsius for temperatures;
6 kPa for snowloads; 1.2 kPa for windloads and seismic accelerations to
A g. Therefore our design problems are very similar to your own.
Canada has two parallel national codes. The National Fire Code of
Canada and the National Building Code of Canada. The National Fire Code of
Canada deals with fire prevention and suppression. The National Building
Code of Canada deals with building design for both health and safety and
for design and construction.
The Limit States Design concept was introduced into the NBCC in 1975
and the last of the allowable stress provisions should be gone by 1990.
Both codes are model codes written as legal documents that can be adopted
. in whole or part by the various levels of government to cover their
jurisdictions. They are very widely adopted in whole.
Although much of the NBC is specially written, very wide use is made
of referenced Standards produced by both national and international
Standards Writing Organizations.
The Associate Committee on the NBC operates through seven sub-
committees. One of these is the Standing Committee on Structural Design.
This committee sets all the factors on the load or action side of the LSD
equation. This committee also oversees the various Canadian Standards
Association material design technical committees. These Technical
Committees eg. Wood, Steel, Concrete then deal with the resistance or
strength side of the LSD equation. CSA 086 Technical Committee on
Engineering Design in Wood therefore writes our equivalent of Eurocode 5.
94
It is from this level then that I speak.
The NBC is revised every five years and the Wood Technical Committee,
which produced a calibrated LSD code in 1984 is attempting to make our
Code a reliability based LSD code by 1989.
Eurocode
With the Eurocode process you are writing a model code similar in nature to
our NBC. I may be telling you what you already know but you must be very
diligent in monitoring the development of the blaster" codes like Eurocode
1.
These codes that regulate the load side or fire requirements can be
written in such a way as to discriminate unfairly against wood. As we all
know taking back lost ground is very difficult.
Strive for consensus in setting your safety coefficients. Without a
consistent set of safety coefficients you will be unable to meet the
objectives of your code.
Canadian codes depend heavily on product standardization. We use the
rule that only products that are manufactured to a CSA or equivalent
standard will be referenced in the Material codes. This in effect forces
the manufacturers to talk to each other. If a product is not mentioned in
the code then the manufacturers must convince specifiers and building
officials individually of the merits of their product.
The Canadian wood industry has just gone through a very large test
program. For this reason the marketing people would be happy to see our
grades and data accepted but they have told me that they will be satisfied
with any reasonable standard. Any standard to them is better than
confusion in the marketplace.
The recognition of lower importance and safety levels for specific
structures is important to the spread of control into areas such as farm
buildingswhere the owners have a little less tolerance for regulation.
The recognition of Quality Control effort in the setting of partial
safety factors is an idea that we haven't really explored yet.
A suggestion that, as a chairman, I heartily applaud, is that anyone
with the temerity to disagree with what is written in a code should supply
suggestions in code text. This serves two purposes. It weeds out poorly
thought out comments and also effectively increases the code work force
very economically.
Seismic design in wood, which has not been specifically addressed
in the past, has just been put on the CSA 086 agenda by a proposed
amendment bo the NBCC which would restrict wood use in high seismic zones.
Our code has a section similar to '1.2 Assumptions' that we use to
obviate the necessity for specific sections on construction practices. Our
intention is to write a design code only. We do not fully succeed but we
feel that design is a large enough matter for one document.
The inclusion of a requirement for a maintenance plan is a concept
that we haven't addressed yet. It is a logical extension of the codifica-
tion process but under our system should be placed in the NBCC itself.
The inclusion of accidental conditions was considered for the NBCC
during attempts to quantify 'Structural Integrity'. It essentially
foundered on the feeling that if you could Quantify it it was not an accid-
dent by a design condition. The result was a cautionary clause.
The Eurocode's move to reduce the number of modification factors is
certainly to be applauded but the stacking of multi character subscripts
is cunfusing.
95
Theintroduction in CSA 086 of more than one partial coefficient for
actions would create an uproar in the Canadian design community. This is
particularly true if only wood design attempted it. Wood design is
already seen by many as too complex to be bothered with and any additional
complication would not be received well.
the knowledge of the variability of the load is necessary in
reliability assessment. Our method has been to account for it in the
partial safety factor. Anyone who seriously neede to know would then go
to our commentary to find it.
One of our concerns is to simplify CSA 086 as much as possible and a
two level code is planned for 1989. Eurocode 5 has taken notable steps in
this direction by the introduction of uniform volume effect formulae and
simplified compression at an angle to grain method.
Two items covered in your code that we have neglected are deflection
under compression perpendicular to grain and torsional stress. For the
design of columns we have decided to incorporate a version if the Buchanan
Johns Madsen method.
Reliability based design of bending and tension members will be based
on a unit of length and account for both length and load pattern.
I noted that Eurocode 5, as does our code, devotes a disproportionate
amount of space to little used flag bearers of wood design. My comments
refer to the plywood and pitched glulam beam sections. At least in Canada
the design effort and the volume effedt have relegated these menbers to
occasional use.
I must applaud your effort in the bracing system section. This
section has been neglected in Canada because it was considered to be
beyond our resources.
The plane frame section would be regarded in Canada as textbook
material unsuitable for codification. .
When I showed your joints section to the chairman of my Fastenings
subcommittee he described himself as excited by all the new methods and
possibilities they created in his mind.
Joints are probably the most difficult and time consuming part of
wood design and any simplification is a great boon. In our 1984 LSD code
we introduced the 'Larson Method1 for bolt design. This caused some
considerable excitement when one eminent member discovered in comparing
two designs that if he removed the shear plates he would get a stronger
joint. In spite of several second looks at the data the subcommittee
reconfirms the basic validity of the results for single bolts.
The most noticeable thing sbout the joint section is something that
is not there, glulam rivetsj These specialized nails have been in use
successfully in Canada for Twenty Years and are one of the most thoroughly
researched connection methods in Canada. Our 1989 code will expand their
use to Spruce - Pine glulam.
The Eurocode 5 materials properties section will I hope spur our
materials groups into an attempt to simplify our equivalent section.
Those annexes that deal with product specification and structural
testing would in our system be done as separate standards and then
referenced.
96
DISCUSSION
Cornent by Breitschaft, G. (FRG)
The procedure for drafting codes and standards in Canada is very

similar to the European procedure. He both refer to a standard basic
document. Canada has the National Building Code, where we have ECl. In
Canada building materials must be used in compliance with CSA standards. We
will introduce CEN standards with a view to having a harmonised market.
In some areas we have different approaches - for example, the way of
combining loads is very different in Canada.
97
Eurocode 5 - Will I Use It?
R F Harsh. B.Sc (Eng), NICE; CEng. AKC

Ove Arup Partnership. Consulting Engineers, London UK.
Summary
The introduction of Eurocodes is bound to be viewed with caution by

many engineers, particuarly those who are general practitoners and
not specialists. For Eurocode 5 to be successful it must first be
understood and then accepted for adoption by each of the member
states. It is the question of understanding that is critical, for
it is essential that an engineer can recognise his learnt experience
within the text of the code. This experience will require that the
code will produce designs which do not differ significantly from
those among his current national code and at competitive costs.
This paper also reflects a British attitude on the development of

codes of practice and how engineers from what ever country, may view
the introduction of Eurocode 5. In addition, it will consider
whether Eurocode 5 will become an aid to trade. It is not the
intention of this paper to comment on the details of the code or its
application as these points will be covered in detail by the authors
of Eurocode 5.
Introduction
Whenever new concepts are introduced, engineers as a body, tend

toward conservatism or even become backwoods men. "Why change what I
know works". This phenomena is currently evident in the United Kingdom
where a number of very respected engineers are advocating a return
to codes of practice based on allowable stresses in preferance to
those based on limit state. It is significant that this is at a time
when the writers of BS 5268 are considering the introduction of a limit
state code to bring it into line with those for structural steel and
concrete. It is perhaps pertinent at this point to be clear what we
mean by limit state. In reality we, should use the term 'Partial
'Factor Design' for all previous design methods are in practice 'limit
state'. They required confirmation that certain criteria, such as
allowable design stresses; deflection; durability etc, are not exceeded.
However, common parlance has accepted the term limit state to imply
partial factor design so we must live with it. It is against this
background that this paper makes some personal observations which do
not necessarily concur with the opinions of the various Timber
committees on which I sit.
98
First, as an Engineer why should I need a code of practice and if
I accept that need, is it necessary that the code be acceptable across
national boundaries.
Development of Codes
It is perfectly reasonable for an engineer to design a structure

by using proven methods of analysis, using material data obtained by
testing and with the application of loads which he has obtained by
record and observation. He can then, with his own personal assurance,
satisfy his client as to the safety and fitness for purpose of the
structure. Indeed,that was the method by which structures
historically were designed and today many of these great structures
still stand as a testimony to that method. However, many collapsed
either during or just after construction. It was, I believe, as a
consequence of those collapses in terms of loss of life and property,
and the lessons learnt from studying the causes of collapse, which
brought about the introduction of codes of practice.
It is interesting that one of the earliest codes of practice of
which we have record, the Code of Hammurabi (Babylonian 1792-1750 BC)
were not national but were intended to cover both the Semitic and
Sumerian traditions and peoples. It is worth reflecting on the
wording and wonder how they would be altered and harmonised in modern
Europe.
"If a builder builds a house for a man and does not make its
construction firm and the house collapses and causes the death of the
owner of the house - that builder shall be put to death. If it causes
the death of a son of that owner they should put to death a son of
that builder. If it causes a death of a slave of the owner he shall
give to the owner a slave of equal value. If it destroys property he
shall restore whatever it destroyed and because he did not make it
firm he shall rebuild the house which collapsed at his own expense,
etc".
On such clear historical threats and the obvious wish for self
protection it would be foolish for a designer to ignore the evidence
and experience of others. This is the value and object of a Code of
Practice. The United Kingdom has a long history of building
regulations all of which embodied the forerunners of what we now
recognise as a code of practice. In the 1930's the professional
institutions prepared the first 'national' codes as a reaction to the
intense competition in design methods, being proposed and adopted by
commercial construction organisations which they believed would lead
to lower safety standards and ultimately disasters 1 In 1971 the
Institutions relinquished their role and the responsibility passed to
the British Standards Institute (BSD. This change was more
significant than at first may be obvious and I think is very important
as to how the UK engineer will view Eurocode 5.
99
Prior to the involvement of the BSI, the preparation and writing
of codes was the sole province of the engineer and was for the benefit
of other engineers and the best description of a code of that time
comes from Professor Sir Alfred Pugsley:-
"As regards the broad functions of a Code of Practice, it could
reasonably be said now that a good code so embodies the design and
construction experience of engineers successfully engaged with a
particular type of structure, that other reasonably qualified
engineers can use the code as a basis for designing."
The BSI definition for a code is wider and by implication
nationalistic:- "British Standard Codes of Practice are intended to
define and describe good British practice for the subjects they cover.
Compliance with them will ensure satisfactory design and execution of
building and engineering projects" Codes are written with the
intention of bringing together the results of practical experience and
of scientific investigation in a form which enables those concerned to
make immediate use of new developments and practices in particular
branches of industry.
It was this widening of the description of a code, together with the
constitution of the BSI, which lead to engineers being in the minority
on code writing committees. For those unfamiliar with the workings
of the BSI, the membership of a code committee can be requested by any
organisation which can demonstrate that they have a special concern or
expertise in that particular subject. For instance on the B.S. 5268
committee - The Structural Use of Timber - sit the members of 22
different organisations covering material suppliers, manufacturers,
contractors, trade organisations, building control officers, research
organisations and professional institutions, only two of which are
engineering bodies.
The result, though not intentional, is for codes to increase in
complexity and also to become a method of implementing research. Only
a fool would ignore the results of research but we must be sure that
the research undertaken is relevant to current needs, and is assessed
over a reasonable time scale, say 3 to 5 years, before being implemented
as a code change.
Eurocode 5
Eurocode 5 appears to reduce the level of complexity which the

Brtish code has reached. This has to be encouraged. Timber by its
nature is a complex material so Eurodcode 5 has to resolve two
conflicting demands - to simplify its base so that the non specialist
engineer can recognise the design method and apply it with safety, yet
at the same time allowing the specialist designer freedom to use his
skills.
The method that Eurocode 5 adopts to satisfy these demands will be
unusual to the user of BS 5268, and I presume to the users of other
national, codes in that it defines a set of principles from which there
is no deviation together with one method of application. This is good
for the non-specialist designer but can be constricting to the specialist.
It is unclear that if an engineer submits another method of application
how he design will be assessed. The UK, within its Building
Regulations System, allows for a system of waivers, by which a design
method, performance criteria or material data, not covered by the code,
can be assessed and approved by accepted experts but I do not believe
a similar process is proposed for the Eurocodes.
100
It could be said that Eurocode 5 is too autocratic in its format
but if this leads to an early agreement on basic principles this must
be to the advantage of the use of Timber.
In my opinion the basic philosophy of approach to Eurocode 5
outlined above is the most significant factor to the British Engineer
but there are others to which we must give serious consideration. The
first of these is the adoption of limit state design. One of the
arguements in the UK against limit state design was the apparent
inability to get any agreement on the partial coefficients. Eurocode
S accepts the safety limits and partial coefficients set in Eurocode 1
and as defined for concrete some 15 years ago thus brings conformity
to both steel and concrete but introduces factors for the material to
ensure that timber is not disadvantaged. I am not sure that this is
the preferable long term solution in that I believe engineers can
readily accept differing load factors for each structural material.
There does not appear to be a logic, other than administrative
convenience, in accepting the same load factors for a 'heavy'
strutural material such as concrete, as those for a light material
such as timber. However, in the period during which Eurocodes gain
acceptance a common value for load factors is probably acceptable.
In most national codes there have been modification factors to
the strength of properties of timber, which combine both long term
loading effects and the effects of creep. There is much debate
amongst researchers whether there is a long term loading effect on the
ultimate strength of timber but until that can be resolved the authors
of Eurocode 5 have taken a significant step by proposing separate long
term loading and creep effect factors and assigning them values in
tables 3.1.3 and and 4.1 respectively. This not only makes more sense
to the designer but will also allow simpler modifications to future
codes as the results of research are assessed.
The user of BS. 5268 will only be used to two moisture classes,
below 18% and above 18% (dry exposure, wet exposure). Eurocode 5
introduces three moisture classes; not exceeding 12%) 12%-18% and
above 18%. The former, moisture class 1, has been introduced for the
sake of the efficient use of wood-based panel materials. I would
observe that I have reservations that the quality of design and
construction in the United Kingdom would give rise to conditions where
such low moisture contents would be consistently attained. However,
much work is being undertaken in the United Kingdom on the measurement
of moisture contents attained in service for various types of structures
and constructions that it may be proved that my fears are groundless.
The UK engineer will feel at ease with strength classes though he
may question why they are different from those in BS 5268. I believe
that a word of caution is necessary over the use of strengh classes.
In the UK the strength classes as defined in BS 5268 have been
interpreted by the trade as being a 'supply' class hence allowing the
interchangeability of specie. This is in conformity with the
objects of a strength class system but there are significant pitfalls
in this for the non-specialist timber engineer. The most important
is that the engineer may not recognise that although he will be
designing with a timber of comparable strengths, its other properties
may not be the same, in particular its dimensions. Take as an example
a nominal SO x 100m section from say a Canadian and a Swedish supplier,
the variations in actual dimensions are such that the Canadian section
could be as much as 20% less stiff than the Swedish section.
101
In addition there are significant specie differences on such properties
as durability and ability to accept preservatives within any strength
class. It would be better if they were defined as design classes as
this may make the designer aware of the specific implications.
I find the absence of data on connectors other than nails, screws
and bolts, is unfortunate. Although accepting that proprietary
systems are always in a state of change or development I would expect
Eurocode 5 to be more definitive in advising on the load carrying
characteristics of specific connector systems.
I have not attempted a clause by clause comparison between
Eurocode 5 and BS 5268 but have tried to highlight both the
opportunities and difficulties a British Engineer will perceive when
he first studies Eurocode 5. Each of you from the different member
countries will produce a totally different list and will want to place
varying emphasis on its separate sections. This is perfectly
reasonable but what I think is critical is that the engineer must be
able to clearly see his own experience reflected in Eurocode 5. This
is a cultural problem in that the use of timber and hence the
development of codes is based on the old craft industries. As
techniques developed and codes were written, it was necesssary to carry
history forward, with them otherwise continiuty of experience would be
lost. Thus when you compare a traditional timber house in Bavaria to
one in Suffolk you cannot be surprised that the German and UK codes
differ. It is this perceived experience which makes harmonisation
difficult and will mitigate against the simplification of a timber
code.
Acceptance
This I think directs our attention to the second of my questions,

should a code be acceptable across national boundaries. The simplistic
answer to this question must be yes but perhaps it is necessary to
qualify my reasons.
Timber is probably the only true international construction
material and has the singular advantage over the others that it is a
renewable source provided that the world timber producing nations
husband their resources intelligently. More timber crosses
international borders than any other building material, from sources
as diverse as the tropical rain forests of Borneo to artic Russia.
Europe is and and will probably remain for some considerable time a
nett timber importing area, though the relative amounts vary
dramatically from country to country. It is this need to import
timber and the relative ease of moving fabricated timber across
borders within the Common Market that makes the concept of Eurocode 5
both attractive and workable.
102
Implementation
What are the problems facing an engineer, be he a designer or

fabricator, when he undertakes work in another country. Bach of you
will have experienced this and would probably produce a similar set of
answers only varying in order of importance:- language, codes of
practice, building control system, methods of construction,
availability of material etc. Each of these implies a learning curve
with its time factor and hence cost. Thus the lack of an accepted
international code inhibits the exportation of skills and material.
If one of the objects of the Common Market is to both increase
competition and to reduce costs then the introduction of a Eurocode
will go some way to encourage both aims.
We first deal with the problem of language and how that affects an
engineers attitude to the code. First, and I think very important is
that the code has been initially written in English and then translated
into the working languages of the Commission.
This is not just a question of the use of English but that the
textural form is that of British Culture. This may lead, in
translation, to some difficulty in clearly defining concepts and I
would not be surprised if an engineer from, say, Greece or Portugal
had initial doubts in accepting Burocode S. This is a cultural
problem not a technical problem and I would hope that engineers
would be patient and learn to think across cultural boundaries.
Hopefully engineers themselves may provide better translations into
their own language by working with the English edition of the code on
practical examples. These could be implemented during the review
period of the code.
Even when Eurocodes are approved and adopted by the member states
there will still be some barriers to the easy and effective use of
them. This will largely come from differing of building regulations
control within each country and the position of Eurocode in that
control system. In the British system, codes of practice are
enshrined within the Building Regulations but even in the UK the
method of application between England and Scotland differs
significantly. In principle there is no method of self certification
by engineers allowed for within the British system yet this is a
common method in France. In the UK engineers do not have to be
licensed to practice, though architects have to be, but in some member
states there is such a requirement. This will lead to difficulties in
encouraging engineers and fabricators to work in another member state
but perhaps it will provide pressure to rationalise the control system
within the Common Market. One can hope that such a rationalisation
will lead to simplification and not an increase in bureaucracy.
A key factor in any design is that the engineer must be assured
of the quality of the timber that he has specified. Eurocode 5 makes
reference to the ECE (Geneva) grading rules which, if applied, would
give that assurance but there are problems. In the UK the building
regulations demand through the code of practice, that there is an
indpendant monitoring system of the grading method used by the timber
supplier, whether that be visual or machine grading. Even more
important is that any timber used in structures must carry its grading
mark in order that both the engineer and the supervising officer of
the Building Regulation control system can be assured of its quality.
103
If we are to encourage the use of timber in general and in particular
the movement of timber or timber fabrications across borders then it
will be necessary to introduce a performance specification for a
common certification system. I think this has wider implications
than the Common Market, in that being nett importers of timber it
would be desirable if timber could be graded and marked at source.
This would eliminate the need for importers to grade, putting the
responsibility for wastage with the supplier. I believe this would
be a more economical system of supply but it does imply that the
supply countries such as Canada, Sweden or Russia, would have to
accept and implement the quality assurance system.
During the preparation of this paper I asked a number of
questions of timber organisations and firms both within and outside
the EEC as to their views on the value of Eurocode 5. On one point
they all agreed that Eurocode 5 would be a valuable tool to encourage
export between countries but in this there was a warning. The
greatest value was seen by non member countries seeking to gain
increased access to the market of 1992.
Conclusion
In the UK there will probably be some resistance to the

introduction of a limit state code but I think that is essentially the
problem of the specialist timber engineer. Now that limit state
design is the basis of the other UK material codes and that for ten
years or more young engineers have been trained at their universities
using limit state methods, the body of engineering experience will
readily accept it.
However, if Eurocode 5 is to be successful, engineers in all
member countries must be prepared to use it. It is essential that
during the review period that each of us undertake parallel design
exercises using our current national code and the draft Eurocode 5.
I am sure it will lead to both better and more efficient structures
and to the wider use of timber as a structural material.
Finally, as a practising engineer may I make a plea to other
practising engineers. This is something that I actually wrote down so
I will read it word for word. Apathy, or reluctance to accept the
inevitability of change, will put the structural use of timber at a
disadvantage to other structural materials within the Community. So
it is up to practising engineers to make a genuine attempt to understand
Eurocode 5 and then to_ make a genuine attempt to turn it into a document
I would be happy to use.
104
DISCUSSION
Comment by Sunley, J.G. (UK)
I have a general comment on the paper by Mr Marsh. Put yourself in the

position of the authors. They had to accommodate the different design
traditions of twelve countries. All you can write Is a basic document, not a
document that can satisfy practising engineers in every country. Marsh took
joints as an example. A practising engineer cannot see immediately which
equation to use. In England I would expect TRADA to write an interpretative
document based on EC5, to present the information on joints in a form
suitable for practical use. Similarly the other countries should write an
explanatory book to enable engineers from different backgrounds and cultures
to use ECS.
Reply by Marsh, R.F. (UK)
I applaud the first comment on the basic document, because it gives me

an insight into the behaviour of the material. Explanatory books for each
country do not work when, as an engineer, you have to work in different
countries because you would need to learn all those different books. I need
to have an authoritative document underlying EC5 and it must be acceptable
across all borders. Otherwise we might as well dismiss 1992 as meaningless.
We are at the stage when we are inviting criticism. It is possible

that Marsh is mistaken, but it is good to have those comments for our future
work.
About the formula for bolts. The values in the tables he showed from
the British Standard have to be multiplied by modification factors for
moisture content, end distances, etc. All these things are contained in the
ECS formulae, which can easily be put into computers.
Some formulae are somewhat outdated. He should maybe concentrate more
on giving basic formulae and leave the handbook material for future
programmes.
Comment by Emmer, G. (FRG)
I run an engineering firm and I think it is absolutely essential to

have a common base for design in all countries in Europe. This is not easy
because every country thinks its national code is the best available. What
was said yesterday about EC5 does reflect that it is a very good piece of
academic work, but it is going to require a great deal of effort on the part
of practising engineers. I wonder whether practical use was considered in
writing ECS. It can only be used by applying extremely complicated software
programs, and that is not going to help the design engineers. It is
necessary to rewrite ECS in a language suited for practical use.
Reply by Breitschaft, G. (FRG)
The draft for ECS is up for discussion. It is quite clear that after
the period of comments, changes will be made. The preface stresses that we
are looking forward to comments from experienced practising engineers.
I agree with Mr Marsh that a code must be comprehensible to the user.
That means that unambiguous background information must be provided within
the text of the code. Mr Marsh also mentioned that a code will inevitably
105
reflect one's own experience. However, if we want an international code, we
have to accept that the end result will not be a carbon copy of our own
national code. Compromises are necessary.
English tends to be the common language on the drafting panel. This
implies that some of the draft committee are not using their native
language. The English is not always perfect, but we all do our best. The
English will sometimes be annoyed, but this is a problem we have to learn to
live with. The final English version of EC5 will be the master copy from
which all the other versions will be translated.
Question by Sagot, G. (France)
In previous proposals for a Council Directive on building materials,

provision was made for four different procedures. Are manufacturers free to
choose between those four procedures?
Will there be a choice of procedure, or will a single procedure be

laid down once and for all for a given type of material?
If there is to be a choice, will it be possible to have different
partial coefficients depending on the degree of quality control?
The first question is a matter for the Commission. The type of

certification will be determined product by product by the Standing
Committee. I do not know for the time being whether it will be acceptable to
have different partial coefficients. There are arguments for and against it.
For some specific products you might be able to raise the quality by having
inspection, but the lower partial coefficients we have proposed in EC5
should mainly be seen as a means to persuade the manufacturer to introduce
quality control systems.
In my opinion you should choose the quality control level according to
the importance of the structure. You should not necessarily see it in terms
of Y factors.
Reply by Sagot, G. (France)
Currently we have quality control systems which give us extra

reliability and the four procedures we use give different safety levels.
Question by Prebensen, K. (DK)
Within what temperature range may timber and wood-based materials be

' used?
Should adjustment factors dependent oh temperature be given in EC5?
The strength of wood is affected by temperature. Since wood generally

gets a little stronger when the temperature decreases, you can certainly
apply EC5 to colder temperatures than the room temperature. If you expose
wood continuously to very high temperatures (above 65C) there are
indications that it starts to break down.
I think you can apply EC5 if the temperature is below 60C or only
occasionally above it. If the temperature is constantly above that level
then reduced strength values should be considered. I am personally not in
106
favour of adding adjustment factors for the higher temperatures, I prefer to
put in a sentence stating that ECS only applies up to a certain limit.
Question by Steck, G. (FRG)
Is it possible to use more advanced calculation methods for column

design, for example, the work of Blass in Karlsruhe or Buchanan/Madsen in
Canada?
Yes. We expect to replace the present column design rules by rules

based on their work.
Can you summarise the deflection limits for structures and the loads
to be considered?
Answer by Brninghoff, H. (FRG)
These are given in section 4, and are open for discussion. The
deflections for a variable load may be 1/300 of the span. Generally
deflection requirements in ECS are more liberal than in the German standard.
How can panel-type elements used for stiffening structures, be

calculated?
Will ECS widen the scope and look at other types of members?
It is very easy to design these structures according to the present

version of ECS. There are other problems of building physics, but they
should not be in the timber code. In your comments I would like to see where
ECS is insufficient to calculate these type of structures.
What tolerance must structure calculations meet, and will it be

indicated in ECS? I would suggest 5%, taking the accuracy of loads into
account.
I personally do not think that it will be possible to specify

tolerances, as these depend on the assumptions which have to be made and
hence on the individual project. Only geometric tolerances should be given.
Reply by Raveala, A. (Finland)
The designer can take that decision but the 'Baupolizei' or other
institutions deciding about the acceptability of a calculation need
guidance.
107
If this is true, it would be easier to reduce the design requirements

in EC5 by 5%. I think it should be left to the engineer in the individual
country to estimate whether a 5% deviation is acceptable or not in a
particular case.
I do not think we can change the 'Baupolizei' by the Eurocodes;
education would be better.
Question by Casselbrandt, S. (Sweden)
Are the experts interested in timber satisfied with ECl? How will EC1
influence the use of timber in competition with other materials?
ECl has served its purpose and has now been replaced by a common
chapter in all the codes, supplemented by material-specific details. The
same will apply to fire resistance, for example. It is always best when the
basic requirements are dealt with on an interdisciplinary basis. We can then
prevent problems such as unfair competition.
If the various material-specific codes are based on one and the same
model, it will make them easier to understand. If a timber code is drafted
in an entirely different way from a steel code, the engineer who is more
familiar with the steel code will have a hard time, and will not be tempted
to use timber.
I think the volume factor for bending, tension and compression

parallel to the grain is higher for solid wood than for glulam, because
defects in glulam are limited by the dimensions of the lamella.
For glulam it is assumed that no volume effect results from bending,

tension and compression parallel to the grain (section A.2.3 only applies to
solid timber) . We assume that the increase in the number of delaminations
will at least counteract the volume effect.
In EC5 the tension strength perpendicular to the grain is given as

. k v o i *k,jis *ft,9o,d Here k d i s is a bonus (it is larger than one). The
bending strength is given as k vo l *fm,d i i-e. without the bonus despite the
fact that the volume effect for tension perpendicular to the grain is larger
than the volume effect for bending. There can be a bonus for bending as well
because there is a non-uniform stress distribution over the length of the
beam.
There is probably as you mention a similar distribution effect for

bending too. The area with high stresses is larger for a uniformly
distributed load, for example, than for a single load at midspan. If you
introduce distribution factors however, you must also use volume factors.
108
The design of the most basic elements then becomes very complicated and
arbitrary.
If all designers used computers into which these effects were
programmed it would be a routine affair to take them into account. Something
was said about the complexity of designing and how computers confuse people.
In my opinion, codes are aimed at the most confusing work in the whole
design process, that of finding out the size of the pieces. It would be in
the interest of every engineer to transfer our knowledge on this subject to
the computer so that the engineers can concentrate on making safe, reliable
and useful structures. If you would give me three man-years, I would change
the whole EC5 into a computer program. It would then be in a better form. If
the costs were shared over a thousand design offices it would cost each
office only a few hours' pay. Manual codes are aimed at keeping people busy,
not at helping them.
Question by Muszala, W. (FRG)
In EC5 plywood and wood-based panels are mentioned. Will plaster-type

materials also be included?
Answer by Larsen, H.J.(DK)
No, I do not think so, but this does not, of course, prevent them
being used in timber or steel structures.
Comment by Lobel, Y. (France)
The problems arising when wood is subjected to high temperatures are

manifold. The Californian code, for example, reduces the strength of small
volumes because a high temperature gradient over a volume can have very
dangerous consequences.
The other problem is the speed at which the temperature changes, the
thermal shock. Normally it is not dangerous to heat timber to certain
temperatures but if you do so too quickly, dangerous transverse tractions
can occur, resulting in enormous fractures. We must set up a campaign to
make people aware of this problem. Therefore, I hope that EC5 will mention
them. We cannot afford just to ignore these two problems.
Answer by Breitschaft, 6. (FRG)
In the basic code, the effects of temperature on all the building

materials will be included. Specific timber effects will be included in BC5.
109
SESSION IV
Chairman: A.G. Vinckier, Professor at the University

of Ghent, Belgiuril

111
Professor B.O. HILSON

Brighton Polytechnic, U.K.
Summary
The amount of tine devoted to timber related subjects in British Civil

Engineering undergraduate courses Is very low when compared with the
use of the material in practice. The paper presents the results of
surveys which support this statement and then makes a number of
proposals aimed at rectifying the situation.
In the short-term it Is suggested that an extensive continual
professional development programme Is required to assist the
engineering practitioner together with the development of a basic
curriculum and teaching aids to assist lecturers who have limited
experience of working with timber.
In the longer-term It is proposed that design teaching should be based
upon a sound understanding of material properties and the development
of an intuitive understanding of structure. A teaching method is
described using models to develop Intuitive understanding and group
activities to develop broad design skills. It is also suggested that
the use of a teaching division by elements rather than materials could
ensure that each of the commonly employed construction materials
received an appropriate level of attention.
1. CURRENT UK SITUATION
A survey was carried out In 1986 to determine the amount of timber
engineering education contained within Civil Engineering degree courses at
British Universities and Polytechnics. The results are shown In Table I.
Number Average hours - 3 year course

of
replies Wood as a Timber Tota
material Engineering
POLYTECHNICS 17 7.2 11.1 18.3

UNIVERSITIES 30 3.3 3.8 7.1
Table I Civil Engineering undergraduate courses
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The returns represent a very high percentage of the colleges offering
Civil Engineering courses at first degree level and so the results are
statistically significant. They suggest that, on average, the British
Civil Engineering undergraduate spends less than one per cent of class
contact time studying timber related subjects. Data were also collected on
the numbers of timber engineering projects undertaken by the undergraduates
and these Indicated less than one per year per college on average.
Another survey, carried out a few years ago (1), examined the
relationship between the time spent on different materials in undergraduate
courses and the corresponding time spent on the same materials in a typical
design office. These results are presented in Table 11.
Materials Steel Concrete Soils Brickwork. Timber
Z time in
College 23 32 43.5 0.5 1
X time in
Practice 17 24 21 19 16
Table 11 Time comparisons college and practice
The time In practice will vary widely depending upon the type of
practice and conditions prevailing at the time but the general mismatch is
probably typical.
It may be concluded from these surveys that, In the U.K., the amount
of time spent on timber In Civil Engineering degree courses is very low
indeed in absolute terms and is also low In relation to the time devoted to
the material In practice. A similar pattern would probably be found in
other countries.
This Is not a new situation so It may be assumed that not only are
undergraduates receiving insufficient education in this field but also
there is a high proportion of practising engineers who do not have a
sufficient understanding of timber as a material and its use in design.
This must be one of the main reasons for the limited use of timber as a
major structural material in the U.K.
2. REMEDIAL ACTION
To improve the situation described above two courses of action are
necessary, one addressing the needs of the practitioner and the other those
of the undergraduate.
In order to assist the currently under-trained practitioner, short
courses need to be arranged as part of the Continual Professional
Development programme that is being encouraged by the Professional
Institutions. In fact continuing membership of the Institutions is
becoming conditional upon attendance at such courses. Colleges are
responding to this development with some enthusiasm since it represents an
opportunity to supplement funding and it is essential that some of these
courses should cover the use of timber.
114
The courses should be co-ordinated nationally and arranged on a
geographical basis to keep down travelling tine and costs. They should
have a common basic curriculum, which covers tlaber as a material and
timber In the design of components, and should Include the research
background to the standard design procedures. Because of the limited
number of lecturers with experience of timber the main responsibility for
arranging the courses and providing the lecturing staff will tend to fall
upon speclallst organisations such as the Timber Research and Development
Association.
Another development which could assist practitioners, and give them the
confidence to design In timber, would be the production of more Computer
Aided Design packages. To be effective they must go beyond the standard
analysis packages and look more at fundamental design problems. Too often
timber Is considered at the early stages of a project only to be rejected
through lack of knowledge or Information. Another frequent problem Is that
the planning of a project at the early stages Is based upon steel or
concrete and only later Is timber considered at which stage the structural
form that has been developed Is unsuitable. A research project at Brighton
Polytechnic is concerned with the development of an Expert System that will
guide the designer In the choice of the best structural form and Jointing
system to be adopted for non-domestic timber roof structures. It Is hoped
to include also some guidance on costing In the programme.
Turning to the needs of the undergraduate the short-term efforts
should be directed at Increasing the share that timber has In existing
courses. Special timber engineering courses should be avoided at
undergraduate level. Timber should take its place on the course amongst
other constructional materials and not be treated as something unusual.
However, It will not be easy to obtain the increased share for a number of
reasons including the following:
(I) Undergraduate curricula are already overfull and the demand for the
inclusion of new material Is continual,
(II) Most lecturers have no training In design with timber,
(III) Host structures are built In the U.K. from steel or concrete and
hence lecturers feel they should concentrate on these materials since
the students will be In most need of this design knowledge. Thus a
vicious circle exists in which the low number of timber structures
leads to a lack of training in timber which leads to fewer timber
structures and so ont
This circle must be broken by education so that more engineers with
timber training will naturally produce more timber structures.
To assist in this process, and still thinking In the short-term,
perhaps a National body should draw-up a basic curriculum for Inclusion in
existing courses. This could be supported by teaching aids such as slide
sets and notes to match the curriculum, and case studies of successful
timber projects. All this could be considered to be too prescriptive but
it is probably the only way to overcome the basic lack of training and
confidence amongst the current lecturing body.
3. A LONGER-TERM VIEW
Current methods of teaching design tend to be based on a division by
materials. For example, students are taught reinforced concrete design
separately from steel design and then, if there Is any time available, may
be taught some brickwork and timber design.
115
Perhaps a better approach would be to teach design from a more
fundamental base and to Introduce the different materials as appropriate.
This approach would probably need to be preceded by a basic course on
materials.
In recent years in Civil Engineering courses in the U.K. there has
been a strong move away from analysis based courses towards design based
courses. This trend is likely to continue and it is anticipated that
subjects such as Advanced Analysis of Structures, which has been such a
cornerstone of undergraduate courses in the past, will become optional
subjects. The general Civil Engineer will be able to rely upon basic
analytical skills and use computer programs for performing more advanced
analysis. It will only be the structural specialist who will need to study
analysis in great depth.
These changes could provide time for more emphasis to be placed on the
fundamentals of design. Too often in the past, lecturers have presented
students with a structural form and then concentrated their attentions on
the analysis of that form and the determination of member sizes. Too
little attention has been paid to the reasons for the selection of that
particular form in preference to any other. This is an example of one of
the great dangers in teaching a subject such as engineering and that is
only to teach topics that can be easily assessed. This has been one of the
reasons for an over-emphasis on mathematics in Civil Engineering courses.
Engineers need to be numerate certainly but they also need to possess a
range of other skills if they are to become good designers, some of which
are illustrated in Figure 1.
Another fundamental requirement for good design is an understanding of
material properties and the inclusion of a wide range of materials,
including timber, is an essential part of the training process. Each
material has its own particular properties which affect its use in design.
The more materials that are covered, the broader the student's
understanding and the better chance the graduate will have of coping with
the development of new materials such as composites.
The designer must also develop an intuitive feeling for structural
behaviour so that when one of the most Important steps in the design
process is taken, that of choosing the structural form to be used, It is
taken correctly. The satisfactory outcome of a project in terms of both
aesthetics and economy depends upon this all important decision.
To quote the Italian engineer Nervi, he said:
"... we must perfect and go beyond the scientific
mathematical stage of our knowledge and reach a stage
of Intuitive knowledge."
What then Is intuitive knowledge? It is certainly not an imbred
quality, something that a person either has or has not: rather Is it
something acquired through experience. As children, through a process of
trial and error, we gradually learn which arrangements of wooden blocks are
stable so that we now know intuitively how to construct that sort of simple
structure.
Learning by trial and error, or discovery learning, can not easily nor
economically be applied to actual structures for obvious reasons and so the
study of model structures comes to mind as a very rapid means of acquiring
the necessary experience.
116
This la the basis of the method adopted at Brighton Polytechnic using
simple models made from balsa wood and paper (2, 3). Students work
unsupervised In small groups and, in addition to gaining an understanding
of structural behaviour, thla group activity also enables the student to
acquire many of the other kills illustrated In Plgure 1 that are required
by a good designer.
One principle that is followed Is to present the students with a basic
structural form and to require them to investigate all possible failure
modes and to develop Its optimum behaviour. This is achieved progressively
by asking the students to test the basic form to failure carefully noting
its behaviour and the way in which It falls, and then to build another
model Incorporating a means of eliminating the first failure mode. In this
way an Improved performance Is obtained with the second model and by
continuing In this manner optimum performance may be achieved. Figure 2
Illustrates an intermediate failure mode discovered during an exercise on
I-beams. The beams are constructed with a cartridge paper web and balsa
wood flanges.
Following each of the exercises a seminar is held at which the many
alternative ideaa and solutions developed by the students are discussed.
Photographs of actual structural failures are shown to give the students
confidence that the models behave realistically and the discussions are
wide ranging, lively and enjoyable. All of this model work Is a supplement
to the normal curriculum for Structural Engineering and the two approaches
complement each other very well.
Later In the course the students, again working in small groups, are
required to design, construct and test a miniature bridge to meet a given
specification. They have a whole week in which to complete this task and
must first produce a design based on calculations and materials testing.
The design Is then lodged with the assessors and no changes are allowed
during the construction process. The idea here is to reproduce the
practical situation In which a design Is prepared in the drawing office and
that design is then constructed on site. No trial and error solutions are
permitted, the students have to think the design through in detail before
construction begins.
The final structure must meet defection criteria under working load,
withstand a specified lateral load and fall between specified upper and
lower load limits (4). Figure 3 shows a suspension bridge model under
test.
The week's work is exhausting yet enjoyable and the students learn a
great deal about structural design from this process.
So perhaps in the future structural design education should be based
upon the concept that intuitive knowledge plus materials understanding
produces good design.
This approach would apply to all materials and could enable the
abandonment of the current approach to design teaching which Is to treat
each material separately.
Following a course on material properties, embracing all materials and
including timber, it should be possible to use an elements division rather
than a material one.
For example, when discussing the mode of failure Illustrated in Figure
2, the effect of shear and the resulting diagonal principal stresses on the
shape of beam cross-section for different materials could be covered.
The ideal shape of cross-section is an I-sectlon since most of the
material Is concentrated at the extreme fibres where the maximum stresses
occur. However, this shape is not always feasible.
117
With concrete, a basic material weakness is its low tensile capacity.
The diagonal tension forces can cause failures if thin webs are used and so
the less efficient rectangular section is generally used to keep the
diagonal tensile stresses within safe limits. However, if the beam is
compressed longitudinally, as in prestressed concrete, then the diagonal
tension stresses can be neutralised thus allowing the more efficient I-beam
shape to be used.
With timber a basic material weakness is the shear strength parallel
to the grain. The horizontal shear stresses could cause failure if thin
webs are used and so again the less efficient rectangular section is
employed to keep stresses low. However, if a shear resistant material is
used for the web, such as plywood or fibreboard, then the economical I-beam
shapes can be built with timber.
With steel, because it is an expensive material, the efficient I-beam
shape must be used and the pulling together of the flanges under the action
of the post-buckling membrane tension action must be resisted by propping
the flanges apart using intermediate stiffeners.
This sort of approach could conclude with the detailed design of each
of the beam forms in the appropriate material.
Another general theme should cover the problem of material variability
and its effect on design. In the case of timber the students would be
introduced to the concepts of grading and reconstitution as the means of
reducing variability. Reconstitution is the key to the engineering
applications of timber. Advances in adhesive technology have enabled many
forms of reconstituted products to be developed with advantages in terms of
reduced material variability and increased predictability. Glued laminated
timber is probably the best engineering example of this process and should
be included in all undergraduate courses since it emphasises the tremendous
potential of timber as an engineering material and appeals to the creative
instincts of undergraduates. (Figure 4).
4. CONCLUSIONS
In order to improve timber engineering education in the U.K. short-
term remedial actions are required together with a longer-term review of
design education.
In the short-term courses should be organised for practising engineers'
and teaching aids produced to enable more timber education to be included
in existing undergraduate courses.
In the long-term perhaps structural design education should be based
upon intuitive knowledge of structural behaviour and material
understanding, and the _use of a teaching division by elements rather than
materials. In this way all materials would find an appropriate level in
undergraduate courses.
REFERENCES
(1) SHAW, 6. "Recent Applications of Structural Brickwork in Engineering

Design". The Brick Development Association. September 1978
(2) HILSON, B.O. "A Method of Teaching Philosophy of Structure Using
Simple Models". The Structural Engineer, 48, No. 5, May 1970
(3) HILSON, B.O. Basic Structural Behaviour via Models. London, Crosby
Lockwood Staples, 1972
(4) DAWES, M.H., HILSON, B.O., PALMER, P.A., RODD, P.D. "An Approach to
the Teaching of Structural Design" The Structural Engineer, 61A,
No.l, January 1983
118
COMmiCATIO
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Fig. 1. Design skills
Pig. 2. Diagonal buckling and membrane tension field action
119
Fig. 3. Suspension bridge design being tested
Fig. 4. Glulara roof structure
120
DISCUSSION
Teaching all the materials together is better than teaching steel,

concrete and timber separately. What is the age of the students in the
English system? Does not your approach waste a lot of time, both for the
students and the staff? Would it not be much easier, cheaper and faster to
show videos on the subjects?
Answer by Palmer, P. (UK)
Most students are 18 when they start, but the polytechnics also
attract mature students.
Engineering students need hands-on experience, not just lectures.
Staff costs are not high because the students work unsupervised. They
spend most of the time discussing among themselves.
If we want to see more timber structures, we should teach architects

how to use timber since it is they who actually decide on the material to be
used. Does Mr Palmer think that his method can also be used for teaching
architects?
Answer by Palmer, P. (UK)
We have attempted to get architects and engineers to do some of their

training together, but that did not work well in our place. There is a
complete mismatch in the way they are trained.
Comment by Touliatos, P. (Greece)
We teach architects and engineers together, because design is

primarily the composition of materials and components. Architects and
engineers work together in groups and have to solve problems together, even
some real-life problems. This has worked very well.
Comment by Dubois, J. (Belgium)
This mixing of engineers and architects is very important. The

training of our architects and engineers is of prime importance for the
future of timber as a building material.
No matter what the educational system is in the different countries,
efforts so far in timber engineering have been based on goodwill, not on the
ministry of education.
There should be more exchanges between the different countries -
especially of students, so they can learn about the timber industries and
structures in other countries. We are not as strong as the concrete and
steel industries, and therefore have to promote this type of training.
Comment by Arbaiza-Mendoza, C.E. (Peru)
We have to emphasise the training of architects. Architects are the

bridge between the materials and the client. It is they who usually decide
what material shall be used: engineers come afterwards. Therefore architects
must have a knowledge of timber so they will use it more often. Architects
121
must be made aware of EC5 because they must have some rules for
predimensioning before involving the engineer.
Comment by Marsh, R.F. (UK)
If we engineers go through life saying that we do the analysis after

the architect has established the framework, we are doomed to failure
regardless of the material used. Design is a synthesis of the abilities of
people with different skills, working at the same time, at the same place,
in the same drawing office, on the same project.
Comment by Vangaard, 0. (DK)
In Denmark, engineers are trained separately from architects, but we

use the same method of teaching structures generally. The teaching of
general principles is based on timber, because timber is an easy material.
Several times the architecture students visit the technical university to
cooperate with engineers.
We have to bear in mind that architects and engineers have different
jobs and therefore they have to be trained differently. However, architects
need to have exercises in timber structures, so that they can see the
opportunities it provides.
Comment by Kleinschmidt, E.A. (FRG)
In the University of Dortmund we have had excellent experience with

architects and engineers working together on projects led by people from the
real world.
122
O.A. MEIERHOFER
EMPA-Abteilung Holz, Dubendorf, Switzerland
Summary
The best way to define training requirements for designers of timber

buildings is to look at the demands made on buildings and at the
factors which may prevent these demands from being met. Analysis shows
that the organisation of building projects tends to be unsatisfactory
and has a major influence on the product. The concept of timber
construction, and hence its chances, would improve if the specialist
profession of 'timber building expert1 were to become established in
its own right.
INTRODUCTION
Outside the Auditorium Maximum in the Eidgenssische Technische

Hochschule in ZUrich, the words of Francesco de Sanctis (1817-1883), one of
the first generation of professors, stand carved in stone:
"Prima di essere ingenieri voi siete uomini"

("You are human beings first, engineers second").
I have always been impressed not only by the striking formulation of

this quotation and its call for ethical values but also by the distinction
it makes between training, i.e. the acquisition of expertise) and education,
i.e. the making of the person.
The subject of training can be approached in various ways. To make
training secondary to education, it seems to me, is both necessary and in
line with current thinking. 'Do our polytechnics educate people?' and
'Training the engineer: first train the person' are titles of two recent
articles published in the journals Schweizer Ingenieur and Architekt and
Aktuelle Technik.
I would suggest that the study of wood and timber construction can be
character-forming. The fact that it keeps things on a human scale is reason
enough: you cannot use wood to build 400 metre skyscrapers and bridges with
kilometre spans.
Although properly built timber structures have a long lifespan by
human standards, they make no claim to immortality. Wood can be seen more as
a symbol of growth and decline, germination and decay, as both cradle and
coffin.
It is particularly important with wood to find the right scale, which
may signify limitation or even modesty - rare attributes nowadays.
The following assessment of training in timber construction almost
certainly over-states some issues and over-generalises others, partly for
reasons of time. For example, I have simply assumed that my conclusions
concerning Switzerland are applicable to other European countries with
different backgrounds or traditions, which play a more important role in
123
timber building than in other methods of construction while differing from
region to region. However different the conditions in the various countries,
though, I have constantly been surprised by the degree of similarity in the
problems encountered.
THE CHARACTERISTICS OF WOOD AMD THE ASSOCIATED BUILDING METHODS
When considering training requirements for timber construction, one

can begin by asking the following questions:
What kind of experts do we need to produce a good timber building?

What makes a good timber building? and
What makes an expert?
Here I am referring primarily to designers of timber buildings, including

the design departments of construction companies.
The ideal qualifications for the designer of a timber building are, of
course, closely connected with the characteristics of wood and the
appropriate construction methods, which I shall try to describe. You do not
need me to list the many technical differences between wood and other
building materials, however important these may be; there are other, less
obvious factors which are at least as important.
For example, wood is an exceptionally versatile building material
which can be used for three different basic functions :
support
space division and insulation
form and decoration.
Wood is rarely used exclusively as a load-bearing material. One of its

main distinguishing features is that it often has a multiple role: a timber
component of a building may fulfil two or all three of the above functions
at the same time (e.g. the wall of a log cabin or flooring).
Equally important to the development and teaching of timber
construction, at least in Switzerland, is its tradition, which is still
relatively lively and needs to be integrated.
A problem with wood is the fact that an ill-chosen application reveals
itself as such far more quickly and obviously than with other materials. I
am thinking here mainly of its biodegradability, which is, of course, highly
desirable from the point of view of refuse disposal, inter alia. Lack of
durability is always the result of incorrect use, not the fault of the
material, a fact which has particular implications for the training of
specialists.
One further matter should concern us here: surveys among architects
and builders have shown that timber buildings are regarded as short-lived
and maintenance-intensive to an extent which has nothing to do with the real
facts.
DEFECTS
As statistics show, timber buildings do not differ essentially from

other structures in the type of damage they can incur. Even concrete
buildings, long regarded as indestructible, often wear out; unforeseen and
unwanted deformation is a leading cause of damage to any type of structure.
Under the 'good timber buildings' target it is important to know where
the main deficiencies lie, both in order to help builders optimise their
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work and to ensure that the relevant knowledge is Included in training
syllabuses.
Judging from the damage statistics of EMPA's timber division, the main
drawbacks of wood are:
its limited durability, i.e. long-term serviceability, and

its susceptibility to expansion, shrinkage and warping.
The chief culprit in both cases is moisture or water penetration, and

both can lead to a range of other defects.
In contrast, there are few instances of deficient safety or
load-bearing capacity, possibly because relatively careful attention is paid
to these aspects. Surprisingly, the quality of the wood is only rarely a
cause for complaint.
A structural defect which is rarely recognised as such but causes
enormous economic damage through energy loss is inadequate insulation, which
usually means poor sealing resulting from the large number of joints
necessary in timber buildings (plus the ubiquitous deformation caused by
damp and shrinkage/expansion).
Poor building design, unfortunately far from rare, should also be
classified as a defect, even though it is not directly quantifiable.
Although timber construction is, for a number of reasons, fairly
popular at present, it still needs constant promotion. I would consider the
elimination of known weaknesses and the promotion of quality to be far more
effective in the long run than advertising slogans, which are often
misleading.
REQUIREMENTS FOR TIMBER CONSTRUCTION
The main factor determining quality is the performance of the timber

construction expert when faced with the whole range of sometimes
contradictory and unwritten demands, wishes, expectations and interests of:
the customer
the public )
the local authority ) not always identical 1
the forestry industry
the building industry
the timber industry
the builders concerned (including designers)
others - all the people engaged in the particular building project.
It seems obvious, but is not always the case in practice, that the
timber expert as a contractor should give priority to the requirements and
wishes of the customer, the general public and the public authorities.
When designing a timber building - other types of wooden structures
may be easier - the expert should take into account the following needs of
the customer:
economy
safety for occupants
serviceability
ease of management (e.g. minimum maintenance)
durability and value conservation
versatility, where necessary.
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Some other less easily definable or distinguishable factors are also
important, however :
comfort
aesthetic qualities
creation of a sympathetic surrounding or a specific atmosphere
image, e.g. prestige, etc.
The public authorities, on the other hand, are most likely to be

concerned about:
the building's compatibility with its environment

safety
the cost to the public, if any.
It is almost a by-word that the basic requirements of the customer and

the public in terms of both the building process and the end product often
remain unsatisfied, quite apart from the building management problems which
tend to crop up after the guarantee period has expired.
There is enough material for several conferences on this subject
alone, which is not confined to timber buildings. Let me highlight a few
salient points.
PROFESSIONAL COLLABORATION
A major cause of substandard buildings is a lack of coordination

between the various individuals or firms involved in the project, in terms
of both tasks and skills.
The architect, by training, usually regards form as the essence of his
job, preferring to leave technical considerations to the 'experts'.
The average structural engineer is content with his role as an expert
in stress analysis and is relieved if he can disregard other problems,
whether these affect the building as a whole or are specific ones which, for
one reason or another (e.g. lack of training) are outside his scope
(building physics, durability, the use of unaccustomed materials such as
wood, etc.).
The project coordinator is one of the most important individuals in
any building process. Since this fact is not usually appreciated, the job
often falls by the wayside, i.e. is performed in passing or by under-
qualified persons. Yet. even qualified project coordinators are often under
such pressure from their administrative duties that they have no time for
other important aspects of their work.
Craftsmen - not only carpenters and joiners - are frequently
overburdened on a number of levels. In addition to time and cost pressure,
they are often landed with problems such as organisation, continuity and
coordination which ought to be dealt with by planning and managerial staff.
Most craftsmen also have difficulty in getting to grips with new materials,
methods or demands (e.g. airtightness). There may also, of course, be
communication difficulties between craftsmen and other individuals involved
in the project, particularly those with academic qualifications.
Performance deficiencies focus in the following planning and
managerial areas :
intensive and detailed study of the technical problems, followed by

the development of practicable and sensible solutions based on a sound
knowledge of timber technology;
126
turning the design into the building: back-up for the construction
team and monitoring of the process (quality control);
optimum coordination of both planning and construction.
This last point includes the coordination and clear allocation of

responsibilities. The importance of this for the construction of a high
quality product cannot be overestimated; experience shows that any
shortcomings in this area are the cause of countless building defects.
A NEW DISTRIBUTION OF RESPONSIBILITIES
Consideration of the status quo convinces me that things cannot

improve given the existing distribution of tasks on the building site. What
is needed, I feel, is a new and institutionalised hybrid profession with
special training and experience. (The creation of new specialisms or the
modification of existing ones would be a good, basic and so far
under-exploited way of adapting to society's rapidly changing requirements.
One example I can quote is the recent call for 'remedial architects' and
'trouble-shooting engineers'. It will obviously not be easy to get such
ideas off the ground, particularly in the conservative building sector.)
There is nothing revolutionary about this new profession. Various
elements of it already exist; they remain to be defined and
institutionalised. The term 'timber construction engineer' would be
appropriate were it not for its strong connotations of stress analysis. My
suggestion, already used in this paper, is therefore 'timber building
expert'.
THE TIMBER BUILDING EXPERT
The main feature of the professional profile I am about to describe is

its coverage of the knowledge and skills needed to deal with all
applications and problems involving wood. A thorough knowledge of stress
analysis is certainly part of the picture, but there is an additional range
of skills and knowledge covering the range of requirements outlined above.
The chief characteristic of the timber building expert is the
broad-spectrum, interdisciplinary nature of his/her activities. These
include:
the whole of building physics;

all problems of durability, reliability, long-term serviceability;
materials technology, relating not merely to timber but also to
wood-based materials, connecting materials, adhesives, preservatives,
etc. and their compatibility;
design as a global concept, as a way of exploiting the potential of
wood as a load-bearing, space-dividing and/or formal and decorative
material ;
detailed design of the timber building with its specific potential and
limitations;
the possibilities and limitations of processing, machining, transport
and assembly and the guidance and management of these activities (e.g.
quality control, coordination of the various tasks).
All of this requires not merely specialised knowledge but also a

constant or at least primary involvement with wood and the related building
techniques.
127
It is important to point out that the job of the timber building
expert is intended not to replace any existing function but to fill a gap,
particularly as a back-up for architects and structural engineers who may
only rarely come into contact with wood and are not therefore qualified to
deal with the more sophisticated timber problems.
In addition, however, they should act as consultants for the craftsmen
doing the actual work.
Even if this redistribution of responsibilities were to be
established, architects and structural engineers would still need to improve
their knowledge of timber as a building material so that they:
at least know what timber is capable of;

give timber an equal chance with other materials;
can solve simpler problems themselves; and
recognise the point at which an expert needs, to be consulted
(recognising and accepting one's own limitations is part of being
professional).
PUTTING ACROSS KNOWLEDGE AND SKILLS
Having listed a whole series of requirements for buildings and

builders, I should at least mention the question of putting the relevant
knowledge and skills across.
The context in which the gaps in professional expertise may be filled
and timber building experts trained is basically irrelevant. I very much
doubt, however, that universities are particularly interested in the task,
since it involves practical skills as much as knowledge.
I should like to emphasise a few of these skills, which I regard as
both important and sadly neglected:
the ability to find and acquire specific knowledge;

the ability to apply one's knowledge;
the ability to solve or preferably avoid problems (i.e. foresight and
prevention ;
the ability to work in a team, particularly an interdisciplinary one.
This last item is one which universities and polytechnics, where

collaboration between disciplines is still in its infancy, might usefully
take to heart.
A further drawback to universities and polytechnics is their
self-image, which dictates that the problems they tackle must be difficult,
i.e. intellectually demanding. Such problems are, however, often very
.isolated, whereas many far-reaching problems may, on the other hand, be very
simple or even banal, and thus of no interest to universities.
This is true of many of the difficulties encountered on the building
site. A comprehensive study of building defects, i.e. substandard
construction, shows that no fewer than two-thirds of all defects, costing
hundreds of millions of Swiss francs a year in compensation, are
attributable solely to human weakness and error, i.e.'carelessness, neglect,
ignorance, forgetfulness, failure to communicate, underestimation of
relevant factors and a lack of clear allocation of responsibilities.
It is hard to say whether universities etc. should concern themselves
with such matters. These issues are, however, of enormous practical
importance, and it is essential that they be tackled. The context in which
this takes place is secondary.
128
As far as the training of the timber building expert is concerned, I
think it likely that the more practically-biased institutions are more
suitable vehicles than universities or polytechnics. Leaving aside the ideal
syllabus, it seems obvious that theoretical training must be supplemented by
substantial practical experience, which cannot be acquired in the classroom.
CONCLUSIONS
This paper has looked at the requirements for training in timber

construction from the point of view of building practice, not of the
training establishments. The gap between the demands made on a (timber)
building and their fulfilment is often enormous, two of the reasons being
under-qualified personnel and insufficient coordination of skills and
activities.
Because of this I have proposed that a new profession of 'timber
building expert' be institutionalised. This would give the situation a
chance to improve.
Would the creation of this new profession not tarnish the image of
timber building by making it appear exceptionally difficult? This danger can
be avoided by looking at the problem in the right light: neither timber
construction nor wood as a material is particularly complex or difficult.
Wood is, however, far more versatile than any other building material - a
fact reflected in the multiplicity of uses to which it is put and thus also
in the activities and desirable qualifications of its designers and
constructors.
Finally, with the move towards standardisation, which is the subject
of this conference, I hope also that the standards, guidelines and
recommendations relating to timber construction will in future be more in
line with the observations listed here, and no longer drafted from the
specific viewpoints of the timber preservation specialists, stress analysis
experts or wood-based materials manufacturers who have dominated the field
in the past.
DISCUSSION
Comment by Park, J. (UK)
I totally agree with the points raised in the paper by Mr Meierhofer.

Training in timber building construction should, of necessity, extend
throughout the industry - not only to the designers but also to the site
operatives. Timber, being an easily worked material, is open to abuse on
site. This is particularly important in the UK with the wide use of trussed
rafters and increasing use of timber-framed building. All site operatives,
including all services contractors should, for example, be made aware of the
implications of removal of trussed rafter members and the cutting of
structural components in timber-framed construction. The importance of the
need for compliance with all the details of timber frame construction is
another area in which site operatives need educating.
129
W. HANSSENS
Directorate-General Science, Research and Development
COMMUNITY RESEARCH IN EUROPE BEFORE THE SINGLE EUROPEAN ACT
In its January 1974 Resolution, the Council decided to open up the

whole field of science and technology to Community activity. Under these
terms of reference, the Commission was made responsible for the increasing
coordination of national policies and for supporting the implementation of
research programmes of Community interest in the field of energy, raw
material, etc.
Activities in each of these areas acquire added value by being carried
out on a Community-wide basis : the burden of major public expenditure and
the risks involved can be shared among several partners so that expenditure
at Community level represents savings at national level. This approach also
implies increasing economic integration and provides the actual means by
which structures can be made less rigid.
The scientific potential of the various research teams working in the
Community can thus be used more effectively within a multidisciplinary
environment and by encouraging the exchange of ideas and information.
THE SINGLE EUROPEAN ACT - THE FRAMEWORK PROGRAMME - RESEARCH AND

TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT
The Commission would like the Framework Programme to be the

Community's answer to the twin challenge, both internal and external, with
which it is faced.
The external challenge is to maintain the Community's competitiveness
in the high-value-added technology sectors vis--vis the United States and
Japan, which are constantly increasing the quantity and quality of their
research. (In the immediate future, per capita expenditure in the United
States will be 2.5 times as much, and in Japan twice as much, as in the
Community.)
The internal challenge is to improve economic and social cohesion
within the Community and to reduce the disparities between Member States in
the field of technology. (The three great industrial powers in the Community
- France, Germany and the United Kingdom - together account for more than
80% of all RSD expenditure within the Community.) These disparities can be
reduced only by ensuring the participation of the less developed countries
in high level research.
The Single European Act makes research and .technology an area of
overall formal competence for the Community. It will play an important role
in bringing about the internal market by 1992, which is a major Community
objective.
The Framework Programme is an instrument for exploiting the potential
represented by the Community of twelve: a market of 325 million people with
1.1 million scientists and technicians, including 420,000 research workers.
130
RESEARCH AND TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT
Research and technological development nay be crucial in bringing

about a modern and competitive single market in which the Community bas a
special role to play.
In 1986, the Commission prepared a Framework Programme of research and
technological development (1987-91) which was adopted only in 1987. This
Framework Programme identified a number of areas in which Community action
can make a special contribution. Recent initiatives on financial engineering
will help to translate RTD activities into industrial applications.
THE NEED FOR A RESEARCH PROGRAMME COVERING THE WHOLE WOOD AND CORK CHAIN
INDUSTRY
There has been no fundamental change in the basis for establishing a

wood research programme but new facts are coming to light and must be taken
into account.
The European Community is still short of wood and wood-based products:
they are the second most important item (8,000 million dollars) on the list
of Community imports and it would certainly be unreasonable to seek rapid
means of making good this deficit without first making a detailed study of
the entire 'wood chain' in order to discover the weakest links.
Each sector of the timber industry is highly dependent on the correct
economic operation of other sectors both upstream and downstream. The
interdependence of the various sectors is becoming increasingly clear.
As far as production is concerned, the research programme will
concentrate on increasing the volume, availability and quality of forest
products, in accordance with environmental requirements.
The economic viability and competitiveness of the timber and wood pulp
industries will receive particular attention: efforts will be made to
enhance the economic potential of the timber and cork industries and to
increase their competitiveness on the international market.
On average, 20% of all land in the Community of twelve is covered by
productive woodlands. Although this may seem a fair average for the
industrialised countries of Europe, it must be borne in mind that the
national figures range from 5.5 to 30%. Moreover, the quality of timber
produced in northern Europe is very different from that produced in the
south and it is much more difficult to establish productive woodlands in
southern Europe.
For this reason, northern areas of the Community generally supply
sawlogs, veneer logs and peeling logs while most industrial timber, box
timber and wood for paper manufacture comes from the south. There are
consequently serious natural handicaps with considerable economic
implications.
In addition to the natural north-south differences in the distribution
of woodlands and the quality of the timber, there is a whole range of local
and regional exploitation problems : logging operation may be easy or
difficult and expensive) the workforce may or may not be specialised) there
may be problems associated with access, existing roads, transportation and
the distances to be covered. Forestry in Europe, therefore, as elsewhere,
encounters natural, social or industrial obstacles which have a considerable
effect on its economic viability.
Indigenous production is faced with many difficulties from the outset.
The FAO report to the year 2000 indicates that certain sizes of timber
may be in short supply in future whereas there is an occasional glut of
small timber. Furthermore, the tropical logs market is shrinking and prices
131
are rising: such logs must gradually be replaced by high-quality European
varieties.
The reafforestation of some farmland, which is a relatively new
problem in the late 1980s, will remain very much a feature of the next few
decades. It will probably apply much more to some regions than to others and
will tend further to accentuate the wooded nature of certain areas.
A large number of studies have been undertaken in the past few years
to find lasting solutions to the problem of increasing agricultural
surpluses and their prohibitive cost to the European taxpayer. A number of
attempts are being made, simultaneously, to implement supposedly appropriate
plans of action: long-term structural schemes at farm level, the
introduction of production quotas and set-aside schemes and, finally,
restrictive action on guaranteed farm prices so as to align them more
closely with world market prices, which are considerably lower.
Although large areas of farm land will- certain be afforested before
the end of the century, the acreages involved will probably be much smaller
than the figures so often quoted in 1987/88. Nevertheless, several million
hectares will, very gradually, be turned over to forestry. The most
favourable conditions for carrying out such afforestation on a sound
economic basis are probably to be found, at present, in the United Kingdom
and Ireland, where grazing land is cheap, the climate is suitable and
government aid, tax concessions etc. are available to forest owners.
Small timber from the first thinnings of these new plantations on
agricultural land will tend to increase supplies to the pulping industry
which, it is hoped, will obtain its supplies increasingly from Community
grown rather than imported timber.
After this quick survey of the wood chain and the prospects for
Community production, it would be useful to look in greater detail at the
projects and achievements of forestry research programmes run by DG XII
(R&D).
1983 : Studies and Symposium on the reuse of waste paper industry;

1982/85 : First programme on wood as a renewable raw material;
1986/89 : Second programme on wood, including cork, as a renewable raw
material;
1990/93 : Third programme on wood, as a renewable raw material (being
prepared).
Many of the contracts under the first programme were extended to

beyond 31 December 1985, without increased financing, so as to enable the
uninterrupted completion of shared-cost research contracts.
For each of the three sections of the first programme, a closing
seminar was held in order to review the work carried out and the results
achieved: Pulp, paper and board - Brussels, 19-21 November 1986; Wood as a
material - Munich, 14-15 April 1987; Silviculture - Bologna, 2-3 June 1987.
Those attending the seminars were issued with the summary of the final
reports. The pulp, paper and board seminar has now been published and the
proceedings are on sale in Community book shops.
The second wood research programme 1986/89 also includes cork. Budget:
10 million ECUs, participation of Sweden and Switzerland. Work began late
1987-early 1988.
More than 340 applications for contracts were submitted for this
programme, which includes the cultivation and industrial use of cork.
The initial assessment of the proposals put forward by outside experts
selected from a list drawn up by the national delegates to the Management
and Advisory Committee (CGC) ranked them in order of priority. The very
restricted budget means that only those proposals considered to be of first
132
priority could be adopted: the original proposals made by Commission staff
were added to by the national delegations to the Materials CGC and
eventually 117 proposals were adopted for financing by the Community,
together with four coordination activities on:
spruce reproduction 'in vitro',

the sawing of eucalyptus logs,
the sun drying of sawn wood,
the comparability of sampling methods for drawing up forestry
inventories.
It will also be possible under the wood programme to arrange an

exchange of research workers (working specialists), provided that the
trainee worker returns to his original post after his period of training and
can thus make his newly-acquired knowledge and technical skill available to
others.
On closer inspection of that part of the programme dealing with wood

and cork as materials, it will be seen that 54 proposals and three
coordination activities relating to this area have been accepted, accounting
for a total Community contribution of 2.5 million ECUs, which is roughly
half the amount being spent on all research in this field.
The proposals adopted relate to the following themes:
Structural grading of sawn wood and Eurocode 5 (all Member States),

Quality of timber from fast growing species (8 member States),
Preservation of spruce timber (4 Member States),
Increased stability and durability of timber (7 Member States) ,
Development of structure panels (3 Member States),
Drying facilities for sawn wood (5 Member States),
Creep and strengthening of timber and timber structures (13
participants),
Use of cork (2 Member States).
Commission staff, in collaboration with the Materials CGC, are

preparing the main lines of the 3rd Wood and Cork Programme, scheduled for
1990/1993.
The following sections cover the most important topics to be included
in part II of the programme covering 'wood and cork as material'. It will,
no doubt, be necessary to adopt a more pragmatic approach, related to the
actual budget once this has been determined, so it is likely that the
following list of topics will have to be further curtailed.
MECHANICAL WOOD PROCESSING AND QUALITY IMPROVEMENT OF THE FINAL PRODUCTS
The need to have a better understanding of the relationship between

silvicultural treatments and wood quality is also increasingly stated. An
interdisciplinary research team of silviculturists, geneticists, ecologists
and wood technologists should all investigate this problem in collaborative
research projects; (the effects of spacing, thinning and fertilisers on wood
properties) minimum density within a growth ring; knot size and the volume
and properties of juvenile wood).
133
Quality Grading of Sawn Wood
'Objective' grading of wood has been proved to enlarge its usability

for structural purposes. Better grading mechanisms, which can be easily
integrated into the industrial processing of wood, are needed.
IMPROVEMENT OF SAWN WOOD PROCESSING TECHNIQUES
Sawmilling Techniques
The sawmilling industry in EC countries often has a low profitability.

A more comprehensive analysis of sawmilling operations is required as a
basis for the optimisation of processing techniques in terms of the right
balance of recovery/productivity/residue-utilisation.
For example, shortcomings of present sawmilling equipment (including
sensors) should further be overcome, especially when dealing with small or
irregular logs and the measurement of forms and irregularities. Significant
gains are expected to be possible by the suitable combination of automated
measurements of log characteristics, more choices in the development of
appropriate equipment and improved sawing methods.
Drying Techniques
The correct climatisation of wood before use is essential for its

performance. In many cases artificial drying is a sine qua non for the
production of high quality valuable sawn wood, therefore more attention
should be paid to the quality of drying, with special emphasis on achieving
low moisture gradients and good colour. Basic work will be required first to
understand how the parameters of temperature, humidity, air speed and
direction, section size and quality, affect gradients and residual stresses
in dried wood of different species.
COMPOSITE PRODUCTS
Long-term Durability of Glued Structures
Reduced water sensitivity, swelling and surface roughening, are

problems that should be overcome together with a substantial reduction in
waste.
The ultimate objective should be the improvement in durability and a
broadening of the utilisation potential of glued wood-based products.
Therefore it is important to elucidate the behaviour of- wood near mechanical
or adhesive joints under external stresses, and to establish criteria for
creep and fracture.
New Composite Wood-based Products for Structural Oses
The objective is to identify possible new composite wood products and

to assess their quality/price ratio as well as possible uses. A coordinated
action is foreseen which should clarify the field and identify future
research needs and development options.
New Composite Cork-based Products
The objective is to find new uses for low quality cork and industrial
cork waste to develop new materials based on cork industry residues,
especially cork powders. A coordinated action could be undertaken to make a
134
better assessment of the major constraints and long-term prospects of this
industrial sector.
To conclude this first draft of the third wood and cork programme
(1990/93) , we will try to cover some of the most important topics - the
overall objective remains for the complete 'wood chain' to:
increase the availability and quality of forestry resources, talcing

into account environmental imperatives;
improve the economic potential of EC forestry industries with the aim
of ensuring their international competitiveness and viability.
DISCUSSION
Question by Ceccotti, A. (Italy)
Twice I have read about invitations to tender regarding seismic design

in wood structures and twice the EEC has decided that it was not important
enough to be financed.
Answer by Hanssens, N. (EC)
This was because we did not have enough money. Next year we intend to
do something about seismic reactions in timber, especially in Greece. We do
find this subject important.
Question by Sunley, J.G. (UK)
Mr Hanssens said that the budget for the second wood programme was
10 million ECU. The original proposal was higher, but it was reduced -
proportionally even more than other material programmes.
What will the budget for the third programme be, and will it not be
reduced more than the other material programmes?
Answer by Hanssens, N. (EC)
We hoped to get 20 million ECU but that sum was reduced to 10 million.
This was a severe reduction, also in comparison with the other material
programmes. But there is also a task for you. The decision-makers must be
influenced so they will not reduce the timber budget so much.
For the coming programme we expect about 12 or 15 million ECU, which I
think is insufficient.
In connection with what Mr Ceccotti said; two countries have now

conducted research on timber in seismic areas: Italy and Greece. France is
going to begin before the end of 1988. Already it can be said that timber
structures are the best structures to resist seismic actions.
135
J. KOLB
Technical Service of the Swiss Timber Association
LIGNUM, Zrich, Switzerland
THE MOVE TOWARDS SIMPLE SOLUTIONS USING TIMBER
Switzerland is a densely populated country with around seven million

inhabitants ; 27% of the surface area is covered by forest. The resulting
timber use of about five million cubic metres annually corresponds to an
estimated production potential of over seven million cubic metres of raw
timber. Is Switzerland a country which through tradition and commonsense
makes systematic use of its renewable raw materials? It is difficult to give
a convincing reply to this question, whether in the affirmative or in the
negative.
Nevertheless, there has been a welcome increase in demand for timber
construction in Switzerland in recent years. This positive development for
timber construction has been due essentially to the following changes :
an increasing regard for timber as a construction material;

- more widespread exploitation of the advantages of sawn timber;
- a revival of the pitched roof with its many design variations;
a new approach to the various kinds of load-bearing systems for timber
housing construction;
- a new, efficient and simple arrangement of the building shell layers
in lightweight construction;
- the development of high strength, yet simple joints and components;
the increasing part played in timber construction by leading
architects who are seeking to create a new timber building culture by
integrating structural and architectural design;
new solid timber units used as flat shells in both a load-bearing and
a facing capacity, paving the way for new applications;
new technologies and sophisticated working methods enabling rational
production and better planning;
- joint promotion of timber construction through self-help measures
within the trade and recently through state support.
THE EFFECTS OF THE EUROPEAN TIMBER MARKET ON SWITZERLAND
The biggest problem facing the Swiss forestry and timber sector today
is integration into the European timber trade market (trade flows).
Switzerland has a forestry law which forbids large-scale felling in its
forests. What is more, Swiss woodland is characterised by the most diverse
and sometimes uneconomic locations. These are only two of the factors which
explain why homogeneous and inexpensive ranges of timber from other European
countries are placing pressure on the Swiss internal market.
Despite this, Switzerland is not in favour of having regulatory
measures at its borders in order to protect its own timber more effectively;
efforts must rather be made at integrating Switzerland into the European
environment, thus safeguarding and optimising common opportunities. It will
also be essential for Switzerland to take part in the development and
136
introduction of European standards for the construction industry. In my
opinion, Switzerland is by no means behind the times in European timber
construction. In certain areas it is the undisputed leader.
As everyone is aware, the Swiss like to give the impression of being
exceptionally independent and the Swiss timber trade in particular, which
for the most part is organised on a small scale, is not used to thinking in
European terms. However, in the wake of the harmonisation of the internal
markets, even Switzerland will have to address the issue of European
standards. Thus the redrafting of the Swiss timber construction standard
(SIA standard 164, timber construction) will therefore in all probability be
based on Eurocode S.
It may also be assumed that the appropriate Swiss experts will make
use of the period during which comments are invited to examine the existing
proposal for possible adoption and application. There is no doubt that the
Swiss timber industry of today is still sceptical about the harmonisation of
standards in Europe.
The strength of the Swiss franc and the high labour and equipment
costs for timber from Swiss forests are rather unfavourable conditions for a
successful export economy. Nevertheless, it would be too shortsighted for
Switzerland, which is dependent upon exports, to work against this
harmonisation and to isolate itself by insisting on its own standards.
SWISS TIMBER CONSTRUCTION TODAY
The national exhibition, 'Expo 64', in Lausanne set the standards and
defined the language for the practical application of modem industrial
timber construction for that time and for the decades to follow. It was
decided to build the big exhibition hall for Expo 1964 in timber following
an invitation to tender organised by LIGNUM. This was the first time plywood
strips had been used in the form of a plane load-bearing structure under
tension (Figure 1). Both the construction and the design aroused admiration
and enthusiasm amongst the general public and in specialist circles.
Over the following decades, considerable engineering and
entrepreneurial efforts went into other large buildings which in turn became
show pieces of the Swiss timber construction sector. 1971 saw the
construction of the Berne ice rink (Figure 2) with 13 glued Belfast roof
trusses with spans of approximately 85 m covering an area of 12 000 m', 1979
the ice rink in Davos (Figure 3) and 1986 the Sntispark shopping and
leisure centre (Figures 4 and S) near St. Gallen.
In recent years, the construction of large-scale prestige buildings
has been slowed down by the increasingly critical situation of the
environment and by a shortage of land. Moreover, the so-called exhibition or
infrastructure buildings which require wide, sturdy load-bearing structures
have also for the most part already been built.
It had been hoped that the next in the planned series of 25-yearly
national exhibitions - which was intended to coincide with the 700th
anniversary of the Swiss Confederation - would also have served to point the
way forward like 'Expo 64' in Lausanne. However, the first idea for this
exhibition - involving buildings whose size or effective span combined with
lightness represented a challenge - was rejected out of hand by the Swiss
people.
New, or at least considerably reformulated, project competitions are
currently underway for the festivities in 1991. The Swiss timber industry
still hopes to participate in this event and demonstrate once again what can
be achieved using timber.
137
Fig. 1. 'Expo 64' exhibition hall in Lausanne. Effective span 87 m.
The roof cladding was supported by plywood strips attached to the
glued timber arches by glued metal connectors.
Fig. 2. Allmend ice rink cover, Berne 1971. Effective spans 76-86 m
138
Fig. 3. Davos ice rink, 1979
Square ground plan
Side length: 54 m
Snow load: 800 kg/ma
This development shows that timber construction must increasingly

address itself to other sectors, such as housing, for example, or the
construction alteration or renovation of agricultural, commercial or
industrial buildings. Of course, local authorities still require buildings
for sport, social gatherings, exhibitions etc. However, these are judged
more on their architectural design and the standard of engineering
construction and serviceability, than on their imposing size. Figures 6, 7
and 8 show some of the possibilities.
In short, there are impressive buildings in existence today which bear
witness to the capability of the Swiss timber industry; they can certainly
be regarded as good advertisements. In addition, there are already positive
experiences in the new fields of application. It still remains to make
widespread practical use of these experiences or, to put it another way,
convincing technology and easy applicability can open up new consumer
markets.
The new technical direction being followed is connected today with a
change of attitude towards construction and architectural design. However,
in the age of 'cast materials' (concrete, metals and plastics), timber
construction is still searching for an in-depth knowledge in order to use
materials and engineering skills to design and construct buildings which
meet present day requirements. The people at the drawing board or actively
involved in the building work must be given the means to design and
construct uncomplicated buildings in timber. The new, uncomplicated
architectural forms and the new demands of householders are absolutely ideal
for a new timber construction industry. A new timber construction culture
can thus emerge which is both innovative, efficient and capable of meeting
today's high requirements using modern technology.
139
Fig. 4. 'Sntispark' in Abtwil/St. Gallen
Ground plan and roof arrangement of the baths and outdoor area
. <
i3s
+*m'
Fig. 5. 'Sntispark'ftbtwil/St.Gallen
Arched timber lattice beams form a threedimensional grid over the bathing
area. Side beams (effective span 14 to 25 m) are arranged in a herringbone
pattern along the 45 metre long arris beam.
140
Fig. 6. Oepfelbaum housing estate in Stetten, A.G. 1986
Figs. 7a and 7b. Montaubert terraced housing in Corminboeuf, FR. 1986
EXAMPLES OF EFFORTS TO PROMOTE THE USE OF TIMBER IN SWITZERLAND
a) Properties of Swiss Timber
In contrast to the homogeneous ranges of timber from the large areas

of flat forest, such as those of northern Europe for example, the range of
timber from Swiss forests (the Jura, the Mittelland and the Alps) have
rather less uniform characteristics. The comprehensive study on the
'Properties of Swiss Timber' carried out as part of National Research
Programme 12 provided a whole wealth of data. A series of conclusions have
been drawn from this information with the help of computers. For example:
141
Fig. 8. Timber load-
bearing structure
over the assembly
hall of Wohlen
cantonal school,
AG. 1987
Swiss timber has a considerably greater load-bearing capacity than

previously thought;
the now customary grading according to SIA standard 164 (three
strength gradings) is complicated and does not give a precise strength
classification;
grading according to appearance (from an aesthetic point of view) is
also inadequate according to the research findings.
Given these results, it is fair to say that up until now there has not
been any consistent grading in the timber industry. The sawmills and the
joinery industry often find it difficult to interpret and to use the
standard regulations, because the necessary training is not always available
to a sufficient extent. Nevertheless, it is a fact that the number of
defects in timber construction is no greater than in constructions using
other materials. The question of whether a more efficient but simpler timber
grading system would be better suited to the market is currently being
discussed in Switzerland.
142
Fig. 9. A specially designed jointing system for timber space frames
Fig. 10. Roof covering of the hall in the lakeside park in Arbon, SG,
with a space frame. Covered ground area: 25 m x 45 m. High load-bearing
tension members were constructed in glued laminated beechwood
143
b) Various Trials and Developments in Components or Joints
A central issue is the need for clarification concerning the influence

of notches on the tensile strength of sawn timber under maximum permissible
stress in combination with jointing materials. Various trials with
toothed-rings should lead to a better understanding of the effect of loads
and influence of notches (Swiss Federal Institute of Technology, Zurich).
Trials were carried out at the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology
in Zrich on the following materials in an attempt to improve the efficiency
of glued laminated timber.
glued laminated beams with tension laminations made up of layers of

plywood (hybrid beams);
glued laminated beech beams ;
vertically laminated timber beams.
It was possible to evaluate the trials with beech in actual

constructions. The high-stress tension members used in the space frame of
the hall in the lakeside park in Arbon were thus made of glued laminated
beechwood (Figures 9 and 10) and likewise cross beams and suspension posts
for the Drflibrcke in Eggiwil. In this instance, the glued laminated
timber was also treated with creosote. The beechwood proved to be
insufficiently profitable which meant that high costs were a major problem.
Many of the projects carried out recently at the Swiss Federal
Technology Institute have dealt with questions of jointing and jointing
materials. Research into the use of finger jointing for glulam laminations
showed that this should be abandoned where possible, or at least improved.
The quality of execution was seen to be particularly important. Continuous
quality control in Swiss timber companies would therefore appear to be
necessary.
With regard to mechanical jointing materials, the research covered
steel strengths, slenderness ratios and types and conditions of storage. The
results of this research will be available at the end of the year in Timber
Construction - Table 2 (source: LIGNUM, Swiss Timber Association, Zurich).
The +BSB+ jointing system made it possible to achieve the aim of
limiting the timber members to be jointed and the jointing materials to a
few standardised types. Using only two types of connectors and simple
processing techniques means that joining can be done by computer controlled
machinery and planning and design simplified to the greatest possible extent
(Figure 11).
Fig. 11. +BSB+ Truss joints made by internal steel plates

and tight fitting bolts
144
c) Timber Bridge Floors
There have been extremely pleasing results in the use of pressure

creosoted beechwood floors for bridges over field and forest roads. Pressure
creosoted pinewood floors are also being used for covered road bridges with
normal road traffic. Particularly noteworthy in this respect was the first
ever use of a timber bridge floor (1984 in Eggiwil, BE) with a width of
6.60 m and a length of 30.60 m in glued laminated timber, transversely
prestressed using high strength steel reinforcements.
The development of these timber bridge floors is based on research
carried out at the Stress Analysis and Steel Construction Department of the
Federal Technology Institute in Zurich.
d) Timber Roofs and External Walls
A new trend is emerging in the design and construction of the building

layers and their jointings, brought about by the higher standards of sealing
which roofs and external walls are required to meet nowadays in the
interests of energy saving.
The main SIA standardisation requirements for roofs and external walls
are as follows:
The K-value of the external walls or roofs must be between 0.3 and
0.4 W/m' depending upon the type of construction and the height above
sea level.
Heat-insulated pitched roofs must have an underlay over the whole area
of the roof above the load-bearing structure and the heat insulation
layer.
Heated buildings must have a separate airtight layer or an airtight
vapour barrier/seal.
The air permeability should not exceed 2.4 to 4.5 h with an
artificially created pressure differential of 50 Pascal. The lower
value applies to buildings in very exposed positions.
Airtight joints must be used whenever structural members penetrate the
roof of walls.
The humidity of the timber surrounding the heat insulation layer and
not adjoining the ventilation space must not exceed 16% at the time of
total encasement.
In timber constructions, there are particular advantages to be gained

from making both the load-bearing system and the remainder of the structure
as simple as possible. Thus the load-bearing structure is built in the warm
area (on the warm side of the insulating layer), and is surrounded by the
vapour barrier, air seal and insulating and facing layers but not joined to
themi in this way there are no thermal bridges and above all no components
penetrating the walls or roof. The difference between a conventional cavity
insulated building and an externally insulated building is shown in
Figures 12 and 13.
A forthcoming publication (provisional title: 'System Solutions Using
Timber', Autumn 1988) illustrates the various load-bearing structures and
the modern arrangement of layers for the external wall, roof, floor
structure and internal wall components. Published and distributed by:
LIGNUM, Schweizerische Arbeitsgemeinschaft fr das Holz, Zrich.
145
Fig. 12. Externally-insulated Fig. 13. Cavity-insulated system
system without wall penetrations with the costly connections
between the floor structure and
roof and the external wall
e) New Building Components Made of Solid Timber
Timber constructions are made up of skeleton and block structures,

frameworks and systems of binders and joists. The skeleton is also faced
with wood-based materials, i.e. chipboard or plywood panels, or with
individual strips of panelling. Up until now, solid components with
exclusively plane faces were built of brick or concrete. Timber suppliers
and builders in Switzerland have now developed products which combine the
advantages of timber with the advantages of flat components made of other
materials.
Fig. 14. Skeleton structure with an externally-insulated system,

'jointless' building shell can be constructed using this arrangement
146
So-called box sections or solid timber beams (Figure 1 5 ) , already
patented, are being prefabricated from individual boards. Once on the
building site, these 'modules' can be joined together and used as flat
components for walls and floor structures. The new solid timber components,
which were developed to meet conversion and renovation requirements, are
successfully being used today for new agricultural and industrial buildings.
Fig. 15. Floor structure with Fig. 16. Floor structure with
solid timber transverse sections box section beams
(various systems) ('Lignatur' system)
f) Support for the Swiss Timber Industry
Self-help measures within the trade
LIGNUM: the Swiss timber association comprising 24 regional

associations.
SAH: the Swiss association for timber research.
State aid
NFP 12: the Swiss national research programme (currently coming to the
end of its term) .
the timber promotion programme of the Federal Bureau for Economic
Affairs in Berne (until 1991).
Young specialists are trained and/or intensive research carried out at

various teaching centres, universities and research centres such as:
the technical colleges of Zurich and Lausanne;

EMPA (The Federal Materials and Testing Institute) in Dbendorf and
St. Galleni
the Swiss technical college for timber in Biel.
CONCLUSION
This paper has by no means dealt with all the areas of timber
construction in Switzerland which are showing signs of development.
147
Fortunately, however, a kind of readiness for change is apparent in the
Swiss timber industry today.
Given a favourable economic climate, the Swiss timber industry will be
able to catch up with modern technology; above all this will involve
pressing ahead into areas where there is a lot of building activity. In the
final analysis, the amount of timber used in construction work is still
small. Conversely, this means that there is a market potential and, given
the increasing regard for timber as a building material, real market chances
for timber and timber products.
148
SESSION V
Chairman: P. PONTIFICE DE SOUSA, National Laboratory

for Civil Engineering, Lisbon, Portugal

WOODEN DOMES
149
A. CECCOTTI
Department of Civil Engineering, University of Florence, Italy
Summary
The most recent calculation codes for earthquake-resistant

buildings make use of the semi-probabilistic method for limit states
to verify structural safety. The point of reference is the intensity
of exceptional earthquakes, i.e. those which occur with a frequency
measured in thousands of years with very little likelihood of
occurrence over a period of centuries.
At the same time, in assessing the design effect of seismic
actions, this method takes advantage of a structure's capacity to
dissipate energy and to suffer major plastic deformation before
collapsing. Timber in structural sizes (whether solid or laminated)
tends to fail fairly easily, primarily because of natural defects.
Ductility and capacity to dissipate energy can be regained only in the
fasteners used between the various structural elements. These aspects
and their relevance for the design of timber structures in seismic
regions have been considered in drawing up the recent proposal for a
CNR-GNDT standard for Italy.
1. STRUCTURAL RESPONSE TO EARTH TREMORS
1.1 Characteristics of Seismic Shock
In the context of structural behaviour seismic actions can be

described as a series of random tremors of the underlying ground. Figure la
shows a typical recording of ground motion - in this case a component of
acceleration - during an earthquake of average intensity. It will be seen
that the acceleration peak of the ground movement turns out to be very close
to one third of the acceleration of gravity (g).
The pattern of a movement can never be exactly repeated, however, even
for a tremor of the same general type in the same location. Consequently, in
order to describe the fundamental characteristics of seismic shock for the
purpose of studying structural behaviour, the practice has for some time
been to prefer the 'response spectrum'.
The earth tremor response spectrum is defined as the reaction of the
fundamental elastic oscillator (Figure 2), of given viscous damping, to the
seismic action in question as the natural period of vibration of the
oscillator varies. On the basis of this definition, therefore, every earth
tremor or every particular 'shape' of ground motion may be described in
terms of its response spectrum, i.e. the maximum values of displacement,
speed and acceleration attained by the mass of the elastic oscillator during
the tremor in relation to the value of the fundamental period of vibration
of the oscillator. Figure lb indicates the response spectrum, with regard to
acceleration, of the tremor shown in Figure la for various values of viscous
151
ENEL DCO SERVIEIO OEOTECNICO.
0529 ERRTHOURKE B
23N0V 0 19H34HS4S
5 RECORDED fiT STURNO
N-S
-1 3
~"*rftih^^ *^^ftt y^' W y v W * '
3 l l l l i l l
30.00" Damping values O percent

2 percent
5 percent
10 percent
20 percent
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.8 L.O 1.5 2.0 4.0 6.0 8.0 T(S)
F i g . 1 . E arthquake recorded a t Sturno during t h e

Campania-Basilicata earthquake of 1980
a) Accelerogram N/S
b) Response spectrum for various damping values
x(t) r e l a t i v e movement
Viscous lampiro
T--
' ^K/M
,. -, ; i i i i i ' *
'" u#T
(|l seismic movement bx
Fig. 2. Schematic representation of fundamental elastic

oscillator and seismic shock
152
damping. It will be seen that for the usual values of viscous damping (e.g.
5%) acceleration may be as high as three times the peak acceleration value
at ground level and may be close to 1 g.
In a given seismic region it is thus possible to 'level out' all the
response spectra for the tremors recorded in the area to arrive at a
standard reference spectrum for structural design, with a preset fractile of
probability. On account of the random nature of seismic shock, the most
recent calculation codes lay down one or more design spectra - generally
acceleration spectra - for earthquake-resistant structures.
The intensity - which is the value of the ordinates of the spectrum,
especially the ordinate T 0 - 0 which of course coincides with the maximum
acceleration peak at ground level - is thus calibrated against the
'expected' tremor for the area, while its 'shape' is based on the geological
features of the region and the geotechnical nature of the underlying ground.
Figure 3 shows an example of the response spectrum based on the new proposal
for a standard put forward by the GNDT group (National Earthquake Defence
Committee) of Italy's National Research Council (1).
It will be seen that Figure 3 also shows the response spectrum, with
much lower values, calculated in accordance with existing Italian standards.
For the sake of comparability, the latter has been increased by a factor of
1.5 to allow for the difference in the assessment of design actions as a
result of the change in verification methods from allowable stress to
ultimate limit states.
1.2 Combination of Actions
Apart from a proper assessment of the forces which actually affect a

structure in terms of the seismic characteristics of the ground and the
response characteristics of the structure itself, it is also very important
in structural design to make a proper assessment of other actions which
presumably exist at the moment of the tremor. For example, it is possible to
realise that two short-term loads can never be regarded as acting
simultaneously on the structure. Accordingly, when applied to places below
an altitude of 1 000 m, the GNDT standard does not take into consideration
during a tremor the presence of snow either in calculating the overall
inertial forces acting on the structure or in assessing local verifications.
It can therefore be assumed that if the structure is designed for a
short-term load - such as snow - which is relatively high in relation to
actual weight, the structure may also prove to be equally safe when affected
by intense but short-term seismic action in the absence of the preceding
short-term load.
1.3 Structural Behaviour: Ductility
Severe accelerations and the resulting inertial forces involving the

elastic response of a structure very often push it beyond its elastic limits
even in the case of minor tremors. During an earth tremor the structure
'relaxes', alters its characteristic period of oscillation, dissipates
kinetic energy and - thanks also to the cyclic nature of the seismic action
- has time to reverse its notion before collapsing. The ability of a
structure to develop plastic deformations without breaking up therefore
becomes an essential factor in resisting seismic action.
This structural property is expressed in terms of ductility (p), which
is traditionally defined as the ratio between the ultimate value of an
appropriate response parameter x u (e.g. horizontal displacement) in the
'actual' elastic-plastic behaviour and the value x y of the same parameter at
the limit of elasticity: \i - x^x^. This ratio may be shown as equal
153
AR(T)
0875g
0.77
0.50
0.35
0.15
1 2 T(sec)
Fig. 3. Acceleration design spectra of Italian earthquake standards
high level area a S rock y terrain and 'hard' ground
GNDT proposal average level area m
low level area b*S2 alluvial terrain and 'soft'
ground
high level area a*
Existing average level area m (level refers to
standards low level area b- seismic intensity)
'1.
-
F
u
/
V
Fig. 4. Conventional load-
x displacement diagram
u
154
(Figure 4) to the ratio between forces Fel and Fu which correspond to the
displacement in an ideal state of elasticity and in an elasticplastic state
respectively.
1.4 Approximate Assessment of Nonlinear Response
The following hypothesis may be useful to simplify understanding of

the phenomenon and to have even an approximate idea of the nonlinear
response of structures to tremors. The maximum displacement of a system with
a single degree of freedom affected by a tremor is approximately
proportional to the intensity of the tremor even when areas of
plasticisation are found. Figure 5 illustrates this theory. Figure 5a shows
the response spectra for three different intensities (Ai, A2> A3) for the
same 'shape* of tremor. The three tremors act on a structure with a single
degree of freedom, mass M and the same translational rigidity k (Figure 2).
There are three possibilities: I structure with elastic behaviour until
collapse) II structure with yield point equal to Fi (Figure 5b);
III structure with yield point equal to F]/2 (Figure 5c) . The
displacements (x^, xj, X3) caused by the three tremors are in the case of
all three structures proportional to intensities Ax> A2. A3. Displacement
can therefore be calculated on the basis of the original rigidity of the
structures in accordance with the following formula:
x A'R(T)TVk CD
Structure II has been designed in such a way that the yield threshold
is attained during a tremor of intensity A}. In this case the displacement
corresponding to the yield threshold is x xj_. In the case of a tremor of
intensity A the displacement will be equal to X2/xv 2 at least, and equal
to xj/x 3 in the case of a tremor of intensity A , if the structure is
not to collapse.
The yield threshold of structure II is half that of the previous
structure. It has been designed to resist a tremor of intensity A]/2 while
retaining elasticity. When the absolute displacements caused by the three
tremors are in each case equal to the displacements of the previous
structure, given the same initial structural rigidity k and the fact that
the corresponding x v is half that of the previous structure, the ductility
required is double that of before. Severe tremors increasingly force the
structure into a plastic state as the discrepancy widens between the
intensity of the tremor and that of the seismic action which causes the
plasticisation threshold to be attained.
Assuming that the ductility of the two structures described above is
in fact U 3 for structure II and y 6 for structure III, both structures
will collapse during a tremor of intensity A3. In other words, the two
structures provide the same safety against collapse even though designed for
different degrees of resistance. The weaker resistance of structure III is
compensated by its greater capacity for plastic deformation before final
collapse.
It is possible at this point to establish a design criterion based on
the capacity of a structure for plastic adjustment and a preset 'collapse'
intensity. The procedure is as follows:
a) the standardised elastic response spectrum R(T), which reflects the

seismic characteristics of the location, as specified;
b) the peak acceleration value A of the site where the collapse occurs
is also specified;
155
F r
F a -A,RIT)a>
/!
F,A,R(T>m / i /i
y Fi<A,R(T)m
~~~/!~i
1. S^-VC
/ i i
-Tf'-j-J
/ ! F,
/' '
/tiii
: ^ .
J
Ail i 5!
I I ", , > 1
a) A,, A, b) >,.2i, c)
Fig. 5. Approximate calculation of nonlinear response, from (2)
Ar(
f
h
S m)
(20 m )
FMIHI
SSSBEEâS^SS2SH5@8sa^
TIMBER
M = 6 650 kg T = 1.01 sec F ( S i ) = 28 7 0 0 N F ( S 2 ) = 43 900 N
>ii-jgu^,.'mwM.i*.i-uwuu.t i-i.it,- ,ad,'..i'AtL-',

IPE4S0
STEEL HEA 160
WWN
M = 6 5 5 0 kg T = 1.02 sec F (S]_) = 28 2 0 0 N F ( S 2 ) = 43 0 0 0 N
13ISO cm
REINFORCED 15x40 cm
CONCRETE
M = 16 250 kg T = 0.75 sec FtSj^) = 85 700 N F(S 2 ) = 125 100 N
Fig. 6. Comparison of seismic actions, in accordance with the

GNDT standard, on portal frames of various materials, for q 1,
designed to support the same (nonseismic) incidental loads in
addition to own weight
156
c) the available ductility p in relation to the type of structure is
known;
d) the yield resistance to be incorporated in the design is thus:
F
u " A *R(T)I1 " VR(T)ll/il (2)
u
y y a
1.5 Structural Coefficient
This criterion (2) was developed from the simplified theory of

nonlinear response outlined at the beginning of the previous section. Its
limits are therefore exactly the same as those of the theory. Moreover, the
analysis carried out is applicable to elements and structures with behaviour
comparable to that of a single element. The extension of this type of
analysis to include structures of a more complex type is not easy, since
during a tremor plasticised areas appear and develop within the structure
itself in a complex manner which cannot be easily forecast (depending on
rigidity and resistance ratios between the various structural elements and
on modal patterns of agitation, etc.).
The response of a structure to a tremor may in fact be predicted by
means of the numerical integration of the general equation of the dynamic
equilibrium of the structure, with account taken on the one side of the
'actual' seismic shock (using, for example, the accelerogram of the motion
of the ground) and on the other side of the laws of behaviour of the
sections and joints up to the nonlinear stage. However, even in this
instance, as clearly shown in (2) , it is still possible to formulate a
simplified rule for the calculation of the design spectrum by using for the
whole structure a concept equivalent to the idea of 'required ductility'
which was seen in the case of the simple oscillator, i.e. by dividing the
elastic response spectrum by a structural coefficient q. This coefficient is
thus defined as the ratio between the acceleration of collapse A u and the
acceleration which causes yield A :
y
q A /A (3)
H
u y
The value of the acceleration of collapse A u is established by

national standards in relation to the seismic nature of the location and the
structural coefficient is established inclusively on the basis of the
structural material and method. The design acceleration is then calculated
as A Ay/q and an elastic analysis of the structure becomes possible. The
sections are then designed in such a way that the resistance of the sections
to yield is equal to the stress calculated on the basis of a tremor of a
given intensity:
Ay AuRtT)/q (4)
When the intensity of the tremor is less than Ay the elasticity of the
structure is retained, but when the intensity exceeds Ay the plasticisation
state is reached. Following normal practice for technical standards, we can
define the inclusive values of q in a very simple manner on the sole basis
of the type of structure and the material. B y way of example, for steel
structures qvalues range from 1 (structures with very low ductility and
dissipation of energy) to 6 (structures with a considerable margin of
ductility and dissipation of energy). In the case of reinforced concrete,
the qvalues lie between 2 and 4.
157
ihhi ^niiir Trim vlm-
Fig. 7. Behaviour of energy-dissipating connections

in a structure subject to a tremor
Fig. 8. Test apparatus for joints subject to cyclic loads

- from (10) - and relative static system
Fig. 9. Shape of the law of moment and rotation

for metal pin joints, from (10)
158
2. TIMBER AND TIMBER STRUCTURES IN SEISMIC REGIONS
It must be remembered that timber is a light material with a specific

weight approximately one fifth of that of concrete. It has an excellent
comprehensive and tensile strength with a strength-weight ratio similar to
that of steel. Furthermore, the resistance of timber under short-term loads
is much higher than for long-term loads. Some calculation codes indicate a
factor of 2 between the resistance limits in the two situations. The GNDT
value is 1.5.
The rigidity values of timber, since it is a viscous-elastic material,
also tend to increase - with the elastic modulus increasing by a factor of
1.5 under short-term loads (3) - and stability is thus greatly enhanced.
However, the values of the elastic modulus remain quite low in absolute
terms, with the result that for certain types of structure there may be
characteristic periods of oscillation which correspond to the descending
phase of the design response spectrum (see example in Figure 6).
In view of all these properties timber would seem to be an ideal
material for constructions in seismic areas, but the fact remains that it is
essentially susceptible to fracture. 'Pure' timber, i.e. defect-free timber
in small sizes, can in fact bend with considerable plastic deformation
before breaking, but the inevitable knots and other defects in structural
timber tend to cause failure long before the theoretical plasticisation
threshold of pure timber is attained (4,5). Furthermore, before fracture
with the material still in the plastic state, the hysteresis loops are
extremely flattened with relatively low dissipation of energy.
On the other hand, ductility and ability to dissipate energy may be
regained in the fasteners between the various timber elements, whether as a
result of deformation by the steel connections or as a result of the
deformation perpendicular to the grain of the timber which remain ductile
even in structural timber (6,7,8).
Advantage may be taken of this property of the fasteners by using
suitable joints specifically designed to resist weak tremors without
significant deformation but also able in the event of major tremors to
dissipate large amounts of energy without breaking up completely and to be
repaired afterwards without too much trouble: Figure 7 (9).
Figure 8 shows the apparatus which was used for a series of tests
carried out at the Department of Civil Engineering of the University of
Florence. The tests looked at the behaviour under almost static cyclic loads
of a particular steel pin joint for glued laminated timber elements. The
special test equipment tended to impose solely flexural stress without
normal force or shear effects.
The idea was to reproduce as realistically as possible the situation
of the portal angles where, because of the very high ratio between the
dimensions of the structure and those of the sections, the contribution to
the pressure exerted on each single pin by shear is negligible in comparison
with the bending moment. The behaviour of the joint subject to cyclic load
(Figure 9) is essentially the same as that found by other investigators with
regard to mechanical fasteners (11,12).
The subsequent theoretical interpretation of the results obtained (13)
produced, by means of a numerical simulation of the behaviour of the
structural joints, albeit not yet entirely consistent with the actual cycle,
guideline values for the structural coefficient q for simple glued laminated
portals as in Figure 10. Some results are shown in Figure 11. It will be
seen that the q-values range from a minimum of 1 to a maximum of 11.
159
Fig. 10. Various examples
of glued laminated timber
portals
Rigid c o n n e c t i o n ! Semi- rigid connections
Fig. 11. Structural coefficient

q-values for the various static
systems in Figure 10, in accor-
dance with the frequency content
of various real and simulated
tremors, from (13)
///V/ 77777"
-'.--.jsfeci?'
Fig. 12. The timber house seems untouched in spite
of the violence of the earthquake
160
3. GNDT STANDARD AND TIMBER STRUCTURES
The Gruppo Nazionale per la Difesa dai Terremoti (National Earthquake

Defence Conmlttee) is a forking party set up by Italy's National Research
Council to draft a new calculation code for buildings in the seismic regions
of Italy. The idea is to replace the existing standards with regulations
more in line with current trends in modern antiseismic standards.
With due regard for the fact that existing theoretical and
experimental knowledge of timber structures cannot be compared with the
knowledge of steel and reinforced concrete structures, the drafting
committee wisely chose fairly low values for q. The qvalue is 2 for timber
frame and construction plywood buildings, and q 1 for all other structures
without reference to the different types of structural joint used. It is
assumed in practice that all these joints are not capable of dissipating
energy and plasticising.
The reason for the distinction is essentially due to the fact that
experience has shown that standard techniques using timber frames and
plywood panels have always provided an effective resistance to earth
tremors, provided there are no errors in considering seismic actions at the
design stage, e.g. angles weakened by proximity to apertures, excess weight
of roof components, etc.
The house in the background of Figure 12 seems to have avoided serious
damage whereas the reinforced concrete building in the foreground has been
completely destroyed by the force of the tremor (14).
4. PRACTICAL EXAMPLES OF THE GNDT STANDARD
Some test calculations were made by the author as examples of applying

the GNDT rules in the case of widespan glued laminated timber structures.
The structures are actual buildings located in regions of Italy with seismic
activity of medium intensity and designed for situations specified in
current regulations on earthquakeresistant constructions. These regulations
are based on the method of safety verification for allowable stress using
the response spectrum in Figure 3 (curve m) to ensure comparability.
Three examples are taken:
I roof with a span of 40 m static system with more or less parabolic

threehinged arch}
II roof with a span of SO m static system with threehinged arch
comprising straight elements and lateral supporting columns comprising
twin elements with inclined members)
III roof with a span of 31 m static system with a threehinged arch with
a supporting element with an almost vertical member.
The calculations for comparison were made on the basis of the GNDT
standards proposed for regions of medium intensity, with the response
spectrum being that of the new regulations (Figure 3, curve S2, m ) .
The calculations used the modal dynamic analysis method and a value of
IS 000 MPa was selected for the elastic modulus of the timber. It should be
noted, however, that even a value of 10 000 MPa would not cause the
fundamental period in any of the cases examined to exceed 0.8 sec, which
would cause the result always to fall in the flat initial section of the
response spectrum.
For the structural coefficient the value of q 1 was selected. This
is certainly correct since the structures all have perfect links
(essentially portals with three perfect hinges).
161
Examples of calculation: Structure I
1. vibration mode
T = 0.60 s
2. vibration mode
T = 0.39 s
r 3. vibration mode
T = 0.24 s
vertical loads
^P^y^
Existing standards: vertical loads, horizontal and vertical tremor
GNDT standards: vertical loads, horizontal and vertical tremor
Fig. 13
162
Examples of c a l c u l a t i o n : Structure I I
is
2 . v i b r a t i o n mode 3. v i b r a t i o n mode
T 0.29 s T 0.19 s
E x i s t i n g standards: v e r t i c a l l o a d s , h o r i z o n t a l and v e r t i c a l tremor
GNDT standards: v e r t i c a l l o a d s , h o r i z o n t a l and v e r t i c a l tremor
F i g . 14
163
Examples of calculation: Structure III
1. vibration mode
T = 0.46 s
3. vibration mode
T = 0.19 s T = 0.14 s
vertical loads
Existing standards: vertical loads, horizontal and vertical tremor
"T^SECEDX^
GNDT standards: vertical loads, horizontal and vertical tremor
Pig. 15
164
Diagrams of the oat relevant situations arc given for the purpose of
comparison in Figures 13-15. A brief illustration of the structures and the
form of the first three vibration modes is followed by diagrams showing
flexural stress in various parts of the structure in the following
circumstances t
A vertical loads only;

Ba vertical loads plus seismic action indicated by a plus sign in
existing standards;
Ca vertical loads plus seismic action indicated by a minus sign in
existing standards (it may be useful to recall that with the modal
dynamic analysis method stress values are obtained by adding the
squares of the various vibration modes and the various stress
directions, vertical and horizontal in this instance);
Be vertical loads plus seismic action indicated by a plus sign in the
National Research Council standards;
Cc vertical loads plus seismic action indicated by a minus sign in the
National Research Council standards.
It should be pointed out that, in the cases dealt with, the incidence
of the snow load is approximately equal to if not more than the permanent
weight. For the locations in question the GNDT standard does not allow for
the presence of any snow at the time of the tremor.
With the present regulations which always allow for the full weight of
an incidental load at the time of the tremor for the purpose of local
verification (whereas for the purpose of assessing seismic actions one third
of the snow load is considered), the seismic action is expressed as a slight
oscillation of the stress values around the values caused by vertical loads,
it being a known fact that oscillations of this type are generally lower
than those caused by wind.
With the GNDT standard, which does not allow in the cases examined for
the presence of snow at the moment of the tremor, either for local safety
verification or for the assessment of seismic actions, the action of the
tremor, which is now much more violent than before, is therefore also much
stronger than the wind. There is extensive oscillation of the stress values
in comparison with those caused solely by the vertical design loads, and
often there is a genuine change of sign in the stress.
Given that 50% and more of the vertical design load is absent during
the tremor, the maximum amounts in absolute terms of stress in the sections
do not increase greatly and when they increase they are compensated by the
possibility of being able to take into account the increased resistance of
the timber to short-term loads. This will be more so in the case of
structures which are subject to severe horizontal actions in the external
links even when only vertical loads are present. (Italian experts normally
refer to such structures as 'bulging'.)
It is nevertheless useful to stress that particular care must be taken
in checking instability, not so much because of major variations in the sign
of the normal pressure as because of the considerable variation in the
lengths free of bending which may occur. Also, particular attention must be
paid to checking curved elements, which respond quite differently from
straight-axis prismatic beams when the stress sign is reversed.
As for shear, special attention must be paid to those elements which,
when there are only vertical loads, are subject to modest shear forces
(example III) and which on the other hand, because of the static system, end
up by taking the full force of the severe seismic action of the tremor.
The springer component on the right of example III has to bear a shear
force which is more than twice that laid down in existing regulations and
165
the component is verified thanks to excessive over-design resulting not from
calculation but from technical construction reasons.
5. CONCLUSIONS
The calculations which were made by way of illustrating the new

earthquake regulations have shown that it may be claimed in general that
timber structures, properly designed to resist vertical and environmental
loads, are also quite resistant to the seismic actions proposed by the new
standards, when consideration is given to the rule of load combinations
and/or the increased resistance and rigidity of timber to the effects of
short-term actions.
REFERENCES
(1) CNR-GNDT, 1985. 'Norme tecniche per le costruzioni in zone sismiche'.

Ingegneria sismica, Bologna.
(2) GIUFFRE, A. and GIANNINI, G. 1982. 'La risposta non lineare dlie
strutture in cemento armato" in 'Progettazione e particolari
costruttivi in zona sismica'. ANCE, Rome.
(3) AUGUSTI, G., CECCOTTI, A. and VIGNOLI, A. 1984. 'Strutture di legno
lamellare incollato di grande luce : prove statiche e dinamiche'.
Proceedings of the second Convegno Nazionale sull'Ingegneria Sismica
in Italia, Rapallo.
(4) CECCOTTI,. A. 1983. 'Le strutture di legno nell'edilizia'. INARCOS,
Bologna.
(5) MADSEN, B. 1985. 'Timber engineering in the past, present and the
future*. Proceedings of the CSIR symposium, Pretoria.
(6) LOFERSKI, J.R. and POLENSEK, A. 1982. 'Predicting in elastic stiffness
moduli of shearing to stud nail joints'. Wood and Fiber Science.
(7) MEDEARIS, K. 1966. 'Static and Dynamic Properties of Shear
Structures'. RILEM symposium, Mexico City.
(8) KEENAN, F.J. 1980. 'The earthquake resistance of timber construction'.
Proceedings of the International Conference on Protection against
Natural Disasters, Bangkok.
(9) CECCOTTI, A. 1983. 'Rafforzamento antisismico di antiche strutture di
legno: pronlemi progettuali ed operativi'. ANIAI symposium, Florence.
(10) CECCOTTI, A. and GIORDANO, S. 1987. 'Su un dispositivo per prove a
carichi ciclici di giunti di legno lamellare incollato'. UFIST-DIC,
Florence.
(11) PIAZZA, M. and THRRINI, G. 1986. 'Advances in technology of joints for
glued laminated timber: Analysis of structural behaviour'. CIB
symposium, Florence.
(12) KIVELL, B.T., MOSS, P.J. and CARR, A.J. 1986. 'The cyclic load
behaviour of two moment resisting portal frame'. IPENZ symposium, New
Zealand.
(13) CECCOTTI, A. and VIGNOLI, A. 1987. 'Behaviour factor of timber
structures in seismic zones'. CIB symposium, Dublin.
(14) ANDERSEN, L.O. and LISKA, J.A. 1964. 'Wood structures performance in
an earthquake'. USDA, Madison.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The author wishes to thank Messrs. A Rubner, P. Sieni and A. Marchetti

for their help in collecting material for the calculation examples and
Mr M. Berti for his help with the numerical calculations.
166
DISCUSSION
Couinent by Lobel, Y. (France)
In EC8 (earthquakes) the behaviour factor for timber is one, no matter

what type of structure is used. This value is far too pessimistic for
timber. It means that, according to EC8, the behaviour of timber is assumed
to be much poorer than that of steel or reinforced concrete. However, tests
carried out in Italy have shown that the behaviour factor of timber (except
glued structures) lies between 10 and 12. Thus timber structures are much
better than EC8 assumes. Retaining a factor of one for timber will be a
disaster for the use of timber. Everywhere there is a risk of earthquakes,
timber structures should be used instead of steel or reinforced concrete.
Moreover timber structures are easy to repair after an earthquake.
Answer by Pontifice de Sousa, P.M. (Portugal)
The behaviour factor of one is just a proposal. It is based on the

fact that there has not yet been enough research in this area. The behaviour
factor is probably higher but more research is needed to confirm this.
Reply by Lobel, Y. (France)
EC8 is now out for comments. If EC8 is published before the results of
research are available, it will be difficult to change it.
Comment by Ehrentreich, J. (EC)
The English version of EC8 is now available. Discussion will start in

1989. He hope you will find the time and opportunity to present your
comments. We lacked information for the timber chapter and would have been
glad if you had reported on your experience sooner.
Comment by Meierhofer, U.A. (CH)
Timber has certain advantages in seismic areas: it is light, it may

behave in a very ductile fashion, but not necessarily, indeed some timber
structures and joints may behave very rigidly. It is very important for
earthquake standards for timber structures to show the type of structures
and jointing techniques which should be used.
Question by Touliatos, P. (Greece)
1. In Greece the school of architecture and the school of engineering are

completely separate. Civil engineers receive high-level training in
anti-seismic design calculations and recently special courses in timber
design technology have been introduced. Architects have one compulsory term
of timber technology (since 1982) but no special training in anti-seismic
timber design.
How is training in anti-seismic design and calculation organised for
your architecture and engineering students?
2. We are working on anti-seismic timber construction research
programmes. Have you any research programmes on :
Timber-framed walls.
Joints of heavy timber structures?
167
Answer by Ceccotti, A. (Italy)
1. The architectural and engineering courses include papers on seismic

design. There are general courses for anti-seismic behaviour in which people
can study the behaviour of steel, reinforced concrete and sometimes timber
structures, more closely. There is no particular course on the anti-seismic
behaviour of timber. At the moment the only university department
specialising in timber is at the faculty of Trente. There is also a course
on the technical aspects of timber in which anti-seismic design is also
considered.
2. There are research programmes planned on comparable studies in
anti-seismic behaviour of joints, particularly for wide-span linear
structures.
Comment by Stone, M.F. (USA)
After the earthquake mentioned by Mr Ceccotti, examination of failed

joints between the timber structure and the concrete support showed that the
failure was caused by the concrete and not by the wood. The concrete could
not take the large deformations of the timber structure. The wood structure
remained undamaged. In Southern California normally all one and two storey
buildings are heavy timber structures, covered with concrete walls. Only 5%
or 10% are steel or concrete structures.
168
DAVID SCOTT
Technlcol Director - The Timber & Brick Homes Consortium

Monaging Director - HSD, Architects and Building Consultants
Summary This paper draws ottention to the United Kingdom's long

heritage of Timber Fronted Construction in both large section hardwood
and small section softwood modes.
It links this long tradition to the development of modern
component based timber framed housing which in the U.K. context uses
off site factory production techniques much more widely than in
N.America because specialist "Framers" os a trode do not exist.
Engineering principles are discussed, but the emphosis of the
paper is on Constructional Aspects because it is in this oreo that
the writer believes a number of valuable lessons can be learnt.
Acoustics, Fire Performance, Differential Movement and Thermol
Insulation linked to Interstitial Condensation, ore all examined ond
to this end a number of typical working details ore illustrated.
Flnolly reference to the work of The Timber & Brick Homes
Consortium in communications, training and educotion is mode and a
list of their publications is provided.
1.00 HISTORICAL CONTEXT

Most people, when considering Timber Framed housing in the UK Context
immediately conjure up images of the elegant large section hardwood houses
of Tudor Times such as Little Moreton Hall, Cheshire ond Stokesay Castle
Gatehouse (c 1450) (Fig.1) ond we British ore proud of this architectural
and structural heritage. (1) It is however a fact of life that hoving
exhausted our native stock of hardwood this once common form of
construction lorgely died out. Less well known is the fact that small
section (usually ex 100mm x 50mm) softwood framed houses continued to be
built in areos where such timber could be economically imported from the
near Continent, in particular Scandinavia. Many examples still survive
such as those built in 1791 at Lewes, W. Sussex (Fig.2) These houses
continue to command high prices in todays market place.
In loter yeors, as a response to urban housing demand, a number of
Municipal Authorities built more modern versions such os a 500 house
estate built in London in 1928 by the then London County Council (Fig.3)
and in many other areas of the country.
During this period very little engineering as we know it was applied,
ond by ond large "rule of thumb* methods prevailed (For exemple to
calculate o joist depth take its spon in feet, divide by 2 ond add 2" to
this result, to find the Joist depth in inches for a 2* wide member at 16*
centres). This rule os a motter of interest produces the answer that an
8* x 2" (200mm x 50mm) Joist at 16* (400mm) centres is required for a 10
foot (3.65m) span.
2.00 MODERN COMPONENT BASED T/F HOUSING

fn the late I950's it was forecast that the U.K. would need to
169
TVr-i.-., MPtffiKTf -<3T.i' 3HT
Fig. 1. Stokesay Castle gatehouse, c.1450 AD
^m
M E li
Fig. 2. Softwood framed houses at Fig. 3. Watling Estate, London, 1927

Lewes, West Sussex, c.1791 (Photographed in 1983)
(Photographed in 1985)
170
achieve an output of 400,000 dwellings per annum by 1970 to meet the
country's housing needs. The Director of Public Building ond Works ot
that time - Sir Oonold Gibson - instigoted o wide ronging review of
construction policy which, significantly, included a study tour of Conodo
in 1 9 " to ascertain whot contribution if any, timber fromed constrution
might make to this programme. The result wos encouroging and the seeds
of modern Timber Framed housing were sown.
In Canada ond the USA -cet timber framed houses were (ond still ore)
'stick built'; that is built in i.tu from loose studs end joists by
'framers' a specialist type of carpenter. In '.'< no such specialists
existed, and the "rule of thumb" expertise of yesteryeor was hardly
appropriate. Accordingly the ossistonce of Architects and Engineers wos
sought ond this resulted in the development of Engineer Designed
structural timber shells which, because as olready stated no 'fromers'
existed, were factory produced in the form of panels suitable for crane
(large panel) or hand (small panel) erection. Timber Frame housing
played o significant part in the 1960's housing drive ond since 1965 about
600,000 such units have been constructed ot on average rate of obout
38,000 houses per annum. (Fig.4) The most common method adopted was the
'platform frame' where panels are storey height (floor to ceiling) and
support the joists and floor deck, which then provides o "platform* from
which the upper floor panels and roof trusses ore erected - hence the
term. This remains the method, split equolly between crane ond hand
erection, in almost universal use today. (Fig.5) Other variations on
the theme such as "balloon frame" (2 storey high panels) ond "ring beam"
(single storey high panels floor-to-floor height with an inner ring beam
to support joists) were also used and arguably hove some advantages over
platform frame, but have not survived in main stream production.
3.00 ENGINEERING PRINCIPLES

In the UK the fire codes preclude the use of structural timber for
domestic housing over 3 storeys in height (or 4 storeys under special
circumstances) so the engineering problems are not very onerous. Usually
all vertical loads can be accommodated by 100mm x 50mm (90x40 finished
size) studs ot 300, 400 or most commonly 600mm centres. Factory produced
externol wall panels, maximum size 4.2m wide x 2.4m high are sheathed with
8 or 9.5mm plywood with internol panels similarly produced usually without
sheathing. These panels support floor joists at similar centres to studs
which con either be loose fixed or factory ponelised. Floor decks, agoin
of plywood or chipboard ore supported on and fixed to the joists and
provide a working platform from which upper floor ponels ore erected.
Roof structures are usually trussed rafters which are well braced ond
fixed down to upper floor wall panels. Connections ore annular ring shank
nails and proprietory metal connectors. The timber fromed ply sheathed
box structure thus produced is designed to toke oil the dead ond
superimposed loads in odditlon to withstanding horizontal forces. Unlike
masonry housing where both leaves of an external wall ore required to
support such loads the outer skin of 102mm brickwork, which is the most
common cladding, is not required to contribute to structural stobility. A
number of Codes of Practice have been developed in the series BS5268 for
the structurol use of timber some of which are specifically opplicoble to
domestic construction (2).
These stiff "boxes" hove considerable strength as is demonstrated by
the photograph taken on Good Friday 1964 after the Anchorage Alaska
Earthquake which measured 8.5 on the Richter Scale.(Fig.20)
171
UNITED KINGDOM
Timber Framed Housing- Cumulative Totals
Average 12 Years 1975-1986
=37.833 Units. P.A.
YEAR
F i g . 4.
Exploded view of typical

plutHMin frame cuuJiuun
F i g . 5.
172
Mora recently the virtually hurricane force winds which swept
Southern England in the early hours of Friday, 16th October 1987
demolished two masonry houses under construction on o site in Hythe, Kent,
but left structural timber shells untouched on the some site.
It Is true to say that no mojor structural problems have been
encountered in Timber Framed housing - in other words the structural
engineers hove, by and lorge done a good job, although timber is bosicolly
a forgiving material by its very nature, and perhaps this also has
something to do with its good troclc record.
4.00 CONSTRUCTIONAL PRINCIPLES

Because the engineering aspects are not complex it is proposed to
dwell in this paper on those areas where problems can occur, namely in
constructional detailing and site implementation, and to highlight aspects
where the UK industry has developed the method beyond its North Americon
antecedents. Some oreos of construction where this moy be the cose and
which thus moy be of interest ore now examined.
4.01. Acoustics. In the UK proportionately many fewer detoched
houses are built than in other countries particularly N. America. Thus in
order to meet the sound reduction standards laid down for walls and floors
between dwellings (3 and 4) (in the UK termed 'party' or 'separating'
walls and floors) special techniques had to be developed.
i) Wo11 s. The acoustic requirements for walls between dwellings
ore that specific levels of attenuotion of airborne sound have to be
ochieved at a range of frequencies from 150 to 3150 hz as shown (Fig.6).
This band of frequencies ore those across which typical domestic noise
occurs. The way in which this attenuation is ochieved is by a
combination of gypsum plasterboard drylining and physical separation of
the structure in order to prevent flanking noise transmission. Two
methods ore now in common use. The first is where two separate timber
frame walls ore constructed with minimal connections (usuolly 300mm x 25mm
x 6mm mild steel straps at 1200mm centres). Within the cavity o loyer of
mineral wool is either inserted or suspended which whilst of morginol
effect does help at the higher frequencies. (Fig.7)
The second is where a 'resilient bar' is used to ochieve slmilor
physical separation as the twin leof opproach with the odvantage that the
wall is smaller in overoll dimension. The writer's own Architectural
practice has used this second type of construction in low rise hotels for
walls between bedrooms since 1970 ond have received no reports of
comploints from guests. (Fig.7)
The overage attenuotion across the range of frequencies ochieved with
these types of wall is 59Rw(dB) for twinleaf and 55Rw(dB) for single leaf
walls.
11) Floors. With floors, the problem is more complex becouse both
airborne and impact sound hove to be dealt with.
In 1967 the writer was faced with the problem of designing o floor
which would meet the requirements set out in the then Code of Practice
which hod been written with concrete floors in mind. Initiol work was
most discouraging and despair hod almost set in when the idea of inserting
o layer of 19mm gypsum plonk within the floor deck occurred. The
reasoning behind this was that gypsum board is one of the densest sheet
materials produced, was readily avoilable, and olso inexpensive. The ideo
was put into practice by building a prototype which was successfully
tested in Watford, Herts, ond first used ot the Porkfield Estote, North
Harrow, Middx, in 1968. These floors were subsequently subjected to
173
Third Octave Reference Values Reference Values
Band for Airborne Sound for Impact Sound
Frequency Hz dB dB
100 33 62
125 36 62
160 39 62
200 42 62
250 45 62
315 48 62
400 51 61
500 52 60
630 53 59
800 54 58
1000 55 57
1250 56 54
1600 56 51
2000 56 48
2500 56 45
3150 56 42
Fig. 6. Standards of sound insulation

BS 5821 Parts 1&2 (ISO 717/1&2)
| 302 mm \
VM
-STUD FRAMES
-MINERAL WOOL
-31MM GYPSUM BOARD
RESILIENT BAR
LSI S B
TWIN LEAF WALL SINGLE LEAF WALL
Fig. 7. Section through separating walls
174
luccassful full scale field tests. (Fig.8) Their first commercial
application was to on estate of 225 apartments in Horrow built between
1968 and 1970 (Fig.13)
T
ê principle is thot the high density deck (comprising a lominate of
plywoou or ch'pboord and gypsum board) must be completely separated from
the joists by means of glass wool scund deodening quilt. There must be
no connection between the Heck and joists so for example great care in
using correct length noils was needed to avoid solid bridging ond thus
sound transmission. Also at the peri-ieter thr deck must not touch the
vertical wall panels. The invention was thei. ..- p by British Gypsum
PLC widely promoted by them and came into common use.
The current UK Building Regulations (13) now incorporate both the
original design and o refinement using a plywood sub-deck. The principle
today is identicol to the 1967 prototype with similar performance levels
achieved.
4.02 Fire Performance It has been claimed that the UK Regulations
ore among the most stringent in the world as regards fire safety in
buildings. (5) and (6) ond U.K. Architects ond Engineers must design to
meet this criteria.
Fire Resistance To achieve the required degrees of fire resistance
the approach taken has, by ond large been to protect the structural
framework against fire by the addition of non-combustible linings -
usually gypsum board. Vorious levels of fire resistance can be achieved
and many hundreds of full scole tests (7) have been carried out over the
last 20 years to demonstrate how various combinations of gypsum boord
linings, stud centres ond sizes, and mineral wool interact to provide
protection of the structure for different time periods.
This data has now been tabulated ond incorporated into a new British
Standard 5268 Part 4 Section 4.2(2) which enobles designers to colculate
predicted periods of fire resistance.
ii) Spread of Flame There are also requirements for limiting the
spreod of flome across wall surfoces within buildings and the effect of
this has been to restrict the use of internal lining materials to gypsum
board or other non-combustible sheet materials. (6) Unlike in
Scondlnavla the widespread use of timber internol lining is not
permissible unless treated with a chemical spreod of flame inhibitor.
This solution has not yet been widely odopted in the United Kingdom.
iii) Cavity Barriers ond Fire Stops To meet UK Building Regulations
(5) cavityborriers and fire stops need to be positioned ot 8 metre
intervals in any direction between a brickwork outer skin and the inner
leaf of the timber structure. (Fig.9)
The purpose of this element is to prevent the products of combustion
spreading within the woll cavity to adjacent dwellings in the case of a
cavity fire occurring. The application of site built brickwork to the
accurate factory produced timber structure created a number of toleronce
problems, and the lnitiol solution of inserting o 50mmx50mm preservative
treated batten (Fig.10) proved impractical. Research showed thot the
external wall cavity varied in practice from 40mm to 65mm for o designed
50mm cavity. The result was that with oversized covities a gap wos left
and with undersized covities bricklayers tended simply to remove the
batten.
Two solutions have been developed to overcome this problem and both
oppeor to work reasonably well although development work is continuing.
The first is o polythene 'sausage skin* containing rock wool which
meosures 65mmx65mm or 75mmx90mm and is fixed by staples through the
polythene "ears* to the sheothing board. (Fig.11)
175
~W m 6 20 2S 3 5 M 50 63 BO 1000 BSO 1600 2D 0O 2500 3150 MX
THIRD OCTAVE BAND CENTRE FREQUENCY Hz
Graph showing UK (1976) and ISO standard reference values

for airborne sound insulation with field test value
a
nr^
4JX. REFE ?ENC : VAi UEd 976)
-

" ^ .
i 60
> ^ .
s
ISO '17/2 REF[REN :EV> LLUE-
>
^>
50
""""^ X.,
\ N
196B TEST (ALU \ \
40 S
80 100 12S 160 200 2S0 315 WO 500 630 800 BOO 1 3 0 1600 2000 2500 3150 (000
THIRD OCTAVE BAND CENTRE FREQUENCY Hz
Graph showing UK (1976) and ISO standard reference values

for impact sound insulation with field test value
Fig. 8.
176
Slop
Borriars
Fig. 9. Cavity barriers, UK requirements
mX ffl
V7/
y j -MCMOVED -
/ / X y
Fig. 10. Early type solid cavity barrier illustrating
tolerance problems - section on plan
TTFB A (see also Pig. 17) TTPB B
ÎYYYL
v//
i \
ty-QOCKV00L t e a -
/ /
Fig. 11. Flexible cavity barriers which overcome

tolerance problems - section on plan
177
The second is a combination of the batten ond "sausage" approach
which has the advantage of providing a location for the barrier which can
be factory fixed, and of achieving sufficient flexibility to meet
brick*--'' nlercnces. (Fig.II)
4.3 External Clodding Constraints
In the early I960's os Timber Frame building became more common a
wide range of claddings were used including vertical tile hanging (Fig.12)
Glass Reinforced Polyester (Fig.13! Horizontal and . Verticol Tirr.ber
Boarding, ond Brickwork.
The details which are now discussed deal with brick cladding because
it is in this area that most problems can occur (Fig.14) Any cladding
applied directly to the structural frame will as a general rule, move with
the frame ond is less prone to the difficulties encountered with masonry,
which is self-supporting from foundation level. Differential movement
will occur os the timber structure shrinks and the design developed must
cater for this. Some such details are now discussed.
i) Foundation This typical detail illustrates how the brickwork outer
cladding is independently supported by the foundations thus leading to the
differential movement situation (Fig.15)
ii) Floor to Wall Junction It is at this point that maximum shrinkage
will occur across the joists as the frame dries out from soy 22% moisture
content to 14% over the first 12 months after construction (Fig.16) Two
such floors will exist in 3-storey structures with a concrete ground floor
ond this increases to three such areas of shrinkage when a suspended
joisted timber ground floor is adopted.
iii) Window Cill Section The table of shrinkage illustroted needs to be
applied to this detail by means of a gap, usually filled with a mastic
impregnated compressible foam sealant as shown (Fig.17). As the
frame dries out and shrinks so this gap will close.
iv) Eoves A standard eaves detail for masonry usually has the soffit
board supported in the outer leaf of brickwork. In the case of timber
frame this is not recommended because as the table (Fig.17) shows up to
18mm differential movement can occur at this point in 3-storey buildings.
A better solution is to use a detail where the soffit is framed out and
the brickwork allowed to pass behind.(Fig.18) Equally trusses must NOT be
allowed to bear on to the outer skin of brickwork either initially or
after shrinkage for which this detail also caters.
v) Wall Ties Similarly wall ties need to be both flexible ond strong.
The stondord U.K. proctice is to use oustenitic stainless steel strip
either stroight or pre-formed. These ties ore fixed with stainless steel
annular ringshank noils to the main studs at 400 or 600mm horizontal
centres and at between 375 to 450mm verticol centres. Closer spacings are
adopted at door ond window openings (Fig.19) Currently a draft for
development (8) is under discussion in the UK on this subject in on
attempt to improve the range of wall ties available particularly where 3-
storey units are involved with their potential for additional shrinkage
ond thus greater verticol differential movement.
4.04 Thermal Insulation. Timber frame construction has always had
the potential to achieve high levels of thermal insulation because o
convenient "cavity" exists in the stud void which con be filled with
mineral wool.(Fig.16)
178
Fig. 12. Tile clad timber framed
apartments, London, 1974
Fig. 14. Typical brick clad

1970s detached house
Fig. 13. G.R.P. clad 3-storey

JB apartments Harrow 1968
BR ICIC OUTER LEAF
SOLE PLATE
NSULATION I SCREED
CONCRETE OVERS ITE SLAB
w1
Fig. 1 5 . Typical foundation section
VAPOUR CHECK
GYPSUM BOARD DRY LINING
MINERAL WOOL INSULATION
WALL PANEL
FLOOR DECK
FLOOR JOISTS
CAVITY BARRIER
D.P.C. TRAY
PLY SHEATHING
HEAD PLATE
WALL PANEL
Fig. 16. Typical floor junction section
180
It is probably true to say that the UK has historically been less
conscious cf the need to conserve energy in buildings than our European
neighbours. The dromotic rise in oil prices in 1974 began to change this
ottltude and the minimum stotutory insulotion levels have steadily
impra : A.nee 1976. It is interesting to compare these stotutory levels
with those applicable to Timber Frame in the U.K. over a similar period.
(Fig.21)
As increased levels of Insulotion ore introduced designers need tc re
aware of the potentiol problems arising ' om interstitiol condensation ond
take these into account in their choice of moterici s ond constructional
detailing, in particular the type ond positioning of vc?'i' checks. There
is a donger thot the problems of interstitial condensation in wolls can be
overstated and this occurred in 1983 when, on o nationally networked T.V.
consumer progromme, one learned commentator stated that minute holes in
vapour checks would allow "litres of water* to condense ond be trapped in
the insulated stud cavity. The inference drawn by the programme makers
thot this phenomenon would lead to widespread rot and deterioration caused
greot damage to consumer confidence at the time. (See 5.00 below)
Space does not allow this motter to be examined in greot detail but
attention is drawn to the work done by Wimpey Laboratories and the
Building Research Establishment (9)
Their work proves that wood based sheathing boards including CSP
plywoods 00 allow the passoge of moisture vopour which finds its way into
wall cavities through imperfect vopour checks. Furthermore it is shown
thot at current U.K, levels of insulation, (usually 90mm of minerol wool)
imperfections con be toleroted of up to 100mm diameter holes, or
750mmx30mm slits.
5.00 COMMUNICATIONS, TRAINING & EDUCATION In 1983 the morket shore

of U.K. privote sector timber framed housing stood ot 22% - ond growing.
Despite a long ond successful track record in Municipal Housing over
a 20 yeor period (Fig.4) it wos relatively new to the Privote Sector ond
in fact the existing Timber Component production capacity had simply been
transferred from the Public to the Private Housing sector in 1979 fter
the Mrs. Thatcher led Convervative Government was elected, and radical
changes in the emphasis of housing provision were introduced.
The builders, ond Timber Frame industry saw no reoson to tell house
purchasers how their house was constructed and so consumers remained
totally Ignorant on the subject. In 1983 a nationally networked T.V.
consumer progromme alleged that the method was much more susceptible to
bod site practices than other techniques, wos a fire risk, ond worst of
all even the slightest imperfections in vopour checks would lead to a
systematic breakdown of the structure, o sort of "Timber Cancer". Not
surprisingly against o background of nil communication this programme, ond
the widespread press coverage which ensued caused ponic among house buyers
ond their odvisors. Confidence in the method almost disappeared in the
U.K. ond due to the consumer resistance thus creoted many builders simply
stopped using timber frome. In less thon 2 yeors the market shore hod
dropped to 5* with many manufacturing companies forced to close down their
plonts.
181
GAP TABLE
TIMBER G.F. SOLID G.F.
G.FLOOR 5mm 3mm
1st . 12 mm 9mm
2nd 18mm 15mm
N - G A P AS TABLE-
wiNDow C I L L
CANT BRICK SUB-CILLS
D.P.C. TRAY
BRICK OUTER LEAF
F i g . 1 7 . T y p i c a l window c i l l section
TILES
TRUSSED RAFTER
BRICK OUTER LEAF ALLOWED

TO PASS BEHIND SOFFIT
FASCIA
Fig. 1 8 . Typical eaves section
182
Fig. 19. Typical wall tie
Fig. 20. Timber frame bungalow intact after earthquake

in Anchorage, Alaska, 1964. Note chasm under building
183
EXTERNAL WALL CONSTRUCTION
DK MASONRY CONSTRUCTION
U-value (lvalue
OK TIMBER AND BRICK CONSTRUCTION
(w/irfft)
208 Pre 1930
- 1 5 m plaster Lath and plaster

225 mm brick ' fl Tinkler frame
Sheathing or boardin
Cavity
Brick
Up to 1965
'Dp to 1976 170 068
Brick
. 15 an plaster Plasterboard
.114 an brick Vapour check
50 m cavity Timber fraate
114 an brick 25 mm insulation (P/glass)
Plywood
Breather membrane
Cavity
0(8
As above with
50 mm F / g l a s s
1976-1982 1 00 -.A 043
- 15 nn p l a s t e r As above with
. 1 0 0 nn concrete bloc> -3 60 mm P / g l a s s
: 50 Bra cavity
-102 mm brick
=
1
0-56 0 39
As above with cavity As abcve with
f i l l insulation BO mm F / g l a s s
1982-1966 060
. IS nn p l a s t e r
- 125 nn super-light bloc>
- 5 0 m cavity
-102 s a brick
Fig. 21. Thermal insulation comparisons
184
Timber fronte practitioners, housebuilders and Trode Associations
responded imredictely but with little effect because no central body, oble
to effectively rjrsholl ond present the facts existed at that time.
It was agoinst this background thot the Timber and Brick Homes
Consortium ( come into being with the objectives of encouraging
reseorch into *~e method, collating oil avoiioble existing experience and
data, and comrrjnicoting this evidence to all concerned including thot oil
important, but previously neglected grcuo. the consumers. The Consortium
through its communication orm. The Timber i -J'IC. Homes Information
Council, hos been able to show that the fears expressed in 1983 were
unfounded and has been successful in having this message clearly spelt out
on T.V., Rodio, ond in the press.
Its publications since inception in 1984 have included point of sole
brochures, handbooks for Selling Agents Surveyors ond Technicians, ond o
book launched in tandem with the nationally networked BBC T.V. series "ON
THE HOUSE" oddressed to home owners entitled "LIVING IN A TIMBER & BRICK
HOME" (11)
In addition the Consortium is actively involved in the work of
various bodies such os the B.S.I, in developing Quality Assurance and
Management systems for Design and Site Work reloting to Timber Frome
construction to ensure that in future such problems os have been
experienced in the U.K. will not be repeoted. (12)
6.00 BENEFITS The benefits of Timber Framed housing U.K. style are
mony both to builders ond to end users. For the builder more work is
carried out in the factory under controlled conditions, ond can ronge from
simple wall panel components through to complete volumetric rooms. This
leads to better standords of finish ond more rapid construction which in
turn produces cash flow and cost benefits. To the end user higher levels
of thermal insulotion mean lower energy costs, dry construction eliminates
drying out cracks, ond the juxtaposition of insulation to the source of
heot reduces surface condensation risk. Sound insulation between
dwelling is excellent and noise nuisance from neighbours can be much
reduced.
7.00 CONCLUSION The U.K. was arguably the largest producer of Timber
Framed housing in Europe in the 12 year period 1975/1986 and it is hoped
thot this poper will help those E.E.C. partners who moy wish to expond
their own output, to more reodily appreciate the engineering ond
constructional principles of Timber Framed Housing as developed in the
United Kingdom.
185
References
1. Timber Building in England from Early Times to the end of the 17th
Century by Fred H. Crossley Published by B.T.Batsford 1951.
2. BS 5268 -de of Practice for the Structural Use of Timber.
Por". 2 Permissible stress design (1984)
Part 3 Trussed rafter for roofs (1985)
Pari 4 Fire resistance of timber structures
Section 4.1 Recommendations for calcilcting fire resistance
of timber members (1978)
Section 4.2 Recommendations for calculating fire resistance
of timber stud walls and joisted floor constructions (1988)
Part 5 Preservation treatment for constructional timber (1977)
Part 6 Timber frome wall design
Section 6.1 Dwellings not exceeding three storeys (1988)
3. The Building Regulations Part E 1985
4. BS5821 (ISO.717) Rating the Sound Insulation in Buildings
Part 1. Method for rating the Airbourne Sound Insulation
Part 2. Method for rating the Impact Sound Insulation
5. The Building Regulations Part B 1985
6. BS 476 Fire tests on building materials and structures
Part 3 External fire exposure roof tests (1958)
Part 4 Non combustibility test for materials (1970)
Port 6 Fire propagation test for materials (1968)
Port 6 Method of test for fire propagation for products (1981)
Part 7 Surface spread of flome tests for materials (1971)
Port 8 Test methods and criteria for the fire resistance of
elements of building construction (1972)
Part 11 Method of assessing the heat emission from building
materials (1982)
7. Timber Building Elements of Proven Fire Resistance
T.R.A.D.A. Wood Information Sheets - Section 1
Sheets 11, EW1, EW5, EW7, EW9, EW11, EW13, EW15, SW1, SW3, IW1 ,
IW3, IW5, 1W7, IW9, FL1, FL3, FL5, FL7, FL9, F L U , FL13
See also:- Messrs. British Gypsum PLC, The Fire Research
Establishment, and numerous other authorities.
8. Draft for Develpment DD140, Port 2, 1987 (British Standards
Institution)
9. a) Building Research Practice Volume 13 No.4 1985
"Timber Frame Wall Materiols Measurement of Vapour Resistance"
Authors: Covington & Mclntyre of BRE
b) National Housebuilding Council "A Review of the Evidence about
Timber Frame Dwellings" August 1983 Appendix "A".
10. The Timber and Brick Homes Consortium Ltd
40, High Street, Rickmansworth, Herts, WD3 1ES, United Kingdom
11. Timber & Brick Homes Information Council publications
"Buying a Timber & Brick Home"
The Timber & Brick Homes Handbook
"Living in a Timber & Brick Home"
12. BS 5750 (ISO.9000) Quality Systems
Part 1 Specification for design/development, production,
installation ond servicing
Part 2 Specification for production and installation
Part 5 Guide to the use of BS 5750 Port 2 Specification for
manufacture and installation
186
DISCUSSION
Question by Meierhofer, O.A. (CH)
You mentioned that you designed for a moisture content of 22%. Is it

normal for the m.c. to be so high?
Answer by Scott, D.L. (UK)
Normally that m.c. will not be reached. We design for the worst
situation and make allowances for the shrinkage which that range of drying
produces. We measured that degree of shrinkage, up to 20% in three-storey
buildings.
Question by Olesen, B.P. (DK)
The sound measurement results shown seem remarkably good, compared

with what you would expect.
1. Are these results from measurements on a single object or from a great
number of measurements, i.e. can they be taken as representative for the
building system?
2. Were the impact sound insulation tests carried out with a special
floor covering?
3. Is the value of airborne sound insulation and impact sound insulation
defined in accordance with the latest ISO standards and can the measurements
shown be converted?
Answer by Scott, D.L. (UK)
1. A whole range of tests on airborne sound have been conducted since

1965 both privately and by the Building Research Establishment. The Building
Research Establishment and TRADA have published a number of papers on this
subject. We are not talking about laboratory tests but about field tests, so
all the real life conditions were taken into account.
The results meet the current ISO requirements.
2. The tests were done without floor coverings as such. The insulation
was achieved by a resilient layer within the floor deck. A carpet would only
further improve the results.
3. No. Only the values from the latest work in the UK have been converted
to the ISO standard.
Comment by Raveala, A. (Finland)
In Finland and Sweden we have thousands of test results and they

confirm Mr Scott's results.
187
B. Lund Johansen
The Danish Timber Information Council
The future development of the Danish house building

will be based on industrialized building methods and an
extensive use of prefabricated components.
The existing industrialized building methods will be
adjusted to the production of smaller housing units
where some of the most important features are the use
of a large variety of building materials and variation
in the architectural expression.
In the next few years the housing production will
amount to maximum 25.000 units per year, which is equi-
valent to only one third of the entire production in
the late 1970s when Danish house building was at its
height.
A growing criticism of the rationalized, systematized
house building has emerged. It is critizied for being
monotonous and for lack of consideration for 'architec-
tural and environmental values. Studies of how people
thrives in the new urban areas disclose serious social
problems and the demands for a far more humane urban
development have increased.
Wood is to an increasing extent being used in Danish building. Driving

round the Danish landscape it becomes evident that wood is a constituent
part of all kinds of building - house building, commercial building and
building for leisure purposes.
The large consumption of wood may also be read from the import figures.
They show that the Danish import of sawn conifer primarily from Sweden and
Finland is nearly as large as ever and it is expected that the import in
1988 will be of a similar size.
And if the figures for wood logged in the Danish forests is added to the
above figures the result will be a consumption between 1.8 - 2.0 million
cubic metres.
More than 400,000 cubic metres out of approximately 1.4 - 1.6 million
cubic metres imported conifer are used to produce furniture. The building
and packing industries account for the rest of the consumption.
Concerning the Danish production of soft- and hardwood the sawmills' pro-
duction of conifer is 65 percent of the total Danish production. Hardwood
such as beech, oak and ash account for the remaining percentage of the
Danish production. The Danish export of sawn conifer only amounts to 3
percent of the import which is equivalent to 40.000 cubic metres.
188
Within the building sector moot of the wood is used for house building.
The development of low-dense residential areas within the recent years has
been characterized by the use of traditional building materials as tile
and wood as a protest against the concrete ghettos which today stand as
the result of the urban development plans in the 1960s and 70s.
Another area which is worth paying attention to is the increasing use of

wood in building for leisure purposes and the heavy enlargement of mari-
nas. The Danes have easy access to the sea and and the coasts are stretch-
ing for thousands of kilometres.
But also a considerable part of the Danish family's spare time is spent in
their weekend cottages and their small cottages in the allotments. They
are all built of wood - a popular building material for the do-it-your-
self-family.
Not too many years ago Danish building was characterized by brick-built
houses. The Danish cities were known as the red cities because the houses
had brick walls and tiled roofs. These were cities in harmony with their
surroundings and the nature, built of the natural materials wood and tile
and the houses were built to last for generations and were easy to main-
tain. Such are the houses which we have known since the turn of the cen-
tury and until the end of the 1950s. During this period a considerable
urban development took place in the larger cities employing the tradition-
al trades such as masons, joiners, carpenters and plumbers.
After the Second World war the shortage of housing was serious. It was
necessary to develop industrialized methods of construction which ensured
an efficient, rational, and economical production in order to meet the
market's demands. The aim was to create a flexible building market based
on the production of a variety of building elements complying with a mo-
dular concept -the Danish open modular system.
During the 1960s and the 70s a considerable development of the industrial-
ized production potential took place supported by the Danish Ministry of
Housing among other things through the issue of standards. The idea behind
the open modular system was that each building element was designed within
a specific modular scale which made an arbitrary linking of the various
building elements possible. The modular system was employed for all
building elements from load bearing elements such as walls and floors to
completing components, for example, doors, windows and furnishings.
In this way Danish building to a large extent became standardized and this
formed the basis of an efficient building production.
The main idea of the open modular system was to establish an open market
for building elements in such a way that the architects and engineers
could design the houses of elements made of many different materials. This
would add a large flexibility to the formation and at the same time pro-
vide the houses with the variation they needed.
During this period a range of building systems were developed complying

with the modular concept and almost all these systems were based on con-
crete elements.
189
Many of the houses built in the 1960s and 70s were characterized by a
one-sided use of concrete elements. The result was monotony in the ar-
chitectural expression and lack of variation, a variation which charac-
terized the brick-built houses from the previous decades.
The architectural principle of repetition which we know from the brick-

built houses did not survive the modern concrete building systems.
The efforts of the 1980s to break the monotony by using concrete elements
with a thin facing of tile which are supposed to look like brick walls
only make the result go from bad to worse. Many of these houses are
lacking in architectural honesty towards the materials and their composi-
tion. This honesty may, however, be found in other types of houses.
The conditions of an open market with easy access to a range of building

elements produced of quite different materials were present in the 1960s
and 70s when more than 70.000 housing units were produced per year. These
possibilities were, however, unexploited. The economical facts in the late
1970s and the beginning of the 1980s put an end to the implementation of
this idea because building activities dropped drastically and reached the
level we know today which is approximately 22.000 housing units per year.
In the wake of the hughe extension-of the urban areas of the 1960s and the
70s which was characterized by ambitious urban planning programs a growing
critizism of the rationalized systematized house building emerged. It was
critized for being monotonous and for the lack of consideration for ar-
chitectural and environmental values. Studies of how people thrived in the
new urban areas disclosed serious social problems and the demand for a far
more human urban development increased. In the end of the 1970s the short-
age of housing was met more or less and the production fell remarkably
until it reached the present level at 22.000 housing units per year.
The demand for more variation and humaneness in the house building re-
sulted in the development of low-dense urban areas and the redevelopment
of the Danish house building based on small series of housing units
varying in architectural expression and built of different types of
building materials.
While the house building activities fell the consciousness of resource

saving, healthy houses began to play a still more important role. A range
of development projeots were started primarily to save energy for heating
and the first "Zero-energy" house was developed at the Danish technical
University. This was the start of a range of development projects in-
volving both the authorities and private companies. Many of these projects
were based on light weight building elements of wood and insulating ma-
terials.
Danish building forms a part of the Nordic architectural style, but never-
theless the houses in Sweden, Finland, Norway and Denmark are very dif-
ferent in architecture and use of materials. There is no Danish tradition
for building timber houses as is the case in the other Nordic countries.
In Denmark, however, wood has always been used for trusses, floors and
facings - and even if it is "invisible" on account of tile or concrete
facings most one-family houses are timber frame houses.
190
As mentioned above the Danes have no tradition of building timber houses.
It is therefore quite remarkable that the Danish consumption per capita
for many years has been the largest among the wood importing countries in
Europe. This can be read not only from the import figures for timber but
also from the import figures for plywood, which is imported mainly from
USA, Canada, Sweden and Finland.
If we look at the building development in Denmark in the 1980s we will see

that the total investment in the building industry in the period 1982 -
1986 increased by approximately 30 and it is suggestive that the new
building accounts for the largest part of this increase. During recent
years the maintenance and restoration projects have been promoted both
politically and financially. Consequently, it is surprising that these
projects only account for a very small percentage of the total investment
in the building industry.
This also applies to the rate of employment in the new building versus the
maintenance and restoration projects. Once more the new building accounts
for the rise in the employment.
Looking at the number of employees within the building trades in the

period 1982 - 1986 we get a similar picture showing a slight rise at the
same time as the unimployment in general fell significantly.
Evidently the commercial building accounting for a remarkable increase in

the building activities has been the locomotive of the Danish building
development during the period 1982-86. This increase is a result of the
industrial investment in new factories and workshops. But also the house
building activities shows a reasonable increase in the period measured by
commenced building per 1,000 sq.metres. It is, in particular, the private
house building activities which have increased while the governmental and
municipal building activities on their side have definitely been falling
as well as the non-profit house building which has settled down at a lower
level.
mi, kr.
Total investments
in building acti-
vities 1982-86
Total
New building
etc.
Restoration
etc.
D
19M 19*5
191
1000 besksfligede
Employment
New building and
restoration
Restoration
New building
1982 1983 1984 1985 1986
Indeks (1982= 100)
Commercial building
commenced 1982-86
Factories/
workshops
Administration
Farm building
1982 1983 1984 1985 1986
192
Bullding commenced 12000 -
1982-86 (1.000 sq.m)
Other
Cultural
Inst.
Administration
Factories
etc.
Housing
III
1984 198
Building commenced Index (1982-100)

distr. on builders
1982-86
Private
builder
Non-profit
comps.
Governm.
193
Driving round the new industrial areas it appears that the commercial
building is characterized by industrialized building methods using con-
crete elements. This is the natural continuance of the industrialization
of Danish building which was started in the end of the 1950s.
Timber is only used to a modest extent for modern Danish commercial

building. A new development is on its way, however, and is reflected in
pilot projects and in small expansive companies moving to new industrial
areas and expressively designed blocks of offices which are often built of
wood in order to meet the employees' demand for healthier working condi-
tions .
The use of new building materials and new building methods has resulted in
bad indoor climatic conditions. This has led to a growing interest for
using natural materials such as wood and other traditional building ma-
terials not only for house building but also for institutional and commer-
cial building. The fire protection regulations in Denmark are, however,
one of the major obstacles for an increased use of wood and timber for
larger building constructions and for multi-storey houses such as apart-
ment buildings, hotels, concert halls and shopping centres.
The developmental tendencies in the building industry in Denmark depends

on which sector one studies.
The commercial building will continually be characterized by industrial-

ized methods of construction using concrete and concrete elements. As a
result of a deliberate research and development during recent years the
use of stressed-skin roofing elements of timber has increased significant-
ly. A similar development could be carried into effect concerning light
weight timber based facing elements which could be used for both the com-
mercial and the house building. Bearing structures (columns, beams or
floor) will still be made of concrete.
The future house building will be characterized by small housing units of

5-100 houses rather than large urban development plans. It will be a
question of small series of houses with varying architectural expression
using many different building materials and methods of construction for
the same housing unit. The main stress will be laid on prefabricated ele-
ments of light weight building materials or concrete ready for finishing
with tile, steel or timber facing on the site or completely finished from
the factory ready to assemble.
According to an old Danish tradition weekend cottages are made of timber.

The weekend cottages of tomorrow will still be timber houses produced
according to the latest industrialized methods.
The new recreational centres which have been built in Denmark within the
last 10 years are characterized by a considerable use of wood. In respect
of the old tradition for building timber shacks- and workshops in the
Danish harbours this tradition is continued in the enlargement of the
marinas. The old timber-built fish auction halls and storehouses have for
centuries been a familiar sight in Danish fishing ports. The architectural
style of these houses are continued in the new harbours and marinas.
194
The use of impregnated wood has Increased tremendously during the recent
years. As an insurance against damages impregnated wood is often used in
places where it is unnecessary -seen from a constructive point of view.
The growing interest for preserving the environment and reducing the use
of toxines in the nature calls for a research and a development which will
both ensure a falling consumption of proofing and a long life for the
timber structures.
Danish studies suggest that it is possible to reduce the use of solvents

in vacuum impregnation considerably as well as to reduce the use of
toxines when compregnating. It should be anticipated, however, that it is
necessary also to limit the use of impregnated wood to include only
building components which are exposed to rot and fungus attacks. Struc-
tures which are not exposed to damp should be made of unimpregnated wood
and it is therefore important to improve the research and information
concerning the use of good and healthy timber constructions by laying
stress on the constructive protection of building structures.
In Danmark the main efforts will be concentrated on improving the research

and information on the constructive and chemical protection of timber
structures. At the same time initiatives will be taken to promote and
develop the use of light weight timber structures in the building.
195
WOODEN DOMES
A. JORISSEN
Bureau Lning, Doetinchem, The Netherlands
Summary
This document is mainly concerned with the design of spherical

domes with geodesic distribution of the structural members. Lattice,
lamella and Schwedler domes are also briefly discussed.
It was Buckminster Fuller who first thought of the geodesic
distribution of structural members. The design of these domes is based
on the intersecting arcs of a sphere. This lends itself admirably to
computer analysis. The points of intersection are determined in
accordance with a standard pattern. The voids between the arcs are
filled in with laminated wooden ribs, and the points of intersection
are fastened with specially designed and patented steel connectors.
The distances between the structural members are designed for
evenly distributed symmetrical downward loads. The connectors are also
affected by wind stresses and the construction method.
The domes are covered with 21 mm thick roof cladding. This
cladding rests on the main structural members and purlins.
The optimum design comprises a large number of main ribs. If the
ribs are shorter than the optimum length the cost increases, but less
than if they are longer.
The geodesic dome can be combined with a barrel shape to produce
an oval form. It can also be combined with other shapes.
1. INTRODUCTION
Framed space structures, structures using steel cables for suspension

and tubular structures are becoming popular. They are aesthetically pleasing
and present a great challenge to the structural designer. Thanks to modern
computers, we can use CAD systems to design these structures. Any changes in
design are quickly computed by special programmes. CAD systems incorporate
the computer programs for analysing complex mechanical problems.
The development of production processes for the materials to be used
is a major factor. Steel tubes, steel cables and laminated wood make these
modern structures possible. Laminated wood is a relatively new product.
The structural components in the structures discussed here are mainly
subjected to axial forces. Load transmission via axial force is efficient in
terms of the amounts of materials required. Slender structures are being
produced.
Laminated wood offers many possibilities for producing modern and very
striking structures, including frame structures such as domes.
2. DOMES
Domes are three-dimensional shapes. The shape can be determined by

means of mathematical functions. The domes discussed here are derived from
spheres. For the purposes of measurement the dome is regarded as a segment
of a sphere. The central plane of the sphere is usually below the base line
196
of the done, which Beans that the upper part of the dome is under the
pressure of its own weight. Externally these domes resemble each other, but
there are a number of differences in their construction.
For a long time domes and other curved structures were the only means
of spanning wide areas. Until after the Middle Ages domes were often
constructed in stone. These structures are very heavy. Wind or snow generate
little additional stress. The materials available were only suitable for
withstanding compressive forces.
The first steel structures were also static systems designed to
withstand compressive forces only. In the case of a dome the compression
resulting from its dead load lies in a plane which is virtually parallel to
the structure itself. This means that the resultant flexural pressure is
negligible - certainly in the case of the heavy stone-built dome.
Once we begin to construct domes in lightweight materials such as wood
or aluminium, opposite forces appear; tensile forces are exerted on parts of
the surface of the dome when it is subjected to wind pressure. In the dome
structures discussed here the material is not distributed evenly over the
total dome surface. The surface is covered by a system of ribs which
together form a strong, rigid and stable structure. The voids are filled in
with some suitable material. Aluminium or steel sheet, glass or roofing
boards must be used. By using structural ribs we can have transparent areas.
If glass is used these areas are flat, if plastic, they can follow the line
of the sphere.
This paper is mainly concerned with spherical domes with geodesic
distribution of the ribs. Other types of distribution are possible. Three
examples of these alternative systems are given in Figure 1: lattice domes,
lamella domes and Schwedler domes. These domes fall into two main groups.
Those of the first type are constructed of fairly short components which all
have the same function. In the second group, the main components are long
and the various components perform different functions.
The first main group includes geodesic and lattice domes. The geodesic
dome is taken as the reference for comparing the strength and rigidity of
different types of dome using the same materials, since the geodesic
distribution of the dome surface is the most efficient.
The comparative values are only intended as a guide, since the exact
values depend far too much on other design data, such as the number of ribs,
the size of the structure, the number of support points to the foundation,
the materials used, the positioning of the purlins (to stabilise the main
ribs) etc. The lattice dome is considerably less strong and rigid than the
geodesic dome. The jointing at the crown of the lattice dome is very complex
because of the large number of converging ribs.
In the second category a number of main ribs run from the crown to the
base of the dome. These main ribs are supported by a number of secondary
components which may give stability only, or may also be load-bearing. The
lamella and Schwedler domes are examples of this. The lamella dome is very
strong and rigid provided an adequate quantity of material is used. The
secondary structural components certainly have a load-bearing function.
On the other hand, the Schwedler dome is less strong and rigid even
though it has more ribs. The geodesic dome is approximately twenty times
more rigid and three times stronger, for the same amount of material. The
secondary structural components have a stabilising function only. The
jointing at the dome has to accommodate a large number of ribs.
The main data governing the production of structural components and
the assembling of domes are:
the number of different ribs;
197
GEODESIC DOME' strength = 100 'LATTICE DOME' strength = 50
rigidity = 100 rigidity 54
'LAMELLA DOME' strength = 70 'SCHWEDLER DOME' strength = 30

rigidity = 100 rigidity = 5
Fig. 1.
198
the number of different types of joint (connections between the ribs);
the complexity of the jointing.
The geodesic dome illustrated has ten ribs of varying lengths, the
lattice dome seven, the lamella dome five and the Schwedler dome seven. The
lamella, Schwedler and lattice domes have four different types of joint. The
geodesic dome has three. The geodesic dome has the simplest jointing.
3. WOOD
3.1 Introduction
Wood can withstand compressive, tensile and flexural stresses.

Nevertheless, there have always been limitations on the use of wood. Trees
produce limited sizes of wood, thus its use for wide spans is restricted.
Formerly there was no means of making strong joints in wood. Major fires in
towns and the vulnerability of wood to attack by fungus and other pests made
it a less popular building material.
Nowadays we have a better knowledge of wood. We have methods of
preserving it. Compared with many modern building materials it has good fire
resistance properties. If it should catch fire the structure is still able
to perform its function for a fair period of time. If fire resistance is
critical, extra precautions must be taken.
The size of components made of this natural material is no longer
limited by the length and thickness of trees. Adhesives are now available
which we can use to make laminates. Strong wood adhesives are available, and
technical solutions have been found to most of the recognised disadvantages.
However, prejudice against wood still persists.
3.2 Wood in the Construction of Domes
We give below an assessment of wood as a building material in terms of

technical, economic, safety and aesthetic considerations.
Technical. The development of the laminating process makes it possible
to produce wooden components in almost any desired shape. The dome surface
can easily b made in laminated wood. The joints between the ribs must be
designed mainly to withstand compressive forces. This is easy to do with
wood.
Economy. Wood is reasonably priced. The extra cost of bonding it in a
curved shape depends on the curvature required and the dimensions, but is
also reasonable. It is light. In domes with geodesic rib distribution and in
lattice domes the components are short. This is an advantage for transport
and assembly. In general, wood requires little maintenance. It is naturally
a good thermal insulator.
Safety. The construction system and the material itself are both
safety factors. The construction system is independent of the material used.
Unlike Schwedler and lamella domes, geodesic and lattice domes are very
often statically indeterminate and hence less likely to collapse. The good
fire-resistance properties of wood are a considerable safety factor.
Aesthetics. The sphere is a natural shape. The lines of force follow
the shape of the structure, thus satisfying practical and aesthetic
requirements. These forces are supported by the foundations in the normal
way. All the lines run in a logical way, satisfying instinct and eye. What
could be finer than to build one of these structures with a particularly
attractive and natural material 1
199
4. THE GEODESIC DOME
The geodesic distribution of ribs over the surface of the sphere gives
rigidity and strength. The geodesic dome is the brainchild of Richard
Buckminster Fuller (see Figure 2). He combined two traditional forms - the
triangular surface as the most rigid form and the sphere as the most
voluminous. This gives a framed space structure.
4.1 The Geometrical Design
In any building the shape of the usable space is of great importance,

particularly the floor area and the useful height-.
These are the basic design data.
Normally we start with a circle. If we join a number of domes together
we can also cover non-circular areas (Figure 3).
The base radius and height are given, see Figure 4. These basic design
data determine the sphere and the dome.
The starting point for a geodesic dome is the crown, which we will
call intersection 1. A number of circles with the same vertical axis as the
sphere are traced through this point.
These circles follow the curvature of the sphere.
There are examples of structures with five, six and eight basic
semicircles.
For the comparison of the four distribution systems (geodesic,
lattice, lamella and Schwedler) we opted for a basic structure with five
circles (Figure 1).
The usual design starts with six semicircles (Figure 5).
The points of intersection are determined in accordance with a set
pattern, as illustrated in Figures 6 and 7.
The six main semicircles are determined at the outset. They are
rotated through a given angle, which varies according to the size of the
dome.
Each of the three main circles (= six basic semicircles) are rotated
once to fix the position of intersections 2 to 13. The circles are then
rotated again. The angle of rotation is determined by intersection points- 8
to 13. Circle b" must pass through intersection 8.
The circles are rotated until points of intersection below the base
line are reached. The point of intersection between each rotating circle and
the base circle is computed.
The first rotation determines :
the final number of main ribs over the sphere;

the number of intersections with the base circle.
The margin of choice for the first ' rotation is limited by the fact
that the number of ribs and intersections with the base circle affect the
final construction costs of the dome.
If the system with three basic circles is used the radius of the
sphere must be greater than that of the base in order to determine the
intersections. A hemisphere cannot be divided using this pattern. In the
case of a hemisphere the number of points of intersection with the base
circle is a maximum of six. Otherwise, the possible number of rotations and
thus the number of points of intersection is infinite (Figure 8).
The production and assembly costs of the dome rise when it has more
components. Substantial differences in the components also raises
construction costs.
For these reasons we decided to adopt the geometry described.
200
flat-cross ssction diagonal arch
with dissimilar dosas
F i g . 2. Richard Buckminster F u l l e r Fig. 3.

DESIGN D ftTft -Intersection 1
Intersection 1
ro
o
ro
p~0,36xR g
V 1,569xR
2*p
F i g . 4. Fig. 5. Geodesic dome with s i x b a s i c s e m i c i r c l e s

intersection 1
intersection determined
by rotation 2 . . _. , ._
' Intersection 3-11
determined by rotation 1
. rotation 2 determined
by rotation 1
Fig. 6. Fig. 7.
We have circumvented the great differences in the lengths of the ribs
which reach to the base by discarding the set pattern (see Figure 9) . We
have made a crenellated rim. All the intersections on this crenellated rim
are at the same height, and the same distance apart.
The height of the rim is determined by the length of the ribs
connecting with the base and the angle alpha, which must not be less than
45 because of the way we have chosen to join the ribs.
The number of intersections in the base circle is equal to the number
of intersections in the rim. The other distances are equal. This means that
the number of different sizes of rib is reduced to two. This is a great
advantage in production.
The points A in Figure 9 have been repositioned.
If these points are determined in accordance with the fixed pattern
they are too low. The jointing method we have selected makes it necessary to
increase angle beta and accordingly to raise the intersections A.
Figure 9c shows the result of these changes. The points A are closer
to the centre in 9c than in 9a. The length of the ribs represented in
Figure 9c by the bold lines has been altered.
4.2 Design on the Basis of Forces
It has been established that because of their aerodynamic shape domes

are little affected by wind loads. However, wind loads affect the final
design of the joints at the intersections.
The combination of the forces generated by the dead load of the
structure and variable loads such as snow is an important factor in the
design of wooden ribs.
This combination of loads produces almost exclusively compressive
forces in the ribs.
When the ribs are under compression special attention must be paid to
stability, since the ribs may buckle.
At the design stage it is important first of all to ensure that the
ribs are loaded as equally as possible in proportion to their length. This
is clearly related to the geometrical design.
Secondly, the basic rib has to be determined.
The greatest rib forces occur in the six uppermost ribs. The fact that
these ribs are joined to the ribs below and to each other in the crown
prevent them from rotating in relation to each other.
At the crown six ribs are at an angle of 60 to each other and support
each other.
The joints between the ribs and the base circle are more rigid than
those connecting the ribs to one another. Because of the load involved, the
lowest ribs can be longer than those in the rest of the dome.
The geometrical design means that the uppermost six ribs determine the
basic rib.
4.3 Construction
All the ribs have the same cross section. The rib forces in relation
to rib length do not justify any deviation. There are great advantages in
having standard cross sections. Production and joining are both simplified.
The ribs can be fastened together in several different ways. We have
developed and patented our own steel connector (see Figure 10). This
connector has the following component parts :
a central tube to bear the compressive forces;
204
Fig. 9a
infinite nuaber of circles

required to describe this
voluae
Fig. 9b
nzn
Fig. 9c
Fig. 8.
Connectors
Main rib connector

(upper)
lag screw
self-tapping screw
ro
o
shear force ring
central tube
Main rib connector

(lower)
lag screw
self-tapping screw
Fig. 10. Fig. 11.

plates to transmit the compressive forces to the wooden ribs without
generating great tensile forces perpendicular to the grain of the rib;
metal strips on the under and upper sides of the ribs. These absorb
the tensile forces caused by wind loads and, together with the lag
screws, have a function in our free-standing assembly method.
When the dome is subjected to severe concentrated loads on the
surface, it must be able to absorb flexural forces. This is possible
thanks to the distance between the lower and upper strips. The strips
are centred using a self-tapping screw.
A ring to prevent exchange and permit absorption of the (minor) shear
forces.
In most cases the dome is clad with conventional roofing boards 21 mm

thick. The distribution of the main ribs over the sphere means that they are
too far apart to support such a thin cladding. A secondary system of purlins
is required. These are smaller than the main ribs. To secure them to the
ribs we use laths and wire nails.
The radius of curvature on the outer face of the purlins and main ribs
is the same. The purlins are made of laminated wood.
The roofing is bent to the curvature of the sphere during assembly. A
certain amount of force is necessary depending on the amount of curvature
and the thickness of the material (see Figure 11). At the extremities of the
planks the flexural moment is zero. There must be no curvature there. This
presents no difficulty.
A problem in laying straight boards over a surface which is curved in
two planes is that the second curvature cannot be achieved. The boards
diverge in the middle (the measurement marked delta in Figure 11) . This is
because when the boards are bent the sides are displaced in the direction of
the radius in the middle of the boards. This occurs at each joint between
two boards, leaving us short of cladding. The boards must be pressed
together sideways. The distance to be bridged increases with each board, as
does the force required. This restricts the width of the boards. In
addition, it is impossible to cover the total sphere all the way round
beginning from one line. H e therefore divide the surface of the sphere into
six segments.
4.4 Assembly (See Figure 12)
First the sockets are laid. A rib is fixed in a socket (rib A). To
this rib the cross-member is fastened at the height of the crenellated rim.
The rib rests in the socket, which is specially designed for this system.
The next rib is fixed into the next socket and fastened to the cross-member
at the height of the rim (rib B). This process is repeated with the next two
ribs (ribs A' and B'). The first rib at rim height can now be fastened in
place (rib C) . This standing section is now able to bear loads by arch
action. For the structure to sag joints 11 and 12 would have to move in the
direction of the arrows, which is impossible since rib C cannot become
shorter.
Fixing rib C brings points 11 and 12 into exactly the right position
in space. This makes the last rib C ( closing the ring) easier to place
than all the others.
When the measurements are made very accurately the joints end up in
the right place. This also applies to the ribs and joints higher up in the
structure.
207
RIBS PLACED RIBS PLACED
JOINTS PLACED JOINTS PLACED
RIBS PLACED RIBS PLACED

JOINTS PLACED JOINTS PLACED
Fig. 12
208
5. OPTIMISATION Or THE DESIGN
The design can be optimised by varying the following:
the number of ribsi

the number of intersections;
the number of load-bearing points or the number of intersections with
the base circle;
the number of purlins;
the purlin system;
the size of the ribs;
the size of the cross-members;
the thickness of the cladding;
the assembly;
the size of the base;
aesthetic features;
in many cases, the height of the dome; the base radius is the only
fundamental design datum.
As a rule we opt for a system of parallel purlins (see Figure 13) . A
triangular system can also be used (see Figure 14) . This requires a much
thicker cladding for the same quantity of purlin wood.
The variables are closely interconnected. The basic datum is that the
cladding is 21 mm thick. This determines the number of support points for
the cladding. The number of purlins and their length then depends on the
density of the main ribs network.
With dense network the number of purlins and their length is reduced,
while the number of ribs and cross-members increases. The number of
foundation supports also increases and smaller purlins and main ribs are
used. The table in Figure 15 gives the figures for a range of designs with
different numbers of ribs.
The fastening of a purlin is simpler than that of a main rib. With
dense networks more assembly time is needed for the joints. The components
themselves require less assembly time per item. They weigh less and thus the
assembly process is cheaper.
When the height of the dome can be regarded as a variable in the
design the following applies:
Increasing the height gives a larger roof surface. More roof cladding
is required. The forces in the main ribs are reduced, thus the total
quantity of wood required for the ribs does not increase. The horizontal
loading on the base is reduced. The foundation can be made lighter. The
resistance to concentrated loads on the dome surface becomes greater, the
curvature becomes smaller.
It can be seen that optimising the design is a complex problem. The

costs must be calculated for every change made.
A number of general conclusions may be drawn, viz:
1. Increasing the height does not have any great effect on the cost. The
lower price for the foundation is offset by the greater dome surface.
2. The cladding is the greatest item of expenditure. Reducing the
thickness of this component is essential. For these reasons we have
opted for a thickness of 21 mm.
3. Increasing the number of ribs offers advantages, since increasing rib
size results in an increase cost sooner than reducing it (see
Figure 16). The length of the uppermost six ribs varies between
209
MAIN RIBS
MAIN RIBS
PURLINS
PURLINS
Fig. 13. Purlins in parallel system Fig. 14. Purlins in triangular system
Number o f Dome Number Number of ribs Number of j o i n t s

foundation diameter of
points <m> rings Total different Total different
6 2 24 3 13 3
12 30-45 3 66 6 31 5
18 40-60 4 126 10 55 7
24 55-100 5 204 16 05 10
30 90-150 6 300 23 121 13

36 130-190 7 414 32 163 17
42 170-220 8 546 42 211 21
Fig. 15.
210
rib length
F i g . 16.
F i g . 17.
211
approximately 8 and 10 m with a base span of 40 m to approximately 15
to 17 m with a base span of 200 m (larger spans present no technical
problems) .
If there are more main ribs the total amount of wood in the ribs and
purlins is less. The amount of material in the cross-members remains
the same. There are more of them, but they are all lighter.
6. NEW DEVELOPMENTS
In response to the demand in the Netherlands and Belgium for means of

spanning sports facilities such as skating rinks and football fields we have
combined the geodesic design with a system of conventional arched trusses
(see Figure 17) to construct barrel-shaped coverings. Both ends of the
barrel are connected to a half-dome with geodesic distribution of ribs.
We designed the geodesic section to have fewer main ribs, since this
has a direct effect on the barrel section. In this case optimisation is even
more complex than for a geodesic dome alone.
The diagonal ribs of the barrel section have both a stabilising and a
load-bearing function, and they also transmit forces from the geodesic
sections to the base. The axis of these ribs is elliptical and twisted. The
difference in height between the extremities of the rib axes is small in
most cases, so that the torsion is not excessive.
Domes or the oval structures illustrated may be used for concert halls
and theatres etc., heated swimming pools, gardens, exhibition halls, market
halls and industrial buildings or to provide shade. Since there are no
columns partitions can be added as required.
In addition, combinations with other geometric shapes such as pyramids
(with triangular faces) and cubes are possible.
REFERENCES
(1) ROSSMAN, WENDELL E. Netzschalen aus Holz fr grosse Spannweiten

Schweizer Ingenieur und Architekt 25/83.
(2) HEARING, CHRISTOPH HERMANN. Zur Konstruktion von Holznetzschalen
Schweizer Ingenieur und Architekt 25/83. Bauen mit Holz 9/83.
(3) Z.S. MAKOWSKI H. NOOSHIN. The largest Timber Dome in the World. Space
Structures, an international journal, Vol.1., No.1, 1985.
(4) VARIOUS AUTHORS. Shelter. Shelter Publications, a Non-profit
California Corp. 1973.
(5) JONATHON KANTER. Geodesic Geometry.
(6) VARIOUS AUTHORS. Syllabus van de leergang: konstructief vormgeven met
ruimtevakwerken 'Konstruktiedag' 20 March 1985. Technische Hogeschool
Delft.
(7) GIELGENS, F. Technische Hogeschool Delft.
(7) GIELGENS, F. Ontwerp en ontwikkeling van Temcor-koepels.
(8) Various brochures from: Western Wood Structures. De Coene
Bouwelementen BV.
212
DISCUSSION
Question by Dring, G.A. (Canada)
Did you consider composite action between main members, purlins and
decking of the timber dome?
Answer by Jorissen, A. (NL)
No.
Was the fire resistance of the connector tested and what do you
consider as the fire resistance of the connector?
The connector has not yet been tested for fire.
Do you calculate the elements for the loads during erection of the
dome?
He make calculations of the loads during erection because they differ

from the loads during the use of the dome.
Comment by Hesquita, A. (Portugal)
It is very strange that the Dutch code does not deal with the fire
resistance of the connections, because this is fundamental.
You should calculate the fire resistance of the total structure, not
of one element, and this is what we did. We have not made any tests yet but
we have an idea of the fire resistance of a dome. A fire in a dome will be
local, especially in a large dome. Because of the structure, one or more
elements can fail causing failure of the complex structure as a whole. In a
dome with twelve supports, one of them can fail. If you have a larger dome,
more supports can be removed.
N.B. The Dutch code does deal with the fire resistance of timber
buildings.
Question by Oleson, B.F. (DK)
I agree with Mr Jorissen: we need a new way of thinking about fire

resistance. But how did you manage to convince the building authorities?
Ne did not have to convince them, we just built.
213
Comment by Ehlbeck, J. (FRG)
I do not think that there is any problem with those large structures
in the event of a local fire. People can be evacuated quickly and the
structure will have enough fire resistance. We must not overstate the
problems of fire in timber structures. The problems are just as great for
other materials.
Timber keeps its properties during fire. Other materials lose their
strength rapidly. People are safer in a building with a timber structure in
the event of fire than in a building of any other material.
Comment by Mesquita, A. (Portugal)
The problem is not the timber itself but the most important thing is
to look at the fire resistance of the metal connectors.
Reply by Jorissen, A. (NL)
A structure which collapses after failure of one element or connector

(progressive collapse) is different from a structure which does not. In the
latter case the safety of the structure should be judged on the basis of
probabilistic^ calculations.
Comment by Delos, Y. (France)
Last year in France a book was published which takes into account the
calorific potential of the contents of a building. This enables us to see
how much evacuation time is needed and how safe people are. We sometimes use
the ISO curve for this but I think that using this curve for inflammable
materials is a waste of time.
Comment by Wagner, C. (FRG)
We should look at the entire structure of the connector. The wood

shields the steel connector so I think it would take a long time for the
steel connector to fail.
Comment by Raveala, A. (Finland)
An example of a fire resistant connector was shown. The principle is

that the steel is embedded in concrete. However, it is also possible to use
timber as protection for the steel connector.
214
SESSION VI
Chairman: Ph. CRUBILE, Centre Technique du Bois,

Paris, France

CLOSING SPEECH
ZUSAMMENFASSUNGEN DER VORTRAGE
RESUMES DES EXPOSES
LIST OF PARTICIPANTS
INDEX OF AUTHORS
215
J. EHLBECK
Karlsruhe University, Federal Republic of Germany
Summary
A relatively high technical level of timber engineering has been

achieved in a number of countries. However, not all its potential has
so far been taken advantage of as a result of inadequate
strength-grading and the lack of computational design models. The
variability of the various material properties may be reduced by
strength and density classification, so that the high-quality material
can be put to more appropriate use. New fastening techniques are
constantly being developed but research on the basis of load-bearing
and deformation behaviour in the light of the many influencing factors
is still unsatisfactory. Analytical procedures based on improved
knowledge of the materials and fastening systems would enable the
engineers to describe the reliability of structures as a whole, and
only then could the probabilistic safety concept fully be applied.
This must be done gradually, by studying the load-bearing and
deformation behaviour of joints and components in the light of all the
parameters and their variability, with verification by means of
selective tests so that the analysis of entire systems with all their
interactions can finally be made possible. Only with the necessary
preparatory work being done will it be possible to analyse the
structural safety in probabilistic terms of a modern safety concept.
Modern numerical methods and computers make this possible.
Timber engineering research should therefore make a step forward in
this direction and consistently promote all efforts of this kind
before it is too late.
1. INTRODUCTION
Europe is rich in woodland and, together with North America, has long
been a leader in wood technology. Timber construction has a very
long-standing tradition in Europe and has been a highly developed craft for
centuries. Since wood is a renewable raw material it is difficult to imagine
it ever being entirely displaced by rival building materials.
However, this is no reason simply to sit back and watch new building
technologies develop. Indeed, the demands from clients for higher quality,
the increasing volumes of sawn timber being imported from overseas and
continual competition with rival materials, make technical innovations and a
deeper understanding of the mechanical and physical behaviour of wood
essential, since we cannot even be certain that the properties of this
natural raw material will not change in the course of time. Building
engineers and wood experts would be mistaken if they were to assume that we
already knew all there is to know about wood. Ne constantly discover gaps in
our knowledge of the behaviour of wood when we use it uncritically with new
building methods.
217
Shortcomings in the basic knowledge of civil engineers should also be
borne in mind, since in many places young engineers are inadequately trained
and often - without due thought - designs are subsequently produced and used
which would be suitable for other building materials, but not for wood on
account of its behaviour when subjected to external actions.
While the market is calling more and more for higher quality
materials, the range of timber provided by the forests cannot be put to best
use due to lack of adequate knowledge or reliable grading methods. The
widely varying mechanical and physical properties of wood, the need to
develop new wood-based building materials, the competition in the building
trade throughout the world and the increasing possibilities in the age of
the computer for more detailed study of the behaviour of building materials
- such as the effects of various external actions on structures - go
together to present a clear challenge to timber construction researchers to
step up work on timber engineering.
Timber construction research appears to be split with more and more
attention being drawn to the restoration of old timber structures on the one
hand, as well as lodern timber engineering looking for new processes to
improve the reliability of timber structures in terms of modern approaches
to safety, and to make even more economical use of the great possibilities
of wood as a building material, on the other hand. In fact, the problems are
basically the same.
2. FUTURE RESEARCH OBJECTIVES
Current developments in timber engineering, together with the efforts

towards international harmonisation of design principles and the associated
codes of practice, should generally awake a new and greater interest in
timber engineering research. New objectives and priorities must be set in
three main research areas.
2.1 Properties of Structural Timber and Other Wood-based Materials
The physical and mechanical properties of sawn timber for use in

load-bearing structures are characterised by a wide range of factors.
Everything - from selecting trees in the forest; harvesting, transporting
and storing logs and sawing them into beams, planks and boards, to seasoning
and drying the green timber and finally grading it - has an influence on
quality. However, by the time it reaches the grading stage, timber must
already be marked for certain purposes and be assigned to certain strength
classes accordingly.-
This kind of timber classification is more important for the building
industry than any classification based on external appearance. A priority
research area, therefore, must be to find reliable strength-grading methods,
for example mechanically on the basis of the modulus of elasticity, density
and knot area ratio. Assessing timber by the characteristic values - i.e. by
a lower percentile of the distribution of the properties - leads to an
enormous amount of wood being underestimated and hence not used
economically. Possible changes of relevant properties which might occur over
the course of time in a structure also call for further study. Particularly
important are effects of load duration on strength and the effects of
external influences due to humidity and temperature on deformation under
load, which are relevant to an assessment of the serviceability of a timber
structure, but they are still insufficiently understood. A wide range of
projects in this field has been started, but should be coordinated so that
more reliable findings can be incorporated into the technical regulations
and building codes.
218
Hood-baaed materials present certain problems, since the fierce
competition in this field constantly calls for new developments and
technologies. While these developments may well be a good thing in
themselves, they call for continual comprehensive material testing in order
to provide sufficiently reliable data on the characteristic strength and
deformation values. There are still no international standards for testing
wood-based materials in structural sises and hence no well-founded data on
parameters such as resistance to the existing external actions.
New international efforts to establish harmonised test procedures will
be helpful to fill this gap. There is a need for data on the relevant
material parameters of newly developed wood-based panel products on a
reliable statistical basis. In addition, new components must be developed
using these materials alone in combination with other materials, taking into
account their physical advantages and disadvantages.
2.2 Methods of Jointing
The weakest points in timber structures continue to be the joints

between load-bearing elements for the transmission of shear, compressive or
tensile forces. This applies both to mechanical joints, the manufacturing of
which is independent of the climatic conditions, and to rigid glued joints
which can only be made in production rooms under controlled conditions. A
large range of jointing techniques has been developed in timber engineering,
with varying joint configurations. In most cases, however, there are still
gaps in our understanding of the behaviour of such joints when subjected to
external actions, such as loads, humidity, temperature or long duration
effects, so that the actual load-bearing capacities cannot be reliably
estimated. This can lead to unnecessary expense and inefficient structures.
Selective, practical research has primarily been concerned with
experimentally investigating load-bearing capacities, while the rigidity and
deformation behaviour of joints have taken second place. However, the
stiffness characteristics of a joint - which have until now mostly been
regarded in simplified terms of elastic stiffness - can in many cases have
considerable influence on the load distribution within a structure. Today,
more attention is being paid to inelastic and time-dependent behaviour of
the joints, with modifying factors being used in design operations. However,
we still lack a basic understanding of a whole range of aspects, from loss
of stiffness resulting from unseasoned timber joints when drying out, to the
capacity of joints to absorb dynamic stresses resulting from seismic actions
- although these matters are partly understood in the case of traditional
nailed joints.
Theoretical research is developing new analytical processes for
describing deformation behaviour of joints or predicting their load-bearing
capacity. However, so far all these methods have proved inadequate for
direct practical application. They are often still too imprecise, since the
reaction is influenced by far too many factors which are difficult to
quantify. Verification of theoretical studies requires experiments, which in
turn can only be carried out on small test specimens because of the work
and, above all, the costs involved.
Thus, research in jointing techniques must primarily aim at improving
design principles and their reliability, while keeping them simple enough
for practical application, by:
developing theoretical computational models to describe stiffness,

damping and load-bearing capacitiesj
determining distribution functions for these parameters;
developing or improving standardised test procedures ;
219
determining the effects of particular influences such as temperature,
moisture content and duration of load;
investigating dynamic actions) and
identifying the effects of the configuration of joints on local stress
concentrations, particularly perpendicular to the grain.
This will continue to involve the development of new, efficient joints

- including those for transmission of bending moments - and their reaction
to aggressive environments and wood preservatives. Thus, research must
maintain a constant dialogue with practice.
2.3 Analytical Procedures for Structures
The behaviour of any timber structure throughout its lifetime is

exceedingly complex. The reasons for this are the non-linearity of the
physical properties of wood, the correlation between load and deformation in
joints, creep, the relatively large variability of all influencing
parameters - which vary from one property to another - and finally the risk
of biological decay. Thus, assessing or describing the maximum load-bearing
capacity and the serviceability of a timber structure for a given lifetime
requires highly developed procedures.
For this reason tests are often carried out on full-scale components.
These tests are expensive but indispensable. However, ultimately they can
only serve as an aid, albeit a very important one, to research, since the
results of every experiment conceal the disadvantage that they are unique,
yield no information on variability and in most cases cannot serve as a
basis for generalisation.
Consequently, understanding of new timber construction techniques
usually remains behind the rapid developments in the field and the
recognised design procedures are often over-simplified. Typical examples are
the widespread building methods using punched metal plate fasteners.
Although these methods nowadays account for a major share of the market, the
design procedures for trussed rafters with punched metal plate fasteners are
still unsatisfactory, as can be seen from the new publications on this
problem which appear in the specialist literature, every year.
Other new types of components, which are still inadequately
understood, have become possible as a result of the developments with glued
laminated members (glulam). The glulam industry has given a considerable
boost to timber engineering as a whole. There is a call for further
development of calculation models for glued laminated timber, which is a
very complex material from the point of view of the reaction of the
laminations to the range of influences listed in section 2.1 and the
behaviour of the finger joints. More reliable analysis of components made of
glued laminated timber calls for an improved quality control at the
production stage - since, if any single influencing parameter is not kept
under control, all efforts to produce a better product by means of
conscientious and reliable quality control of the other relevant parameters
can come to nothing. Recent studies have shown that if the quality control
of the finger joints is inadequate the load-bearing capacity of glulam
cannot be improved, even if the grading of the boards used for the
laminations is on a high and reliable level.
Thus, timber engineering research should develop basic analytical
procedures, which no longer pose any insoluble problems thanks to the
possibilities offered nowadays by computers. Only in this way and through
selective experiments to verify the theoretical findings will it be possible
in the long term to describe the reliability of whole structures more
efficiently than in the past. Obviously, the translation of theoretical
220
knowledge of this kind into practicable rules should avoid creating any
insuperable problems for the designing engineer. However, since the engineer
is likely to be making increasing use of computers in the future, there will
probably be no need to over-simplify when producing the necessary software,
at least for sophisticated structures.
In the field of civil engineering a new safety concept is gradually
emerging, which permits a more realistic assessment of the behaviour of
structures and which might also lead to increased safety and economy for
timber structures, provided that this reliability can also be described.
Particularly in timber engineering, this new approach could lead to
substantial improvements because of the comparatively wide variability of
the values of the relevant material properties. This is on the assumption
that reliable grading procedures are developed (cf. section 2.1) since
nowadays the designer still thinks in terms of the minimum values of the
material properties or is obliged to demand excessive safety margins against
the mean values.
Although there are obvious advantages, this new concept has not yet
been adopted in timber engineering, and in the building codes in most
European countries. The Eurocodes being prepared by the European Communities
follow this new design method, in spite of the awareness that a great deal
of basic knowledge is still lacking. The reliability of a whole timber
structure cannot only be determined on the basis of the properties of the
material and their variabilities, since the resistance and stiffness of a
complete system depend to a great extent on the interaction of the
individual components. A probabilistic approach must take into account these
interactions. Thus, this opens up a whole new field of research in timber
engineering, i.e. the analysis of the integral system on the basis of a
correct structural analysis, but also taking into account the typical
statistical distributions of the properties of the building materials used.
The road will be long, but this is what research must gradually work
towards. This work should begin with describing the ultimate limit state and
the serviceability limit state of:
fastening systems, and

individual components where no basic information is yet available both
in the light of load duration, load alternation and fluctuations in
humidity and other environmental influences under service conditions.
221
DISCUSSION
Comment by Sagot, G. (France)
I do not think that Professor Ehlbeck has placed enough emphasis on

the influence of manufacturers and the trade on the final quality of a
structure. This contribution could, for instance, be expressed in partial
coefficients for the quality of manufacturing. I therefore regret that so
few manufacturers are present at this conference.
I also think EC5 should be revised soon after it is published. We can
improve EC5 on the basis of the experience of users, such as manufacturers.
I would suggest a revision every five years.
Answer by Crubil, P. (France)
As it stands, EC5 is a limit state code and therefore could perhaps

include more partial y coefficients. Personally I am in favour of your
proposed revision.
Comment by Ehlbeck, J. (FRG)
There has never been a standard that was perfect when first
published.
We will have to adapt EC5 for each country. EC5 is not a national
code, it is only a basis for each national code.
It is very gratifying that all these different countries should be
working together on such a complex topic.
We must do some advertising work, to show that timber is often a
better material than steel or concrete, especially for use in seismic areas
(which is now disregarded in EC8) and in the event of fire. It has
advantages in the chemical and agricultural industries because it can resist
many acids. It also looks good.
Today timber is receiving better treatment than it has experienced in
the past.
Comment by Ehrentreich, J. (EC)
I would like "to make a few remarks as representative of the

Commission.
The timber conference has provided a great deal of information, not
only on EC5, but also on the other Eurocodes. We have heard a lot about the
behaviour of timber in seismic areas and have decided to hold workshops on
this subject. We would be pleased if you would let us know which experts
could contribute to such a workshop.
Another topic was the behaviour of timber in fire. This was a second
essential requirement in the Directive. Whole systems need to be set up for
the specifications necessary to cover fire resistance. We have done some
preliminary work on this already in the Commission: some conferences have
already been held in Luxembourg.
Lastly, I would like to thank all of you on behalf of the Commission
for coming to this conference.
222
CLOSING ADDRESS
J. KUIPERS
Technical University Delft, The Netherlands
In the past three days you have been listening to and discussing 17
papers on the use of timber in structures - with the emphasis on
calculations for load-bearing wooden structures - in what I hope was a happy
blend of theory and practice.
The reason for holding this conference, as you are all now fully
aware, is that the draft for Eurocode 5, 'Timber Structures', is due to be
finalised soon. This is one of a series of Eurocodes concerned with the
design and calculation of structures. It will be open to discussion until
March 1989.
I am happy to take this opportunity of thanking Directorate-General
III of the Commission in Brussels, which is behind this move, and in
particular Mr Ehrentreich and his staff, as well as Mr Nicolay and his
colleagues in Directorate-General XIII in Luxembourg for making this
conference possible. The organisation has worked very smoothly thanks to the
efforts of all concerned.
A particular word of thanks is due to the interpreters, who have
overcome our language barriers with outstanding skill.
It is remarkable that a conference of this kind is being held only on
wood. This may indicate particular activity in the timber industry, or at
least on the part of the EC5 drafting panel, which after producing the draft
considered that the best way of initiating a discussion on it was to hold a
conference at which it would be launched. I am sure that I speak for all of
you when I offer this panel my sincere good wishes in their task of
finalising this draft, and I congratulate them on having organised this
conference.
Of course, to do all this work we needed to call on people who had
something to say on the subject of the use of timber in load-bearing
structures. Thus we looked round for topics and for people, and while a good
deal of our requirements were met by the drafters of Eurocode 5 themselves,
I consider that we were also fortunate in obtaining a number of other
speakers on topics which are very relevant to the application with which we
are concerned.
Turning to the speakers, I also thank you very much for your
contributions, and for discussing your views on these matters with us. It is
perhaps all too seldom that theory and practice are discussed together - as
was certainly the purpose here - in the sphere of timber structures, and of
course it happens very seldom on the international level. Woodworkers enjoy
working with wood, but perhaps not in full view of everyone.
Again, my sincere thanks to all the speakers, and I apologise for the
way I chased up your papers, but in one or two cases I really felt I had to
do so.
My thanks also go to the chairmen of the conference sessions. You made
sure that wa kept reasonably well to our timetable and that the discussions
were conducted in an orderly manner. My sincere thanks for your efforts.
Lastly, I thank you all for attending this conference, and in
particular for your contributions to the discussions, for which the time
appeared all too short. Thank you for appreciating the problems of the
chairmen.
223
I referred just now to particular activity in the timber industry in
connection with the organising of this conference. I believe you are already
aware that there are signs of a growing interest in timber in Europe, in
that there is a great shortage of this material. Plans for increasing the
area of forest are being discussed and implemented. These are liable to have
important consequences, and certainly some thought must be given at an early
stage to what can be done in the future with the increased supply of timber,
on the basis of the kind of trees to be planted, the quality of the product
and the associated technical and economic advantages it offers. In my
opinion, the fact that wood can be produced on a continuous basis, and in
particular that forestry is beneficial to the environment, must be
considered in this connection as highly advantageous, and this must be
recognised more clearly than it is at present.
The sphere of application which we have been considering these past
few days is in any case of prime importance from the point of view of
quality, and for this reason it is in my opinion certainly worth giving a
good deal of thought to the proposed increase in the area under timber, and
to make every effort to convince the people who make these kind of plans of
the importance of the matter.
Interest in using timber in load-bearing structures is not
particularly great in the building industry. This was brought out in various
ways in this conference.
It appears to me that it is very important to give careful thought to
ways of directing attention to this application in the training of
architects and engineers, and also of craftsmen and technicians at various
levels. A study of this kind would have to be conducted by a group of
interested parties, including representatives of the timber merchants and
timber industry, and it would have to be borne in mind that there were other
important applications besides the structural uses of timber.
It is clear that some attention must also be given to developments in
other building materials. In a number of spheres users of timber will for
the present be following the trend rather than leading it. This is currently
true, for example, as regards safety considerations, which are being studied
mainly by research workers in the concrete industry. The fact that as time
goes on the calculations are becoming more complicated and thus less
accessible is something which even we as research workers do not always see
as an advantage, but at present this is unavoidable if we want timber to
remain competitive on a technical level.
In the timber trade generally there is little understanding of the
problems of design and calculation, so that people in the trade very quickly
conclude that the research workers are engaged on difficult and therefore
impractical schemes. In our opinion, and that of our fellow designers in
concrete and steel, a Eurocode on timber structures must be on the same
level from the point of view of technical and research work as the other
Eurocodes. We consider that this is in fact the case, but that in comparison
with the other draft standards it is certainly not a case of aiming at
unnecessary complexity.
As I said earlier, the critical period of EC5 has begun, and everyone
here today is urgently invited to submit proposals for improvements. There
is certainly no doubt that there is room for them. Directions for submitting
comments are given in the EC5 draft.
Also, at a later date, additions must be made. Meanwhile, a start will
be made with the drawing up of a number of supporting standards. One very
important standard will concern strength classifications. Here again, it is
important to standardise on the most suitable method or methods, so that we
can guarantee that our structures are reliable, despite the fact that they
are made of a natural material with natural variations, the disadvantages of
224
which are eliminated by applying a scientifically-based and practical
classification system.
It is really too ridiculous that, to a large extent, different parts
of the Community use the same wood, of the same type and of the same
provenance, but have their own classification systems.
Furthermore, it is important that there should be a European system of
certification, so that many special items can be approved and their use put
on a legal footing. This is the case, inter alia, for the different
fastening devices which are specific to particular brand names. At present
these are not mentioned in the standard, and therefore could not be used
under the draft EC5.
I shall not try to list all the subjects discussed, nor try to give an
overview of everything said at this conference. You will be able to re-read
all the papers in the report of the proceedings, and we shall do our best
with the reports on the discussions.
I thank you for the inspiration you have brought to this conference. I
hope that your interest in timber and its potential has been stimulated
anew, and that you will see the results of this in one way or another in the
near future.
I thank you all and now declare the 1988 European Conference on Timber
Structures closed.
225
ZUSAMMENFASSUNGEN DER VORTRAGE
227
ALLGEMEIN! SRlJgTERUNG MIT BESONDERER BERCKSICHTIGUNG
VON EUROCODE 5 - HOLZBAUWERKE
H.J. LAUSEN
Dnisches Bauforschungsinstitut
Allgemeines
Eurocodes sind von der Kommission der Europischen Gemeinschaften aus-

gearbeitete Normen fur den Bausektor. Eurocode 5 sind Normen fr Holzbau-
werke.
Zunchst sind Normen fUr Baukonstruktionen (Beton, Stahl, Holz,
Mauerwerksbauten und Grndungen einschlielich Lasteinwirkungen und erd-
bebensichere Konstruktionen) vorgesehen, geplant ist aber, Eurocodes fr
alle wesentlichen Anforderungen an Gebude, zum Beispiel im Hinblick auf
Brandsicherheit, Schalldmmung und Energieeinsparung, auszuarbeiten. Euro-
codes sind praxisorientierte Dokumente, die zum direkten Gebrauch bestimmt
sind.
Ziel und Zweck
Zweck der Eurocodes ist es u.a.:

- den gemeinsamen Binnenmarkt durch Beseitigung von Handelshemmnissen in-
folge unterschiedlicher Baubestimmungen zu frdern,
- die Wettbewerbsfhigkeit der europischen Bauindustrie auf auereuro-
pischen Mrkten zu strken,
- eine Grundlage fUr die einheitlichen Bauartikelregeln zu schaffen.
Rechtsstatus
Es ist die Absicht der Kommission, die Eurocodes vorlufig als fakulta-
tive Regeln zu erlassen, d.h. da sie in allen Mitgliedslndern anstelle
der nationalen Bestimmungen angewendet werden knnen.
Prinzipiell sind die Grundlagen dafr geschaffen, daB die Eurocodes
einen solchen Status sptestens 1992 durch die Ratsrichtlinie ber den
gemeinsamen Binnenmarkt erhalten knnen.
Es bleibt Jedoch den einzelnen Mitgliedslndern berlassen, das ge-
wnschte Sicherheitsniveau zu bestimmen und das Ma der Kontrolle der Bau-
planung und Ausfhrung vorzuschreiben sowie gegebenenfalls Regeln zur Ge-
nehmigung von Projekten und Baustoffen auszuarbeiten.
Modellnormen
Die Grundlage von Eurocode 5 bildet der CIB Structural Timber Design
Code. Der Abschnitt ber die Herstellung von Brettschnittholz (Anhang 3)
wurde zusammen mit der Unterkommission Glulam der FEMIB ausgearbeitet. Die
Normen fr Erprobungen basieren auf den Empfehlungen der RILEM.
229
Ausarbeitung von Eurocode 5
Der vorliegende Vorschlag fr Eurocode 5 ist fr die Kommission von

einer Gruppe ausgearbeitet worden, der Mitglieder aus der Bundesrepublik,
Dnemark, Frankreich und Grobritannien angehren. Hinzugezogen wurden auch
Personen aus Italien, den Niederlanden und Portugal.
Sie wurden von der Kommission als persnliche Sachverstndige einge-
setzt und waren nicht verpflichtet, fr die Zustimmung - ihrer Mitglieds-
lnder zu dem Vorschlag zu sorgen.
Um auch den Gesichtspunkten der Mitgliedstaaten Rechnung zu tragen,
wird der Vorschlag fr Eurocode 5 relativ lange, nmlich fnf Jahre,
ffentlich zur Stellungnahme ausgelegt.
Die - hoffentlich zahlreichen - Stellungnahmen von Mitgliedslndern,
Organisationen und Einzelpersonen werden von einer Redaktionsgruppe
geprft, die ebenfalls ohne nationale Weisungen arbeiten soll. Deshalb
behalten alle Mitgliedslnder die Mglichkeit, eine Kontaktperson zu benen-
nen, die ber die Arbeit informiert und zu prinzipiellen Beschlssen gehrt
werden soll.
Die endgltige Ausgabe von Eurocode 5 wird voraussichtlich Mitte 1990
vorliegen.
Koordinierung der Arbeit
Die Koordinierung mit den anderen Eurocodes ist Aufgabe einer Koordi-
nierungsgruppe. Dieser gehren u.a. die Vorsitzenden der Redaktionsgruppen
sowie Vertreter internationaler Organisationen an.
Zu den Fragen, die diese Gruppe behandelt hat, gehren: die Aufteilung
in grundstzliche Anforderungen und Anwendungsregeln sowie der gemeinsame
Abschnitt ber Sicherheit, Geltungsbereich und Terminologie.
Grundstzliche Anforderungen und Anwendungsregeln
Die Eurocodes sind in grundstzliche Anforderungen und Anwendungsregeln

aufgeteilt.
Zu den grundstzlichen Anforderungen gehren:

- allgemeine Aussagen und Definitionen, von denen nicht abgewichen werden
kann, sowie
- Anforderungen und Modelle, von denen - aufgrund ihres Zusammenhangs mit
anderen Bestimmungen in dem betreffenden Eurocode - nicht abgewichen
werden kann, es sei denn, da dies ausdrcklich zugelassen ist.
Anwendungsregeln sind allgemein anerkannte Regeln, die sich aus den allge-
meinen Aussagen ableiten lassen und die in den Grundsatz-Abschnitten ge-
stellten Anforderungen erfllen.
Abweichungen
Es ist zulssig, da in einzelnen Fllen von anderen Anwendungsregeln

Gebrauch gemacht werden kann, als sie der betreffende Eurocode vorsieht,
vorausgesetzt, es kann nachgewiesen werden, da dies nicht zu geringerer
Konstruktionstauglichkeit fuhrt. Nicht zulssig ist dagegen, da nationale
Behrden andere Anwendungsregeln einfhren; weiter zulssig sind aber
230
nationale Regelwerke. Ein Projekt mu entweder ganz nach den einen oder den
anderen Regelwerk (den Eurocodes oder den nationalen Bestinnungen) ausge-
fhrt werden. Auf etwas lngere Sicht wird es aber schwierig sein, zwei
Systeme beizubehalten.
Kommentare
Um zur Verweidung von Miverstndnissen oder falschem Gebrauch beizu-

tragen, ist eine Reihe von Kommentaren ausgearbeitet worden, die Erkl-
rungen und Begrndungen fUr die vorgesehenen Regeln sowie Ergnzungen dazu
umfassen.
Geltungsbereich
Die jetzt herausgegebenen Eurocodes enthalten allgemeine Anforderungen

und Regeln fr alle Konstruktionen aus dem betreffenden Baustoff, sowohl
fr Bau- als auch Anlagenkonstruktionen.
Falls es sich als notwendig erweisen sollte, werden spter ergnzende
Eurocodes mit besonderen Anforderungen an spezielle Konstruktionstypen (zum
Beispiel BrUcken) und Anwendungsbereiche (zum Beispiel landwirtschaftliche
Gebude) ausgearbeitet.
Bezugsnormen
Der Vorschlag fUr Eurocode 5 basiert - ebenso wie die brigen Euro-
codes- weitgehend auf den ISO-Normen und anderen allgemein anerkannten
Dokumenten.
Im Vorschlag fUr Eurocode 5 wird Bezug genommen auf
- ISO-Normen fr Baustoffe und Bauteile sowie fur ihre Erprobung,
- Vorschlge fr entsprechende ISO-Normen,
- BaustoffSpezifikationen und Sortierungsregeln zum Beispiel fr Bauholz,
die von nationalen oder internationalen Organisationen ausgearbeitet
wurden.
Diese sollen durch CEN-Normen ersetzt werden, bevor die endgltigen

Eurocode-Ausgaben in Kraft treten. CEN war bisher wegen Geldmangels nicht
sehr aktiv; es wurde aber eine Vereinbarung getroffen, da die Kommission
die Ausarbeitung der Normen finanziert, die sie fr die Eurocodes bentigt.
Unklar ist noch, wie das Problem der auerhalb der Europischen Gemein-
schaft erzeugten Bau- und Sperrhlzer gelst werden soll, denn es ist un-
wahrscheinlich, da diese von den CEN-Normen gedeckt werden. Sicher ist
allerdings, da man nicht auf Holz und Sperrholz aus Kanada, den skandina-
wiachen Lndern und der UDSSR verzichten kann.
Inhalt
Der Eurocode 5 besteht aus vier Hauptteilen:

Der erste Teil umfat teils Einheiten, Zeichen, Definitionen und Bezugs-
dokumente, teils die allgemeine Grundlage, u.a. das Sicherheitssystem.
Dieser Teil ist in allen Eurocodes grundstzlich gleich. In Eurocode 5
werden besondere Regeln fUr die Wirkung der Lasteinwirkungsdauer und der
Feuchtigkeit gegeben.
231
Der zweite Teil umfat Anforderungen an Baustoffe, weitgehend auf der
Grundlage von Bezugsnormen und Anhngen.
Der dritte Teil umfat Bemessungsregeln fr alle blichen Konstruktions-

elemente und Konstruktionen in Tragfhigkeits- und Gebrauchstauglichkeits-
grenzzustnden.
Der (letzte) vierte Teil umfat die Anforderungen an die Ausfhrung, die
erfllt sein mssen, damit die Bemessungsregeln angewandt werden knnen. Es
wird also nicht versucht, die Ausfhrung von Holzbauwerken generell zu be-
schreiben.
Spter soll ein Abschnitt ber den Nachweis der Feuerfestigkeit von
Holzbauwerken hinzukommen.
Bauwerke in Erdbebengebieten
Die besonderen Anforderungen an Bauwerke in Erdbebengebieten sind fr

alle Baustoffe in Eurocode 8 enthalten, der zur Zeit nur in einer sehr vor-
lufigen Ausgabe vorliegt.
Damit sollen Baustoffe und Konstruktionen gefrdert werden, die Energie
durch plastische Verformung aufnehmen knnen. Holzbauteile selbst haben nur
sehr geringe Fhigkeit, Energie durch plastische Verformung aufzunehmen.
Dagegen haben .Sparrenfcher und Scheibenkonstruktionen zusammen mit mecha-
nischen Verbindungsmitteln vermutlich gute Energieaufnahmemglichkeiten.
Leider ist das Verhalten von Verbindungen unter Erdbebeneinwirkung
nicht besonders gut dokumentiert. Deshalb mu vermutlich in einer ersten
Phase gefordert werden, da die Einwirkungen auf Holzbauwerke aufgrund
einer Elastizittsanalyse geprft werden.
232
ERLAEUTERUNG DER ALLGEMEINEM ANFORDERUNGEN. EINSCHLIELICH DER
UNTER BESONDERER BERDECKSICHTIGUNG VON
EUROCODE 5 HOLZBAUWERKE
H.J. LARSEN
Dnisches Bauforschungsinstitut
Die allgemeinen Anforderungen an B emessung, Ausfhrung und Kontrolle

sind allen Eurocodes gemeinsam; zulssig sind nur Abweichungen aufgrund der
besonderen Baustoffeigenschaften.
Es wird diese gemeinsame Grundlage beschrieben und angegeben, wo davon
Abweichungen im Eurocode 5 bestehen. Ferner werden die Teilsicherheitsbei
werte und Faktoren begrndet, die den Einflu des Feuchtegehalts und der
Lasteinwirkungsdauer bercksichtigen.
Grenzzustnde
Die Anforderungen an die Tauglichkeit der Bauwerke werden anhand

der Grenzzustnde der Tragfhigkeit, also B rchen oder entsprechenden
gefhrlichen Situationen,
der Grenzzustnde der Gebrauchstauglichkeit, also Situationen, in denen
das Bauwerk seine Gebrauchsfunktion nicht mehr erfllt, formuliert.
Sicherheitsmethode
Angewendet wird die sogenannte Teilsicherheitsbeiwert Methode. Sie

unterscheidet sich von der bisher dominierenden Methode, (zulssige Span
nungen), indem Sicherheitsbeiwerte (Teilwerte) sowohl der Tragfhigkeit als
auch der Lasteinwirkungen eingefhrt werden.
Teilsicherheitsbeiwert Methode
Kurz beschrieben, ist das Prinzip der Teilsicherheitsbeiwert Methode

folgendes :
1. Es werden die charakteristischen Werte fr die stndigen Einwirkungen
Gk> vernderlichen Einwirkungen Q. und auergewhnlichen Einwirkungen
A. bestimmt.
2. Fur die vernderlichen Einwirkungen werden auerdem die verschiedenen
Einwirkungskombinationen bestimmt. Die Kombinationswerte werden als
<PQk bezeichnet, wobei fein Faktor (<1) ist.
3. Die bemessenen Einwirkungswerte werden durch Multiplikation der so
bestimmten Werte mit einem Teilsicherheitswert y bestimmt:
G
d " >GGk d " V k (oder
>,(T'k) A
d Vk
4. Einwirkungen Eigeneinwirkungen,G ,a vernderliche Einwir
kungen Q k 1 ( 0 k 2.und auergewhnliche Einwirkungen werden nach folgen
dem Prinzipschema kombiniert:
f'O.j k.J * >Q,1 9k.l * ^ Q . i Ti k.i
J
i>l
233
Prinzipiell werden in eine Einwirkungskombination alle die Einwirkungen
einbezogen, die gleizeitig auftreten knnen; eine von ihnen mit ihrem
charakteristischen Wert, die anderen mit ihren Kombinationswerten.
5. Es wird die Beanspruchung - berechnete Beanspruchung S - aus den
kombinierten Einwirkungen bestimmt.
6. Bestimmt werden die charakteristischen Baustoffeigenschaften fr Bruch-
werte )t . Fr Holz wird die charakteristische Lasteigenschaft gleich der
5%-Fraktile gesetzt, d.h., da hchstens 5X niedrigere Werte haben
drfen. Fr Elastizittsmodule zur Berechnung von Verformungen und
Dichten zur Berechnung von Eigenlasten werden Mittelwerte bestimmt.
7. Die bemessenen Baustoffeigenschaften X werden als
X = k
d modV' , M
bestimmt, wobei y ein Teilsicherheitsbeiwert fr die Baustoffeigen-
schaften und k , ein Modifikationsfaktor zur Bercksichtigung des
Feuchtegehalts una der Einwirkungsdauer im Bauwerk ist.
8. Die bemessenen Widerstandswerte (R ) werden entsprechend den bemessenen
Baustoffeigenschaften bestimmt.
9. In den meisten Fllen lassen sich bei Tragfhigkeitsuntersuchungen die
Einwirkungs- und Baustoffseite unabhngig voneinander behandeln. Voraus-
setzung dazu ist
S
d-Rd
Teilsicherheitsbeiwert fr Einwirkungen
Prinzipiell bestimmen die einzelnen Lnder das Sicherheitsniveau und

damit die Teilsicherheitsbeiwerte, mit denen gerechnet werden mu. Nach den
Eurocodes ist es jedoch erforderlich, da die Teilsicherheitsbeiwerte fr
Lasteinwirkungen baustoffabhngig sind.
In den vorliegenden Ausgaben wird V = 1,35 fr Eigeneinwirkungen und
VQ = 1 fr variable Einwirkungen vorgeschlagen.
Diese Werte sind ganz willkrlich festgesetzt, und der Unterschied
zwischen ihnen ist so gering, da schwerlich einzusehen ist, weshalb auf
die Methode der zulssigen Spannungen verzichtet werden soll. Das Verhlt-
nis der Werte mte ca. 1,3 sein.
Im Eurocode 5 werden ca. 10% niedrigere Werte zum Beispiel fUr Lagerge-
bude, Schuppen, Gewchshuser sowie Gebude mit kleinen Silos fr Ackerbau
vorgeschlagen.
Teilsicherheitsbeiwerte fr Baustoffe
Fr Holzbauwerke wird in Eurocode 5 )> = 1,25 fr maschinell sortiertes

Bauholz, kontrollierte, fabrikhergestellte Baustoffe und Konstruktionen so-
wie im brigen von 1,4 vorgeschlagen.
Die Werte sind aufgrund der Ueberlegung festgelegt worden, da sich die
Holzdimensionen beim Uebergang zum Teilsicherheitsbeiwert System im Durch-
schnitt nicht ndern drften.
Der Faktor k .
mod
Zur Bercksichtigung des Einflusses des Feuchtegehalts mssen die Bau-
werke einer der folgenden Feuchteklassen zugewiesen werden.
234
Feuchteklaase 1 fUr Nadelholz mit einen Holzfeuchtegehalt von unter ca.
12%. Dieser Klasse knnen alle Innenkonstruktionen in geheizten, trockenen
Rumen zugerechnet werden.
Feuchteklaase 2 fUr Hlzer mit einem Feuchtegehalt unter ca. 18%. Dieser
Klasse knnen die meisten anderen Innenkonstruktionen sowie wasserge-
achUtzte, frei angebrachte Auenkonstruktion zugerechnet werden.
Feuchteklasse 3. In dieser Feuchteklasse kann der Feuchtegehalt hher als

ca. 18% sein.
Lasteinwirkungen werden nach ihrer Gesamtdauer whrend der Lebenszeit

des Bauwerks wie in folgender Darstellung angegeben:
1~
r
lang
mittel
'kurz
stoBartig
1
1 Tag 1 Woche 6 Monate 10 Jahre
Bild 1 : Klassen der Einwirkungen nach ihrer Gesamtdauer whrend der

Lebenszeit des Bauwerks
FUr stndige Konstruktionen gilt Schnee normalerweise als mittel-

fristige Lasteinwirkung. Wind ist immer eine kurzfristige Einwirkung.
k . ist fr langfristige Einwirkung 0,80 bei Feuchteklassen 1 und 2
sowie 8,65 bei Feuchteklasse 3. Fr kurzfristige Einwirkungen betragen die
Werte 1,0 bzw. 0,8.
QrenuuatHnde der Gebrauchatauglichkeit
Wesentliche Grenzzustnde der Gebrauchatauglichkeit von Holzbauwerken

sind Durchbiegungen und Schwingungen. Bei der Bemessung von Durchbiegungen
ist zu bercksichtigen, da Holz kriecht. Die Durchbiegungen, die anhand
von Kurzzeitelastizittsmodulen fr trockenes Holz bestimmt werden, mssen
daher mit einem Kriechfaktor multipliziert werden, der zwischen 1 (kurz-
fristige Einwirkung, Feuchteklasse 1) und 3 (langfristige Einwirkung,
Feuchteklasse 3) variiert.
Bei Fubden besteht oft das Problem, da sie bei Betreten zu schwingen
beginnen, was ein Gefhl der Unsicherheit verursacht. Die Erfahrung zeigt
aber, da keine Probleme bestehen durften, sofern die Schwingungszeit
weniger als 0,2 Sekunden betrgt.
235
EUROCODE 5 - BAUSTOFFE
J.G. SUNLEY
Timber Research & Development Association (TRADA)
Dieser Bericht enthlt die grundlegenden Baustoffanforderungen aus dem

Entwurf von Eurocode 5 fr Vollholz, Brettschichtholz, Furniersperrholz und
andere Holzwerkstoffplatten. Ferner behandelt werden die Verwendung von
Keilzinkungen und die Einflsse des Feuchtigkeitsgehalts und der Langzeit-
belastung.
Die Ableitung charakteristischer Festigkeitswerte von Holzarten wird

ebenso errtert wie die Teilsicherheitsbeiwerte fr Holzbaustoffe. Eurocode
schlgt ein System vor, das die Verwendung aller Baustoffe auf Holzbasis
ermglicht, die nach einer annehmbaren Norm hergestellt, einer Qualitts-
kontrolle unterzogen und auf ihre strukturellen Eigenschaften geprlift
wurden.
Der Ausarbeitung eines Codes fr eine grere Anzahl von Holzbaustoffen

fr 12 Lnder, die in vielen Fllen aus weit mehr Lndern importieren,
knnte zu einem komplizierten Code fhren und fr die Konstrukteure eine
verwirrende Situation mit hunderten von mglichen Kombinationen von Holz-
arten und Holzgteklassen heraufbeschwren. Eurocode schlgt daher einen
Festigkeitsklassensystem fr Voll- und Schichtholz vor. Das System fr
Vollholz umfat Nadel- als auch Laubholz unterschiedlicher Gteklassen, die
in 10 Festigkeitsklassen unterteilt wurden. Beispielsweise betrgt die
charakteristische Biegefestigkeit fr die niedrigste Festigkeitsklasse 12
MPa, fr die hchste Festigkeitsklasse 75 MPa. Jeder nach Gteklassen
unterteilter Baustoff kann nach diesem System klassifiziert werden. Die
Festigkeitsklassen fr Brettschichtholz aus beispielsweise europischer
Fichte variieren von 25 bis 40 MPa, wobei der erzielte Wert in hohem Mae
von der Keilzinkungsfestigkeit abhngig ist.
Die Bemessung von Holzbauteilen ist von der charakteristischen Festig-

keit des Baustoffs und dem Teilsicherheitsbeiwert Y m des Baustoffs ab-
hngig. Hauptziel des Codes ist es, die charakteristischen Festigkeitswerte
fr jeden Baustoff, wie z.B. Vollholz, Furniersperrholz, Holzwerkstoffplat-
ten zu ermitteln, soweit beispielsweise das Holz entsprechend festgelegte
Regeln nach Gten sortiert wurde, die Festigkeits- und Steifigkeitswerte in
Standardprfverfahren an Materialproben ermittelt wurden, die fr den wahr-
scheinlich zur Verfgung stehenden Baustoff reprsentativ sind. Fr diese
Prfverfahren wurden oder werden Prfnormen ausgearbeitet.
Da die Holzeigenschaften durch den Feuchtigkeitsgehalt, langfristige

Belastungseinwirkungen und Format beeinflut werden, mu die charakte-
ristische Grundfestigkeit korrekt definiert werden, wobei diese Einwir-
kungen bei der Bemessung von Holzbauteilen zu bercksichtigen sind.
Die charakteristischen Werte werden auf die 5% -Fraktile bezogen, die

direkt auf eine Lastdauer von 3 bis 5 Minuten bei einer Temperatur von 20
2C und einer relativen Feuchtigkeit von 0,65 0,05 bei einem spezifischen
Volumen anwendbar sind. Die Werte Tr sonstige Bedingungen mssen fr
geringe Dauer, Gre und Feuchtigkeit modifiziert werden.
236
Dor Tellsicherheitsbeiwert Vm ist ferner vom Baustoff-Sortierverfahren
abhngig, da beispielsweise maschinensortiertes Holz eine niedrige Varia-
bilitt besitzt als visuell sortiertes Holz und damit einen niedrigeren als
Sicherheitsbeiwert Ym.
Analog besitzt im Werk hergestelltes Brettschichtholz eine geringere

Variabilitt als ein vollstndig vor Ort, beispielsweise aus visuell sor-
tiertem Holz, hergestelltes Bauteil. Da jedoch ein Konstrukteur in der Lage
sein mu, entweder maschinell oder visuell sortiertes Holz in einer bestim-
mten Konstruktion zu verwenden, schlgt der Code sowohl niedrigere charak-
teristische Werte als auch ^m-Wer te fr maschinensortiertes Holz vor, so
da beide Werte die gleichen konstruktiven Lsungen anbieten wie visuell
sortiertes Holz der gleichen Festigkeitsklasse. Fr visuell sortiertes Holz
zugelassene Km-Werte sind :
Vm 1.4
und fur maschinensortiertes Holz
Ym - 1.25
Die Vorteile der Maschinensortierung fr eine bestimmte Konstruktion

bestehen daher in erster Linie in hheren Ausbeuten aus einer vorgegebenen
Holzmenge, nicht so sehr in hheren Bemessungswerten.
Es wurde festgestellt, da die Festigkeit von Holz durch den Feuchtig-

keitsgehalt, durch die Belastungsdauer und den Zuschnitt-Format beeinflut
werden kann. Einflsse des Feuchtigkeitsgehalts wurden in drei Feuchtig-
keitsgehaltsklassen bercksichtigt. Im allgemeinen entsprechen diese Klas-
sen Holz mit weniger als 12% Feuchtigkeitsgehalt, Holz zwischen 12 und 18%
Feuchtigkeitsgehalt oder Holz mit ber 18% Feuchtigkeitsgehalt. Die meisten
berdachten Holzbauwerke fallen im allgemeinen unter Feuchtigkeitsklasse 2,
d.h. zwischen 12 und 18% Feuchtigkeit. Die im Code enthaltenen Bemessungs-
werte basieren auf diesem Feuchtigkeitsgehalt. Die Werte fr Feuchtigkeits-
gehalte von ber 18%, d.h. Feuchtigkeitsklasse 3, werden um etwa 20% verr-
ingert. Fur die Einflsse der Belastungsdauer werden 4 Kategorien ange-
geben, die jeweils Momentan-, Kurzzeit-, Mittelzeit- und Langzeitbelastung
umfassen, wobei die Langzeitbelastung mindestens 10 Jahre betrgt. Die Aus-
wirkungen der Langzeitbelastung auf Feuchtigkeitsklasse 2 zeigen, da die
Werte fr die Momentanbelastung 50% hher liegen als fur die Langzeitbe-
lastung. Die Werte fUr Kurzzeitbelastung sind etwa 25% hher.
Keilzinkungen sind frei whlbar, wenn der Bruch einer einzigen Zinkung
keinen totalen Zusammenbruch des Gesamtwerks bewirkt. Im allgemeinen lt
sich die Eignung bestimmter Keilzinkungen durch Prfverfahren ermitteln.
Fr Brettschichtholz, Furniersperrholz und Holzwerkstoffplatten gelten
hnliche Bestimmungen wie fr Vollholz. Der Code schreibt eine Fertigungs-
kontrolle vor. Festigkeitswerte fur nicht genormte Konstruktionen knnen
durch Prfverfahren entsprechend noch auszuarbeitender Normen ermittelt
werden.
237
PIK ANFAENGE DER KONSTRUKTIONSBEMESSUNG
D.T. YEOMANS
Liverpool School of Architecture and Building Engineering
Universitt Liverpool
Angesichts der Grenbeschrnkungen fur Holz als Werkstoff ist die

Geschichte der Bautischlerei in groem Umfang, wenn auch nicht aus-
schlielich, die Geschichte der Verbindungsverfahren. Hierbei mu man
allerdings sehen, da in den Anfngen der Zimmermannstechnik in den
einzelnen Regionen die Entwicklung unterschiedlich verlief; diese Unter-
schiede sind auch heute noch feststellbar, sie sind zum Teil zurckzufhren
auf unterschiedliche funktionale Anforderungen. Die weitere Entwicklung
stellte sich dar als eine Mischung aus der Evolution der jeweils eigenen
Verfahren, der direkten Uebernahme von Ideen aus anderen Lndern sowie der
Anpassung derartiger Ideen an die eigenen Bedingungen. Der Vortrag soll
diese Ablufe am Beispiel Grobritanniens erlutern.
Trotz der aus heutiger Sicht erkennbaren Schwchen mittelalterlicher

Zimmermannstechniken haben die Konstruktionen oft mehrere Jahrhunderte
berdauert, wobei jedoch die Sttzweiten und damit die Bauplne durch die
Notwendigkeit eingeschrnkt waren, Koppelbalken einzusetzen, die Biege-
lasten aufnehmen konnten. Diese Schwierigkeit wurde in England des 17.
Jahrhunderts berwunden, als die Architekten Baukonzepte aus Italien,
einschlielich des dort verwendeten Sprengwerkdaches, bernahmen. Bei
dieser Bauweise wurde der Koppelbalken nur auf Zug beansprucht und lie
sich aus zwei miteinander verbundenen Stcken bilden, wodurch grere
Sttzweiten mglich wurden. Fr Grobritannien wurden einzelne Konstruk-
tionsmerkmale den blichen Zimmermannsverfahren angepat, in groem Mae
wurde auch Bandeisen zur Verstrkung der Holzelemente an den Verbindungs-
stellen eingesetzt. Ende des 17. Jahrhunderts hatte importiertes Nadelholz
die einheimische Eiche als Hauptbaustoff weitgehend verdrngt, jedoch
setzten sich Verfahren, die eine Grenreduzierung der Holzelemente ermg-
lichten, nur langsam durch.
Zwar entwickelte sich auf die grundlegende Sprengwerkform im 18. Jahr-

hundert weiter, grere Vernderungen traten jedoch erst im 19. Jahrhundert
durch den allgemeineren Einsatz von Eisen auf, angeregt durch industrielle
Tendenzen in Grobritannien. Guelemente stellten die Verbindungen zwischen
Holzteilen her, Zugstangen traten an die Stelle der auf Zug beanspruchten
Balken. Damit waren nicht nur grere Spannweiten mglich, auch neue
Sprengwerkformen sowie Eisenbahnbrcken aus Holz lieen sich realisieren.
Zu diesem Zeitpunkt jedoch begann Eisen als Baustoff fr groe Konstruk-
tionen das Holz vllig zu verdrngen.
Neue Verfahren fr Bogenkonstruktionen aus Holz als Alternative zu

Eisen wurden ebenfalls eingefhrt, in der Hauptsache aus Frankreich.
Senkrecht geschichtete Holzelemente, bereits viel frher von De l'Orme
vorgeschlagen, nunmehr aber durch Nageltechniken sehr viel leichter zu
realisieren, wurden in Bogendchern groer Sttzweite eingesetzt. Horizon-
tal geschichtete Holzbgen, entwickelt von Emy, wurden ebenfalls fr Dcher
groer Sttzweite sowie fr bestimmte Brckenkonstruktionen eingesetzt.
Einige der Dachkonstruktionen haben berdauert, die Brcken andererseits
238
zeigen Alterungsschdden. Diese Verfahren haben offensichtlich Holz als
wirtschaftliche Alternative zu Eisen und Stahl sowohl fr Dcher als auch
fr BrUckenkonstruktionen erscheinen lassen, jedoch nur fur eine kurze
Zeit, und Grobritannien hat die spteren Entwicklungen auf dem Kontinent
Anfang dieses Jahrhunderts kaum mitvollzogen.
Brettschichtholz trat zunchst in Deutschland in Erscheinung, bereitete

sich dann in andere Lnder, insbesondere in die Schweiz, aus, fand jedoch
in Deutschland nach der Einfhrung mechanischer Verbindungsmittel, deren
Entwicklung durch Holzmangel nach dem Ersten Weltkrieg begnstigt wurde,
immer weniger Verwendung. Obwohl Europa in diesem Bereich einen Vorsprung
vor den Vereinigten Staaten hatte, scheinen diese Techniken in den fnf-
ziger Jahren von dort ruckimportiert worden zu sein. Es sind diese zwei
Techniken, Schichtholz und mechanische Verbindungsmittel, die zum groem
Teil die Holzkonstruktionen bestimmen, wie wir sie heute antreffen, wobei
Grobritannien wegen geringer eigener Holzbestnde diesen Werkstoff fr
Bauzwecke weniger einsetzt. Will man eine Lehre aus der Geschichte ziehen,
so ist es die, da der Holzbau in den einzelnen Lndern von unterschied-
lichen Bedingungen bestimmt wurde, da aber andererseits Konzepte, die in
einem Land entstehen, sich auch anderswo wiederfinden lassen.
239
QUALITAETSKRITERIEN IM INGENIEURHOLZBAU -
VON DER MATERIALWAHL BIS ZUM ENTWURF
J. NATTERER und W. WINTER
Lehrstuhl fr Holzkonstruktionen
Eidgenssische technische Hochschule Lausanne
Die Rolle des heutigen Holzbaus in Mitteleuropa ist die

eines " gern gesehenen Aussenseiters ".Trotz der groen
Bedeutung, die der Holzbau in der mitteleuropischen Bau-
tradition besa und trotz des Beweises seiner Leistungsfhigkeit
auch in modernen Industriegesellschaften (z.B. Nordamerika oder
Skandinavien ) , die auch heute noch zu mehr als zwei Drittel in
Holz bauen, hat der Holzbau in Mitteleuropa im Hausbau lediglich
einen Marktanateil von 5 - 10% , bei Ingenieurkonstruktionen
sogar nur ca. 2 - 5%.
Der Holzbau und insbesondere der Ingenieurholzbau mssen
sich mit der Frage auseinandersetzen ob dieser geringe
Markatanteil in Mitteleuropa gerechtfertigt ist, und wenn nicht,
wo angesetzt werden kann um die Situation zu verndern.
Dabei hat es keinen Sinn zu lamentieren und die markt-
beherrschenden Bauweisen ,d.h. in erster Linie Beton und Stahl
zu verteufein. Die Architektur- und Technikgeschichte dieses
Jahrhunderts bzw. die wirtschaftliche und gesellschaftliche
Entwicklung in Mitteleuropa haben diesen Bauweisen eine
Schlsselstellung verschafft. Das heit, da die Qualitten
dieser Bauweisen sowohl den gesellschaftlichen als auch den
individuellen Wertvorstellungen besser entsprachen als die
Qualitten, die der Holzbau im Stande war zu verwirklichen.
Der Holzbau mu sich an der Zukunft orientieren. Er mu
analysieren nach welchen Kriterien Gesellschaft und Einzel-
personen in Zukunft Bauweisen beurteilen werden und er mu
versuchen diejenigen seiner Eigenschaften auszubauen und in den
Vordergrund zu stellen, die den vernderten Wertskalen
entsprechen.
In dem Beitrag werden einige Aspekte dieser Qualitts-
diskussion behandelt. Ausgangsthese ist dabei, da der Holzbau
sich nicht durchsetzen wird, wenn er lediglich seine Qualitten
als "Billigbauweise" in den Vordergrund stellt. Er kann die
marktbeherrschenden Massenbauweisen, die Verarbeitungstechniken,
Maschineneinsatz, Materialverbrauch und Konstruktionstechniken
optimiert und rationalisiert haben, nicht anhaltend auf der
Preisebene unterbieten.
Der Holzbau in Mitteleuropa kann die vorherrschenden
Massenbauweisen erst dann preislich unterbieten wenn er selbst
zur Massenbauweise geworden ist, und er dadurch alle die damit
verbundenen Rationalisierungseffekte ausnutzen kann. Bis dahin
mu er versuchen nicht nur durch Preiwrdigkeit sondern
hauptschlich durch bessere Qualitt und durch individuelle
Anpassung an die Bauaufgaben zu berzeugen.
Die Diskussion von Qualittsaspekten im Holzbau wird auf

vier Ebenen gefhrt. Zuerst wird aufgezeigt, da das Bauen seit
der Mitte der siebziger Jahre zunehmend mit grundlegenden
240
nderungen konomischer und gesellschaftlicher Art konfrontiert
ist. Schlagworte wie Energieschock, Betonmdigkeit, Wieder-
entdeckung gestalterischer Werte, Umweltbewutsein, mehr
Qualitt anstatt Quantitt etc. kennzeichnen Tendenznderungen,
die auch die Bewertung von Bauweisen und den Entwurf von
Einzelbauwerken beeinfluen.
In einem zweiten Abschnitt werden Qualittsaspekte
angespochen, die sich auf die Bewertung der Holzbauweise im
Allgemeinen beziehen. Es wird eine Architektenumfrage
vorgestellt, bei der der Holzbau bezglich sthetik,
Verarbeitbarkeit und Isolation besser als alle anderen Bauweisen
beurteilt wird, whrend an Preiswrdigkeit, Unterhalt und
Haltbarkeit mehr oder weniger groe Zweifel bestehen.
Bei der Diskussion von Qualittskritrien bezglich
Energieverbrauch wird die hohe Bedeutung der Nutzenergie
angesprochen (bereits nach 5 - 1 0 Jahren wird fr die Nutzung
von Einfamilienhusern soviel Primrenergie verbraucht wie fr
die Herstellung des Gebudes ) .
Bezglich des Energieverbrauchs fr die Herstellung
schneidet die Holzbauweise im Vergleich hervorragend ab. Bei
Husern bentigt die Holzbauweise ca. 30% weniger Primrenergie
als die Massivbauweisen, bei Hallenbauten gleicher Spannweite
sogar 70 bis 80% weniger als der Stahlbau bzw. der
Stahlbetonbau.
Dieser hohe Unterschied bezglich Energieverbrauch schlgt
sich allerdings zur Zeit noch nicht auf den Preis nieder,
Holzbauweisen sind im besten Fall in etwa preisgleich.
Weitere Kriterien die angesprochen werden sind die kologie
(Wlder mssen genutzt und unterhalten werden, Holz fllt in
jedem Fall an und sollte mglichst wertschpfend genutzt werden)
und die Volkswirtschaft.(Vorteile des Holzbaus bezglich
Schaffung von dezentralisierten Arbeitspltzen ohne hohen
Investitionsaufwand etc.)
Im dritten Abschnitt werden Qualittskriterien diskutiert

die beim Entwurf von Holztragwerken bercksichtigt werden
sollten. Als Qualittskriterien werden die Materialwahl und die
Festigkeitssortierung angesprochen. Es wird gefordert, da die
Materialvielfalt besser genutzt bzw. die hohen Qualittsreserven
bei der Festigkeit mittels aperativ untersttzter Sortierung
besser ausgeschpft werden sollten.
Bei der Wahl der Tragsysteme werden als Qualittskriterien
herausgestrichen die Wahl der Lastabtragung im Grundri, im
Hinblick auf mgliche Sttzenstellungen, die Wahl der
Tragwerksgeometrie im Schnitt und die Verknpfung von Haupt und
Nebentragsystemen.
Im vierten Abschnitt werden schlielich Qualittskriterien

diskutiert die beim Entwurf von Holzbauwerken und bei der
Einbeziehung des Tragwerkes in den Gesamtentwurf bercksichtigt
werden sollten.Neben der Bedeutung bauphysikalischer Kriterien
(Integration von Hlle und Tragwerk) wird insbesondere
hervorgehoben, da die Qualitt eines Holzbauwerkes stark davon
abhgt wie die allgemeinen Anforderungen an eine Bauaufgabe (
z.B. Nutzung, Raumprofil, Belichtung, Belftung Integration der
technischen Installation etc) durch optimale Anpassung von
Geometrie und Detailausbildung bercksichtigt werden knnen.
241
Zusammenfassend wird f e s t g e s t e l l t , d a d e r Holzbau d i e
w i c h t i g s t e n Anforderungen, d i e d i e G e s e l l s c h a f t an d i e Bauweisen
d e r Zukunft s t e l l t i d e a l e r f l l t . Diese hervorragenden
Ausgangsbedingungen mssen jedoch b e i j e d e r einzelnen Bauaufgabe
neu b e s t t i g t werden. Es wird d i e These a u f g e s t e l l t , da der
Holzbau s i c h k u r z - und m i t t e l f r i s t i g n i c h t a l s "Billigbauweise"
durchsetzen kann sondern nur a l s Bauweise d i e i h r e Q u a l i t t e n
bezglich Anpassungsfhigkeit, Lsungsvielfalt, leichte
Verarbeitbarkeit und stethik dazu nutzt um mit
" m a s s g e s c h n e i d e r t e n " Lsungen b e i komplexen Bauaufgaben zu
berzeugen.
P a r a l l e l dazu mu jedoch der w i r t s c h a f t l i c h e Aspekt
w e s e n t l i c h v e r b e s s e r t werden. Dabei kommen den Aspekten der
r i c h t i g e n M a t e r i a l w a h l und d e r g e z i e l t e n Ausnutzung d e r
Materialeigenschaften, insbesondere durch verbesserte
F e s t i g k e i t s s o r t i e r u n g eine ausschlaggebende Rolle zu.
242
EUROCODE 5
REGELN rUER DIE BERECHNUNG UND BEMESSUNG VON BAUTEILEN
H. BRUENINGHOFF
Fachbereich Bautechnik
Bergiache Universitt, Gesamthochschule Wuppertal
Eurocode 5, Gemeinsame Einheitliche Regeln flir Holzbauwerke, Ausgabe

Oktober 19B7, hat im Prinzip die Vorschlge fr die Berechnung und Bemes-
sung von Bauteilen aus dem CIB Structural Timber Design Code bernommen.
Seit dem Erscheinen des CIB-Codes im Jahr 1983 vorgenommene technische und
theoretische Entwicklungen wurden fur den Entwurf von Eurocode 5 zustzlich
bercksichtigt.
Es werden die in Eurocode 5 aufgenommenen Verfahren fr die Berechnung

hufig vorkommender Bauteile unter verschiedenen Beanspruchungen erlutert.
Bei Beanspruchungen durch Querzug, gegeben vor allem in gekrmmten Be-

reichen von Brettschichttrgern, wird die Bemessungsspannung mit einer Be-
messungsfestigkeit verglichen, die von der Gre des querzugbeanspruchten
Volumens und von der Art der Spannungswirkung abhngt. Das gleiche Bemes-
sungsverfahren wird fr Schubnachweise bei Brettschichttrgern verwendet.
Bei knickgefhrdeten Druckgliedern und bei kippgefhrdeten Biegetrgern

mit Rechteckquerschnitt werden die Spannungen beachtet, die bei Berck-
sichtigung der Verformungen mit einer bereits im spannungslosen Zustand
vorhandenen Imperfektion der planmig geraden Stabachse entstehen.
Fr ebene Rahmen werden Vorverformungen zur Berechnung der Systeme nach

der Theorie II. Ordnung gegeben. FUr Verbnde, die durch die AbBttzung
seitlich ausweichender Druckgurte von Fachwerktrgern oder von Biegetrgern
beansprucht werden, wurden Angaben ber die Gre dieser Krfte und ber
die bei Annahme dieser Krfte erforderliche Steifigkeit des Verbandes
gemacht.
243
EUROCODE 5 - AUS DER SICHT VON UEBERSEE
G.A. DRING
Engineering Design in Wood - CSA 086
1. Die einschlgigen Regelwerke Kanadas
Um meine nachfolgenden Bemerkungen in einen greren Zusammenhang zu

stellen, mchte ich ihnen einige allgemeine Erluterungen zu Kanada und
seinen einschlgigen Regelwerken geben.
Kanada hat eine Ausdehnung in Ost-West-Richtung von etwa 5.800 km,
etwas weniger von Norden nach SUden.
Das Klima zeigt eine Bandbreite von Halbwste bis gemigter Regenwald,
von mild bis arktisch.
. Die Bemessungsregenfallmenge schwankt zwischen 60 und 3.300 mm pro Jahr.
. Die Bemessungstemperaturen liegen zwischen +35 und -50C.
. Die Bemessungsschneelasten am Boden betragen in Ballungsrumen bis zu 6
kPa, in Gebirgsregionen jedoch weit mehr.
. Die Bemessungswindlasten liegen bei bis zu 1,2 kPa (was einer Windge-
schwindigkeit von etwa 150 km/h entspricht).
. Die Bemessungsbodenbeschleunigung seismisch schwankt zwischen 0 und 0,4 g
Dem mit Bemessungsfragen befaten Zuhrer wird hieraus deutlich, da

wir vor hnlichen Bemessungsproblemen stehen wie Sie auch.
Fr Kanada gelten zwei einschlgige Regelwerke, der National Fire Code
und der National Building Code.
Der National Fire Code befat sich mit Brandverhtung und -bekmpfung,
der National Building Code mit Bemessung und Konstruktion von Bauwerken
unter Gesundheits- und Sicherheitsgesichtspunkten.
Beide Regelwerke sind rechtskrftige Dokumente, die von den jeweiligen
Gebietskrperschaften fr ihren Zustndigkeitsbereich ganz oder teilweise
bernommen werden knnen. Im allgemeinen werden sie als Ganzes bernommen.
Grtenteils ein eigenstndiges Dokument, greift der National Building
Code in hohem Ma auch auf Referenznormen nationaler und internationaler
Standardisierungsorganisationen zurck.
Das Associate Committee an die NBC (NBC-Gesamtausschu) arbeitet mit
sieben Unterausschssen. Einer dieser Ausschsse, das Standing Committee on
Structural Design (konstruktive Auslegung) befat sich mit smtlichen last-
oder einwirkungsbezogenen Faktoren der Last/Festigkeits-Bemessungsgleichung
(LSD-Gleichung).
Daneben bt dieser Ausschu auch Aufsichtsfunktionen ber die verschie-
denen technischen Ausschsse fr Werkstoffbemessung der Canadian Standards
Association aus.
Diese technischen Ausschsse - also fr Holz, Stahl, Beton usw. - be-
handeln dann die Festigkeitsaspekte der LSD-Gleichung.
Der technische Ausschu CSA 086 - Engineering Design in Wood (konstruk-
tive Bemessungsfragen fr Holz) - erstellt dementsprechend das kanadische
Aequivalent zum Eurocode 5. Dies ist also der Hintergrund meines Vortrags.
Der NBC wird alle fnf Jahre berarbeitet, der Fachausschu Holz befin-
det sich im letzten Jahr seiner BemUhungn, unseren Code zu einem LSD-
Regelwerk auf der Basis von Zuverlssigkeitskriterien zu machen.
Die in einigen Bereichen nur begrenzt zur Verfgung stehenden Daten zur
Standfestigkeit und der Bedarf an Variabilittsdaten auf der Lastseite der
244
Gleichung stellen erhebliche Probleme dar. Auf unserer Novembersitzung
konnten wir jedoch gute Fortschritte erzielen und mit einen positiven
Gesamtergebnis abschlieen.
2. EUROCODE
Mit dem Eurocode schaffen Sie ein internationales Regelwerk, das

unserem NBC sehr hnlich ist. Wahrscheinlich sage ich Ihnen nichts Neues,
wenn ich Sie auffordere, die Arbeiten am Hauptwerk, also in Ihrem Fall dem
Eurocode 1, sehr sorgfaltig zu berwachen.
Diese Codes, die die Lastseite oder Feuerschutzerfordernisse regeln,

knnen vom Inhalt her eine ungerechtfertigte Benachteiligung von Holz
als Werkstoff darstellen. Wie wir feststellen muten, lt sich ver-
lorenes Gelnde nur schwer zurckerobern.
Bei der Festsetzung von Sicherheitskoeffizienten sollte man sich um

allgemeine Uebereinstimmung bemhen. Ohne einen einheitlichen Bestand
an Sicherheitskoeffizienten drften die Zielsetzungen Ihres Codes ver-
fehlt werden.
Die kanadischen Codes sind in hohem Ma von der Produktstandardisierung

abhngig.
Generell werden nur Produkte, die einem CSA- oder vergleichbaren Stan-
dard entsprechen, in den Werkstoffcodes aufgefhrt. Dies zwingt die
Hersteller letztendlich, miteinander zu sprechen.
Wird ein Produkt im Code nicht erwhnt, so mssen die Hersteller

Jeweils im Einzelfall Auskunft ber die Eigenschaften ihrer Produkte
geben.
Die kanadische Holzindustrie hat momentan ein uerst umfangreiches

Testprogramm absolviert. Aus diesem Grunde wurden sich unsere
Marketing-Experten freuen, wenn unsere Daten bernommen wrden; natr-
lich wurden sie sich auch mit Jedem anderen, angemessenen Standard
zufrieden geben. Fr sie ist es wesentlich, berhaupt eine Norm zu
haben.
Die Anerkennung niedriger Bedeutungs- und Sicherheitsebenen ist wichtig

fr die Ausdehnung der Kontrolle auf Gebiete wie z.B. landwirtschaftliche
Gebude, deren Besitzer nicht so viel Verstndnis fr eine Reglementierung
aufbringen.
Die Anerkennung von GUtesicherungsmanahemn ist ein interessanter As-
pekt, den wir noch nicht umfassend geprft haben.
Vertieft man sich in Fragen der Zuverlssigkeitsbemessung, so zeigt
sich rasch, da die Variabilitt einen uerst schdlichen EinfluB dar-
stellt. Die gute Nachricht ist: es lt sich etwas dagegen tun.
Ein Vorschlag, den ich als Ausschuvorsitzender sehr begre, ist, da
Jeder, der meint, mit dem Text nicht einverstanden sein zu knnen, Aende-
rungsvorschlge in entsprechender Ausformulierung vorlegen sollte.
Hiermit werden zwei Ziele erreicht: zum einen werden unqualifizierte
Bemerkungen unterbunden, zum anderen wird die Zahl der Mitarbeiter an
diesem Code auf wirtschaftlich gnstige Weise effektiv erhht.
Seismische Bemessungsfragen gelangten praktisch durch die Hintertr auf
245
die Tagesordnung des Ausschusses CSA 086, durch den Vorschlag einer Ergn-
zung zum NBC, durch die der Einsatz von Holz in seismisch gefhrdeten Zonen
eingeschrnkt wrde.
Unser Regelwerk verfgt ber einen Abschnitt hnlich der Ziffer 1.2
"Annahmen", mit dem wir die Notwendigkeit spezifischer Abschnitte zu Bau-
verfahren umgehen.
Unser Ziel ist es, ein Regelwerk nur fr Bemessungsfragen zu schaffen.
Dies gelingt uns nicht immer, wir sind aber der Ansicht, da Bemessungs-
fragen ein ausreichend groes Gebiet fr ein einziges Dokument darstellen.
Die Aufnahme der Forderung nach einem Unterhaltsplan stellt einen Aspekt
dar, zu dem ich mir noch keine Meinung gebildet habe. Dies ist durchaus
sinnvoll, wre bei unserer Vorgehensweise jedoch eher in den NBC selbst
aufzunehmen.
Die Aufnahme von Strfallsituationen in den NBC wurde im Rahmen von
Bemhungen zur Quantifizierung der "strukturellen Integritt" in Erwgung
gezogen. Letztlich scheiterte dies an der Einsicht, da es sich, wenn eine
Quantifizierung mglich ist, nicht um eine Strung, sondern um eine Bemes-
sungsfrage handelt.
Die Bemhungen, im Eurocode die Anzahl der Modifikationsfaktoren zu
verringern, ist sicherlich begrenswert, jedoch ist die Aneinanderreihung
von Indizes mit mehreren Zeichen teilweise verwirrend.
Eine Einfhrung mehr als eines Wertes fr entsprechende Manahmen im
Fachausschu CSA 086 wrde lautsarke Proteste unter den Betroffenden in
Kanada auslsen.
Dies gilt insbesondere, wenn dies nur fr den Holzsektor versucht
wrde. Die Bemessung von Holzkonstruktionen wird ohnehin von vielen als zu
komplex angesehen, um sich berhaupt damit zu befassen, jegliche zustz-
liche Komplikation wrde auf wenig Verstndnis stoen.
Die Kenntnis der Lastvariabilitt ist notwendig fr die Zuverlssig-
keitsanalayse. Wir haben diesen Aspekt im Teilsicherungsfaktor berck-
sichtigt. Fr detailliertere Informationen mte man dann die Erluterungen
zu Rate ziehen.
Eines unserer Anliegen ist es, CSA 086 soweit wie mglich zu verein-
fachen, am Ende der Entwicklung knnte ein in zwei Ebenen aufgeteilter Code
stehen. Eurocode 5 stellt einen wesentlichen Schritt in diese Richtung dar,
durch die Einfhrung gleichfrmiger Volumeneffektformeln und einer verein-
fachten Methode fr den Druck unter einem Winkel zur Faserrichtung.
Zwei Punkte in Ihrem Regelwerk, die wir vernachlssigt haben, Bind die
Durchbiegung bei Druck unter einem Winkel zur Faserrichtung sowie Torsions-
spannungen .
Fr die Bemessung von Sulen haben wir untern anderem eine Version der
Buchanan John Madsen-Methode gewhlt.
Die Zuverlssigkeitsbemessung von auf Biegung beanspruchten Konstruk-
tionselementen basiert auf einer Einheitslnge und bercksicht sowohl die
Lnge als auch die Lastsituation.
Wie ich bemwerkt habe, widmet der Eurocode 5 genau wie unser Regelwerk
bermig viel Platz einigen in der Praxis kaum eingesetzten Holzbaustof-
fen.
Ich denke hierbei an Furniersperrholz und Brettschichtholzbalken fr
Schrgdcher. Zumindest in Kanada sind diese Konstruktionselemente auf
Grund ihres Bemessungsaufwandes und des Raumbedarfs auf nur gelegentlichen
Einsatz beschrnkt. Zu ihrer Arbeit im Abschnitt Verbandsysteme kann ich
sie nur beglckwnschen. Dieser Bereich wurde in Kanada vernachlssigt, da
dies unserer Ansicht nach auerhalb unserer Mglichkeiten lag.
Der Abschnitt Flchentragwerk wird in Kanada als Lehrbuchmaterial und
damit als ungeeignet fr die Kodifizierung angesehen.
246
Ala ich Ihren Abschnitt' Ubar Verblndungsmlttel dem Vorsitzenden unseres
Unterausschusses fUr Befestigungselemente vorlegte, zeigte er sich faszi-
niert von all den neuen Verfahren und Ideen, die sich ihm prsentierten.
Verbindungstechniken drften der schwierigste und zeitaufwendigste
Aspekt im Holzbau sein, Vereinfachngen wren hier von allergrtera Wert.
In unserem ersten Regelwerk fr Last/Festigkeits-Bemessung fhrten wir
das "Larson-Verfahren" fr die Bemessung von Bolzen ein. Dabei Borgte die
Entdeckung eines prominenten Mitglieds beim Vergleich zweier Bemessungs-
beispiele fr erhebliche Aufregung, da- sich nmlich, wenn man die Scher-
platten entfernt, eine festere Verbindung ergibt.
Trotz mehrmaliger Ueberprlifung der Daten besttigte der Unterausschu
erneut die Gltigkeit der Ergebnisse.
Der bemerkenswerteste Aspekt im Abschnitt Verbindungen ist etwas, das
fehlt: Nieten fr Brettschichtholz.
Diese Spezialngel, die in Kanada seit 20 Jahren erfolgreich eingesetzt
werden, stellen eines der am umfassendsten untersuchten Verbindungsver
fahren dar Dies gilt sicherlich fr Kanada. In unserem neuen Code wird ihr
Einsatzbereich auf Spruce-Pine-Brettschichtholz erweitert.
Der Abschnitt ber Materialeigenschaften wird, so hoffe ich, unsere
Werkstoffgruppe zu dem Versuch einer Vereinfachung des entsprechenden
Abschnittes in unserem Werk anregen.
Die Anhnge ber Produktspezifikationen und Konstruktionserprobung
wrden in unserem System als eigene Standards erstellt und mit einem ent-
sprachenden Verweis aufgenommen.
247
DER EUROCODE NR. 5 UND SEINE AKZEPTANZ
R.F. MARSH
Ove Arup & Partners
Die Einfhrung des Eurocode Nr. 5 wird zwangslufig von vielen Inge-
nieuren mit Skepsis begleitet. Insbesondere von den Baupraktikern, die
nicht spezialisierte Holzbauingenieure sind. Wenn der Eurocode Nr. 5 Erfolg
haben soll, mu er von den einzelnen Mitgliedstaaten zunchst verstanden
und sodann akzeptiert und bernommen werden. Grundlegend ist hierbei die
Frage des Verstehens, da ein Ingenieur im Wortlaut des Eurocodes seine
eigene Erfahrung unbedingt wiedererkennen' mu. So wird seine Erfahrung
verlangen, da der Eurocode Konstruktionen vorschlgt, die bei vergleich-
baren Kosten nicht zu stark von den entsprechenden Vorschriften in seinem
Heimatland abweichen.
Entwicklung technischer Vorschriftenwerke
Zunchst soll die Geschichte der technischen Vorschriftenwerke kurz

betrachtet werden. Es handelt sich hierbei nicht etwa um eine neuzeitliche
Errungenschaft, da bereits in der babylonischen Zeit der Kodex des Hammu-
rapi (1792-1750 v.Chr.) eingefhrt wurde, der seinerzeit sozusagen interna-
tional gltig war. In dem Ausma jedoch, wie die Bauverfahren immer
komplexer wurden, neue Werkstoffe entwickelt wurden und das Verhalten der
herkmmlichen Baustoffe besser dokumentiert wurde, ergab sich die Not-
wendigkeit, die gesammelten Erfahrungen in eine Form zu bringen, die von.
anderen Ingenieuren leicht zu verstehen war. Dies ist die Grundlage eines
technischen Regelwerks. Im Vereinigten Knigreich wurden die ersten
"nationalen" technischen Vorschriftenwerke in den dreiiger Jahren von der
Ingenieursvereinigung als Reaktion auf den harten Wettbewerb der Bauunter-
nehmen im Bereich der Konstruktionsverfahren aufgestellt, von dem man
befrchtete, da er zu einer Aufweichung der Sicherheitsstandards und
mglicherweise zu katastrophalen Unfllen fhren knnte. Die Ingenieursver-
einigung behielt diese Rolle bis 1971 bei, als die Verantwortung Tr alle
Vorschriften und Normen auf die British Standards Institution (Britisches
Normungsinstitut) berging. Dadurch wurde das Gewicht von Organisationen
bei der Ausarbeitung .technischer Vorschriften erhht; die Ingenieure befan-
den sich nun in der Minderheit. Eine unbeabsichtigte Folge dieser Entwick-
lung war die zunehmende Komplexitt dieser Vorschriftenwerke, die oft dazu
dienten, die Umsetzung von in der Praxis nicht ausreichend berprften
Forschungsergebnissen festzuschreiben.
Der Eurocode Nr. 5
Der Eurocode Nr. 5 scheint der Komplexitt entgegenzusteuern, die das

britische Vorschriftenwerk erreicht hat, wird jedoch fr britische und, wie
ich glaube, andere europische Ingenieure von seinem Ansatz her gewhnungs-
bedrftig sein, da er eine Reihe von Grundstzen aufstellt, von denen keine
Abweichung zulssig ist, und nur ein einziges Anwendungsverfahren vorsieht.
Es finden sich keine Hinweise darauf, wie andere Anwendungsverfahren zu
beurteilen sind. Die vorgeschlagenen Teilsicherheitsbeiwerte sind die
248
gleichen wie fUr Stahl und Beton, so da zur Bercksichtigung der besonde-
ren Holzeigenschaften Werkstoffaktoren eingefhrt wurden. Insbesondere
weichen die Vorschlge fr Langzeit-Belastungsfaktoren deutlich von den
gegenwrtigen Vorschriften ab. Die Einfhrung von Festigkeitsklassen ist zu
begren, da sie den Konstrukteur der Notwendigkeit enthebt, eine besondere
Holzsorte auszuwhlen; andererseits bringen die Festigkeitsklassen Jedoch
auch eine Reihe vesteckter Probleme mit sich. So unterscheiden sich unter-
schiedliche Holzarten innerhalb der gleichen Festigkeitsklasse in Bezug auf
die Haltbarkeit und ihre Aufnahmefhigkeit fr Schutzmittel. Das grte
Problem durfte jedoch in den GrQendifferenzen zwischen Hlzern aus unter-
schiedlichen Herkunftslndern mit im Prinzip gleichen Nennabmessungen
liegen. Darber hinaus bin ich der Ansicht, da sich der Mangel an Informa-
tionen ber Verbindungen negativ auf die Akzeptanz des Eurocodes auswirken
wird.
Durchfuhrung
Mit dem Nherrucken des fUr 1992 vorgesehenen Gemeinsamen Binnenmarkts

sind die Ingenieure aufgerufen, in verstrktem Ausma Konstruktionsarbeiten
auerhalb ihres Heimatlandes durchzufhren, wozu der Eurocode Nr. 5 einen
stimulierenden Beitrag leisten kann. Es gibt Jedoch Schwierigkeiten, die
berwunden werden mssen. Die Verfahren zur Genehmigung von Konstruktions-
entwrfen sind von Land zu Land stark verschieden und auch bei den Vor-
schriften fr die Zulassung eines Ingenieurs bestehen zwischen den einzel-
nen Lndern groe Unterschiede. Wir knnen nur hoffen, da die Harmonisie-
rung zu einem Abbau der Brokratie fuhren wird. Ein Bereich, der spter
bedacht werden mu, ist die Anwendung von Vorschriften fr die Guteklassen-
einteilung. Im Vereinigten Knigreich mu ein unabhngiges Ueberwachungs-
system fr das vom Hersteller gewhlte Verfahren der GUteklasseneinteilung
vorhanden sein; jedes Einzelstck mu besonders gekennzeichnet werden. Ein
solches System der Qualittskontrolle ist meiner Ansicht nach eine Voraus-
setzung fr die Anwendung des Eurocodes Nr. 5.
Schlufolgerung
Wenn der Eurocode Nr. 5 Erfolg haben soll, mssen die Ingenieure nicht
nur bereit sein, ihn anzuwenden, sie sollten vielmehr whrend der Erpro-
bungsphase parallele KonstruktionsUbungen anhand ihres eigenen Vorschrif-
tenwerkes und des Eurocodes Nr. 5 durchfuhren, um sich von der Gltigkeit
des Eurocodes Nr. 5 zu berzeugen.
249
AENDERUNGSVORSCHLAEGE ZUR AUSBILDUNG IM BEREICH DER HOLZBAUTECHNIK
n a B.O. HILSON i> 1
" ^ ' "Brighton Polytechnic T I
d i d : ni 11 ->
D n > iJ ngm d i ai h j- I
1
1. DERZEITIGE SITUATION IM VEREINIGTEN KNIGREICH i3
^ ^ ^ ^ ^ - ^ ^ ^ ^ I .& J
ALs Ergebnis einer Untersuchung, die 1986 zur Bestimmung des Anteils der Holz-
n
bauausbildung innerhalb der Ausbildungsgnge fr Bauingenieure an britischen
Universitten und Fachhochschulen ("Polytechnics") durchgefhrt wurde, zeigte
" sich, da der HolzbauJ weniger als 1 X der effektiven Unterrichtszeit der Stu-
denten einnimmt. ^ ' '
Eine andere, einige Jahre zurckliegende Untersuchung beschftigte sich mit
dem Verhltnis zwischen der Zeit, die innerhalb der Studiengnge auf die ver-
schiedenen Werkstoffe verwandt wird, und der entsprechenden Zeit, die in einem
typischen Konstruktionsbro auf diese Werkstoffe entfllt. Fr Holz zeigte
sich hier ein deutliches Miverhltnis: auf der Grundlage des Zeitaufwands war
die Bedeutung dieses Werkstoffes im Konstruktionsbro 16 mal hoher als im
n Studiengang. >i ,.,,.,
Hieraus lt sich schlufolgern, da die Ausbildung vieler Praktiker im Be-
reich des Holzbaus unzureichend ist _
2 . ABHILFEMABNAHMEN b ^ ',r/\n 'b j " '

Zwei verschiedene Arten von Abhilfemanahmen sind notwendig, und zwar zum
einen besonders auf die Praktiker zugeschnittene Manahmen und zum anderen
an die Adresse der Studenten gerichtete Nanahmen.
Zur Untersttzung des Praktikers, der wie gesehen bislang ber eine unzu-
reichende Ausbildung im Holzbau verfgt, sollten Kurse kurzer Dauer im Rahmen
eines kontinuierlichen Fortbildungsprogramms angeboten werden. Diese Kurse
'^sollten auf nationaler Ebene koordiniert und zentral fr die einzelnen Re-<
gionen durchgefhrt werden. i i t r > ei &
Darber hinaus sollten mehr Programme fr das rechnergesttzte. Entwerfen
entwickelt werden, die ber die standardmigen Analyseprogramme hinaus-
gehen und grundlegende Konstruktionsprobleme strker bercksichtigen. Ein
am Brighton Polytechnic durchgefhrtes Forschungsvorhaben beschftigt sich
z. B. mit der Entwicklung eines Expertensystems, das den Konstrukteur bei der
Auswahl der geeignesten Konstruktionsformen und Verbindungssysteme fr Dach-
_ tragwerke aus Holz im Nicht-Wohnhausbereich untersttzt.
-Im Bereich der Hochschulausbildung sollten kurzfristig angelegte Manahmen
.auf eine Erhhung des Holzbau-Unterrichtsanteils im Rahmen der bestehenden
'Ausbildungsgnge abzielen. Eigene Holzbau-Studiengnge sollten jedoch nicht
angestrebt werden, da das Holz innerhalb des Studiums den ihm zugehrigen
Platz neben den anderen Bauwerkstoffen einnehmen sollte. Wegen der mangelnden
Ausbildung und einer gewissen Unsicherheit des Lehrkrpers wird es wahr-
scheinlich erforderlich sein, einen Lehrplan aufzustellen, der in die be-
stehenden Ausbildungsgnge aufzunehmen ist, und an diesen Lehrplan angepate
Lehrmittel zu entwickeln.
3. LANGFRISTIGE PERSPEKTIVEN
Der derzeitige Konstruktionsunterricht ist in Abschnitte unterteilt, die je-
weils von einem bestimmten Werkstoff ausgehen. So ist z. B. der Unterricht
in Stahlbetonkonstruktion von der Stahlkonstruktionslehre getrennt; je nach
der verfgbaren Zeit schlieen sich Unterrichtseinheiten in Stein- und Holz-
konstruktionslehre an. Ein gnstigerer Ansatz bestnde mglicherweise darin,
Konstruktionslehre von einer weiter gefaten Grundlage aus zu unterrichten
und die unterschiedlichen Werkstoffe im Rahmen dieses Gesamtkonzepts vorzu-
stellen. Einem solchen Kurs vorhergehen mte wahrscheinlich ein Grundkurs
ber Werkstofftechnik.
250
In Vereinigten Knigreich 1st eine deutliche Tendenz weg von analyseorientierten
Kursen und hin zu konstrukt1onsor1entierten Kursen festzustellen! dies bietet
Gelegenheit, die Grundlagen der Konstruktion strker zu betonen. In der Vergangen-
heit war es zu oft so, da die Dozenten die Studenten ait einer bestirnten Trag-
werkkonstruktion konfrontierten und dann zur Analyse dieses Tragwerks und der Be-
messung der einzelnen Bauteile aufforderten. Auf die Kriterien fr die Auswahl
dieses besonderen Tragwerkstyps wurde hingegen zu wenig 6ew1cht gelegt Eine groe
Gefahr bei Unterrichten von Fchern wie Bauingenieurwesen besteht nmlich darin,
sich nur auf diejenigen Aspekte zu beschranken, die relativ leicht erfabar sind.
Bauingenieure aussen ein breites Spektrum von Fihigkeiten besitzen, wenn sie gute
Konstrukteure sein sollen. So mu ein Konstrukteur ein fundiertes Wissen ua die
besonderen Eigenschaften verschiedener Werkstoffe und ein Gespr fr ihr Trag-
verhalten besitzen. Ein solches 1ntiut1ves 6efhl resultiert aus der Erfahrung,
die sich unter anderea durch das Studiua von Modelltragwerken in kurzer Zeit ge-
winnen lt. So baut eine aa Brighton Polytechnic angewandte Methode auf einfachen
Modellen aus Balsaholz und Papier auf. Die Studenten arbeiten unbeaufsichtigt in
kleinen Gruppen und erwerben so neben de Verstndnis des Tragwerkverhaltens viele
weitere Fihigkeiten, die von eine guten Konstrukteur verlangt werden.
Nach jeder dieser bung wird ein Seainar veranstaltet, auf dea die Vielzahl der
von den Studenten gefundenen alternativen Konzepte und Lsungsaglichkeiten dis-
kutiert wird.
Zu tinea spiteren Zeitpunkt 1a Studiengang aussen die Studenten dann, wiederum in
kleinen Gruppen, ein Modelltragwerk konstruieren, bauen und erproben, das bestiaate
Vorgaben erfllen au. Das schlielich gewhlte Tragwerk au unter Verkehrslast
ein definiertes Biegeverhalten zeigen, eine vorgegebene seitliche Belastung auf-
nehmen knnen und zwischen eine oberen und eine unteren Lastgrenzwert versagen.
In der Zukunft sollte sich also die Ausbildung 1a Bereich der Tragwerkkonstruktion
an dea Grundsatz orientieren, da Intuitives Wissen gekoppelt ait eine Verstnd-
nis der Werkstoffeigenschaften gute Konstruktionen ermglicht.
Ein solches Unterrichtskonzept wrde alle Werkstoffe umfassen und knnte zur Auf-
gabe der derzeitigen Methode der Konstruktionslehre fhren, derzufolge die ein-
zelnen Werkstoffe separat behandelt werden. Nach einem Grundkurs Ober Werksstoff-
eigenschaften, der alle Werkstoffe uafat, sollte eher eine Unterteilung nach Bau-
teilen als nach Werkstoffen vorgenommen werden. So knnten z. B. die Auswirkungen
der Werkstoffeigenschaften auf die Querschnittbeaessung fr jeden Bauteiltyp be-
sprochen werden und schlielich zur Detailkonstruktion des betreffenden Bau->
teils aus jedea der einzelnen Werkstoffe fhren. Auf diese Art knnten alle Werk-
stoffe in den Studitngingen angeaessen bercksichtigt werden.
Ein anderes zu behandelndes Prob le sind die Schwankungen von Naterialeigenschaften
und deren Auswirkungen auf die Konstruktion. Im Falle des Holzbaus aussen die
Studenten mit der 6teklassene1nteilung und der Verwendung von Kunstholz als Mittel
zur Verringerung von WerkstoffSchwankungen vertraut gemacht werden. Kunstholz bildet
den Schlssel zum ingenieurligen Bauen alt Holz; verleimtes Schichtholz 1st hier-
fr das beste Beispiel. Kunstholz sollte also in die Studiengnge aufgenommen werden,
da es die Mglichkeiten der Holzverwendung 1a Ingenieurbau herausstellt und an
die Kreativitt der Studenten appelliert.
251
ANFORDERUNGEN AN DIE AUSBILDUNG IH HOLZBAU
Ulrich A. Meierhofer, EMPA, Dbendorf, Schweiz
Ausgangssituation
Der Holzbau in der Schweiz ist immer noch stark durch die
handwerkliche Tradition mit ihrem oft hochstehenden Berufsethos
geprgt. Der Architekt gewinnt mit seinen gestalterischen Vorstel-
lungen jedoch immer mehr an Einfluss, und auch der ingenieurmssige
Holzbau nimmt mengenmssig zu. Im Gegensatz zum traditionellen
Holzbau setzt sich damit eine weitgehende Separierung von Planung
und Ausfhrung durch.
Die hier diskutierte Ausbildung von Planern (mit Betonung der

technischen Seite) hat von den Anforderungen der Baupraxis auszu-
gehen, d.h. insbesondere von den Anforderungen, die ein Bauherr,
aber auch die Oeffentlichkeit an ein Bauwerk stellen. Dies zu be-
tonen, heisst einzugestehen, dass diesen Anforderungen zur Zeit nur
beschrnkt und sektoriell Rechnung getragen wird, nicht zuletzt
aufgrund der beruflichen Voraussetzungen der verschiedenen Bau-
schaffenden.
Die wichtigsten Anforderungen, die auch ein entsprechendes Ge-

wicht in der Ausbildung haben sollten, sind:
Wirtschaftlichkeit,
Benutzungssicherheit,
funktionelle Brauchbarkeit,
Betriebskomfort (z.B. mglichst wenig Unterhalt),
Dauerhaftigkeit und Werterhaltung,
evtl. Flexibilitt, d.h. leichte Vernderbarkeit.
Zu bercksichtigen sind auch schwer zu definierende bzw.

schwierig abzugrenzende Bedrfnisse wie
Bentzungskomfort,
Aesthetik,
Wohnlichkeit bzw. das Schaffen einer bestimmten Atmosphre,
Selbstdarstellung, z.B. Prestige.
Aus der Sicht der Oeffentlichkeit stehen schwerpunktmssig

folgende Anforderungen im Vordergrund:
das optimale Einfgen des Bauwerks in seine Umgebung,
Benutzungssicherheit,
volkswirtschaftliche Aspekte.
Die Tatsache, dass die teilweise widersprchlichen Anforderun-

gen oft nur unbefriedigend erfllt und aufeinander abgestimmt sind,
lsst sich unter anderem mit verschiedenen Statistiken ber Bau-
schden und -mngel belegen.
Dabei ist der Holzbau nachgewiesenermassen nicht schadensin-

tensiver als andere Bauweisen. Allerdings reagiert das Holz emp-
findlicher und rascher auf unsachgemsse Anwendungen als andere
Baumaterialien; Mangelhafte Dauerhaftigkeit dominiert dabei als
Schadensursache alle brigen gngigen Schadensauslser. Eine geeig-
252
nete Holzbauausbildung muss das notwendige Rstzeug, d.h. Wissen
und Fhigkeiten vermitteln, um die erwhnten Probleme, formuliert
als Anforderungen an den Holzbau, befriedigend zu lsen, d.h. auch
die hufigsten Schadenstypen mit Sicherheit zu vermeiden.
Ttigkeitsschwerpunkte der verschiedenen Baubeteiligten

Neben den "technischen" ist auch auf die "organisatorischen"
Schadensursachen hinzuweisen: Ein wesentlicher Grund fr unbefrie-
digende Bauprozesse und Bauprodukte ist in der ungengenden Abstim-
mung der verschiedenen am Bau Beteiligten zu finden, und zwar so-
wohl bezglich ihrer Ttigkeiten als auch bezglich ihrer Fhigkei-
ten.
Der Architekt sieht blicherweise - schon aufgrund seiner

Ausbildung - den absoluten Schwerpunkt seiner Ttigkeit im gestal-
terisch Formalen, whrend er die technischen Probleme gerne den
"Fachspezialisten" berlsst.
Der durchschnittliche Bauingenieur ist mit seiner Speziali-

stenrolle als Statiker zufrieden. Er ist froh, wenn er sich nicht
um weitere Probleme kmmern muss, seien es solche, die den Bau als
Gesamtes betreffen oder seien es Teilprobleme, die ihm aus dem
einen oder anderen Grund (z.B. mangela Ausbildung) nicht naheliegen
(Bauphysik, Dauerhaftigkeitsprobleme, Verwendung ihm nur wenig be-
kannter Materialien wie z.B. Holz u.a.).
Hervorzuheben ist der Bauleiter, dessen Bedeutung meist unter-

schtzt und dessen Aufgabe oft vernachlssigt wird, unter anderem
auch durch die Beaetzung mit ungengend qualifiziertem Personal.
Aber selbst qualifizierte Bauleiter 8tehen oft derart unter dem
Druck von Zeit und administrativen Aufgaben, dass andere wichtige
Ttigkeitsbereiche zu kurz kommen.
Die ausfhrenden Handwerker sind hufig auf verschiedenen

Ebenen berfordert. Neben Zeit- und Preisdruck werden ihnen oft
Planungs- und Organisationsprobleme (z.B. Schnittstellenprobleme)
zugeschoben, die an sich auf einer anderen Ebene, nmlich in der
Planung und Bauleitung, zu lsen wren.
MSgliche Verbesserungen
Der Holzbau als Bauablauf und als Bauprodukt liesse sich mei-
nes Erachtena wesentlich verbessern durch die Institutionalisierung
einer Berufsgattung, die "Holzbauingenieur" heissen knnte, wre
diese Bezeichnung nicht durch die schwerpunktmssige Ttigkeit im
statischen Bereich belastet. Ich wrde diese Berufsgattung deshalb
mit "Holzbaufachaann" bezeichnen. Nachfolgend versuche ich, ein
wnschenswertes Berufsbild als Ausbildungsziel zu umreissen.
Beim Holzbaufachmann sind sowohl Missen wie auch Fhigkeiten

und Ttigkeit stsrk interdisziplinr: In seiner Arbeit ergnzt der
Holzbaufachmann Architekt, Bauingenieur, Bauphysiker, Bauleiter,
Zimmermann, Bauschreiner, Holzschutzspezislist etc.
253
Beim Holzbau ist es unzweckmssig, eine Ausbildung allein auf
die Tragfunktion des Holzes auszurichten, sind doch die beiden
anderen Funktionen 'Rauatrennen/Isolieren1 und 'Dekorieren/Gestal
ten' mindestens ebenso wichtige >
Entsprechend wrde ich die Schwerpunkte der notwendigen Kennt

nisse sowie Fhigkeiten und damit der Ausbildung des Holzbaufach
mannes wie folgt umreissen:
Gestalten der Gesamtkonzeption und der D etailkonstruktion (von
'tragenden und nicht' tragenden Bauteilen),
Materialtechnologie nicht nur von Holz, sondern auch der Holz
Werkstoffe, Anschlussmaterialien, Klebstoffe, Schutzstoffe eto.j
Dauerhaftigkeit, langfristige ^Funktionstchtigkeiti Zuverlssig
keit,
Sicherheit und Gebrauchstauglichkeit,
s Bauphysik, ' '
Ver und Bearbeitung, Montage, Gtesicherung,
Koordination von Planungs und Ausfhrungsarbeiten. *
t
Ein solches Berufsbild bzw. ein solches Ausbildungsziel ist
durchaus realistisch, wie gewisse, bereits bestehende Schulungspro
gramme zeigen, die in die aufgezeigte Richtung weisen. Allerdinge
sind solche Programme eher bei hheren technischen Lehranstalten zu
finden als in der akademischen Ausbildung. '
Mit dem Abschluss einer geeigneten Ausbildung ist jedoch der

'optimale Holzbaufachmann' noch keineswegs geboren. D azu ist zu1
stzlich nmlich ein erhebliches Mass an praktischer Erfahrung not
wendig, die sich in einer Schule nicht vermitteln lsst! Eine per
manente Auseinandersetzung mit Holz und Holzbau ist notwendig1 ,* um
stets auf dem Stand der neuesten Entwicklungen zu sein.
t
Selbst Wenn ein AllroundHolzbaufachmann zur Verfgung stnde,
enthebt dies die im blichen Rahmen ttigen Architekten und Inge^
nieure nicht der Notwendigkeit, ihr Wissen und Knnen hinsichtlich
Holz und Holzbauten im Vergleich zu heute zu vertiefen! Als Genera
listen sollten ~sie mindestens die Mglichkeiten, aber auch die
Grenzen des Holzbaus kennen, um diese Bauweise mit gleichen Chancen
wie die brigen einzusetzen. Von einer Chancengleichheit sind wir
heute noch weit entfernt.
1 H
254
ZIEL UND ERGEBNISSE DEB EWG-FORSCHUNGSPROGRAlPg ZUM BEREICH "HOLZ"
V. HANSSENS
Kommission der Europischen Gemeinschaften
Generaldirektion Wissenschaft, Forschung und Entwicklung
DI Forschung In dar Europischen B e Inachft vor dar Einhalt! Ichan Akt
Dar Rat hat IM Januar 1974 beschlossen, die Ttigkeit der Gemeinschaft auf
den Gesamthereich von Wissenschaft und Technik auszudehnen. Auf der Grundlage
diese* Mandat* wurde die Kommission beauftragt, die Wissenschaft*' und
TechnologiepolItlk der Mltglledstaaten In zunehmender Welse zu koordinieren
und durch die Gewhrung einer angemessenen Untersttzung Im
gemeinschaftlichen Interesse liegende Forschungsprogramme zu verwirklichen
(z. B. Im Bereich der Energie, der Rohstoffe usw.).
Fr Jeden dieser Bereiche bedeutet die europische Dimension eine
Wertsteigerung. So wird ea mglich, hohe Finanzierungsaufwendungen umzulegen,
Risiken zu verteilen und Aufwendungen auf der europischen Ebene durch
Einsparungen auf der nationalen Ebene zu kompensieren. Diese Strategie
bedeutet auch, daB konkrete Mittel zum Aufbrechen erstarrter Strukturen
bereitgestellt werden.
In diesem Sinne soll ein Interdisziplinrer, die Fachgebietsgrenzen

verwischender Ansatz zur Strkung des wissenschaftlichen Potentials der
einzelnen Forscherteams In der Gemeinschaft beitragen.
Einheitliche Akt - Rahmenprogramm - Forachuno und techno loa lache Entwicklung

Das Rahmenprogramm wurde von der Kommission als Antwort der Gemeinschaft auf
die zweifach* Herausforderung konzipiert, der sie sich gegenber*lent,
nmlich der Herausforderung von Innen und der von auBen.
Die Herausforderung von auen besteht In der Notwendigkeit, die

Wettbewerbsfhigkeit Europas In den Hochtechnologleberelchen gegenber den
Vereinigten Staaten und Japan aufrechtzuerhalten, deren Forschungsaufwand In
quantitativer und qualitativer Hinsicht stndig zunimmt (In unmittelbarer
Zukunft werden die entsprechenden Aufwendungen der Vereinigten Staaten
zweieinhalbmal und die Japans doppelt so hoch liegen wie die der
Unschaft).
DI* Herausforderung von innen besteht In der erforderlichen Festigung des

wirtschaftlichen und sozialen Zusammenhalts der Gemeinschaft und In einer
Verringerung des technologischen Geflles zwischen den Mltglledstaaten (die
drei groOen europischen Industrienationen - das Vereinigte Knigreich,
Frankreich und die Bundesrepublik - stellen fr sich alleine mehr als 80 %
der gesamten FuE-Aufwendungen der Gemeinschaft). Ein Abbau des zwlschsn den
Mltglledstaaten bestehenden technologischen Ungleichgewicht* Ist nur mglich,
wenn die Beteiligung der weniger fortgeschrittenen Lnder an hochkartigen
Forschungsarbeiten sichergestellt Ist.
255
Durch die Europisch Einheitliche Akte wird der Gemelnschaft formell eine
umfassende Zustndlgkeit im Bereich der Forschung und der Technologie
eingerumt. Die Einheitliche Akte wird bei der Verwirklichung des
Binnenmarktes bis 1992, einem der groen Ziele der Gemeinschaft, eine
herausragende Rolle spielen.
Mit dem Rahmenprogramm soll das Potential erschlossen werden, das die auf
zwlf Mitgl ledstaatenerweiterte Gemeinschaft bietet: ein Markt von
325 Millionen Einwohnern sowie 1,1 Millionen Wissenschaftler und Techniker,
darunter 420 000 Forscher.
Forschung und Entwicklung Im Techno log labere Ich

Die Forschung und Entwicklung Im Technologleberelch Ist ein Faktor, der fr
die Schaffung eines modernen und wettbewerbsfhigen Marktes groen Ausmaes,
In dem die Gemeinschaft eine hervorragende Rolle zu bernehmen hat,
mglicherweise entscheidender ist.
Die Kommission hat 1986 ein Rahmenprogramm fr Forschung und Entwicklung Im
Techno log lebereich fr die Jahre 1987 bis 1991 aufgestellt, das erst 1987
angenommen werden konnte. In diesem Rahmenprogramm werden eine Reihe von
Bereichen herausgestellt, wo die Gemeinschaft vorrangig ttig werden kann.
Neue Initiativen auf dem Gebiet der Finanzierungstechnlk werden dazu
beitragen, die Frderung der technologischen Forschung und Entwicklung In
Industrielle Anwendungen umzusetzen.
Notwendigkelt eines den gesamten Holz- und Korkbarelch abdeckenden

Forschungsprogramms
Wenn sich auch die Grundlagen fr die Aufstellung eines Forschungsprogramms
"Holz" nicht wesentlich gendert haben, so sind doch neue Faktoren
aufgetreten, die bercksichtlgt werden mssen.
Auch wenn das Handelsbilanzdefizit der Gemeinschaft bei Holz und
Holzerzeugnissen bestehen bleibt und diese Produkte der zweitgrte
Einfuhrposten der Gemeinschaft sind (8 Milliarden Dollar), so wre es doch
unvernnftig, diesen Mistand mglichst schnall abstellen zu wollen, ohne den
gesamten Industriezweig zur Aufdeckung der Schwachpunkte detailliert zu
analysieren.
Auf welcher Produktlonsstufe man die Holzindustrie auch Immer betrachtet,

stets ist ein In wirtschaftllcher Hinsicht richtiges Vorgehen
ausschlaggebend. Die wechselseitige Abhngigkeit der einzelnen Sektoren tritt
immer deutlicher hervor.
Auf der Produktionsebene wird eine neues Forschungsprogramm Insbesondere auf

die Steigerung, die Verfgbarkelt und die Qualitt der Holzproduktion bei
entsprechender Bercksichtigung der sich aus der UmweltsituatIon ergebenden
Sachzwnge abzielen.
Besondere Anstrengungen sind zur Erhhung von Wirtschaftlichkeit und
Wettbewerbsfhigkeit der Holz- und Holzschi IffIndustrie vorgesehen; so soll
das wirtschaftliche Potential der Holz- und Korkindustrie gestrkt und die
Wettbewerbsposition auf dem Internationalen Markt verbessert werden.
256
Zwar scheint dar Mittlere Waidflchenanteil von 20 % (fr Nutzhlzer), den
die Zwlfergemeinechaft aufweist, ein fr die europischen Industriestaaten
annehmbarer Mittelwert zu sein. Jedoch mu an bedenken. daB dieser
Prozentsatz fr die einzelnen Mitgliedstaaten zwischen 5,5 und 30 % liegt.
Darber hinaus sind die IM Norden erzeugten Holzqualitten von denen der
sdlichen Lnder sehr verschieden, wobei die Bedingungen Z U M Aufbau eines
Waldbestands IM Sden schwieriger als IM Norden sind.
So kommt es, da die Lnder IM Norden der Gemeinschaft IM allgemeinen

Schnitthlzer, Kanthlzer und Schlhlzer liefern, whrend Holz fr den
Industriebedarf allgemein, fr die Kistenfabrikation und die Papierindustrie
berwiegend aus dem Sden stammt. Es bestehen also schwerwiegende natrliche
Ungleichgewichte Mit starken wirtschaftlichen Auswirkungen.
Das naturbedingte Phnomen des Nord-Sd-Geflles bei Waldbestand und

Holzqualitt wird von einer ganzen Reihe lokaler und regionaler Probleme
berlagert: leichter oder schwieriger und kostenintensiver Einschlag,
Vorhandensein oder Fehlen von Facharbeitern, Zugangsmglichkelten,
bestehendes Wegenetz, Transportmglichkeiten und Entfernung. Es bestehen
somit fr die Forstwirtschaft in Europa wie auch In der brigen Welt
Hindernisse natrlicher, sozialer und Industrieller Art. die sprbare
Auswirkungen auf die Wirtschaftlichkeit der Holzerzeugung haben.
Die Holzerzeugung Innerhalb der Gemeinschaft ist durch eine Reihe von
Problemen gekennzeichnet.
In der Zukunft ist ein Mangel an bestimmten Holzsorten nicht auszuschlieen,
whrend Hlzer kleiner Querschnitte gelegentlich den Markt berschwemmen.
Darber hinaus werden tropische Stammhlzer am Markt knapp und teuer, so das
sie allmhlich durch qualitativ hochwertige europische Sorten ersetzt werden
mssen.
Das derzeit noch relativ neue Problem einer Aufforstung bisher

landwirtschaftlich genutzter Flchen wird In den kommenden Jahrzehnten noch
sehr akut bleiben. Dieses Phnomen wird von Region zu Region unterschiedlich
stark ausgeprgt sein, so da der Waldbestand bestimmter Regionen
berproportional zunehmen wird.
In den letzten Jahren wurden angesichts des Problems der zunehmenden

Agrarberschsse zahlreiche Untersuchungen durchgefhrt. In denen dauerhafte
Lsungen zur Beseitigung der fr den europischen Steuerzahler uerst
kostspieligen berschsse gesucht wurden. Die IM Rahmen der geplanten
' Lsungsanstza zu ergreifenden Manahmen sind dabei auf verschiedenen Ebenen
angesiedelt. Es handelt sich UM langfristige strukturelle Manahmen auf der
Ebene der landwirtschaftlichen Betriebe selbst, um Eingriffe In die
Anbauplne durch die Aufstellung von Quoten und Stillegungen
landwirtschaftlicher Nutzflchen sowie um Manahmen zur Senkung der
landwirtschaftlichen Garantiepreise, die strker an die deutlich niedrigeren
Weltmarktpreise angenhert werden sollen.
Zwar steht auer Frage, daB groe bisher landwirtschaftlich genutzte Flchen
bis ZUM Ende des Jahrhunderts bewaldet sein werden. Jedoch sind diese Flchen
wahrscheinlich wesentlich kleiner, als 1987 und 1988 angekndigt wurde.
Trotzdem drften einige Millionen Hektar nach und nach aufgeforstet werden.
IM Vereinigten Knigreich und in Irland sind derzeit die Bedingungen fr eine
wirtschaftliche Aufforstung am gnstigsten: Groe Weideflchen sind zu
gnstigen Preisen verfgbar, die klimatischen Bedingungen sind fr die
Aufforstung gnstig. Subventionen der Regierungen und Steuererleichterungen
fr die Waldbesitzer sind vorgesehen, usw.
257
Die Daim ersten Lichten dieserrneuen Anpflanzungenâuf vorher
landwirtschaftlich genutzten Flchen geschlagenen Jugendhlzer werden den
Papierbreimarkt enger machen; es Ist zu hoffen, da hier eine Tendenzaur
Innergemeinschaft 11chen Erzeugung-und nicht zur Einfuhr einsetzen wlrdJ ; i
ibo v i b
Nach diesem kurzen berblick ber die Holzindustrie und dl Perspektiven fr
die Holzerzeugung der Gemeinschaft soll detaillierter auf die durchgefhrten
und geplanten Manahmen auf dem Gebiet der Forst- und Holzforschung
eingegangen werden f die von der GQ XII, (Forschung und Entwicklung) Initiiert
wurden, z )n t
i l b t e I B b
1983: i j Untersuchungen und Symposium ben dl Wiederverwendung von
Altpapier In der Papierindustrien i
19S2/85: Erstes Programm "Holz- ale erneuerbarer Rohstoff" c
i
1986/89: Zwei tes-Programm "Holz .elnschl leSI Ich Kork"- als erneuerbarer ;
Rohstoff"D I
n s
1990/93: Drittes Programm "Holz - inschlleBIIch Kork - als erneuerbarer
Rohstoff* (In Vorbereitung).
Viele Vertrge aus dem ersten Programm wurden ohne Erhhung der Beihilfe ber
den 31.12.1985 hinaus verlngert, um-einen problemlosen Abschlu derr e
Forschungsarbeiten auf Kostenteilungsbasis zu ermgl lohenebt l
9 SJ 8 b
Fr Jeden der drei Teile des ersten Programms wurde in einem abschlieenden
Seminar ein berblick ber die durchgefhrten Arbeiten und die erzielten
Ergebnisse vermittelt: o I es n ib
n ne n w rise
Papierbrei r Pappe und Karton y Brssel t> 19./21. November 1988; u>
Holz als Werkstoff - Mnchen. 14./15 April 1987;s - u
Forstwirtschaft - Bologna, 2./3. Juni 1987. b l n
Den Teilnehmern an diesen Seminaren wurde einenZusammenfassung der
Abschluberichte zugestel 11;< die broschierten Abschluberichte sind ber die
Vertrlebsbrps, fr Verffentlichungen der europischen Gemeinschaften zu
beziehen n s
n 9b 6 u
b s B ? s i l u cl
e e I 1
8 b 0 n l a b i e q s
Das zweite Programm "Holz" (1988/89), das ebenfalls den Kork umfat? Ist mlrt
einem Haushalt von 10 Mio. ECU ausgestattet und wird erneut unter Beteiligung
Schwedens und der Schweiz durchgefhrt; der Beginn der Arbeiten Ist fr Ende
1987/Anfang 1988 vorgesehen.
n = l a i } n rt d
Im Rahmen dieses-Programms, das auch die Erzeugung und Industrielle Anwendung
von Kork umfat,- sind mehr als 340 Antrge auf Beihilfe fr a
Forschungsvorhaben eingegangen, b t
i
* s
258
la Rahmen einer raten Bewertung der Voracnlge durch externe fach laute -die
aua einer von dan nationalen Vertretern In dan Vrwaltung-n und
Koordlnatlonaauaachaaen (VKA* aufgestellten Llata ausgewhlt wurden^ aurd
alna Priori titanfolg faatga lagt i Auf or und dar aahr begrenzten
Haushaltsmittel konnten nur dl Vorachlag* aufgegrIffan worden -denen dla
erat Prior l tat stufe zugebilligt wurde. Dia zunchst von dar Kommission
vorgeschlagen Zahl wird nach Stellungnahmen der nationalen Vertretungen IM
VKA Werkstoff aufgestockte Schi Ieat Ich wurden 117 Vorach lge fr alna
Finanzierung durch die Geneinschaft ausgesucht; zustzlich wurden die
folgenden vier Koordinierungsvorhaben ausgewhltt
- In-vItro-Vermehrung der Flehtet

- Sgen von Eukalyptuaetmmen
-i aolare Trocknung von gesgtem Holz;
- Verglelehbarkelt der Foret Inventurverfahren durch Stichproben!
Darber hlnaua wird daa Rahmenprograma "Holz" einen Austausch entsprechend
apezlallalerter Forecher ermglichen, wobei dleaa Fachkrfte nach Ende Ihre
Gaataufanthalta wieder In Ihre uraprnglIcha Stallung zurckkehren und ao zur
Verbreitung der neuerworbenen Kanntnlaae und der neuen Verfahren, alt denen
ala gearbeitet haben beitragen knnen*
Bai nherer Prfung de Prograantel le 'Holz und Kork ala Werkstoff" sieht
nan, daB zu diesem Bereich 64 Vorach lge aowle drei Koordlnlerungavorhaban
angenommen wurden; die Beihilfe der Gemeinschaft fr dlaaen Teil beluft alch
auf 2,S Mio. ECU, waa ungefhr der Hlfte der GeaamtbelhlIfe fr die
Forschungsarbeiten auf diesem Gebiet Insgesamt entspricht.
Die auagewhlten Vorach lge behandeln la wesentlichen die folgenden Themen

- atrukturelle Einteilung von Schnittholz und-Eurocode Nri fr (alle
Mltglledstaaten);
- Qualitt achnellwachsender Holzaorten <8 Mltglledstaaten);
- Schutz der Fichte (4 Mitgliedstaaten);
- Erhhung von Fertigkeit und Haltbarkelt der Holzsorten (7 Mitgliedstaaten);
- Entwicklung atrukturlerter Holzwerkatoffplatten (3 Mltglledstaaten);
- Trockenanlagen fr Schnittholz <6 Mltglledstaaten)
- Featlgkelta- und Verforaungsverhalten von Holz und HolzkonatruktIonen
(13 Teilnehmer);
- Verwendung von Kork (2 Mltglledstaaten).
In Zuaammanarbelt mit dem VKA "Werkstoffe" arbeitet die KommlaaIon an einem

eratan Entwurf fr daa dritte Programm "Holz und Kork" fr die Jahre 1990 bis
1993.
259
Im folgandan warden die wichtigsten Tehmen aufgefhrt, die In den Teil II des
genannten Programms aufzunehmen sind (Holz und Kork als Werkstoff). Nach
Festlegung der tatschlich verfgbaren Mittel mu sicherlich eine
pragmatischere Vorgehenswelse gewhlt werden, so da mit einer Einschrnkung
der nachstehend beschriebenen Themen zu rechnen Ist.
MECHANISCHE HOLZVERARBEITUNG UND QUAL ITATSSTEIGERUMS DES ENDPRODUKTS
Die Notwendigkeit einer genaueren Erforschung der Zusammenhnge zwischen

forstwirtschaftlichen Behandlungsverfahren und HolzqualItt wird zunehmend
anerkannt. Ein fachbergreifendes Forschungsteam aus Forstwissenschaftlern,
Genetikern, kologen und Holztechnologen sollte dieses Problem im Rahmen
gemeinsamer Forschungsvorhaben lsen (Auswirkungen von Vereinzeln, Ausdnnen
und Dngemitteln auf Holzeigenschaften; Mindestdichte Innerhalb eines
Wachstumsrings; Knotengre und Volumen und Eigenschaften von Jugendholz).
Gteeintellung von Sgeholz
Durch die "objektive" Gteklasseneinteilung von Holz konnten seine
Anwendungsmglichkelten fr Konstruktionszwecke ausgeweitet werden.
Erforderlich sind bessere Verfahren der GteklasseneIntellung, die leicht in
die Industrielle Holzverarbeltung Integriert werden knnen.
VERBESSERUNG DER VERARBEITUNGSVERFAHREN FR SCHNITTHOL? - SGEWERKSTECHNIK
Die Ertragslage, der Sgewerksindustrie In den verschiedenen Lndern der

Europischen Gemeinschaft ist In vielen Fllen schlecht. Als Grundlage fr
die Optimierung der Verfahrenstechniken, Insbesondere bezglich des richtigen
Gleichgewichts zwischen Rckgewinnung, Produktivitt und Wiederverwendung von
Produktlonsrckstnden ist eine detailliertere Analyse des Sgewerkbetriebs
erforder I Ich.
So mssen bespIeIsweIse Mngel der derzeitigen Sgewerksausrstung

(einschlleBIIch Sensoren) beseitigt werden, Insbesondere bei der Bearbeitung
von kleinen oder unregelmigen Holzstmmen und bei der Erfassung von Formen
und Unregelmigkeiten. Durch eine gut abgestimmte Kombination der
automatischen Messung der Stammcharakter IstIka, grere AuswahlmgIichkeIten
bel der Entwicklung geeigneter Sgewerksanlagen und verbesserte Sgeverfahren
sollten deutliche Leistungsteigerungen mglich sein.
Trocknunasverfahren
Die korrekte Klimatisierung des Holzes vor seiner Verwendung Ist fr sein
Gebrauchsverhalten entscheidend. Da in vielen Fllen die knstliche Trocknung
eine unverzichtbare Bedingung fr die Herstellung von Schnittholz hoher
Qualitt Ist, mu der TrocknungsquaIitt unter besonderer Bercksichtigung
niedriger Feuchtegradienten und eines ansprechenden Farbtons besondere
Aufmerksamkeit gewidmet werden. Zur Ermittlung des Einflusses von Temperatur,
Feuchtigkeit, Luftgeschwindigkeit und -rlchtung, Holzquerschnitt und
Holzqualitt auf die Feuchtegradienten und Restspannungen In getrocknetem
Holz unterschiedlicher Sorten sind grundlegende Arbeiten erforderlich.
HOLZWERKSTOFFPLATTEN - Haltbarkelt geleimter Platten
Wesentliche Ziele sind eine Verminderung der Empfindlichkeit gegenber

Wasser, eine Vermeldung des Aufquellens und des Rauhwerdens der Oberflche
sowie eine deutliche Verringerung der Produktlonsabflle.
260
Letztes Ziel sollte die Verbesserung der Haltbarkelt und eine Verbreiterung
des Anwendungspotentials von gel eisten Holzwerkstoffplatten sein. Es Ist
daher wichtig, das Verhalten solcher Platten In der Umgebung von Mechanischen
oder Klebeverbindungen unter ueren Spannungen zu untersuchen und Kriterien
fr Verformung und Bruch zu erstellen.
Neue Holzwerkatoffplatten fr Konatruktlonazwacka
Ziel Ist die Entwicklung neuer HoIzwekstofferZeugnisse und die Beurteilung

Ihres QualIttPrelaVerhUnisses sowie die Ermittlung Mglicher
Einsatzbereiche. Geplant sind koordinierte Arbeiten zur Erkundung dieses
Bereichs und zur Fornullerung knftiger Forschungsaufgaben und
Entwlcklungsoptionen.
Neue Varbundwerkatoffa auf Korkbaal a
Ziel Ist dis Erschlieung neuer Verwendungsmglichkeiten fr Kork Minderer

Oualltt sowls fr Industrielle Korkabflle und die Entwicklung neuer
Werkstoffe auf der Grundlage von Korkrckstnden aus der Industrie,
Insbesondere Korkpulver. Geplant Ist sin koordiniertes Vorhaben zur besseren
Erfassung der Hauptschwierigkelten und der langfristigen Aussichten dieses
Industriesektors.
Abschlleend zu dieser Vorstellung des ersten Entwurfs des dritten Programms

Holz und Kork" (1 M O / 9 3 ) sollen die wichtigsten Themen erfat werden. Die
Hauptziels fr die gesamte Holzindustrie sind:
Steigerung von Verfgbarkelt und Qualitt der forstwirtschaftlichen
Ressourcen unter Bercksichtigung der durch die Umwelt vorgegebenen
Sachzwnge;
Anhebung des wirtschaftlichen Potentials der Forst Industrie In der
Europischen Gemeinschaft mit dem Ziel der Gewhrleistung der
Internationalen Wettbewerbsfhigkeit und Leistungsfhigkeit.
261
B
1 EUER HOLZBAU IN DER SCHWEIZ: DIE QUALITAET DBS EINFACHEN
1 1 q o t> 9* A
9 0 1 oen ov e de mU i b n i Ja K0LB1 o gl I rt
s Technischernciensteder Schweizerischen Arbeitsgemeinschaft fr das Hole
. el 8 8 jj i\ br i
e>b.wsano ? Xu-Hanoi u. T nanslatlole)! swsloH S U S H

B u /\usgajigs^tuatioq H i n u i n b
gfh'tj-und" ^rfi^fionen,Einwohnern, ist di Schweiz ein dich pesiedel-
tesT.andt das zu 27 Prozent yon Wald bedeckt ist. Der daraus, anfal^ s
1 enden Holznutzung von jhrlich rund 5 Millionen Kubikmetern,tsteht n
ein geschtztes Produktionspotential von ber 7 Millionen Kubikme-
tern Rohholz gegenber. Die Schweiz als Land, das aus Tradition und J9M
Vernunft von seinem erneuerbaren Rohstoff systematisch"Gebrauch
na jneicht? Die Antwort; darauf ist, nicht; ]eicht z,u gebn jund Jautet sp
wenig-berzeugend ja, wie nein, dB, , b , 0 0
Dennoch kann, festgestellt werden, dass das Bauen mit Holz in der w
n e Schweiz ^bereits seit einigen Jahren wieder vermehret gefragt i&%?
3 Diese.erfreuliche, Entwicklung drfte im wesentlichen auf die zuneh-> 3
mende Wertschtzung des Holzes als Baustoff zurckzufhren iein. i
Neben neuen Impulsen durch gestalterisch engagierte Architekten
zeichnen sich auch aus technischer Sicht neuartige Lsungen ab.
Gemeinsam werden von unterschiedlichen Institutionen und Firmen
verlssliche bautechnische Unterlagen erarbeitet, die dem Holzbau
zugute kommen.
E go e I b w 2i n loJe = I ) ne I A
Als gr-sstes Problem demschweizeri>schen Wald-t >und Holzwirtsohaft rtst loH1
heute die Integration in den europischen holzhandelsmarkt (Handelsr j
strme) zu betrachten. Auf den schweizerischen Inlandmarkt drngen
homogene-jjnd preisgnstige. Sortimente AUS. andern europischen Lndern J
und verdrngen das alz J U S den>-aigenen Wldern vom Marktsu Dennoch bJt
man in der Schweiz nichts von regulierenden Massnahmen an der Grenzerto
des Landes, um das eigene Holz besser zu schtzen. Vielmehr braucht es .
Anstrengungen,, umtdtei Intergratiori'irt dasûropisch Umfeld zu 3 rt A -
finden und die= gemeinsamen" Chancen zu "wahren" and zu nutzen? 3
ex ri Q u ie bnu x rie ewd) W ia s II m I
Auch wird es fr die Schweiz im Zuge der Vereinheitlichung der Binnen-
mrkte unumgnglich sein, sich an der Entwicklung und Einfhrung der
europischen Normen fr das Bauwesen zu beteiligen. So wird sich die
Schweizer Holzbaunorm (SIA Norm 164, Holzbau) bei einer Neubearbeitung
wohl auf den Eurocode 5 absttzen.
Der Schweizer Holzbau heute

Beim neuzeitlichen Holz-Ingenieurbaues setzte die Landesausstellung
Expo 64 in Lausanne die Masstbe und bestimmte die Ausdrucksform der
damaligen Zeit sowie der darauffolgenden Jahrzehnte. Fr die Festhalle
der Expo 64 wurde eine Ueberdeckung mit Sperrholzbndern in Form eines
zugbeanspruchten Flchentragwerks verwendet (Spannweite 86 m). Bau und
Konstruktion lsten beim Publikum und in der Fachwelt bewundernde, ja
begeisterte Kommentare aus. In den folgenden Jahrzehnten wurden weitere
grosse Bauten mit beachtlichen Leistungen erstellt. Nun allerdings wird
das Bauen von grossen Reprsentativbauten durch eine kritischer gewor-
262
den Unweit und Verknappung des Bodens gebremst. Auch sind die soge-
nannten Prsentations- oder Infrastrukturbauten, die weitgespannte,
khne Tragwerke erfordern, heute wohl grsstenteils gebaut.
Dies zeigt, dass sich der HoTzbau knftig an anderen Masstben orien-
tleren muss. Er wird sich vermehrt Gebieten mit grossem Bedarf an Bau-
volumen zuzuwenden haben, zum Beispiel dem Wohnungsbau, aber auch den
landwirtschaftlichen, gewerblichen oder Industriellen Bauten, dies
sowohl bei Neu- wie bei Umbauten oder Umnutzungen. Sicher 1st die
Nachfrage der Gemeinden nach Rumen fr Sport, Geselligkeit, Ausstel-
lungen, usw. immer noch vorhanden. Sie werden jedoch eher nach ihrer
architektonischen Gestaltung, verbunden mit einer ausgefeilten
Ingenieurleistung, einen hohen Ausfuhrungsstandard und gutem Gebrauchs-
wert beurteilt, als nach ihrer Imposanten Grsse.
Grossbauten, bei denen der Schweizer Holzbau seine Leistungsfhigkeit
bewiesen hat, sind vorhanden. Sie knnen durchaus als Zugpferde
betrachtet werden. Auch 1n den skizzierten neuen Anwendungsbereichen
liegen bereits positive Erfahrungen vor. Was es noch braucht, ist die
breite Umsetzung in die Praxis, oder anders ausgedrckt: Ueberzeugende
Technik und einfache Anwendungsmglichkeiten knnen neue Verbraucher*
markte erschlossen.
Beispiele aus der Schweiz zur Frderung der Holzanwendung

Durch die gross angelegte Untersuchung ber die "Eigenschaften des
Schweizer Holzes" konnte eine Reihe von Schlssen gezogen werden:
Das Schweizer Holz 1st wesentlich tragfhiger als bisher angenommen;
die heute bliche Sortierung nach der SIA Norm 164
(3 Festigkeitsklassen) ist kompliziert und ergibt eine nicht Trenn-
scharfe Festigkeitsklassierung; !
- auch die Erscheinungssortierung (nach sthetischen Gesichtspunkten)
1st gemss den Untersuchungsergebnissen unzureichend.
Die Frage, ob eine bessere, aber auch einfachere Holzsortierung dem
Markt besser entsprechen wrde, wird 1n der Schweiz zur Zeit diskutiert.
Fr eine verbesserte Leistungsfhigkeit von Brettschichtholz wurden
Versuche an der ETH Zrich an folgenden Materlallen durch gefhrt:
Brettschichttrger mit Zuglamellen aus Furnierschichten (hybride
Trger)
Brettschichtholz aus Buche
Trger in Kantschichtholz
Die Versuche mit Brettschichtholz aus Buche konnten bereits In
konkreten Objekten angewendet werden.
Zahlreiche Arbeiten an der ETH 1n Zrich betrafen in letzter Zeit
Fragen der Verbindungen und Verbindungsmittel. Ira Zentrum des Inte-
resses stand das Verhalten der Kellzinkung von Brettschichtholz-
Lamellen. Bei den mechanischen Verbindungsmitteln betrafen die Unter-
suchungen Stahlfestigkelten, Schlankheitsgrade, Lagerungsarten und
-bedingungen.
263
Bedingt durch die erhhten Anforderungen an dichte und somit energie-
technisch vorteilhafte Gebudehiillen ist bei der Planung und Ausfh-
rung der Schichten und deren Anschlsse eine Neuorientierung erkennbar.
Auch wird versucht, Planer und Verarbeiter durch einfache Konstruk-
tionsvorschlge in die Lage zu versetzen, mit Holz auf einfache Weise
zu planen und zu bauen.
Neuartige Bauelemente aus Massivholz knnen als flchige Bauteile

(Geschossdecken) eingesetzt werden. Aus einzelnen Brettern werden soge-
nannte - bereits patentierte - Einzelelemente vorgefertigt, welche auf
der Baustelle wie ein Baukastensystem zusammengefgt werden.
Zusammenfassung
Die aus Lehre, Forschung und Praxis in' der Schweiz beim Holzbau
seit einiger Zeit merklich in Gang gekommene Entwicklung bezglich
Material, Planung und Verarbeitung drfte zusammengenommen mehr und
mehr Wirkung zeigen. Auch ist das Fundament zu verbesserten Ausbil-
dungsmglichkeiten auf allen Stufen vorhanden. Die ersten Schritte zu
weiteren Aktivitten sind bereits getan. Sie reichen von den Techni-
schen Hochschulen in Zrich und Lausanne ber Ausbildungsmglichkeiten
an der Holzfachschule in Biel (neu seit 1986 auch auf Techniker-Stufe),
bis zu Nachdiplomstudien und behrdlich gefrderten Forschungsprogram-
men. Seit neustem kennt die Schweiz ein sogenanntes "Impulsprogramm
Holz", ein staatlich gefrdertes, auf sechs Jahre befristetes Aus- und
Weiterbildungsprogramm.
Wesentlich aber ist und bleibt das Gebaute. Qualitativ hochstehende

Holzbauten und Holzkonstruktionen gibt es heute wieder in erfreulicher
Zahl. Diese Bauten sollen auch Bauherren und Planer dazu reizen,
weitere und noch bessere, intelligente und neuzeitliche Holzbauten zu
planen und zu realisieren. Verbunden mit den in den letzten Jahren auch
politisch gefrderten Bestrebungen zur Frderung des Holzes in der
Schweiz, tun sich damit mglicherweise neue Wege auf. Die seit ber 50
Jahren bestehende Arbeitsgemeinschaft fr das Holz, Lignum, versucht
noch mehr als bisher ihre Rolle als Koordinationsstelle dieser unter-
schiedlichen Bestrebungen wahrzunehmen und die anfallenden Informatio-
nen zum Material Holz und zum Holzbau in geeigneter Weise an Planer und
Praktiker zu vermitteln.
264
NEUESTE TENDENZEN BEI DIR BERECHNUNG VOW HOLZBAUWERKEN
IN ERDBEBENGEBIETEN
A. CECCOTTI
Fachbereich Bauingenieurwesen - Universitt Florenz
Auch bei Bauwerken in Erdbebengebieten orientieren sich die neuesten

Berechnungscodes fur den Standsicherheitsnachweis an der semiproba-
bilistischen Grenzzustandsmethode: Beispiele hierfr liefern der Eurocode
Nr. 8 selbst, die italienische Norm CNR-GNDT und die neuseelndische Norm
NZS 4203
1. Im vorliegenden Referat wird deshalb zunchst die mit dem Erdbebenver-

halten von Holzbauwerken zusammenhngende Problematik systematisch
untersucht. Der halbprobabilistische Ansatz macht einerseits eine den
tatschlich erreichten Erdbebenstrken einschlielich auergewhnlicher
seismischer Ereignisse strker angenherte Einschtzung der Bemessungs-
einwirkungen von Erdbeben erfordrlich, andererseits eine genauere Kennt-
nis des Grenzverhaltens (bis zum Einsturz) der einzelnen Baustoffe und
des Bauwerks als Ganzes. Was den ersten Punkt angeht, ist bekannt, da
sich-ausgehend vom elementaren elastischen Oszillator - die vom Erdbeben
am FuB eines Bauwerks bewirkte maximale Beschleunigung an der hchsten
Stelle des Bauwerks Je nach Schwingungsperiode bis auf das Dreifache
erhhen kann. Dies bedeutet, da die Bauwerksmasse, geht man von den
Bezugswerten fUr auergewhnliche Erdbeben aus, Beschleunigungen bis ca.
1 g ausgesetzt sein kann und damit auch Trgheitskrften in der Gren-
ordnung ihres Gewichts. Derart starke Beschleunigungen und die ent-
sprechenden Trgheitskrfte, die mit einer elastischen Antwort des
Bauwerks verbunden sind, fuhren sehr oft auch bei bescheidener Erdbeben-
einwirkung dazu, da das Bauwerk seine elastischen Grenzen ber-
schreitet. Daher "erweicht" sich das Bauwerk whrend der Erdbebenein-
wirkung, es verndert seine Schwingungsperiode, es zerstreut kinetische
Energie und - auch dank dem zyklischen Charakter, dem "Kommen und Gehen"
der Erdbebeneinwirkung - "es hat Zeit", seine Bewegung zu invertieren,
ehe es einstrzt.
So wird die Fhigkeit des Bauwerks, plastische Verformungen zu ent-

wickeln, ohne zu brechen, eine wesentliche Komponente der Beanspruchbar-
keit unter der Einwirkung von Erdbebenkrften.
Holz als Baustoff ist an sich leicht (es wiegt nur rund ein Fnftel von
Beton), es hat in etwa das gleiche Verhltnis Festigkeit/Gewicht wie
Stahl, es zeichnet sich durch hohe Druck- und Zugfestigkeit aus, wobei
diese Festigkeit zudem unter Kurzzeitbelastung noch zunimmt, sein
Elastizittsmodul bleibt relativ gering auch unter Kurzzeiteinwirkungen,
weshalb dank der daraus resultierenden Verformbarkeit die Verstrkung
der Erdbebeneinwirkung geringer ist.
Aus all den aufgefhrten Grnden wre Holz ein fr Bauwerke in Erdbeben-
gebieten sehr geeigneter Baustoff, wenn es nicht den Nachteil einer
generell geringen Bruchfestigkeit aufwiese. Whrend Holz in kleinen
fehlerfreien Proben z.B. gegenber Biegung eine signifikante plastische
Verformung vor dem Bruch aufweisen kann, besteht beim Bauholz, d.h. also
265
bei Holz in den tatschlich 'fr Bauwerke Verwendeten Abmessungen, sei es
Vollholz oder Schichtholz1} wegen der (unvermeidbaren Knoten und anderen
Fehlern die Tendenz zum Bruch auf der Seite der Zugfasern, zumeist sehr
lange vor Erreichen der Plastiflzierungsschwelle auf der Seite der
Druckfasern:' Dies gilt um so mehr; je geringer das Bruchmoment ist.
Erweitert man aber den B lick vom Werkstoff an sich auf die B auwerke in
ihrer Gesamtheit, dann zeigt sich, da sich zufriedenstellende struk
turelle Duktilittswerke dank dem duktilen Verhalten entsprechend aus
gewhlter* halbstarrer Verbindungen zwischen den B auteilen erzielen
lassen. Denkbar1 sind hier Verbindungen, die schwachen Erdbeben ohne
nennenswerte Verformungen widerstehen, aber auch dn der Lage sind, unter
der Einwirkung starker Erdbeben Energie zu zerstreuen und das B auwerk
verformbarer zu machen, ohne da der vollstndige B ruch erreicht wird,
wobei gleichzeitig eine problemlose Reparierbarkeit gegeben ist.
d 0 i b . L T
Ein in diesem Sinne besonders gnstiges Verhalten weisen z.B . B auwerke
mit Holzskelett and Schichtholzplatten auf.
j. *i
Die neuesten Vorschriften fr die B erechnung von B auwerken in Erdbeben
gebieten bercksichtigen diese Fhigkeitj schweren Erdbeben zu wider
b stehen^ ohne da es zum Einstrz kommt, durch Einfhrung eines "Stand
sicherheitskoeffizienten" der das Ausma der B emessungseinwirkungen von
Erdbeben, wie sie auf der Grundlage" des elastischen Antwortspektrums
4 geschtzt werden; in Abhngigkeit xvon de!r strukturellen Duktilitt des
Bauwerks reduziert. i
S U f ( h T d I 1
2 In der Arbeit werden dann einige einschlgige, im Fachbereich B au
ingenierwesen der Universitt Florenz erhielte theoretischexperimen
telle Ergebnisse vorgestellt, die vor allem der Festlegung" des Stand
i Sicherheitskoeffizienten dienert sollen. '
9. Abschlieend werden einige B erechnungsbeispiele fr einfache Holzbau

werke analysiert, iwobei die Dimensionsonierung aufgrund der tradition
nellen italienischen Erdbebensicherheitsvorschriften im Lichte des neuen
Normvorschlags CNRGNDT fr Bauwerke in Erdbebengebieten berprft wird.
n
1 1
S
i T L an
i i i
l G
e
266
HOLZFACHWERKHAUSBAU IM VEREINIGTEN KOENIGREICH
D. SCOTT
Timber and Brick Homes Consortium
1. GESCHICHTLICHE GRUNDLAGEN
In Grobritannien lind noch viele HolzfachwerkWohnhiuser aus de 14. und 15.

Jahrhundert erhalten, fr deren Tragwerk in den elften Fallen Hartholzbalken
groen Querschnitts verwendet wurden.
Nach dem Abholzen der groen Eichenwilder, dl nicht wieder aufgeforstet wurden,
muten Ersatzbaustoffe gefunden werden; so wurden 1n vielen Teilen des Vereinigten
Knigreichs Natursteine und Lehazlegel zum gingigsten Baustoff, da sie leicht
verfgbar waren.
In einigen Regionen, insbesondere 1a Osten Englands, wo Weichholz leicht aus Konti

nentaleuropa eingefhrt werden konnte, lebte der Fachwerkbau jedoch fort. Heute
noch gibt es viele solcher StinderbauFachwerkhluser mit kleine Balkenquerschnitt
(100 x S 0 a), die bis In das 18. Jahrhundert zurckgehen und Ihren Bewohnern
1aer noch ein warmes und sicheres Zuhause bieten.
In den 20er und 30er Jahren unseres Jahrhunderts lebte die Tradition des Fachwerkbaus
mit Weichholzbalken kleinen Querschnltts erneut auf; so gibt es heute noch eine
Reihe von greren FachwerkWohnsiedlungen, die angesichts des groen Wohnungsbedarfs
jener Zelt errichtet wurden und ebenfalls auch heute noch Ihren Zweck erfllen.
2. ENTWICKLUNG DES MODERNEN FERTIGTEILHOLZ FACHWERKBAUS
Angesichts der groen Wohnungsnot Ende der SOer und Anfang der 60er Jahre sah
sich die Britische Regierung der Aufgabe gegenber, bis mindestens 1970 jhrlich
ber 350 000 Hluser bauen zu ssen. Da die Bauindustrie von Ihrer Kapazitt her
einfach nicht 1n der Lage war, diese Nachfrage zu befriedigen, erschien der "Industria
lisierte Wohungsbau" als Antwort, zu dessen zahlreichen Varianten auch die berchtigten
6rotafelTurhluser und Auenganghuser zahlen. Gleichzeitig lebte auch der tradi
tionelle HolzfachwerkHausbau wieder auf, jedoch 1t de Unterschied, da vorgefer
tigte Wandeleaente an die Stelle des Traditionellen Verzapfens Zusaaaenfgens
von Stielen und Riegeln aa Bauplatz selbst traten, wie es in Nordamerika noch hufig
anzutreffen 1st. Fachwerkhuser hatten einen bedeutenden Anteil aa Wohnungsbauprograam
der 60er Jahre. Seit 1965 wurden etwa 550 000 Einheiten 1a ffentlichen und privaten
Wohnungsbau errichtet.
Heute gilt der Fachwerkbau, trotz eines seit 1984 zu beobachtenden Rckgangs seiner
Popularitt, dank entsprechender Propaganda in den Medien als eine der beiden wichti
sten Hausbauformen im Vereinigten Knigreich.
3. B AUTECHNISCHE'GRUNDLAGEN
Durch die Brandschutzgesetzgebung '1 Vereinigten Knigreich ist die Verwendung von
Holz als tragendem Bauelementfr Wohnhuser mit mehr als drei Geschossen (4 Geschosse
bei Sonderauf lagen)verboten, so da der Fachwerkbau keine schwerwiegenden sta
tischen Probleme aufwirft. Die vertikalen Lasten knnen 1 allgemeinen durch 1
Abstand von 300, 400 oder 1n den meisten Fllen 600 mm angeordnete Stiele it
Querschnitten von 100 x 50 (nach Bearbeitung 90 x 40 ) aufgenommen werden.
Eingesetzt werden vorgefertigte Auenwandeleaentealt einer axiaalen Linge von 4,2
267
und einer maximalen Hhe von 2,4 m, die mit 8 oder 9,5 mm starkem Sperrholz verkleidet
werden. Die Innenwndelemente werden entsprechend gefertigt, normalerweise jedoch
ohne Verkleidung. Auf diesen Elementen ruhen die im hnlichen Abstand wie die Riegel
angeordneten Deckentrger, die Lose, fest oder zu Gruppen vorgefertigt sein knnen.
Auf den Deckentrgern werden Spanfaser- oder Sperrholzplatten befestigt, die eine
Arbeitsbhne bilden, auf der die Elemente fr das Obergescho montiert werden.
Fr das Dachtragwerk werden normalerweise Fachwerkbinder verwendet, die ausgesteift
und mit den Wandelementen des Obergeschosses verbunden werden. Die derart erzielte
Holzfachwerk-Kastenkonstruktion mit Sperrholzverkleidung ist fr die Aufnahmen aller
Eigen- und Verkehrs lasten sowie der horizontalen Krfte konzipiert. Im Gegensatz
zum Massivbau, wo beide Schichten einer Auenwand diese Lasten aufnehmen mssen,
trgt die bei den Fachwerkbauten am hufigsten verwendete Auenverkleidung aus 102 mm
starkem Ziegelmauerwerk nicht mit.
4. KONSTRUKTIONSGRUNDSTZE
Die Erfahrungen im Vereinigten Knigreich haben uns auf vielerlei Art gezeigt, da der
Sauausfhrung mindestens ebenso viel - wenn nicht mehr - Aufmerksamkeit wie der
Tragwerkkonstruktion entgegengebracht werden mu, wenn ein zufriedenstellendes End-
produkt erreicht werden soll.-
Im Bereich der Schallisolierung wurden in den Bauten selbst und im labor umfangreiche
Erprobungs- und Entwicklungsarbeiten durchgefhrt, aufgrund derer sich nun eine
zufriedenstellende horizontale und vertikale Schallisolierung ohne den normalerweise
zu erwartenden Einsatz von Hauerwerk mit hohem Flchengewicht erzielen lt. Der
Verfasser erfand 1967 einen besonderen Typ eines schallisolierenden schwimmenden
Bodens, dessen wesentliche Merkmale in die im Vereinigten Knigreich geltenden Bauvor-
schriften eingegangen sind. Diese Merkmale werden auf der Konferenz erlutert.
Was die Brandsicherheit angeht, so wurden Verfahren entwickelt, welche die Sicherheit
der Bewohner gewhrleisten und den im vereinigten Knigreich geltenden strengen
Anforderungen hinsichtlich Brandausbreitung und Feuerwiderstandsdauer gengen. Das
Prinzip der Verhinderung der Flammenausbreitung durch Hohlrume ist viel beachtet
worden, und wird detailliert erlutert.
Bei der Ausfachung der Fachwerkwnde mit selbsttragendem Mauerwerk 1st besondere
Sorgfalt angezeigt, wenn Probleme infolge des unterschiedlichen Ausdehnungsverhaltens
des Holzfachwerks und der Ausmauerung vermieden werden sollen. Ti und Fenster-
ffnungen sowie Dachberhnge sind hier besonders problematisch. Darber hinaus
werfen die Grenzflchen zwischen den sehr genau vorgefertigten Wandelementen aus
Holz und den am Bauplatz selbst errichteten Grndungen und Mauern Toleranzprobleme
auf, die besonders beachtet werden mssen.
Wegen der strenger gewordenen Isolationsrichtwerte sind auch Detailverbesserungen

von Bedeutung; so haben sich im Vereinigten Knigreich viele Arbeiten damit beschftigt
Kriterien fr die Grenzflchen zwischen DampfSperrschicht, Isolation, Verkleidung
und Ausfachung aufzustellen; die Ergebnisse einiger dieser Arbeiten werden auf der
Konferenz angesprochen.
5. AUSBILDUNG
Obwohl der Holzfachwerkbau die lteste Art des Wohnungsbaus im Vereinigten

Knigreich ist, wird die Technik heute noch stndig weiterentwickelt; die Ausbildung
in den einzelnen Bereichen, also von der Konstruktion bis hin zum Bau selbst, bleibt
daher von groer Bedeutung. Die bereits ergriffenen Manahmen sowie die Planung
im Ausbildungsbereich werden vorgestellt.
268
6. VORTEILE
Der HolzfachwerkWohnungsbau bietet towohl des Hersteller als auch dea Endbenutzer viel
flltlge Vorteile. Auf der Herstellerselte kann ein grerer Arbeitsuafang in der
Fabrik unter kontrollierten B edingungen durchgefhrt werden (von der Hontage ein
facher Wandeleaente bis hin zur Vorfertigung vollstndiger Rauae). Hieraus resultieren
eine bessere FertigungsquaUtat und eine B eschleunigung der Bauphase, was wiederua
den CashFlow erhht und Kostensenkungen ermglicht. Fr den Endbenutzer bedeutet
eine bessere Wrmeisolierung niedrigere Heizkosten, durch die trockene B auweise
knne keine Trocknungsrisse entstehen und das Anbringen der Isolationsschicht 1 B
warnen Windbereich verringert das Risiko der Oberflichenkondensatlon. Die Schall
Isolierung zwischen den Wohnungen 1st ausgezeichnet, so da Larabeelntrichtigungen
durch die Nachbarn weitestgehend verringert werden knnen.
Innerhalb des Zwalfjahreszeitrauas von 1975 und 1986 war das Vereinigte Knigreich
der grte Hersteller von Fachwerkwohnhlusern in Europa. Der Konferenzbeitrag des
Verfassers soll den Herstellern In der Europischen Seaeinschaft, die ihre eigene
Produktion erhhen achten, einen berblick Ober die konstruktions und bautechnischen
Grundaerkaale des Fachwerkbaus 1a Vereinigten Knigreich vermitteln.
VEREINIGTES KNIGREICH . Abbildung 1

HolzfachwerkWohnungsbau Gesaatzahlen
'ahresdurchschnitt fr den Zeltrau 19751986:
1
I i 37 835 Wohne1rihe1ten i
.!_<* ! 1 p^" -
1 i
1
,.t ! 1i -r
' *~ 1
.'_
v ! -
1 _e _
C i
c :** _. _
yT-
!... V
- -
r-
*nS 'r > fn ' "tl 'tl "tT <M *i '?* *? /

, 1 Fn 1
1 ! Jahr 1
! 1
' 1 '
269
PIK ENTWICKLUNG DER FERTIGBAUWEISE IN DAENEMARK
. LUND JOHANSEN
Danish Timber Information Council
Die knftige Entwicklung des Wohnungsbaus in Dnemark wird auf industrieller Bau-
weise und umfassendem Einsatz von vorgefertigten Bauteilen basieren.
Dabei mssen die bereits blichen Fertigbauverfahren an die Notwendigkeiten bei

Errichtung kleinerer Wohngebude angepat erden, bei denen die Verwendung einer
Vielzahl von Baustoffen und abwechslungsreiche architektonische Gestaltung von
ausschlaggebender Bedeutung sind.
In den nchsten Jahren drften maximal 25 000 Wohneinheiten pro Jahr gebaut wer-
den, also nur ein Drittel der Gesamtproduktion in den spten siebziger Jahren, als
die Bauttigkeit in Dnemark ihren Hhepunkt hatte.
Nach dem Zweiten Weltkrieg herrschte betrchtliche Wohnungsnot. Es muten indu-

strielle Bauverfahren-entwickelt-werden, die einen-eff izienten, rationellen und
wirtschaftlichen Wohnungsbau ermglichten, um der Nachfrage auf dem Wohnungsmarkt
zu entsprechen. Ziel war es, einen flexiblen Baumarkt -zu schaffen, der auf der
Produktion einer Vielzahl von Bauteilen nach dem Baukastenprinzip r f'der offenen
oder Modulbauweise" - beruhte. <1
In dieser Zeit wurde eine ganze Reihe von Bausystemen entwickelt, die diesem
"Baukastenprinzip" entsprachen, bei denen es sich aber dennoch um Verfahren einer
"geschlossenen" Bauweise auf der Grundlage von Betonbauteilen handelte.
Im Gefolge der gewaltigen Ausdehnung der Stadtgebiete in den sechziger und sieb-
ziger Jahre - die durch ehrgeizige Stadtplanungsprogramme gekennzeichnet war -
wuchs laber die Kritik am rationalisierten, systematisierten Wohnungsbau. Kriti-
siert wurde er wegen seiner Monotonie und wegen der mangelnden Bercksichtigung
von architektonischen Werten und Umweltaspekten. Untersuchungen zum Befinden der
Menschen in den neuen Stadtgebieten brachten schwerwiegende soziale Probleme zu
Tage; der Ruf nach einer sehr viel strker auf den Menschen bezogenen Stadtent-
wicklung wurde immer lauter.
Ende der siebziger Jahre war die Wohnungsnot mehr oder weniger bewltigt, so dal)
die Bauttigkeit betrchtlich zurckging, bis das derzeitige Niveau von 22 000
Wohneinheiten pro Jahr erreicht war. Der Wunsch nach einem abwechslungsreicheren
und menschlicheren Wohnungsbau fhrte zur Entwicklung von weniger dicht besie-
delten Stadtgebieten und zu einer Neubesinnung auf die dnische Uohnungsbutra-
ditiori auf der Grundlage kleinerer Gruppen von Wohneinheiten, die in ihrer ar-
chitektonischen Gestaltung variieren und bei denen unterschiedliche Arten, von
Baustoffen zur Anwendung kommen.
Holz ist seit jeher einer der traditionellen dnischen Baustoffe. Unter den
holzimportierenden Lndern hat Dnemark den hchsten Pro-Kopf-Verbrauch
bertroffen von den nordischen holzproduzierenden Lndern.
270
Auch heute noch ist Holz in Dnemark ein wichtiger Baustoff, und zwar fr Trag-
werk, Bauteile und Ausbau. Die Verwendung von Holztragwerken und anderen Holz-
teilen in Modernen dnischen Hohnungsbau hat dazu beigetragen, den dnischen Bau-
stil zu erneuern. Gleichzeitig hat die Entwicklung einfacher Baumethoden auf
Holzbasis die Zweckmigkeit der riesigen Stadterweiterungsprogramme auf der
Grundlage von Betontragwerken und -bautellen 1n Frage gestellt.
Diese Entwicklung hat gezeigt, da es mglich ist, die Industriellen Bauverfahren,

die kurz nach den Zweiten Weltkrieg entstanden waren, zu verbessern, wobei die
Grundsitze Ihre 60lt1gke1t behalten haben, selbst wenn die Produktionsbedin-
gungen heute anders sind und neue Baustoffe verwendet werden.
Der Wohnungsbau von morgen wird immer strker auf Industrielle Methoden zurck-
greifen, die schwere Bauteile it leichten Elenenten aus Metall, Gips und Holz
kombinieren.
hnliche Tendenzen sind bei Industrie- und Geschftsbauten, bei Sport- und
Freizeitanlagen zu beobachten.
Das Referat will Beispiele fr den Entwicklungsproze vorstellen, den der Fer-
tigbau In Danemark durchlaufen hat, und will zeigen, wie er sich 1n Laufe der
achtziger Jahre durch Verbindung einer Vielzahl von Baustoffen und durch eine
verantwortungsvolle Haltung gegenber architektonischen und nenschlichen Werten
zu neuen Baufornen entwickelt hat.
Diese Entwicklung hat uns weitaus wohnlichere Stadtgebiete und gute Freizelt-
einrichtungen, aber auch unkonventionelle Industrie- und Geschlftsbauten beschert,
1n denen das Image des einzelnen Unternehmens eine architektonische For gefunden
hat.
271
H O L Z K U P P E L N
A. JORISSEN
Beratender Ingenieur - BUro LUning
Einleitung
Sperrholz bietet vielfltige Mglichkeiten fr moderne und sehr auf-

fllige Konstruktionen. Hierzu gehren sicherlich auch Kuppeln. Moderne
Rechenhardware versetzt uns in die Lage, mit Hilfe von CAD-Systemen
Konstruktionen zu entwerfen, die eine Herausforderung fr jeden Bauplaner
sind.
Kuppeln
Kuppeln sind rumliche Figuren. Ihre Form lt sich durch mathematische

Funktionen bestimmen. Hier werden Kugelkuppeln behandelt. Kuppeln und
andere gebogene Konstruktionen waren lange Zeit die einzigen Konstruktio-
nen, mit denen "groe Ueberspannungen" realisiert werden konnten. Eine
Kuppel ist eine der wirksamsten Formen.
Bei Kuppeln liegt die Druckflche infolge des Eigengewichts etwa in der
eigenen Ebene. Die auftretenden Biegemomente sind klein. Wird eine Kuppel
mit einem geringen Eigengewicht durch Wind belastet, gert ein Teil der
Kuppeloberflche unter Zug.
Kuppeln lassen sich auf vielerlei Arten bauen. Bei den hier behandelten
Kuppeln wird der Baustoff nicht kontinuierlich ber die Oberflche ver-
teilt. Es wird eine Anzahl Rippen auf der Kugeloberflche angebracht. Zur
Ausfllung der offenen Flchen kommen verschiedene Baustoffe in Betracht.
Die Verteilung der Rippen fhrt z.B. zu Lattice-, Lameila-, Schwedler- und
geodtischen Kuppeln.
Holz
Holz kann Druck-, Zugkrfte und Biegung aufnehmen. Wegen der Brennbar-
keit und des Befalls durch Schimmel und andere Schdlinge sind Vorurteile
entstanden, die seine Verwendung beeintrchtigen. Die Nachteile wurden be-
hoben, die Vorurteile nicht immer berwunden.
Holz fr den Kuppelbau
Bei Verwendung eines Baustoffs in Konstruktionen wird nach den Krite-

rien Technik, Wirtschaftlichkeit, Sicherheit und Aesthetik geurteilt.
Die geodtische Holzkuppel
Die geodtische Verteilung der Stbe ber die Kugeloberflche erweist

sich im Hinblick auf Starrheit und Strke als interessant. Geistiges Vor-
bild der geodtischen Kuppel ist Buckminster Fuller.
272
Dar geometrische Entwurf
Wir gehen als Standard von einer runden Oberflche aus. Der Grundradius
und die Peilhhe sind gegeben; Kugel und Kuppel liegen hiermit fest. Aus-
gangspunkt fur die geodtische Verteilung ist der hchste Punkt. Im Prinzip
werden durch diesen Punkt drei Kreise ber die Kugeloberflche gezogen.
Diese Kreise werden dananch ber einen gewhlten Winkel um den Durchmesser
gedreht. So werden 12 neue Schnittpunkte zwischen den Kreisen festgelegt.
Die Bestimmung der brigen Schnittpunkte auf der Kuppeloberflche erfolgt
nach einem festen Muster.
An der Fundierung wird die Kugel mit einer flachen horizontalen Scheibe
durchschnitten. Durch Abweichung von dem festen Muster bei der Fundierung
wird die Zahl der Schnittpunkte mit der Fundierung und die Zahl der ver-
schiedenen Stbe verringert.
Der Entwurf auf der Basis von Krften
Die Fundierung liegt im allgemeinen ber der Mittelebene der Kugel. Die
Konstruktion steht infolge gleichmig verteilter Oberbelastung unter
Druck. Die Druckflche liegt etwa in der Ebene der Konstruktion. Die Biege-
momente sind gering. Fr den Entwurf der Hauptstbe ist die gleichmssig
verteilte Oberbelastung magebend. Die Windbelastung hat durch die aerody-
namische Kugelform wenig Einflu auf die Konstruktion. Fr die Verbindungen
zwischen den Hauptstben mu aber mit Windeinwirkung gerechnet werden.
Die Konstruktion
Alle Stbe haben denselben Querschnitt. FUr die gegenseitige Verbindung

wurde ein spezieller Entwurf angefertigt.
Dieser Verbinder wurde patentiert. Druck-, Quer- Zugkrfte und Biegung
knnen bertragen werden.
Das System der Hauptstbe ist in den meisten Fllen fUr die Dacheindek-
kung zu grob. Es wird ein Gurtungssystem angebracht. Die Dacheindeckung,
Dicke 21 mm, wird in die Kugelform gebogen. Alle anderen Holzelemente be-
stehen aus Sperrholz.
Montage
Beim Aufbau bedienen wir uns einer freien Ausbaumethode. Ein kompli-
zierter Gerstbau entfllt. Die Stbe hngen whrend der Montage vorlufig
in der Verbindung.
Optimierung des Entwurfs
Der Entwurf wird mit einer Anzahl von Stabelementen, Gurtungen,

Schnittpunkten an der Fundierung und Schnittpunkten in der Kugeloberflche
als Variablen optimiert. Die Abmessungen dieser Variablen sind wichtig. Die
Variablen und die Abmessungen hngen eng miteinander zusammen.
Ferner spielen Montage und Wahl des Gurtungssystems eine Rolle. In ei-
ner Reihe von Fllen ist das Peilma der Kuppel eine Variable. Die Optimie-
rung der Konstruktion erweist sich als komplexes Problem. Es ist eine Frage
der Kosten, die fr jede Aenderung des Entwurfs summiert werden mssen.
273
Allgemeine Schlufolgerungen hieraus: _,
l.j Eine Aenderung des Peilmaes hat wirtschaftlich gesehen keine groen
Folgen.
2,_ Die Dacheindeckung ist ein wichtiger Kostenpunkt. Die Verringerung der
Dicke ist wesentlich. Wir haben uns fr eine Dicke von 21 mm entschie-
den.
3. Durch Verkrzung der Stbe steigen die Baukosten weniger rasch als durch
Verlngerung.
Entwicklungen
Zur Ueberdeckung von Sportanlagen wie Eisenbahnen und Fuballstadien

haben wir den geodtischen Entwurf mit einem System traditionneller Bogen-
sparren kombiniert.
Ferner ist eine Kombination mit anderen geometrischen Formen wie Pyra-
miden (Dreiecksflchen) und Kuben denkbar.
274
DIE ZUKUNFT IM INGENIEURHOLZBAU
- FORSCHUNG UND ENTWICKLUNG -
Jrgen EHLBECK
Universitt Karlsruhe
Bundesrepublik Deutschland
Das Bauen mit Holz hat in Europa eine alte Tradition. Trotz einiger
hochentwickelter handwerklicher Holzbauweisen mu sich der Ingenieurholz-
bau aber weiter den Verfahren der modernen Bautechnik anpassen. Dazu zwin-
gen steigende Qualittsansprche bei mglichem Qualittsrckgang des Holz-
angebotes, der Wettbewerb zu den Konl<urrenzbaustoffen und die technischen
Innovationen. Um diesen Anforderungen gerecht werden zu knnen, mssen in
der Forschung und in der Ausbildung des Ingenieurnachwuchses verstrkte
Anstrengungen unternommen werden.
Der Holzbau selbst scheint sich in mehreren Richtungen eiter zu
entwickeln:
- die Sicherung und Erhaltung alter Holzbausubstanz,
- die Frderung der traditionsgebundenen Holzbauweisen des mittelstndi-
schen Handwerkes,
- die Entwicklung technisch hochentwickelter Ingenieurbauwerke in indu-
striellen Verfahren.
Dazu kommt die Uberwindurg der nationalen Grenzen mit verstrktem Aus-
tausch regionaler Entwicklungen und Erfahrungen, was besonders durch die
Beseitigung der Handelshemmnisse im Rahmen der Europischen Gemeinschaften
gefrdert werden wird.
Diesen Entwicklungstendenzen hat sich die Kolzbauforsrhung anzupas-
sen. Daher sind neue Forschungsziele zu definieren und Prioritten zu
setzen. Es gibt drei wesentliche Forschungsbereiche fr die Zukunft:
- Erforschung der Eigenschaften des Bauholzes und der holzhaltigen Bau-
stoffe. Dazu gehren verbesserte Sortierverfahren nach Festigkeitsklas-
sen, besonders aber die Vertiefung der Kenntnisse ber die Beeinflussung
der bautechnisch relevanten Eigenschaften durch die Zeit und durch ue-
re Einwirkungen aus Feuchte und Temperatur. Bei den Holzwerkstoffen, die
laufend einer technologischen Weiterentwicklung unterworfen sind, mssen
stndig die bautechnisch relevanten Eigenschaften fr den Baustoffwider-
stand ermittelt und der Praxis zur Verfgung gestellt werden.
- Erweiterung der Kenntnisse in der Verbindungstechnik. Die Verbindung
gilt als schwchstes Glied einer Holzkonstruktion. Die bisherige anwen-
dungsorientierte Forschung hat dem Formfoiderungsverhalten e'er Verbindun-
gen noch nicht gengend Beachtung geschenkt. Theoretische Analysen ms-
sen durch Versuche verifiziert werden. Dazu gehren besonders die Ver-
teilungsfunktionen der Kenngren unter Bercksichtigung aller streuen-
den Einflugren.
- Analyse des Bauteilverhaltens und der Zuverlssigkeit der Holzkonstruk-
tionen. Die Nichtlinearitt des Werkstoffverhaltens ur.d der Verbindungen
unter den ueren Finwirkungen, wie Lasten, Klima und Zeit, fhren zu
elneir. sehr komplizierten Verhalten der gesamten Konstruktion. Es sind
daher neue Berechnungfmodelle fUr die vorherrschenden Bauweisen unter
Einsatz moderner Methoden der elektronischen Datenverarbeitung zu ber-
prfen und einfache, in der Praxis anwendbare Verfahren zur besseren
275
Beurteilung der Zuverlssigkeit von Holzbauwerken aufzubereiten. Hierzu
gehrt vorrangig die Einfhrung der neuen probabilistischer. Sicherheits-
betrachtunen in den Ingenieurholzbau.
Die internationale Harmonisierung der Standsicherheitsnachweise soll-
te dazu fhren, das Bauen mit Holz auch in Lndern mit weniger hochentwik-
kelter Holzbautechnik zu frdern. Vereinte Anstrengungen intensivierter
Holzbauforschung knnen dem erneuerbaren Naturbaustoff Holz und daraus ge-
wonnenen holzhaltigen Baustoffen eine gute Zukunft im Bauwesen sichern.
276
RESUMES DES EXPOSES
277
L'EUROCODE 5 POUR LES STRUCTURES EN BOIS
H. J. LARSEN
Gnralits
Les Eurocodes contiennent des normes labores par la Commission des

Communauts europennes en vue de leur application aux travaux du btiment.
Les normes de 1'Eurocode 5 sont applicables aux structures en bois.
On commenc par l'laboration de normes applicables diffrents
types de constructions (structures en bton, en acier, mixtes en acier et
bton, en bois, en maonnerie, fondations, actions sur les structures et
structures en zones sismiques), mais l'laboration d'Eurocodes couvrant
tous les aspects importants de la construction (protection contre les
incendies, isolation acoustique et conomie d'nergie) est galement
prvue. Les Eurocodes sont des documents oprationnels destins tre
utiliss directement par les auteurs de projets.
Objectifs
Les objectifs essentiels des Eurocodes sont les suivants:
- promouvoir la ralisation du grand march intrieur en supprimant les

obstacles provenant de la diversit des rgles en matire de construc-
tion,
- accrotre la comptitivit des industries europennes du btiment sur
les marchs extrieurs a l'Europe,
- tablir une base pour les rgles communes concernant les produits du
btiment.
Nature Juridique
La Commission estime que les Eurocodes doivent avoir provisoirement un

caractre facultatif, c'est--dire pouvoir tre appliqus en remplacement
des dispositions nationales dans tous les Etats membres o sont effectus
des travaux de construction.
La directive concernant la ralisation du grand march intrieur pour
1992 prvoit la possibilit de confrer aux Eurocodes un tel caractre.
Les diffrents Etats membres sont toutefois libres de dterminer le
niveau de scurit souhait ainsi que l'tendue du contrle de la concep-
tion et de la construction et d'laborer, le cas chant, des rgles rela-
tives l'agrment des projets et des matriaux.
Normes da rfrence
L'Eurocode 5 s'est inspir du code de conception des structures en bois

du CIB (CIB Structural Timber Design Code). La partie consacre la pro-
279
duction de bois lamellcoll (annexe 3) a t labore en collaboration
avec le souscomit Glulam de la FEMIB. Les normes associes concernant les
essais sont inspires des recommandations faites par la RILEM.
Elaboration de 1'Eurocode 5
Ce projet d'Eurocode 5 a t labor par un groupe' de travail de la

Commission compos d'experts du Danemark, de la France, du RoyaumeUni et
de la Rpublique Fdrale d'Allemagne. Des experts des PaysB as, de
l'Italie et du Portugal ont galement t consults.
Ces personnes ont t dsignes par la Commission comme experts,
titre personnel et n'ont pas d B 'engager obtenir l'agrment de leurs
autorits nationales pour ce projet.
Afin que les points de vue nationaux puissent s'exprimer, un dlai
relativement long (un an) a t accord au public intress pour soumettre
ses observations concernant le projet d'Eurocode 5.
Les commentaires que l'on espre nombreux des Etats membres, des
diffrentes organisations ainsi que des particuliers seront traits par un
comit de rdaction qui ne sera pas non plus guid dans son travail par des
points de vue nationaux. Tous les Etats membres ont donc la possiblit de
dsigner une personne qui sera tenue au courant de l'volution des travaux
et consulte pour les dcisions essentielles.
L'dition dfinitive de 1'Eurocode 5 est prvue pour le milieu de
l'anne 1990.
Coordination des travaux
La coordination des travaux concernant l'laboration des diffrents

Eurocodes est assure par un comit de coordination (Coordination Group for
the Eurocodes), compos notamment des prsidents des comits de rdaction
ainsi que de reprsentants des organisations internationales.
Les travaux de ce comit ont consist, entre autres, tablir une dis
tinction entre les principes et les rgles d'application et consacrer une
section commune la scurit, au champ d'application et la terminologie.
Principes et rgles d'application
Le texte des Eurocodes est subdivis en principes et en rgles d'appli

cation.
Les principes comprennent
Les hypothses gnrales et dfinitions dont on ne peut s'carter, ainsi

que
les exigences et modles en relation avec d'autres dispositions du pr

sent Eurocode, et dont on ne peut par consquent s'carter, sauf indica
tion explicite.
Les rgles d'application sont gnralement des rgles admises qui suivent
les hypothses et satisfont aux exigences nonces dans les principes.
280
Drogations
Les personnes qui dsireraient utiliser, dans des cas d'espce,

d'autres rgles d'application que celles proposes dans 1'Eurocode concern
peuvent le faire, condition de prouver que la construction n'en sera pas
moins fiable. En revanche, les autorits nationales n'ont pas le droit
d'diter d'autres rgles d'application; mais les normes nationales peuvent
rester en vigueur. Tout projet devra tre exclusivement excut conform-
ment aux normes de 1'Eurocode ou conformment aux normes nationales. Il
serait, en effet, difficile & plus long terme de concilier deux ensembles
de rgles.
Commentaires
Des commentaires ont t labors dans le but d'viter certaines

erreurs d'interprtation ou des utilisations incorrectes. Ils comportent
des explications et des Justifications concernant les rgles finalement
retenues ainsi que des rgles complmentaires.
Champ d'application
Dans leur dition actuelle, les Eurocodes contiennent des exigences

gnrales et des rgles applicables toutes les constructions, (btiments
et ouvrages de gnie civil) mettant en oeuvre les matriaux cits.
En cas de besoin, les Eurocodes seront complts par la suite par
d'autres Eurocodes contenant des rgles applicables des types de cons-
truction et des domaines particuliers (ponts, btiments agricoles, par
exemple).
Normes de rfrence
A l'instar des autres Eurocodes, le projet d'Eurocode 5 s'inspire

largement des normes ISO et autres documents gnralement reconnus.
Dans le projet d'Eurocode 5, il est fait rfrence
- aux normes ISO concernant les matriaux et les lments de construction
ainsi que leur test,
- au projet de normes ISO quivalentes,
- aux spcifications de matriaux et aux rgles de classement applicables,

par exemple, au bois de construction, labores par des organisations
nationales ou internationales.
Ces nonnes seront sans doute remplaces par des normes CEN avant
l'entre en vigueur de l'dition dfinitive de 1'Eurocode. Jusqu' prsent,
faute de moyens financiers, le CEN n'a eu qu'une activit rduite, mais la
Commission vient de conclure avec celui-ci un accord selon lequel elle
s'engage financer l'laboration des normes dont elle a besoin pour les
Eurocodes.
Un doute subsiste encore sur la manire dont seront rsolus les pro-
blmes poss par l'utilisation des bois de construction et des contrepla-
qus produits hors de la Communaut, qui ne seront probablement pas cou-
verts par les normes CEN. Mais il est certain qu'il est impossible de se
281
passer des bois et contreplaqus imports du Canada, des pays Scandinaves
et de l'U.R.S.S.
Table des matires
L1Eurocode 5 est divis en quatre parties:

La premire partie indique, d'une part, les units et les symboles utili-
ss, tout en fournissant galement des dfinitions et des rfrences, et
d'autre part les principes de base gnraux appliquer, notamment en ce
qui concerne le systme de scurit. Cette partie est en principe la mme
dans tous les Eurocodes. L'Eurocode 5 contient des rgles particulires
concernant les effets de la dure de chargement et de l'humidit.
La deuxime partie est consacre aux exigences auxquelles doivent rpondre

les matriaux. Elle contient de nombreuses rfrences d'autres normes et
aux annexes.
La troisime partie contient des rgles de calcul pour tous les lments de
construction et constructions ordinaires, pour les conditions normales
d'utilisation des ouvrages et les tats limites ultimes.
La quatrime et dernire partie indique les exigences en matire de cons-

truction qui doivent tre remplies pour que l'on puisse utiliser les rgles
de calcul. Onn'a donc pas cherch ici dcrire la manire dont les struc-
tures en bois doivent tre en gnral ralises.
Une section supplmentaires sera consacre ultrieurement la vrifi-
cation des proprits ignifuges des structures en bois.
Structures en zones sismiques
Les exigences particulires relatives tous les matriaux utiliss

pour les constructions en zones sismiques figurent dans 1'Eurocode B dont
il n'existe pour l'instant qu'une dition provisoire.
Ces rgles privilgieront les matriaux et les constructions capables
d'absorber l'nergie par des dformations plastiques.
Tels quels, les lments en bois ne sont gure aptes absorber l'ner-
gie par des dformations plastiques. En revanche, les fermes et les struc-
tures compartimentes assembles par des fixations mcaniques peuvent
probablement absorber cette nergie sans difficult.
On ne dispose malheureusement pas d'une documentation trs dtaille
sur la tenue des fixations en cas de sisme. Aussi exigera-t-on probable-
ment, dans un premier temps, que les effets des sismes sur les construc-
tions en bois soient dtermins partir.d'une analyse d'lasticit.
282
LES EXIGENCES GENERALES DES EUROCODES, ET PLUS PARTICULIEREMENT DE
L'EUROCODE 5 POUR LES STRUCTURES EN BOIS, SOUS L'ANGLE DE LA SECURITE
H.J. LARSEN
Les exigences gnrales en matire de calcul, d'excution et de con

trle sont communes tous les Eurocodes; les seules drogations admises
ont celles qui sont Justifies par des proprits particulires des
matriaux.
Le prsent rsum contient une description de cette base commune et
indique o figurent, dans 1'Eurocode, les drogations prcites.
On y touve, en outre, les Justifications des coefficients partiels et
des facteurs qui tiennent compte de l'influence de l'humidit et de la
dure de chargement.
Etats limites
Les exigences relatives la fiabilit des structures sont dfinies par

rapport:
aux tats limites ultimes, correspondant ft l'effondrement structurel ou
ft des situations graves quivalentes,
aux tats limites de service, lorsque les structures ne sont plus adap
tes ft l'utilisation pour laquelle elles sont prvues.
Mthode des coefficients de scurit
Il a t dcid de recourir & la mthode dite des coeficients partiels.

Celleci se distingue de la mthode qui prvaut actuellement (mthode des
tensions admissibles) par le fait que les coefficients partiels de scurit
imposs s'appliquent ft la fois ft la rsistance et aux charges.
Mthode des coefficients partiels
Le principe de la mthode des coeffients partiels peut se rsumer comme

suit:
1. On dfinit les valeurs caractristiques pour les actions permanentes G. ,
les actions variables Q. et les actions accidentelles A.
2. Pour les actions variables, on dfinit en outre les actions pouvant

faire l'objet de diffrentes combinaisons. Les valeurs de ces combinai
sons sont reprsentes par la formule VQ., o fest un facteur (<1).
3. Les valeurs des actions sont calcules en multipliant les valeurs ainsi
dfinies par un coefficient partiel y :
9 (ou A
d *a\ d Vu W d - Vu
4. Les actions poids propre de la structure, G, , G _ ..., actions
variables Q. ., 0. _ ... et actions accidentelles e combinent suivant
283
le schma de base suivant :
? J, G,j G k,j + >'o,i Q k.l + >'Q,i ,f 9 k,i
J
i>l
Une combinaison section inclut, par principe, toutes les actions pouvant
s'exercer simultanment, l'une tait introduite avec sa valeur caract-
ristique, les autres avec leur valeur de combinaison.
5. On dtermine la valeur de calcul S. des effets des actions combines.
d
6. On calcule les valeurs caractristiques des proprits des matriaux X.
pour les tats limites ultimes. Pour le bois, les valeurs caractris-
tiques de rsistance sont dfinies comme la valeur d'exclusion inf-
rieure de 5%, c'est--dire qu'on admet des valeurs infrieures pour 5%
de la population au maximum. Pour les modules d'lasticit utiliss pour
le calcul de la dformation ainsi que pour les densits qui permettent
de calculer le poids propre des structures, on calcule des valeurs
moyennes.
7. Les valeurs de calcul X des proprits des matriaux sont dfinies

comme suit:
X = k
d mod X k /, M
o Y est un coefficient partiel pour les proprits des matriaux et
k un facteur de modification tenant compte de l'humidit et de la
dure de chargement dans la structure.
8. Les valeurs de calcul des rsistances (R ) pour les lments des struc-
tures sont dtermines d'aprs les valeurs de calcul des proprits des
matriaux.
9. Dans la plupart des cas, il est possible de dterminer la rsistance en

traitant indpendamment les facteurs actions et proprits des mat-
riaux. On doit vrifier que
S
d"Rd
Coefficients partiels pour les actions
Ce sont en principe les diffrents pays qui dcident du niveau de scu-

rit, partant des coefficients partiels prendre en considration. L'Euro
code exige toutefois que les coefficients partiels pour les actions soient
indpendants des matriaux.
L'dition actuelle propose V = 1.35 pour le poids propre de la struc-
ture et y = 1 pour les actions variables.
Ces valeurs sont dfinies de manire tout fait arbitraire et la
diffrence entre les valeurs est tellement minime qu'il ne semble gure
justifi d'abondonner la mthode des tensions admissibles. Le rapport entre
les valeurs devrait tre d'environ 1,3.
Les valeurs proposes dans 1'Eurocode 5 sont infrieures d'environ 10%
pour les entrepts, les appentis, les serres, les constructions et les
petits silos usage agricole, etc.
284
Coefficients partiels pour les Matriaux
Pour les structures en bois, 1'Eurocode 5 propose un coefficient

y m 1.25 pour le bois class par machines ainsi que pour les matriaux et
les structures fabriqus en usine et soumis ft un contrle de qualit (voir
galement le point 1.4).
Pour dterminer les valeurs, on part du principe que le recours au
systme des coefficients partiels ne doit pas entraner, dans l'ensemble,
de modifications des dimensions du bois.
Le facteur k .
mod
Pour tenir compte des effets de l'humidit, on se rfrera l'une des
trois classes d'humidit suivantes:
Classe d'humidit 1 : entrent dans cette catgorie les rsineux dont le

taux d'humidit est infrieur 12%. Sont comprises toutes les structures
intrieures dans les locaux chauffs et secs.
Classe d'humidit 2 : entrent dans cette catgorie les rsineux dont le

taux d'humidit est infrieur ft 18%. Sont comprises la plupart des autres
structures intrieures ainsi que les structures extrieures indpendantes
protges contre les intempries.
Classe d'humidit 3 : entrent dans cette catgorie les structures dont le

taux d'humidit est suprieur i 18%.
Les charges sont classes en fonction de leur dure totale pendant la
dure de vie de la structure (voir la figure ci-dessous).
T~ long terne
7'
' moyen terne
-court terne
'trs court terme
+
1 jour 1 semaine 6 mois 10 ans
Figure 1 : Classification des charges en fonction de leur dure totale

pendant la dure de vie de la construction
Pour les structures permanentes, la neige est normalement considre

comme une charge ft moyen terme. Le vent est toujours une charge ft court
terme.
Pour une charge ft long terme, le facteur de modification k est gal
Il 0,80 pour les classes d'humidit 1 et 2 et & 0,65 pour la classe d'humi-
dit 3. Pour les charges ft court terme, il est respectivement gal ft 1,0 et
0,8.
285
Etats limiteB de service
Les principales exigences relatives aux tats de service des structures

en bois concernent les dformations dues la flexion et les vibrations.
Pour calculer les dformations dues la flexion, il faut tenir compte
du fluage du bois. Les valeurs des dformations dues la flexion, cal-
cules d'aprs les modules d'lasticit pour le bois sec, devront donc tre
multiplies par un coefficient de fluage compris entre 1' (charge court
terme, classe d'humidit 1) et 3 (charge long terme, classe d'humidit
3).
Pour les planchers, le problme rside souvent dans le fait qu'ils se
mettent vibrer lorsqu'on marche dessus, ce qui cre un sentiment d'ins-
curit. L'exprience montre qu'il n'y a pas lieu de s'inquiter tant que la
dure des vibrations est infrieure 0,2 seconde.
286
EUROCODE 5 - LES MATERIAUX
J.G. SUNLEY
Association pour la recherche ec le dveloppement
en mttlire de bol* (TRADA)
Cet article prsente les spcifications de base contenues dans le

projet d'Eurocode 5 pour le bols massif, les lamells-colls, le contre-
plaqu et les autres matriaux en feuilles drivs du bois. En outre, 11
traite des assemblages 1 entures multiples ainsi que des effets de
l'humidit et d'une mise en charge de longue dure.
Des valeurs caractristiques de rsistance ont t calcules pour

les bols, de mme que des coefficients partiels pour les matriaux dri-
vs du bols. L'Eurocode propose un systme qui permettra l'utilisation
de tout matriau driv du bols, sous rserve qu'il soit conforme une
norme acceptable et de qualit contOle, et que ses proprits struc-
turelles aient t testes.
La rdaction d'un coda s'appliquant 1 un grand nombre de matriaux

- bois ou drivs du bols - utiliss dans douze paya dont la plupart
Important leur bols d'un nombre encore plus grand de pays, pourrait
aboutir i un texte complexe et crer une situation de confusion pour les
concepteurs, confronts A des centaines de combinaisons possibles entre
les essences et les classas. C'est pourquoi le code propose un systme
de classement en fonction de la rsistance des bols massifs et lamel-
les. Bn ce qui concerne le bois massif, le systme couvre 1 la fols des
rsineux et des bois de feuillus plus ou moins rsistants qui ont t
rpartis en dix classes de rsistance. Par exemple, la rsistance carac-
tristique la flexion dans la classe la plus faible, est de 12 MPa;
elle passa i 75 MPa dans la classe la plus leve. Tout matriau peut
entrer dans l'une ou l'autre des classes de rsistance du systme.
Les classes de rsistance des lamells-colls fabriqus, par exem-

ple i partir du sapin blanc d'Europe, a'chelonnent entre 25 et 40 MPa,
le rsultat dpendant largement de la rsistance de l'assemblage en-
tures multiples.
La conception des pices en bols dpend de la rsistance caract-

ristique du matriau et de son coefficient partiel y m. Le code a pour
principal objectif de permettre de dterminer les valeurs de rsistance
caractristiques de n'importe quel matriau - bois massif, agglomr,
panneaux drivs du bols - dans la mesure o, par exemple, le bois a t
class an fonction des contraintes mcaniques conformment aux rgles
tablies et o les valeurs de rsistance et de rigidit ont t dtermi-
nes au moyen d'essais normaliss et sur des chantillons reprsentatifs
du matriau susceptible d'tre disponible. A cette fin, des normes d'es-
sai ont t labores ou sont en cours d'laboration.
287
Les proprits du bois variant en fonction de l'humidit, des ef-
fets d'une charge de longue dure et de la dimension, la rsistance ca-
ractristique de base doit tre dfinie avec exactitude et les effets en
question doivent tre pris en compte dans la conception des pices en
bois.
Les valeurs caractristiques donnes ici sont dfinies comme va-

leurs d'exclusion en dessous desquelles on admet au maximum 5 X de la
population, et directement applicables pour une dure de sollicitation
de 3 2 5 mn, une temprature de 20 + 2 C, une humidit relative de 0,65
+ 0,05 et un volume donn. Les valeurs concernant les autres conditions
doivent tre modifies lorsque le degr d'humidit, les dimensions ou la
dure sont faibles.
Le coefficient partiel m varie galement en fonction des mthodes

utilises pour classer les matriaux, dans la mesure o, par exemple, un
bols class mcaniquement aura une variabilit plus faible qu'un bois
class visuellement; la valeur V m sera donc infrieure. De la mme
faon, les lments lamins-colls produits en usine auront une variabi-
lit moindre que celle des structures construites entirement sur place
partir, par exemple, d'un bois class vue. Cependant, le concepteur
ayant besoin de pouvoir utiliser aussi bien les bois classs par machine
qu' vue pour un projet dtermin, le code propose des valeurs caract-
ristiques et des valeurs Y m rduites pour les bois classs mcanique-
ment, de manire 2 ce qu'ils donnent, dans les calculs de conception,
les mmes rsultats que les bois classs vue appartenant la mme
classe de rsistance. Les valeurs V m adoptes sont de 1,4 pour les bois
classs 2 vue et de 1,25 pour les bois classs mcaniquement.
La classification mcanique pour un projet dtermin valorise donc

les possibilits d'un lot plutt qu'elle ne majore les valeurs de cal-
cul.
On sait que la rsistance du bols varie en fonction de l'humidit,

de la dure de charge et des dimensions des pices. Les effets de
l'humidit ont t pris en compte par la cration de trois classes d'hu-
midit. Globalement, elles correspondent des degrs d'humidit inf-
rieurs 12Z, compris entre 12 et 18 ou suprieurs 18Z. D'une manire
gnrale, la plupart des structures en bois couvertes se classent dans
la catgorie 2, c'est-2-dire entre 12 et 18% d'humidit. Les valeurs de
calcul donnes dans le code sont tablies suivant cette fourchette. Les
valeurs calcules pour des degrs d'humidit suprieurs 2 18Z,
c'est--dire ceux de la catgorie 3, sont rduites de 20Z environ. En ce
qui concerne les effets de la dure de charge, quatre catgories sont
indiques: les effets instantans, court, 2 moyen et 2 long terme,
cette dernire catgorie correspondant 2 dix annes ou plus. Dans la
classe d'humidit 2, les valeurs instantanes des effets de charge sont
deux fois plus importantes que celles 2 long terme. Les valeurs 2 court
terme sont suprieures d'environ 25Z.
288
Les assemblages 1 enturee multiples peuvent Cera utilises ft volont
pour autant qua la rupture d'un seul assemblage ne puisse entraner
l'effondrement de l'ensemble de la structura. Il est gnralement possi-
ble de dterminer par dea essais quel assemblage 1 entures multiples en
particulier est appropri. Dana la plupart des cas, les dispositions
concernant les lamlns-colls, le contreplaqu et les produits drivs
du bols sont analogues 1 celles concernant le bols massif. Le code pr-
conise le contrle i la production. Les valeurs de rsistance des cons-
tructions non normalises peuvent ttre dtermines par des essais, con-
formment i des normes qui restent 1 laborer.
289
EVOLUTION DE LA CONCEPTION DES STRUCTURES
D.T. YEOMANS
Ecole d'Architecture et de Construction du Btiment
Univerist de Liverpool
Les dimensions dans lesquelles le bois peut tre produit sont limites;
l'histoire de la charpenterie des structures suit donc de prs, mme si
elle en dvie parfois, l'volution des mthodes d'assemblage. Toutefois, il
est important de noter que les premires techniques de charpenterie se sont
dveloppes diffremment selon les rgions. Ces diffrences, encore obser-
vables aujourd'hui dans certains ouvrages de charpenterie, refltent en
partie la diversit des spcifications fonctionnelles. Quant aux change-
ments subsquents, ils rsultent la fois de l'volution des conceptions
dans chaque rgion, de la copie pure et simple d'ides empruntes
d'autres pays et de leur adaptation l'environnement local. Dans cet
expos, nous illustrerons ces volutions en prenant comme exemple la
Grande-Bretagne.
En dpit des imperfections des mthodes de la charpenterie mdivale,

qui nous apparaissent clairement aujourd'hui, les structures construites
cette poque sont souvent restes en place pendant plusieurs centaines
d'annes; toutefois la porte des toits et part consquent les plans de
construction tait limite, du fait de la ncessit d'utiliser des entraits
pour reprendre les charges de flexion. Afin de pallier cet inconvnient,
l'Angleterre du dix-septime sicle a adopt, en matire d'architecture,
des ides venues d'Italie, comme le toit sur fermes utilis dans ce pays.
Dans ce type de comble, l'entrait travaillait seulement en tension et
pouvait ainsi tre form de deux longueurs aboutes l'une l'autre, ce qui
permettait d'obtenir des portes beaucoup plus importantes. En Angleterre
les dtails de ces combles furent adapts de manire tre compatibles
avec les mthodes de charpenterie en usage dans le pays et l'on fit large-
ment us de consolidations en fer pour renforcer la charpente au niveau des
assemblages, furent largement utilises. Avant la fin du sicle, le sapin
d'importation avait largement supplant le chne du pays comme principal
bois de construction, mais les modifications permettant de rduire les
dimensions des bois ne furent adoptes que graduellement.
Si le dix-huitime sicle a connu certaines volutions des types de

ferme classiques, les modifications les plus importantes sont intervenues
au cours du dix-neuvime sicle, avec l'utilisation accrue du fer. Ces
changements taient d'ailleurs favoriss par l'essor industriel de l'Angle-
terre. Des pices moules furent utilises pour former les assemblages des
bois, les tirants mtalliques vinrent remplacer les lments en bois sous
tension. Ces amliorations permirent d'augmenter encore les portes, mais
galement de promouvoir la conception de nouvelles formes de fermes de
combles, de mme que la construction de ponts de chemin de fer en bois.
C'est nanmoins cette poque que le fer a commenc, en Grande-Bretagne,
remplacer compltement le bois, dans la ralisation des structures de
grandes dimensions.
En outre, de nouvelles mthodes structurales, d'origine principalement

franaise, ont t introduites pour utiliser le bois au lieu du fer dans la
290
construction des votes. Les cintres en bois a lamelles verticales qui,
l'origine, avaient t proposs, longtemps auparavant dj, par Philibert
Delorme, mais que le clouage rendait plus faciles mettre en forme, furent
utiliss pour la construction de certaines charpentes cintres de grande
porte. Les votes en bois lamelles horizontales, qui avaient t dve-
loppes par Emy, furent galement employes pour des combles de grande
porte, comme pour des structures de ponts. Si ces derniers ont t abms
par la pourriture, certaines charpentes de toiture ont bien rsist aux
temps. Ces diverses techniques semblent avoir fourni pendant une courte
priode tout du moins une alternative conomique a l'emploi du fer et de
l'acier, pour les structures & la fois de combles et de ponts. La Grande-
Bretagne n'a toutefois gure mis profit les innovations ultrieures qui
ont vue le Jour dans le reste de l'Europe au dbut de ce sicle. Les bois
lamells-colls ont d'abord t employs en Allemagne avant de se rpandre
dans les autres pays, notamment la Suisse; ils ont t peu peu dlaisss
en Allemagne aprs l'apparition des assemblages mcaniques, dont le dve-
loppement a t favoris par la premire guerre mondiale et les pnuries de
bois qu'elle a provoques. Bien que l'Europe ait t plus avance en ce
domaine que l'Amrique, il semble en fait que le bois lamelle ait t
rimport de ce continent dans les annes 50. Les techniques du bois
lamelle et des assemblages mcaniques ont toutes deux largement contribu a
donner leurs formes aux structures de bois que nous connaissons aujourd'
hui, mme si la Grande-Bretagne, qui n'est pas un grand producteur de bois,
en a fait une utilisation moindre. S'il est un enseignement tirer de
l'histoire, il faudra retenir le fait que les diffrences ont influ sur
l'emploi du bois dans les structures, mais que les ides qui ont vu le Jour
dans un pays peuvent tre adoptes dans d'autres.
291
CRITERES DE QUALITE DANS LA CONSTRUCTION D'OUVRAGES D'ARTS EN BOIS
DU CHOIX DES MATERIAUX AU PROJET
J. NATTERER et W. WINTER
Ecole Polytechnique Fdrale de Lausanne
A l'heure actuelle, le rle de la construction en bois en Europe

centrale est celui d'un "outsider bien vu". En dpit de la grande impor-
tance qu'elle a revtue dans la tradition de la construction en Europe
centrale et malgr le dynamisme dont elle fait galement preuve dans des
socits industrielles modernes (par exemple en Amrique du Nord ou en
Scandinavie) qui construisent aujourd'hui encore pour plus des deux tiers
en bois, le bois ne reprsente pour la construction d'habitations en Europe
centrale que 5-10% du march, et mme 2-5% seulement pour les ouvrages
d'art.
Les professionels de la construction en bois et plus particulirement

ceux du gnie civil doivent se demander si cette faible part du march est
justifie, et si tel n'est pas le cas, o il est possible d'agir pour chan-
ger la situation.
En 1'occurence, il est inutile de se lamenter et de maudire les types

de construction dominantes, savoir essentiellement le bton et l'acier.
L'Histoire des techniques et de l'architecture au cours de ce sicle, ainsi
que le dveloppement conomique et social de l'Europe centrale ont confr
ces modes de construction une position cl. En d'autres termes, leurs
qualits correspondent mieux aux valeurs de la socit et des individus que
celle qui pouvait offir le bois.
La profession de la construction en bois doit se trouver vers l'avenir.

Elle doit dfinir selon quels critres socit et individus jugeront
1'avenir des modes de construction et elle doit chercher dvelopper et
mettre en avant celles de ses qualits qui correspondent la nouvelle
chelle des valeurs.
Notre contribution traite de certains aspects du dbat engag sur ce

thme. L'ide de dpart est que la construction en bois ne s'imposera pas
si elle met uniquement l'accent sur ses qualits de "construction bon
march". Elle ne peut sans cesse battre sur le plan des prix des grands
secteurs de la construction en srie, ceux qui dominent le march parce
qu'ils ont perfectionn et rationalis les techniques de transformation des
matires premires, l'emploi des machines,, l'utilisation des matriaux et
les techniques de construction.
Ces secteurs, la construction en bois en Europe centrale ne peut les

battre que si elle accde elle-mme un mode de construction en srie, et
qu'elle peut de ce fait exploiter tous les effets de rationalisation lis
cette mutation. Jusque-l, elle doit chercher convaincre non seulement
par son ct bon march mais principalement par sa meilleure qualit et en
s'adaptant de manire individualise aux problmes de construction.
Les aspects de la qualit dans la construction en bois sont ici dbat-

tus sur quatre plans. Il est tout d'abord montr que la construction en
292
bois est de plus en plus confronte, depuis le milieu des annes soixante-
dix, des modifications fondamentales de nature conomique et sociale. Des
formules telles que le choc nergtique, la lassitude du bton, la redcou-
verte des valeurs de cration, la conscience cologique, plus de qualit et
non de quantit, etc. caractrisent les changements de tendance qui influ-
encent galement la faon d'valuer les modes de construction et de conce-
voir les divers ouvrages.
Une deuxime partie aborde les aspects de la qualit ayant trait

l'valuation de la mthode de construction en bois en gnral. On prsente
une enqute ralise auprs d'architectes, dont il ressort que la construc-
tion en bois est Juge meilleure que tous les autres modes de construction
pour ce qui concerne l'esthtique, l'aptitude au faonnage et l'isolation,
tandis qu'elle suscite des doutes plus ou moins importants pour ce qui est
de son cot, son entretien et sa solidit.
La discussion des critres de qualit en matire de consommation

d'nergie voque la grande importance de l'nergie utile (au bout de 5-10
ans, l'utilisation d'une maison individuelle absorbe dj autant d'nergie
primaire que sa construction).
En ce qui concerne l'nergie consomme pour la construction, le secteur

de la construction en bois se distingue particulirement. Pour le logement,
il absorbe environ 30% d'nergie primaire de moins que la construction en
dur; pour des hangars de mme porte les besoins sont mme de 70 BOX
infrieurs ceux de la construction mtallique ou en bton arm.
A l'heure actuelle, cette grande diffrence en matire de consommation

d'nergie ne se rpercute toutefois pas encore sur le prix; dans le
meilleur des cas, les prix sont & peu prs les mmes.
Autres critres voqus: l'cologie (les forts doivent tre exploites

et entretenues, ce qui donne lieu dans tous les cas la production de bois
dont l'utilisation devrait dans toute la mesure du possible tre source de
valeur ajoute) et l'conomie nationale, la construction en bois a l'avan-
tage de crer des emplois dcentraliss sans grande dpense d'investisse-
ment) .
La troisime partie traite des critres de qualit prendre en compte

dans la conception d'ossatures porteuses en bois. Le choix des matriaux et
leur classe de rsistance sont cits comme critres de qualit. Il faudrait
en 1'occurence tirer un meilleur parti de la varit des matriaux pour
puiser, au moyen d'une classification opre par voire de calcul, les
importantes ressources qui existent en matire de rsistance.
Dans le choix des systmes porteurs, les critres de qualit mis en

vedette sont le choix de la rpartition des charges dans le plan compte
tenu des points d'appui possibles, le choix de la gomtrie des ouvrages
porteurs en coupe et la combinaison de systmes porteurs principaux et
secondaires.
La quatrime partie tudie, pour finir, les critres de qualit

prendre en compte dans la conception des structures en bois et lors de
l'intgration du systme porteur dans le projet d'ensemble. Outre l'impor-
tance des critres physiques (intgration de l'enveloppe et de la structure
porteuse), cette partie du texte souligne plus particulirement le fait que
293
la qualit d'une structure en bols dpend beaucoup de la faon dont peuvent
tre prises en considration les exigences gnrales d'un projet de
construction (par exemple utilisation, profil des pices, clairage, ven-
tilation, intgration des installations techniques, etc.) par une adapta-
tion optimale de la gomtrie et du dtail de la configuration.
En rsum, il est tabli que la construction en bois remplit de manire

idale les principales exigences que la socit assigne aux modes de
construction du futur. Il faut cependant que ces excellentes conditions de
dpart trouvent leur confirmation dans chaque projet. La thse soutenue par
les auteurs est que la construction en bois ne peut pas s ' imposer court
et moyen terme en tant que "construction bon march", mais seulement comme
un type de construction qui tire parti de ses qualits d'adaptibilit, de
la multiplicit des solutions qu'il offre, de sa facilit de faonnage et
de sa valeur esthtique pour convaincre en proposant des solutions "sur
mesure" des problmes de construction complexes.
Paralllement, il faut toutefois amliorer sensiblement les aspects

conomiques en veillant, avant toute chose, la justesse du choix des
matriaux et l'exploitation judicieuse de leurs proprits, en particu-
lier par une classification amliore de la rsistance.
294
EUROCODE S - REGLES POOR Lg CALCUL BT LI DIMENSIOWNKMENT DES
ELEMENTS PREFABRIQUES
H. BRUENINGHOFF
Bergische Universitt, Gesamthochschule Wuppertal
L'Eurocode n5, "Rgles unifies communes pour les structures en bois"

(dition d'octobre 1987) a en principe repris dans le Code de conception de
structures en bois du CIB les propositions pour le calcul et le dimension-
nement des lments prfabriqus. Les dveloppements techniques et tho-
riques intervenus depuis la parution du code CIB en 1983 ont galement t
pris en compte dans le projet d'EUROCODE 5.
Les mthodes utilises dans 1'Eurocode S pour le calcul des lments

prfabriqus courants soumis diffrentes contraintes sont expliques.
Pour les sollicitations par traction transversale, observes essentiel-

lement dans les parties courbes des poutres lamelles - colles, la tension
de calcul est compare ft une rsistance de calcul qui dpend de l'impor-
tance du volume soumis & un effort de traction transversale et de la nature
des effets de la tension. La mSme mthode de calcul est utilise pour des
indices de cisaillement sur les poutres lamelles - colles.
Sur les membres comprims soumis un risque de flambage et les poutres

flchies de section rectangulaire soumises a un risque de basculement, la
mthode de calcul fait intervenir les tensions qui apparaissent lorsque
l'on considre les dformations par rapport ft une imperfection dj exis-
tante hors contrainte dans l'axe moyen conforme au plan.
Pour les cadres rigides plans, des flches initiales sont donnes pour
le calcul des systmes suivant la thorie du second ordre. Pour les assem-
blages dans lesquels s'exercent des contraintes lies au maintien latral
de membres comprims par des poutres en treillis ou des poutres flchies,
des indications sont fournies concernant l'ampleur des forces qui s'ex-
ercent et la rigidit ncessaire pour l'assemblage avec l'accroissement de
ces forces.
295
EUROCODE 5 - UN POINT DE VUE D'OUTRE ATLANTIQUE
G.A. DRING
Engineering Design in Wood - CSA 086
1. CODES DU CANADA
Pour replacer certains des commentaires que je vais faire dans leur
contexte, j'aimerais vous donner d'abord une vue d'ensemble du Canada et
de ses codes.
Le Canada s'tend sur quelque 5 800 km d'est en ouest et sur une

distance lgrement moindre du nord au sud.
Le climat varie du semi-dsertique au subtropical humide et d'un climat

tempr un climat arctique.
Le niveau annuel des prcipitations s'tage de 60 mm 3 300 mm.
Les tempratures se situent entre + 35 C et - 50 C.
La charge de neige au sol peut atteindre 6 Kpa en zone habite, mais
elle est beaucoup plus importante en rgion montagneuse.
Les vents peuvent atteindre des forces de 1,2 Kpa, ce qui correspond
une vitesse de plus de 150 km/h.
L'acclration sismique du sol oscille entre 0 et 4 g.
Il s'agit' l des valeurs prendre en compte dans les calculs de

conception.
A partir de ces donnes, tous les concepteurs prsents parmi vous

pourront constater que nos problmes en la matire sont trs proches des
vtres.
Le Canada a deux codes nationaux parallles, le National Fire Code (NFC,

code national du feu) et le National Building Code (NBC, code national
de la construction).
Le Code national du feu traite de la prvention et de la matrise des

incendies. Le Code national de la construction (NBC) rglemente la
conception et la construction des btiments du point de vue de l'hygine
et de la scurit.
Ces deux codes sont des textes de caractre juridique dont les diverses
instances gouvernementales et administratives peuvent faire appliquer,
en tout ou partie, les dispositions dans l'exercice de leurs
comptences. Il arrive d'ailleurs trs souvent qu'ils soient appliqus
en totalit.
Bien qu'une grande partie du NBC soit rdige des fins spcifiques,
il est fait largement application des normes rfrences tablies par
les organismes de normalisation tant nationaux qu'internationaux.
Le Comit Associ du NBC est subdivis en sept sous-comits, dont le

Comit permanent de conception des structures, qui dtermine tous les
facteurs prendre en compte dans la conception des structures, du
point de vue tant des charges que des actions. Ce comit supervise
galement le travail des divers comits techniques de conception des
matriaux de l'Association canadienne de normalisation (Canadian
Standards Association).
296
Cet comits techniques - du bois, de l'acier, du bton, etc. -
traitent, quant a eux, des paramtres lis la rsistance des
matriaux. C'est donc au Comit technique CSA 086 charg de la
conception des constructions en bois qu'il incombe de rdiger pour
nous les textes correspondant a 1'Eurocode S, et c'est ce niveau
que j'interviens 1 prsent devant vous.
Le NBC est rvis tous les S ans et le Comit technique du bois
met actuellement ft profit la dernire anne qui lui reste pour
tenter de doter le Canada d'un code s'inspirant de la notion de
fiabilit.
Deux problmes srieux se posent : l'insuffisance des donnes sur
la rsistance, dans certains domaines, et la ncessit de disposer
de donnes de variabilit en matire de charges. Des progrs
sensibles ont cependant t enregistrs lors de notre runion de
novembre, qui s'est conclue sur une note optimiste.
2. L'EUROCODE
Avec l'laboration des Eurocodes, vous voil confronts ft la rdaction

d'un code international analogue par sa nature ft notre code NBC. Au
risque d'enfoncer des portes ouvertes, je vous conseillerai d'tre trs
attentifs au contrSle du dveloppement de codes "matres" ft caractre
gnral, du genre de 1'Eurocode n* 1.
Ces codes, qui rglementent les contraintes ou la protection contre
l'incendie, peuvent - dans certains cas - tre ft l'origine d'injustes
discriminations ft l'encontre du bois. Comme nous en avons fait
l'exprience, il est alors trs difficile de revenir en arrire.
Lors de l'tablissement de vos coefficients de scurit, tcher de

parvenir ft un consensus.
Faute d'un ensemble cohrent de coefficients de scurit, vous ne
pourrez pas atteindre les objectifs de votre code.
Les codes canadiens reposent en grande partie sur la normalisation des

produits.
La rgle que nous avons adopte est de ne citer dans les codes
"matriaux que les produits conformes aux normes CSA ou
quivalentes. Ceci oblige les fabricants ft instaurer entre eux un
dialogue.
Si un produit ne figure pas dans le code, les fabricants sont alors
obligs d'tablir, chacun pour soi, des spcifications mettant en
valeur les qualits du produit.
Les industries canadiennes du bois viennent d'achever un programme

d'essais trs complet.
Les responsables commerciaux seraient donc heureux de voir nos
donnes acceptes, mais ils se satisferont de toute norme raisonnable
dans la mesure o mieux vaut pour eux n'importe quelle norme plutt
que pas de norme du tout.
L'acceptation de coefficients plus faibles en matire de scurit est

une chose importante si l'on veut s'implanter davantage dans des
domaines tels que celui des btiments agricoles, dont les propritaires
ne sont gure enclins ft s'accommoder des rglementations.
297
Reconnatre les efforts dploys pour le contrle de la qualit est une
excellente ide, que nous n'avons pas vritablement explore jusqu'
prsent.
Si l'on considre une mthode de conception des structures base sur
la fiabilit, on s'aperoit rapidement, en y regardant de plus prs,
que la variabilit reprsente un facteur trs dfavorable. Ce qu'il
y a de bien, c'est que nous pouvons tout de mme y porter remde.
11 est une suggestion dont, en tant que prsident, je ne peux que me

fliciter, savoir que toute personne qui se risque marquer son
dsaccord sur un texte du code doit tre en mesure de prsenter des
contre-propositions.
Cette dmarche a le double mrite d'liminer tout commentaire strile
et d'accrotre en fait de manire trs conomique le nombre des
collaborateurs participant la rdaction du code.
La mthode de construction antisismique vient d'tre introduite dans

l'ordre du jour du CSA 086 par le biais d'une proposition d'amendement
du NBC visant limiter l'utilisation du bois dans les zones haut
risque sismique.
Notre code comporte un chapitre analogue au paragraphe "1.2 Hypothses";

il nous vite d'avoir introduire des sections spcifiques sur
certaines techniques de construction.
Notre objectif est de rdiger un code traitant uniquement de la

conception des structures. Mme si nous n'atteignons pas tout fait
notre but, nous pensons que ce domaine est suffisamment vaste pour
qu'on y consacre tout un ouvrage..
Je ne me suis pas encore prononc sur l'opportunit d'imposer un plan
de maintenance. L'ide parat fonde mais, dans notre systme, une
rgle ce sujet devrait probablement trouver place dans le cadre
mme du NBC.
La possibilit de faire figurer les conditions accidentelles dans le NBC
a t envisage lorsqu'on a cherch quantifier la notion d'"intgrit
structurale".
Si l'on y a renonc, c'est essentiellement parce qu'on a considr
qu' partir du moment o l'on peut quantifier une notion, elle n'a
plus un caractre accidentel mais qu'il s'agit plutt d'un paramtre
de calcul.
Il est certes louable de vouloir rduire le nombre des facteurs de

modification comme on a tent de le faire dans 1'Eurocode mais
l'accumulation d'indices infrieurs plusieurs caractres prte parfois
confusion.
L'introduction par le CSA 086 de plus d'une valeur pour caractriser les
actions ne manquerait pas de soulever une vague de protestations chez
les concepteurs canadiens, et ceci d'autant plus si cette dcision
devait viser uniquement les structures en bois : ce domaine est en effet
dj considr par beaucoup comme tant trop complexe pour qu'on s'y
intresse; des complications supplmentaires seraient donc, a fortiori,
mal accueillies.
Pour valuer la fiabilit, il est ncessaire de connatre la
variabilit de la charge. Dans notre mthode, cette variabilit est
intgre au coefficient partiel de scurit.
Il suffira aux personnes ayant vraiment besoin de connatre cette
donne de se rfrer notre commentaire.
298
L'un de nos objectifs est de simplifier au maximum Le CSA 086, et nous
nous orienterons probablement vers un code a deux niveaux.
L' Eurocode S a fait un grand pas dans ce sens en introduisant des
formules uniformes pour l'effet de volume et une mthode simplifie
de compression oblique par rapport au fil.
Votre code aborde deux sujets que nous avons dlaisss : la dformation
aprs compression perpendiculaire au fil et la contrainte de torsion.
Pour la conception des poteaux, nous avons dcid d'adopter une version
de la mthode Buchanan Johns Hadsen.
Le calcul de fiabilit des pices travaillant en flexion se fera sur la

base d'une mesure de longueur unitaire et tiendra compte & la fois de la
longueur et de la configuration des charges.
J'ai not qu'a l'instar de notre code, 1'Eurocode 5 consacre une part
disproportionne aux supports de dalles en bois, pourtant peu utiliss.
Mes commentaires se rapportent aux chapitres sur les poutres en
contreplaqu et sur les poutres de ferme lamelles-colles. Au
Canada du moins, le travail accompli en matire de conception et
l'eftet de volume ont permis de relguer ces lments des emplois
occasionnels.
Il me faut vous fliciter pour les efforts que vous avez consacrs au
chapitre sur les sytmes de contreventement.
Cette partie a t nglige au Canada car nous avons estim qu'elle
dpassait nos possibilits.
Le chapitre sur les cadres rigides plans serait considr au Canada

comme un sujet a traiter dans les manuels et ne se prtant pas a la
coditication.
Lorsque j'ai montr votre chapitre "assemblages" au prsident de mon

sous-comit du mme nom, il s'est montr enthousiasm par toutes ces
nouvelles mthodes et par les ides qu'elles faisaient jaillir dans son
esprit.
Les assemblages constituent probablement la partie la plus difficile
de la conception des structures en bois et celle qui prend le plus de
temps; toute simplification en ce domaine constitue donc un grand pas
en avant.
Dans notre premier code LSD nous avons introduit la mthode "Larson"
pour la conception des boulons. Il y a eu dans notre comit un grand
moi lorsqu'un de nos eminent* spcialistes a dcouvert, en comparant
deux conceptions, qu'il obtiendrait un assemblage plus robuste s'il
supprimait les plaques de cisaillement.
Aprs avoir examin plusieurs fois les donnes, le sous-comit a
reconfirm la validit des rsultats.
La chose la plus remarquable en ce qui concerne le chapitre

"assemblages", c est une chose qu'on n'y trouve pas, a savoir les rivets
lamells-colls.
Ces pointes spciales sont utilises avec succs au Canada depuis
vingt ans et comptent a l'heure actuelle parmi les mcanismes
d'assemblage qui ont t le mieux tudis, du moins au Canada.
Notre nouveau code prvoira l'largissement de leur utilisation aux
lamells-colls pica - pin.
299
Le chapitre sur les proprits des matriaux contribuera, je l'espre,
stimuler nos groupes "matriaux" dans la recherche d'une simplification
du chapitre homologue de nos textes.
Les annexes traitant des caractristiques des produits et des essais
des structures feraient l'objet, dans notre systme, de normes
spares qui seraient cites en rfrence.
300
KUROCODE S - MODE D'EMPLOI
R.F. MARSH
Ove Arup & Partners
L'introduction de 1'Eurocode 5 doit ncessairement tre envisage avec

prudence par de nombreux professionnels, et notamment les "gnralistes"
qui ne sont pas spcialistes des techniques du bois. Pour que 1'Eurocode 5
russisse, il doit d'abord tre compris puis accept pour adoption par
chacun des Etats membres. C'est la question de la comprhension qui est
critique, car il est essentiel qu'un ingnieur reconnaisse son exprience
professionnelle dans le texte du code. Son exprience exigera que le code
produise des conceptions qui ne diffrent pas de faon significative de
celles utilisant son code national courant et & un cot concurrentiel.
Historique des codes
Il est instructif de rflchir sur l'histoire des codes professionnels.

Il ne s'agit pas d'une innovation rcente car il faut remonter l're
babylonienne pour assister a l'introduction des codes d'Hammourabi (1792-
1750 avant Jsus-Christ) qui taient effectivement des codes interna-
tionaux. Au fur et & mesure que la construction a gagn en complexit, que
nous avons mis au point de nouveaux matriaux et mieux compris les mat-
riaux de construction traditionnels, il est devenu ncessaire d'exprimer
notre exprience acquise sous une forme facilement comprhensible par les
hommes de l'art. Telle est l'origine du code professionnel. Au Royaume-Uni,
les institutions techniques professionnelles ont introduit les premiers
codes "nationaux" dans les annes 1930 pour ragir contre la concurrence
Intense pratique dans les mthodes de conception par les entreprises com-
merciales dont ces institutions ont estim qu'elle conduirait un abaisse-
ment des normes de scurit, voire quelque catastrophe. Les institutions
ont effectivement maintenu ce rle jusque 1971, date laquelle la respon-
sabilit de l'ensemble des codes et normes a t transfre au BSI (Insti-
tut britannique des normes). Ceci a considrablement largi la base des
organisations qui taient invites & participer & la rdaction des codes,
l'ingnieur se retrouvant minoritaire. Bien que non voulu, le rsultat
t que les codes sont devenus de plus en plus complexes et sont souvent
devenus la mthode appliquant de recherches qui n'avaient pas alors t
suffisamment vrifies dans la pratique.
L'Eurocode S
L'Eurocode 5 semble rduire la complexit atteinte par le code britan-

nique mais son format droutera les ingnieurs britanniques et je prsume
europens, dans la mesure o il dfinit un ensemble de principes desquels
on ne peut s'carter, ainsi qu'une mthode unique d'application. Aucune
indication n'est fournie quant & la faon dont il convient d'valuer les
autres mthodes d'application. Les coefficients partiels proposs sont
identiques ceux de l'acier et du bton et par consquent des facteurs
matriels ont t introduits pour compenser les caractristiques uniques
des structures bois. En particulier, les propositions relatives aux fac-
301
teurs de charge long terme constituent une modification importante aux
codes actuels. L'utilisation de classes de rsistance doit tre accueillie
favorablement ds lors qu'elle soulage le concepteur de la ncessit de
slectionner une essence mais elle entrane certains problmes cachs.
Par exemple diffrentes espces au sein d'une classe de rsistance
varieront en durabilit et en capacit accepter des agents conservateurs,
mais le plus important peut rsider dans les diffrences de dimensions de
structures bois provenant de diffrents pays d'origine et prsentant
apparemment les mmes dimensions nominales. En outre, je pense que le
manque de conseil sur les correspondances militera contre 1'acceptation du
code.
Mise en oeuvre
La proximit de 1992 encouragera les ingnieurs entreprendre des

travaux de conception en dehors de leur propre pays, et 1'Eurocode 5 doit
ainsi tre considr comme un encouragement de ce processus. Certaines
difficults devront nanmoins tre surmontes. La mthode par laquelle les
conceptions sont approuves varie sensiblement d'un pays l'autre de mme
du reste que les rglements au terme desquels un ingnieur est autoris
exercer. Nous ne pouvons qu'esprer que l'harmonisation engendrera une
rduction de la bureaucratie. Un domaine particulier qui requra un plus
ample examen est l'application de rgles de classification. Au Royaume-Uni
il est ncessaire de disposer d'un systme de surveillance indpendant de
la mthode de classification utilise par le fournisseur et chaque pice
doit tre marque de faon distincte. Un tel systme de contrle de qualit
est, je le crois, une condition pralable l'application de 1'Eurocode 5.
Conclusion
Si 1'Eurocode 5 doit russir, les ingnieurs doivent tre non seulement

disposs l'utiliser mais doivent aussi au cours de la priode d'examen
entreprendre des exercices de conception parallles en utilisant leur
propre code et 1'Eurocode 5 pour se convaincre de la validit de celui-ci.
302
L'ENSEIGNEMENT PES TECHNIQUES DB LA CONSTRUCTION KW BOIS
PROPOSITIONS D'AMELIORATIONS
B.O. HILSON
Ecole Professionnelle de Brighton
1. LA SITUATION ACTUELLE AU ROYAUME-UNI
Une tude ralise en 1966 en vue d'valuer la part faite aux tech-
niques du bois dans le cursus des tudes de gnie civil des universits et
instituts de technologie (Polytechnics) britanniques a montr que les tu-
diants consacraient moins d'un pourcent de leur temps d'enseignement aux
matires faisant intervenir le bois.
Il y a quelques annes, une autre enqute a t mene afin de dter-
miner les propositions respectives de l'horaire prvu pour l'tude des
diffrents matriaux dans les cours de licence et le temps pass aux tra-
vaux concernant les mmes matriaux dans un bureau d'tudes de type clas-
sique, la disproportion tait flagrante: le travail en bureau absorbait 16
fols plus de temps que les cours de licence n'en rservent au bois.
Il faut donc en conclure que de nombreux ingnieurs du gnie civil
n'ont pas reu une formation suffisante dans le domaine des techniques du
bois.
2. LES REMEDES
Pour remdier cette situation, il est ncessaire de mettre en place

deux cours, l'un s'adressant aux tudiants en licence, l'autre aux ing-
nieurs praticiens.
Pour aider ces derniers, insuffisamment forms l'heure actuelle, des
cours de courte dure doivent tre prvus dans le cadre du programme de
formation professionnelle permanente. Ces cours devraient tre coordonns
au niveau national mais organiss a l'chelon rgional.
Il faudrait galement laborer un plus grand nombre de progiciels CAO
(conception assiste par ordinateur) qui devraient aller au-del des pro-
grammes d'analyse habituels et s'intresser de plus prs aux problmes
fondamentaux de conception. C'est ainsi que le projet de recherche du
Brighton Polytechnic porte sur le dveloppement d'un systme expert qui
servira de guide aux concepteurs dans le choix de la meilleure forme de
structure et de systmes d'assemblage adopter pour les charpentes en bois
usage industriel ou commercial.
Pour les tudiants, les efforts court terme devraient viser ac-
crotre la part actuelle de l'enseignement du bois. A ce niveau-l des
cours spciaux d'ingnierie du bois devraient tre vits, le bois pouvant
avoir sa place parmi les autres matriaux de construction.
Afin de pallier le manque de formation et d'assurance dont souffre
actuellement le corps enseignant, il sera probablement ncessaire de
dfinir un programme d'tudes de base & intgrer l'enseignement actuel,
en prvoyant, pour accompagner ce programme, des aides pdagogiques.
303
3. POUR L'AVENIR
Pour enseigner les rgles de conception des ouvrages, on adopte gnra-

lement aujourd'hui une division par matriau. Ainsi la conception des
structures en bton arm est enseigne indpendamment de celle des struc-
tures en acier laquele s'ajoute parfois, dans la mesure du temps dispo-
nible, la conception des ouvrages en maonnerie de briques ou en bois.
Une meilleure mthode consisterait peut-tre partir de notions plus
fondamentales et introduire ensuite, de la manire juge la plus appro-
prie, les diffrents matriaux. Cette approche ncessiterait sans doute un
cours de base pralable sur les matriaux.
Au Royaume-Uni on s'est nettement dtourn d'un enseignement fond sur
l'analyse et l'on privilgie dsormais l'aspect conception, ce qui pourrait
laisser plus de temps libre pour mettre davantage l'accent sur les rgles
fondamentales dans ce domaine. Trop souvent par le pass, les professeurs
prsentaient leurs tudiants une forme particulire de structure, puis
axaient entirement leurs cours sur l'analyse de cette forme et sur le
calcul des dimensions. On ne s'intressait pas suffisamment aux raisons qui
avaient prsid au choix de cette forme parmi toutes les autres. Nous avons
l un exemple d'un des dangers auxquels on s'expose lorsqu'on enseigne une
matire comme le gnie civil, savoir de n'enseigner que ce qui peut tre
facilement calcul.
Pour tre de bons concepteurs, les ingnieurs doivent avoir un large
ventail de comptences. Ils doivent bien connatre les proprits des
matriaux, mais galement apprendre percevoir de faon intuitive les
comportements des structures. Cette dernire aptitude est le fruit de
l'exprience et le travail sur maquette est en l'occurrence un moyen d'ac-
qurir trs rapidement l'exprience ncessaire. Cet exercice constitue la
base de la mthode adopte au Polytechnic de Brighton, qui consiste uti-
liser des maquettes simples en balsa et en papier. Les tudiants travail-
lent en petits groupes, de faon autonome; cette activit de groupe leur
permet non seulement de mieux connatre le comportement des structures,
mais aussi d'acqurir bien d'autres aptitudes qui font le bagage d'un bon
concepteur.
Pour clore chaque exercice, les tudiants se runissent au cours d'un
sminaire pendant lequel ils discutent des diverses ides et solutions pro-
poses.
Dans la suite de leurs tudes, les tudiants, de nouveau runis en
petits groupes, sont invits concevoir, construire et tester une struc-
ture miniature rpondant des spcifications prcises. La structure finale
doit respecter les critres de flche prvus sous surcharge de service,
supporter une charge latrale dtermine et cder entre des limites sup-
rieure et infrieure de charge spcifies.
S'il est vrai qu'une approche intuitive, complte par une conaissance
gnrale des matriaux, est le gage d'une structure bien conue, on pourra
peut-tre partir de ce postulat pour rorienter l'avenir l'enseignement
dispens dans ce domaine.
Cette approche s'appliquerait tous les matriaux, ce qui permettrait
d'abondonner la mthode actuelle qui consiste traiter chaque matriau
sparment. Aprs un cours sur les proprits des matriaux - de tous les
matriaux - on pourrait ensuite adopter une division par lment plutt
qu'une division par matriau. Par exemple, il serait possible d'tudier,
pour chaque type d'lment, la manire dont les proprits des matriaux
influent sur le choix du profil utiliser. On tudierait enfin la concep-
tion dtaille de l'lment pour chacun des matriaux. Tous les matriaux
seraient ainsi intgrs au niveau qui convient dans les cours de licence.
304
Un autre grand thme devrait aborder le problme de la variabilit des
matriaux et de ses rpercussions sur la conception des structures. Dans
le cas du bois, les tudiants pourraient tre initis aux notions de classe
de qualit et de reconstitution comme moyens de rduire cette variabilit.
La reconstitution est la clef de l'utilisation du bois dans la construc-
tion; le bois lamell-coll en est probablement le meilleur exemple. Il
devrait tre inclus dans les programmes dans la mesure o il met en vi-
dence les possibilits du bois en tant que matriau de construction et o
il met en valeur les facults cratrices des tudiants.
305
LES EXIGENCES DANS L'ENSEIGNEMENT DE LA CONSTRUCTION EN BOIS
U.A. MEIERHOFER
Eidgen, Materialpriifungsanstalt (EMPA)
Point de dpart
En Suisse, la construction en bois est encore de nos jours fortement

marque par la tradition artisanale qui est gnralement caractrise par
une haute ide de l'honntet professionnelle. L'influence de l'architecte
va toutefois en augmentant et 1'ingnierie de la construction en bois
occupe son tour une place grandissante dans' la ralisation de bon nombre
d'ouvrages. De ce fait, contrairement ce qui tait le cas pour la
construction traditionnelle en bois, on assiste de nos jours une spara-
tion trs marque entre la phase de l'tude du projet et celle de l'excu-
tion.
Les rflexions sur la formation de concepteurs qui vont suivre (l'ac-
cent tant mis sur le ct technique de cette formation) devront nces-
sairement prendre en compte les exigences auxquelles les ouvrages
construits doivent satisfaire dans la pratique et qui sont formules
essentiellement par le matre d'ouvrage ou encore par le public. Si nous
insistons sur ce point, c'est que, de nos jours, ces exigences ne sont
respectes que partiellement et seulement dans certains secteurs, ne
serait-ce qu'en raison de type de formation que les diverses personnes
appeles contribuer la ralisation d'un projet de construction ont
reue.
Les principales exigences dont la formation professionnelle devra tenir
compte sont les suivantes:
- rentabilit conomique,
- scurit d'utilisation,
- fonctionnalit,
- facilit d'entretien (aussi peu d'entretien que possible),
- durabilit et conservation de la valeur,
- le cas chant, flexibilit (facilit de transformation).
Il faudra par ailleurs prendre en considration les aspects suivants

qui sont difficiles dfinir et distinguer les uns des autres:
- facilit d'utilisation,
- esthtique,
- habitabilit (cration d'une atmosphre),
- reprsentativit, par exemple prestige.
Quant l'opinion publique, elle s'intresse avant tout aux questions

suivantes:
- Insertion optimale de l'ouvrage construit dans son environnement,

- scurit d'utilisation,
- incidences sur l'conomie nationale.
Il ressort de diverses statistiques concernant les vices de construc-

tion et les dommages qui en rsultent que, dans de nombreux cas, ces diver-
306
ses exigences! dont certaines sont contradictoires, ne sont satisfaites que
de faon imparfaite et que leur importance relative n'est gure prise en
considration.
Or, il est prouv que la construction en bois n'entrane pas plus de
dommages que d'autres modes de construction. Il est vrai que le bois ragit
plus vivement et plus vite a des usages inadapts que d'autres matriaux de
construction; il en rsulte une durabilit rduite qui constitue dans ces
cas le dfaut dominant.
Un enseignement bien conu de la construction en bois devra dispenser
le savoirfaire ncessaire, sous la forme de connaissances thoriques et
aptitudes, afin que les problmes qui viennent d'tre voqus et qui
revtent la forme d'exigences auxquelles la construction en bois doit
satisfaire, puissent trouver une solution satisfaisante; par la mme
occasion, les dommages les plus frquents seront vits.
Principaux types d'activit caractrisant les diffrentes professions

appeles a contribuer la ralisation des projets de construction
A cSt des causes "techniques" des dommages, il convient d'insister sur

les causes qui se situent au niveau de l'organisation: si les processus de
construction et les ouvrages construits laissent dsirer, c'est que la
concertation entre les personnes appeles contribuer la ralisation
d'un projet est dficiente tant sur le plan des activits que sur celui des
comptences de ces personnes.
L'architecte se confine gnralement, ne seraitce qu'en raison du type
de la formation qu'il a reue dans le rle d'un crateur de formes
esthtiques; en ce qui concerne les problmes techniques, il prfre s'en
remettre aux "spcialistes".
L'ingnieur se cantonne en gnral dans son rle de spcialiste charg
des calculs. Il prfre ne pas tre confront d'autres problmes, qu'il
s'agisse de problmes concernant le btiment dans son ensemble ou concer
nant des aspects particuliers du travail, devant lesquels, pour une raison
ou une autre (par exemple, faute d'une formation adquate) il se sent
dsarm (physique de la construction, problmes de durabilit, utilisation
de matriaux qui lui sont peu familiers, tels que le bois, etc.).
Il y a lieu d'insister sur les tches importantes qui incombent au
conducteur d'oprations dont le rle est gnralement sousestim et
souvent nglig, notamment lorsqu'on affecte ce poste du personnel insuf
fisamment qualifi. Mais mme dans les cas o les conducteurs d'oprations
ont qualifis, ils sont frquemment harcels par la ncessit de respecter
des dlais et d'accomplir des formalits administratives, de sorte qu'ils
en arrivent ngliger d'autres travaux importants.
Il arrive frquemment qu'on exige des artisans chargs de l'excution
plua qu'on ne devrait et cela sur plusieurs plana. Outre qu'ils sont con
fronts des dlais et des prix serrs, on les oblige souvent rsoudre
euxmmes des problmes de planification et d'organisation (par exemple,
ceux poss par la coordination des travaux) qui devraient tre rsolus
d'autres niveaux par les responsables de la planification et de la direc
tion des travaux.
Reatdea possibles
Je suis d'avis que des amliorations notables pourraient tre apportes

au secteur de la construction en bois, tant sur le plan du droulement des
307
travaux que sur celui du produit fini, si l'on se dcidait institutiona-
liser une profession qu'on pourrait dnommer "ingnieur de la construction
du bois" si cette dnomination n'tait pas dj rserve l'ingnieur
charg des calculs de la stabilit statique. Pour cette raison, je suggre
la dnomination suivante: "spcialiste de la construction en bois". La for-
mation de ce spcialiste serait base sur les principes suivants:
les connaissances thoriques tout comme les capacits et activits du
spcialiste de la construction en bois seraient trs nettement interdisci-
plinaires: c'est que les activits de ce spcialiste complteraient utile-
ment celles de l'architecte, de l'ingnieur civil, du physicien de la
construction, du conducteur d'oprations, du charpentier, du menuisier, du
spcialiste en matire de protection du bois, etc.
L'enseignement de la construction en bois ne devrait pas tre ax
uniquement sur l'tude de la rsistance des structures en bois, les deux
autres fonctions du bois, savoir la fonction de sparation et d'isolation
des locaux et celle de la dcoration et de l'esthtique tant d'une impor-
tance au moins gale.
De ce fait, les principales connaissances et aptitudes du spcialiste
du bois et, partant les points forts de la formation de ce spcialiste
seraient les suivants:
- conception gnrale et tudes dtailles du projet (pour les lments

structurels et non structurels),
- technologie des matriaux, non seulement du bois, mais galement des
matriaux drivs du bois, des organes d'assemblage, des colles, des
matriaux de protection, etc.
- durabilit, aptitude fonctionner long terme, fiabilit
- scurit et aptitude l'emploi
- physique de la construction,
- prparation et transformation, montage, assurance de la qualit,
- coordination des phases de l'tude du projet et de l'excution des tra-
vaux.
Que ce profil professionnel et ce type de formation soient ralistes,

voil ce que montrent certains programmes de formation dj existants qui
vont dans ce sens. 11 est vrai que de tels programmes sont proposs plutt
par des tablissements d'enseignement technique suprieur que par les uni-
versits .
11 ne suffira pas toutefois que le spcialiste du bois ait reu une
formation approprie pour tre d'emble la hauteur des tches qui l'at-
tendent. Il lui faudra en outre acqurir une grande exprience pratique que
l'cole ne saurait lui dispenser. Une rflexion permanente sur les pro-
blmes du bois et de la construction en bois s'impose si l'on veut Be tenir
au courant des dernires volutions dans le secteur du bois.
Mme si nous disposions de vritables spcialistes du bois, les archi-
tectes et les ingnieurs ne seraient pas pour autant dispenss d'augmenter
leurs connaissances et de perfectionner leur savoir-faire en matire de
traitement du bois et des constructions en bois par rapport leur savoir
actuel:
en tant que "gnralistes", ils devraient connatre au moins les possibi-
lits offertes par le bois, mais galement ses limites, afin d'tre en
mesure de donner ce matriau de construction les mmes chances qu'aux
autres produits. De nos jours cette galit des chances est encore loin
d'tre ralise.
308
OBJECTIFS ET RESULTATS DES PROGRAMMES DE RECHERCHE CEE
SUR LE BOIS
W. HANSSENS
Commission des Communauts europennes
Direction Gnrale Science, Recherche et Dveloppement
La recherche Communautaire en Europe avant l'Acte Unique
Par une rsolution de janvier 1974, le Conseil a dcid d'ouvrir

l'ensemble du champ scientifique et technique & l'activit communautaire.
Sur la base de ce mandat, la Commission a t charge de la coordination
progressive des politiques nationales et de la ralisation, par un soutien
appropri, des programmes de recherche d'intrt commun: secteurs de
l'nergie, des matires premires, etc.
Pour chacun de ces domaines, la dimension communautaire apporte une
valeur ajoute: ainsi, il est possible de partager les financements publics
d'un montant lev, de partager les risques et faire en sorte que les
dpenses au niveau europen correspondent des conomies au niveau na-
tional. Cette stratgie signifie aussi un dcloisonnement accru, elle four-
nit concrtement les moyens d'attnuer la rigidit des structures.
Dans cet esprit, une pluridisciplinarit et un "brassage" accrus
doivent contribuer renforcer l'efficacit du potentiel scientifique des
diffrentes quipes de chercheurs dans la Communaut.
L'Acte Unique - le Programme Cadre - la Recherche et le Dveloppement tech-

nologique
La Commission veut faire du Programme Cadre la rponse apporte par la

Communaut, & un double dfi, vis--vis de l'intrieur et extrieur, qu'
elle affronte simultanment.
Le dfi extrieur est celui du maintien de la comptitivit europenne
dans les secteurs haute valeur ajoute technologique, face aux Etats-Unis
et au Japon dont les efforts de recherche s'accroissent de faon continue
tant en quantit qu'en qualit (par habitant, les Etats-Unis vont dpenser
dans un futur immdiat 2,5 fois plus que la Communaut, le Japon 2 fois
plus).
Le dfi intrieur est celui du renforcement de la cohsion conomique
et sociale de la Communaut et de la rduction des carts technologiques
entre les Etats membres (les trois grandes puissances industrielles euro-
pennes UK, F, D reprsentent ensemble plus de 80* du total des dpenses R
& D dans la Communaut). La rduction des carts technologiques entre les
Etats membres n'est possible qu'en assurant la participation des Etats les
moins avancs des activits de recherche de haut niveau.
Les dispositions de l"Acte Unique" confre la Communaut une comp-
tence formelle globale dans le domaine de la recherche et de la technolo-
gie. Il va Jouer un rle important dans le processus de ralisation du
march intrieur d'ici 1992, objectif majeur de la Communaut.
Le Programme Cadre est un instrument pour l'exploitation du potentiel
que reprsente la Communaut largie 12 Etats: un march de 325 millions
d'habitants; 1,1 millions de scientifiques et techniciens dont 420.000
chercheurs.
309
Recherche et dveloppement technologique
La recherche et le dveloppement technologique constituent un domaine

peut-tre dcisif pour la cration d'un grand march moderne et comptitif,
o la Communaut a un rle spcifique jouer.
La Commission a labor en 1986 un programme-cadre de recherche et de
dveloppement technologique (1987-1991), qui n'a pu tre adopt qu'en 1987.
Ce programme cadre identifie un certain nombre de domaines o l'action de
la Communaut peut s'exercer de faon privilgie. De nouvelles initiatives
en matire d'ingnierie financire contribueront traduire l'activit de
la RDT en applications industrielles.
Ncessit d'un programme de recherche couvrant l'ensemble de la filire

Bois et Lige
Si les bases pour tablir un programme recherche Bois n'ont pas chang
fondamentalement, des clairages nouveaux surviennent et doivent tre pris
en compte.
Si le dficit europen du bois et produits base du bois demeure et
constitue de second poste (8 milliards de dollars) en importance pour les
importations de la Communaut, il ne sera certainement pas raisonnable de
chercher suppler ce manque au plus vite sans un examen approfondi tout
au long de la filire bois pour dcouvrir les maillons les plus faibles.
A quelque niveau o l'on se situe dans la filire bois, on reste sur-
tout tributaire de son fonctionnement conomique correct, tant en amont
qu'en aval. L'interdpendance des diffrents secteurs apparat de plus en
plus nettement.
Au niveau de la production, un nouveau programme de recherche visera:
l'accroissement, la disponibilit et la qualit de la production fores-
tire, en conformit avec les impratifs d'un environnement favorable.
Pour l'industrie du bois et de la pte, on s'attachera spcialement
l'aspect conomique et la comptivit par un renforcement du potentiel
conomique des industries du bois et du lige et une meilleure capacit
concurrentielle sur le march international.
Si le taux moyen de boisement de 20% pour des peuplements en production
des 12 peut sembler une moyenne honnte pour des pays industrialiss de
l'Europe, il faut encore avoir l'esprit que ce taux varie de 5.5 30%
d'un Etat Membre l'autre. Encore, que les qualits de bois produites au
Nord sont fort diffrentes de celles du Sud, alors que les efforts con-
sentir pour obtenir ces peuplements sont certainement plus contraignants
dans le Sud.
De ce fait les parties Nord de la Communaut fournissent d'une faon
gnrale les sciages, tranchages et droulages, alors que les bois pour
l'industrie, caisserie et papeterie viennent davantage du Sud; il existe
donc de srieux handicaps naturels forte rpercution conomique.
Il vient se greffer sur le phnomne naturel de la rpartition N/S des
forets et de la qualit des bois, tous les problmes locaux et rgionaux
d'exploitation: aise ou difficile et onreuse; de la main d'oeuvre:
spcialise ou non; des accs; de la voire existante; des transports et
des distances couvrir. Il se dresse donc en Europe, comme partout en
foresterie, des obstacles d'ordre naturel, social ou industriel, qui se
rpercutent fortement au niveau conomique de la production.
Sous l'aspect de la production indigne, beaucoup de problmes surgis-
sent ds le dpart.
Une pnurie de certaines catgories de bois n'est pas exclure
310
l'avenir (Rapport FAO au 2000) alors que des bols de petite dimension sont
parfois surabondants. Par ailleurs, le march des grumes tropicales s'ame-
nuise et se renchrit, il faudra les remplacer progressivement par des es-
sences europennes de haute qualit.
En cette fin des annes BO le problme assez nouveau du retour d'une
part des terres agricoles i la foret restera trs actuel au cours des pro-
chaines dcennies - Phnomne d'application probablement trs ingale d'une
rgion l'autre, qui tendra accentuer plus encore le caractre forestier
de certaines rgions.
Au cours de ces dernires annes, face au problme des surplus agri-
coles grandissants, de nombreuses tudes ont t entreprises pour recher-
cher des remdes durables aux excdents et & leur cot prohibitif pour le
contribuable europen. Les solutions supposes valables que l'on tente de
concrtiser se situent simultanment sur diffrents plans d'action. Des
actions structurelles & long terme au niveau des exploitations agricoles
mmes, des interfrences sur le plan de culture par l'instauration de quota
et du gel des terres, en dernier lieu par une action de freinage sur les
prix agricoles garantis, en cherchant de les rapprocher davantage des prix
mondiaux, nettement infrieurs.
S'il est certain que d'importantes superficies agricoles seront effec-
tivement boises d'ici la fin du sicle, elles seront probablement bien
plus modestes que les superficies couramment annonces en 1987/88. Il n'en
reste pas moins que quelques millions d'ha passeront trs progressivement
la fort. Le Royaume-Uni et l'Irlande runissent probablement en ce moment
les conditions les plus favorables pour effectuer de tels boisements cono-
miquement valables: terres d'levage extensif bon march, conditions cli-
matiques favorables au boisement, aides gouvernementales, dtaxations des
propritaires etc..
Les petits bois des premires clairis provenant de ces nouvelles
plantations sur terres agricoles auront tendance alourdir le march de la
trituration, qui esprons-le, se tournera davantage vers la production
communautaire que vers l'importation.
Aprs ce rapide tour d'horizon de la filire bois et des perspectives
de la production indigne de la Communaut, il serait utile de revenir plus
en dtail sur les ralisations et les actions projetes des programmes de
recherche forestire de la DG XII, Recherche et Dveloppement.
1983: Etudes et Symposium sur la rutilisation des vieux papiers par

l'industrie papetire;
1982/85: Premier programme bois, en tant que matire premire
renouvelable;
1986/89: Deuxime programme bois, y compris le lige, en tant que matire
premire renouvelable
1990/93: Troisime programme bois, y compris le lige, en tant que matire
premire renouvelable (en prparation);
Beaucoup de contrats du 1er programme ont t prolongs aprs le

31.12.85 - sans majoration de financement - afin de permettre l'achvement
sans heurts des contrats de recherche i frais partags.
Pour chacune des 3 parties du 1er programme, un sminaire final de
cloture a tent de faire le point des travaux effectus et des rsultats
obtenus.
- Ptes, papiers et carton - Bruxelles 19/21 novembre 1986;

- Bols matriau - Munich 14/15 avril 1987;
- Sylviculture - Bologne 2/3 juin 1987.
311
Les participants des sminaires ont pu disposer du rsum des rapports
finaux; ceux-ci seront publis et mis en vente dans les librairies euro-
pennes sous forme de volumes brochs.
Le deuxime programme Bois 1986/89 comprend galement le lige - bud-
get: 10 Hcu, avec participation nouveau de la Sude et de la Suisse;
dbut des travaux fin 1987 - dbut 1988. Ce programme, auquel le lige a
t incorpor au niveau de la subriculture et de l'utilisation indus-
trielle du matriau avait enregistr plus de 340 demandes de contrats.
Une premire valuation des propositions faite par des experts
extrieurs choisis dans une liste dresse par les dlgus nationaux du
Comit de Gestion et de Coordination (CGC) a dfini le caractre priori-
taire de celles-ci - le budget trs limit n'a permis de retenir que les
propositions juges de premire priorit - le nombre initial propos par
les services de la Commission a t largi la suite des interventions des
dlgations nationales au sein du CGC Matriaux. Finalement environ 117
propositions furent retenues pour un financement communautaire, ainsi que 4
actions de coordination relatives :
- la reproduction "in vitro de l'pica";
- le sciage des grumes d'eucalyptus;
- le schage solaire des bois scis;
- la comparabilit des mthodes d'inventaires forestiers par
chantillonage.
Par ailleurs, un change de chercheurs - dj spcialiss et en place
sera rendu possible dans le cadre du programme Bois pour autant que le
chercheur boursier rejoigne aprs son stage son poste de dpart et puisse
diffuser ainsi les nouvelles connaissances et techniques acquises.
Si nous examinons de plus prs la partie bois et lige en tant que
matriau, nous voyons que 54 propositions ont t acceptes dans ce sec-
teur, ainsi que 3 actions de coordination totalisant environ une partici-
pation Communautaire de 2,5 MECU, l'ensemble des travaux de recherche dans
ce domaine couvre environ le double.
Les propositions retenues se regroupent autour des axes ci-aprs:
- Classement structurel des sciages et Eurocode 5 (tous les EM);
- Qualit du bois d'essences croissance rapide (8 EM);
- Prservation de l'pica (4 EM);
- Augmentation de la stabilit et durabilit des bois (7 EM);
- Dveloppement de panneaux structurs (3 EM);
- Schoirs pour bois scis (5 EM);
- Fluage et confortement du bois et constructions en bois (13 partici-
pants ) ;
- Utilisation du lige (2 EM)
Les services de la Commission prparent avec la collaboration du CGC
"Matriaux" les grandes lignes du 3e programme, bois et lige prvu pour
1990/1993.
Vous trouverez ci-aprs les matires les plus importantes inclure
dans la partie II du dit programme: le matriau bois et lige. Il sera
ncessaire sans doute d'utiliser une approche plus pragmatique, lie au
budget rel, lorsque celui-ci sera dtermin et des limitations supplmen-
taires des thmes repris et dtaills ci-aprs sont prvoir.
Traitement mcanique du bois et amlioration de la qualit des produits

finis
Il est galement jug ncessaire de mieux comprendre la relation liant

la qualit du bois aux traitements de rgnration. Une quipe de recherche
312
interdisciplinaire compose d'experts en sylviculture, de gnticiens,
d'cologistes et de techniciens du bois devrait se pencher sur ce problme
dans le cadre de projeta de recherche mens en collaboration; (effets de
l'espacement, des coupes d'claircie et des fertilisants sur les proprits
du bois; densit minimale dans un cercle de croissance; taille des noeuds
et volume et proprit du bois de jeunesse).
Classification de la qualit du bois de sciage
La classification "objective" du bois a permis d'en accrotre l'utili-

sation pour la construction. Il faut disposer de mcanismes de classifi-
cation amliors qui puissent aisment s'intgrer au traitement industriel
du bois.
Amlioration des techniques de traitement du bois de sciage - technique de

sciage
Les scieries des pays de la CE prsentent souvent une faible rentabi-

lit. Une analyse plus pousse des oprations de sciage doit tre effectue
afin d'optimiser les techniques de traitement et d'tablir un quilibre
entre la rcupration, la productivit et l'utilisation des dchets.
Par exemple, il faut continuer remdier aux insuffisances actuelles
de l'quipement des scieries (y compris les capteurs), notamment pour le
traitement des grumes de petite taille ou d'aspect irrgulier et la mesure
des formes et des irrgularits. Des avantages significatifs peuvent tre
tirs de la combinaison approprie de mesures automatises des caractris-
tiques de grumes, de la mise au point d'quipements plus appropris et de
l'amlioration des mthodes de sciage.
Technique de schage
Pour avoir du bois de bonne qualit, il est essentiel que celui-ci soit
soumis une climatisation correcte. Dans de nombreux cas, le schage arti-
ficiel est une condition sine qua non la production de bois de sciage de
grande qualit. En consquence, il faut accorder d'avantage d'importance
la qualit du schage pour obtenir de faibles taux d'humidit et une
couleur satisfaisante. On s'attachera d'abord comprendre l'influence de
paramtres tels que la temprature, l'humidit, la vitesse et la direction
de l'air, la taille de la section et sa qualit sur les taux d'humidit et
sur les tensions rsiduelles dans le bois sch de diffrentes essences.
Produits composites - durabilit long terme des structures colles
Il convient de rsoudre des problmes tels que la sensibilit l'eau

rduite, les renflements, la rugosification et diminuer notablement la
quantit de dchets.
L'objectif ultime devrait tre accroissement de la longvit et des
possibilits d'utilisation des produits en bois coll. Il importe donc de
dterminer le comportement du bois proximit de Joints mcaniques ou
adhsifs sous l'effet de contraintes externes et de dfinir des critres de
fluage et de fracture.
313
Nouveaux produits composites drivs du bois pour la construction
L'objectif est d'identifier d'ventuels nouveaux produits composites

drivs du bois et d'valuer leur rapport qualit/prix ainsi que leurs
possibilits d'emploi. 11 est prvu qu'une action coordonne soit mene
pour tudier ce domaine et dterminer les besoins futurs en matire de
recherche et les options de dveloppement.
Nouveaux produits composites drivs du lige
L'objectif est de trouver de nouvelles utilisations pour le lige de

faible qualit et les dchets de lige industriel ainsi que de mettre au
point de nouveaux matriaux drivs de dchets de lige industriel, notam-
ment les poudres de lige. Une action coordonne pourrait tre mene en vue
de dterminer les principales difficults et les perspectives long terme
de ce secteur industriel.
Pour conclure ce premier projet du troisime programme bois et lige
(1990/93), les efforts porteront sur un certain nombre de sujets parmi les
plus importants, l'objectif global tant de traiter la "filire bois"
complte pour
- amliorer la disponibilit et la qualit des ressources forestires,
compte tenu des exigences de l'environnement;
- amliorer le potentiel conomique des industries forestires de la CE en
vue d'assurer leur comptitivit et leur viabilit au niveau internatio-
nal.
314
LA CONSTRUCTION MODERNE EH BOIS EH SUISSE:
LA QUALITE D'UNE CONCEPTION SIMPLE
J. KOLB
Service technique de l'Association Suisse des Industriels
Position du problme
La Suisse avec ses 7 millions d'habitants est un pays population

dense, couvert de forts dans une proportion de 27% de sa superficie
totale. L'utilisation annuelle de bois qui en dcoule est de l'ordre
d'environ 5 millions de m , face une capacit de production de bois brut
estime environ 7 raillions de m . La Suisse peut-elle tre considre
comme un pays qui, sous l'impulsion tant de la tradition que de la raison,
utilise systmatiquement cette matire premire renouvelable mise sa dis-
position? La rponse ft cette question n'est pas facile; elle pourrait 8tre
indiffremment affirmative ou ngative.
On constate cependant que la construction en bois connat un regain de
succs en Suisse depuis quelques annes. Cette volution positive s'ex-
plique sans doute avant tout par la rputation croissante dont jouit le
bois en tant que matriau de construction. A ct du nouvel lan donn par
des architectes qui ont de grandes ambitions sur le plan de la cration de
formes esthtiques, des solutions nouvelles d'ordre technique sont en voie
d'laboration. Divers organismes et entreprises ont entam une collabora-
tion afin de Jeter les bases d'une documentation technique sre au service
de la construction en bois.
Actuellement, le problme majeur qui se pose en Suisse sur le plan de
l'conomie forestire et du bois rside dans l'intgration de cette cono-
mie dans le march europen du bois (courants commerciaux). Des bois de
classes de qualit homognes et de prix avantageux, en provenance d'autres
pays europens, tentent de s'imposer sur le march intrieur suisse et
cartent de ce march le bois des forts indignes. Malgr cela, la Suisse
ne s'est pas prononce en faveur de mesures restrictives rglementant
l'entre du bois aux frontires dans le but de mieux protger son propre
bois. Elle estime au contraire qu'il convient de favoriser l'intgration
dans le contexte europen afin de sauvegarder et de mieux utiliser nos
chances communes.
D'autre part, dans le cadre de l'uniformisation des marchs intrieurs,
la Suisse sera forcment amene i participer ft la mise au point et ft
l'introduction des normes europennes rgissant le secteur du btiment. Et
le remaniement de la norme suisse rglementant les structures en bois
(norme SIA 164) devra se faire sur la base des rgles unifies de l'Euro-
code S.
Situation actuelle de la construction en bois en Suisse
L'Expo 64 de Lausanne a marqu de son sceau l'ingnierie moderne de la

construction en bois et elle a t dterminante pour l'volution des formeB
architecturales durant les annes 60 et Jusqu' nos jours. La toiture de la
grande salle des ftes de cette exposition tait constitute de bandeaux en
contreplaqus qui formaient une structure porteuse plane soumise ft des ef-
forts de traction d'une porte de 66 m. Cet difice et la conception et la
315
ralisation de cet difice ont suscit chez les visiteurs de l'expo et chez
les spcialistes des commentaires admiratifs et mme enthousiastes. Pendant
les dcennies suivantes, d'autres difices de grande envergure et d'une
valeur technique remarquable ont t raliss. Actuellement, le rythme
auquel sont construits ces sortes d'difices reprsentatifs s'est ralenti
mesure que s'est accrue la sensibilit aux problmes poss par la protec-
tion de l'environnement et par la rarfaction des terrains disponibles.
D'ailleurs, la plupart des difices reprsentatifs qui font partie de l'in-
frastructure d'une rgion donne et qui ncessitent des structures auda-
cieuses d'une grande porte sont dj construits.
Il s'en suit que la construction en bois devra dsormais s'orienter
diffremment. Il faudra qu'elle se tourne davantage vers des secteurs o
existe une importante demande de volume construit, tel le secteur de la
construction de logements ou encore celui des btiments usage agricole,
artisanale ou industriel, qu'il s'agisse de constructions nouvelles, de
transformations ou de reconversions. Les communes continueront sans doute
avoir besoin de salles pouvant abriter des manifestations sportives, des
activits sociales et culturelles, des expositions, etc. La valeur de ces
difices sera juge non pas tellement en fonction de leurs dimensions impo-
santes, mais plutt en fonction de la conception architecturale laquelle
viendra s'ajouter le raffinement du travail de l'ingnieur, et en fonction
du niveau lev de l'excution ainsi que de la fonctionnalit de l'en-
semble.
On trouve en Suisse des difices en bois de trs grande envergure qui
prouvent que ce pays est pass matre dans l'art de construire en bois. Le
caractre exemplaire de ces difices ne saurait tre ni. D'autre part, en
ce qui concerne les nouvelles orientations qui viennent d'tre voques, on
a dj obtenu un certain nombre de rsultats encourageants. Ce qui fait
encore dfaut, c'est la mise en oeuvre sur une vaste chelle de l'exp-
rience acquise. En d'autres termes, il est permis de penser que la combi-
naison entre une technologie qui a fait ses preuves et des moyens pratiques
faciles mettre en oeuvre pourront crer de nouveaux dbouchs sur le
march.
La promotion de l'utilisation du bois: l'exemple de la Suisse
Une importante tude des proprits du bois suisse a abouti aux conclu-
sions suivantes:
- le bois suisse est nettement plus rsistant qu'on ne le croyait;
- le classement actuel sur la base de la norme SIA 164 (3 classes de
rsistance) est compliqu; il ne permet pas d'tablir une distinction
nette entre les diffrentes classes;
- le classement du bois selon son aspect (critres esthtiques) laisse
dsirer.
En Suisse, on se demande actuellement si un systme de classement plus

simple et mieux adapt permettrait de mieux tenir compte des exigences du
march.
A l'Universit Technique de Zurich, on a procd des essais destins
amliorer les performances des bois lamelles colls; ces essais ont t
effectus sur les produits suivants:
- poutres en bois lamelles colls avec lamelles de traction constitues de
couches de contreplaqu (poutres hybriques);
- bois lamelle coll en htre;
- poutres en bois quarri.
316
Rcemment, l'Universit Technique de Zurich a consacr plusieurs tudes
aux assemblages et aux organes d'assemblage. Les travaux ont port essen-
tiellement sur le comportement de 1'aboutage des lamelles du bois lamell-
coll. En ce qui concerne les organes d'assemblage mcaniques, on a tudi
la rsistance de l'acier, les degrs de minceur, les types et les condi-
tions de positionnement.
Les exigences accrues en matire d'tanchit des enveloppes ext-
rieures des bfltiments, dans le but de raliser des conomies d'nergie, on
conduit a des changements au niveau de la conception et de l'excution des
diffrentes couches et de leurs assemblages. On s'efforce galement de
mettre la disposition des projecteurs et des excutants des concepts
simples facilitant la construction en bois tant au niveau de la conception
que de l'excution.
Il est dsormais possible d'utiliser de nouveaux types d'lments de
structure en bois massif comme lments plans (planchers). A partir de
simples planches, on fabrique des composants individuels - ils font dj
l'objet d'une demande de brevet; ces composants sont simplement assembls
sur le chantier.
Rsum
On assiste actuellement, En Suisse, une volution trs nette dans le

secteur de la construction en bois; cette volution, qui est le fruit de
l'enseignement, de la recherche et de la pratique concerne la fois le
produit utilis, la conception de l'ouvrage et les mthodes de travail.
Elle a de bonnes chances de s'amplifier. D'autre part, les prmisses nces-
saires a l'amlioration des possibilits de formation existent dj tous
les niveaux. Les premiers dveloppements dans cette direction sont dj
amorcs. Citons ce propos la formation dispense par les universits
techniques de Zurich et de Lausanne, les possibilits de formation offertes
par l'cole spcialise du bois de Biel (depuis 1986, on y forme galement
des techniciens), les tudes post-universitaires et les programmes de re-
cherche subventionns par l'Etat. Depuis peu, il existe en Suisse un pro-
gramme destin promouvoir la construction en bois ("Impulsprogramm Holz);
il s'agit d'un programme d'initiation et de formation continue, d'une dure
de 6 ans, qui est subventionn par l'Etat.
Mais l'essentiel, c'est le patrimoine construit. De nos jours, on
trouve de nouveau de nombreux btiments et structures en bois de grande
qualit. Ces difices devraient inciter les matres d'ouvrage et les con-
cepteurs concevoir et raliser des btiments en bois encore meilleurs,
encore mieux conus et mieux adapts aux exigences de notre poque. Ainsi,
de nouvelles perspectives s'ouvriront peut-tre, tant donn galement que,
depuis quelques annes, l'Etat s'efforce de promouvoir l'utilisation du
bois en Suisse. L'association des industriels du bois de Lignum, dont la
fondation remonte plus d'un demi-sicle, redouble d'efforts pour coor-
donner ces tentatives diverses et pour transmettre aux concepteurs et aux
excutants sous une forme approprie toutes les informations nouvelles con-
cernant le matriau bois et la construction en bois.
317
TENDANCES RECENTES DANS LE CALCUL
DES STRUCTURES EN BOIS EN ZONES SISMIQUES
A. CECCOTTI
Dpartement du Gnie Civil - Universit de Florence
Pour les constructions en zones sismiques galement, les codes de

calcul les plus rcents pour la vrification de la scurit des structures
s'orientent vers la mthode semi-probabiliste aux tats limites: des ex-
emples dans ce sens sont fournis par Eurocode 8 lui-mme, par la norme
italienne CNR-GNDT et par la norme no-zlandaise NZS 4203.
1. Par consquent, le prsent rapport rexamine tout d'abord de manire

systmatique, la problmatique associe au comportement aux sisme des
structures en bois. La dmarche semi-probabiliste exige en effet une
valuation de l'action sismique au stade de la conception qui soit plus
proche des intensits rellement atteintes durant les tremblements de
terre, y compris ceux qui ont un caractre exceptionnel; d'autre part,
cette dmarche exige une connaissance plus approfondie du comportement
ultime "effondrement" des matriaux en soi et des structures dans leur
ensemble. Sur le premier point, si l'on se rfre l'oscillateur las-
tique lmentaire, on sait que l'acclration maximale induite par le
sisme au pied de la structure peut, au sommet de la structure elle-
mme, tre amplifie jusqu' trois fois et plus, en fonction de la
priode de vibration. Ceci veut dire que la masse de la structure, tant
donn les valeurs de rfrence relatives des tremblements de terre
exceptionnels, peut arriver subir des acclrations atteignant jusqu'
1 g environ, c'est--dire subir des forces d'inertie du mme ordre de
grandeur que son propre poids. Ces fortes acclrations et les forces
d'inertie lies la rponse lastique de la structure qui en rsultent
ont trs souvent pour effet d'amener la structure, mme sous l'action
d'un faible tremblement de terre, dpasser ses propres limites las-
tiques. Par consquent, sans l'effet du sisme, la structure se
"ramollit", fait varier sa propre priode d'oscillation, dissipe de
l'nergie cintique et, grce galement au caractre cyclique de "va-et-
vient" de l'action sismique, "a le temps" d'invertir son propre mouve-
ment avant de s'crouler.
Par consquent, la capacit de la structure dvelopper des dforma-

tions plastiques sans se rompre devient une composante essentielle de la
rsistance un phnomne sismique.
Comme matriau, le bois est en soi lger (son poids est d'environ 1/5 de
celui du bton) ; il a un rapport rsistance/poids du mme ordre que
celui de l'acier, possde une excellente rsistance la compression et
la traction et, qui plus est cette rsistance augmente sous des
charges de brve dure; son module d'lasticit reste relativement
faible mme sous l'action de phnomnes de courte dure dans lesquels,
grce la dformabilit que en rsulte, l'amplification du phnomne
sismique se trouve amoindrie.
Pour toutes les raisons numres, donc, le bois serait un matriau trs
adapt pour les constructions en zones sismiques, mais il possde
318
l'inconvnient d'avoir un comportement essentiellement fragile la
rupture. En effet, tandis que le bois de petits chantillons sans
dfauts peut prsenter la flexion, par exemple, une dformation plas-
tique importante avant rupture, le bois de structure, c'est--dire dans
les dimensions relles o il est utilis dans les structures, qu'il
s'agisse de bois massif ou de bois lamelle, du fait des invitables
noeuds ou autres dfauts, s'effondrer du ct des fibres tendues et,
qui plus est, bien avant d'atteindre le seuil de plasticit du ct des
fibres comprimes. Ceci est d'autant plus vrai que le moment de rupture
est moindre.
Toutefois, si l'on ne considre plus le matriau en soi mais les struc-

tures dans leur ensemble, on observe qu'il est possible d'atteindre des
valeurs satisfaisantes en matire de ductilit de la structure grce au
comportement ductile de Joints semi-rigides appropris entre les
lments de la structure. Cette aptitude peut se manifester dans des
Joints aptes a rsister de faibles tremblements de terre sans dforma-
tions significatives mais capables, sous l'action de forts tremblements
de terre, de dissiper l'nergie et de rendre la structure plus dfor-
mable sans qu'il y ait un effondrement complet, et qui restent en mme
temps susceptibles d'tre facilement rpars par la suite.
Un comportement favorable a cet gard s'observe par exemple dans les

constructions ossature de bois et panneaux de contreplaqu pour
structures.
Les normes les plus rcentes pour le calcul des structures en zones
sismiques prennent en compte cette capacit de supporter d'importants
tremblements de terre sans aboutir l'effondrement en faisant inter-
venir un "coefficient de comportement structurel" qui rduit l'impor-
tance des phnomnes sismiques envisags, valus sur la base du spectre
de rponse lastique, en proportion de la ductilit structurale de la
construction.
2. Sont donc prsents ici certains rsultats thoriques et exprimentaux

sur le sujet obtenus par le Dpartement du gnie civil de l'Universit
de Florence et visant surtout valuer le coefficient de comportement
structurel.
3. Enfin, sont analyss certains exemples de calcul de structures simples

en bois, en vrifiant les dimensions qui peuvent tre obtenues avec la
norme sismique traditionnelle italienne, a la lumire de la rcente
norme CNR-GNDT pour les constructions en zones sismiques.
319
CONSTRUCTIONS A OSSATURE EN BOIS - LA SITUATION AU ROYAUME-UNI
D. SCOTT
Association des maisons en bois et en briques
1. Contexte historique
Au Royaume-Uni, il existe encore de nombreux exemples de maisons

ossature en bois datant des 14me et 15me sicles. La plupart d'entre
elles sont toutefois construites au moyen de bois de feuillus de forte
section.
L'abattage de grandes forts de chne n'ayant pas t suivi de nou-
velles plantations, ce matriau de base a du tre remplac; c'est ainsi que
de nombreuses rgions du Royaume-Uni ont trs largement adopt la pierre
naturelle et la brique de glaise, pour la simple et bonne raison que les
matriaux de base taient porte de main.
Les ossatures en bois continurent cependant tre utilises dans
certaines rgions, en particulier dans l'Est du Royaume-Uni, o il tait
facile d'importer des bois rsineux d'Europe. On trouve encore aujourd'hui
de nombreux exemples de maisons ossature de ce type de faible section
(100 x 50 mm), datant du 18me sicle et qui, comme par le pass, prouvent
toujours chaleur et scurit leurs occupants.
Au cours des annes 1920 et 1930, l'utilisation d'ossatures de bois
rsineux de faible section revint au got du jour, et il existe un certain
nombre d'exemples de lotissements municipaux importants construits
1'poque en vue de rpondre la forte demande de logement - et l encore,
ces logements continuent donner toute satisfaction.
2. Dveloppement des maisons ossature en bois intgrant des lments de

conception moderne
Vers la fin des annes 50 et au dbut des annes 60, le gouvernement

britannique a t confront un norme problme de logement, qui nces-
sitait la construction de plus de 350.000 logements par an, et ce au moins
jusqu'en 1970. L'industrie du btiment n'avait absolument pas la capacit
ncessaire pour rpondre cette demande, et le "logement industrialis" a
t considr comme la solution au problme. De nombreuses systmes ont t
mis au point en vue de rpondre cette demande, y compris l'affreuse tour
de bton grands panneaux et les immeubles coursives. La tradition des
.maisons ossature en bois connut une nouvelle vogue, ceci prs que l'an-
cienne mthode de la "construction d'ensemble" - c'est--dire l'assemblage,
sur place, des appuis et des solives, technique toujours largement utilise
en Amrique du Nord - fut abandonne au profit de l'utilisation de panneaux
prfabriqus en usine. Dans les annes 60, les logements ossature en bois
jourent un rle important dans l'volution du secteur du logement et
depuis 1965, 550.000 units de ce type ont t construites, dans le domaine
public comme dans le secteur priv (voir figure 1).
Aujourd'hui, malgr la chute de popularit que connat ce type de
construction depuis 1984 en raison du "phnomne" mdiatique, il est dsor-
mais considr comme l'une des deux principales techniques de construction
de logement au Royaume-Uni.
320
3. Principes d'ingnierie
Au Royaume-Uni, les normes d'incendie excluent l'utilisation du bois de

construction pour les logements individuels de plus de 3 niveaux (4 dans
certaines circonstances); les problmes d'ingnierie ne sont donc pas trs
difficiles a rsoudre. En rgle gnrale, toutes les charges verticales
peuvent reposer sur des poteaux de 100 x 50 mm (90 x 40 en dimension
finale) dont l'entraxe est de 300, 400 ou, le plus souvent, 600 mm. Les
panneaux des murs extrieurs, prfabriqus en usine, et dont les dimensions
maximales sont de 4,2 x 2,4 m de hauteur, sont revtus de 8 ou 9,5 mm de
contreplaqu, tandis que les cloisons, construites selon le mme procd,
ne sont gnralement pas recouvertes.
Ces panneaux supportent les solives des planchers dont les entraxes
sont les mimes que ceux des poteaux qui peuvent tre monts libres ou
intgrs au panneau en usine. Les planchers, qui peuvent tre galement en
contreplaqu ou en panneaux de particules, reposent sur les solives aux-
quelles ils sont fixs, formant ainsi une plate-forme de travail partir
de laquelle les panneaux des tages suprieurs sont monts. Les charpentes
se composent gnralement de chevrons en treillis, parfaitement entretoiss
et ancrs aux panneaux des parois des tages suprieurs. La structure en
caisson recouverte de contreplaqu ossature de bois ainsi obtenue est
conue de manire absorber toute la charge statique et la surcharge
ncessaire ainsi que les forces horizontales. Contrairement aux construc-
tions en maonnerie, pour lesquelles les deux parois des murs extrieurs
doivent pourvoir supporter ces charges, le revtement extrieur de la
maonnerie de briques de 102 mm, utilise le plus frquemment pour le rem-
plissage ne contribue pas & la stabilit de la structure.
4. Principes de construction
A plusieurs gards, l'exprience acquise au Royaume-Uni nous a appris

qu'il faut accorder autant d'attention, sinon plus, la construction comme
structure, si l'on veut obtenir un produit final satisfaisant.
Dans le domaine de l'acoustique, un travail important d'essais et de
dveloppement a t ralis, a la fois en laboratoire et sur le terrain, en
vue d'obtenir des dtails de construction permettant une insonorisation
adquate, tant verticalement que horizontalement, sans mettre en place des
structures de maonnerie haute densit, ainsi que le suggrerait la sa-
gesse traditionnelle. L'auteur a invent en 1967 un type particulier de
plancher acoustique flottant, dont les principes de base sont dsormais
intgrs la rglementation du btiment du Royaume-Uni. Ces principes
seront dvelopps au cours de la confrence.
Dans le domaine de la tenue au feu, des mthodes ont t mises au point
pour assurer la scurit des occupants en conformit avec les rglementa-
tions britanniques, tris strictes, en matire de propagation du feu et des
flammes ainsi que de la rsistance au feu. L'amnagement de cavits coupe-
feu a galement t considr avec grand soin et sera prsent plus en
dtail.
Il est ncessaire de consacrer une attention particulre aux dtails de
construction dans le cas de mur de remplissage autoporteur en maonnerie ou
en briques, si l'on veut viter les problmes rsultant du mouvement
diffrentiel de la structure de bois et des murs de remplissage. Les ouver-
tures de murs et les saillies de toit posent cet effet des problmes
particuliers. Par ailleurs, l'interface entre les panneaux de construction
en bois fabriqus en usine suivant des cotes trs prcises et les fonda-
321
tions et les maonneries de briques ralises sur place entranent des pro-
blmes de tolrance auxquels il convient d'accorder une attention particu-
lire.
La qualit de l'isolation ayant augment, les dtails demandent un
examen plus particulier et au Royaume-Uni un travail important t con-
sacr, l'laboration de critres relatifs aux interfaces pare-vapeur/iso-
lation/revtement/mur de remplissage. Les rsultats de certains travaux
seront examins.
5. Formation
Si les logements ossature en bois constituent la forme la plus tradi-

tionnelle des btiments usage d'habitation au Royaume-Uni, la technologie
est prsent en constante volution et, des concepteurs aux hommes de
chantier, la formation reste primordiale. Un aperu des actions dj rali-
ses et des projets futurs sera prsent.
6. Avantages
Les avantages que prsente la construction ossature en bois sont mul-

tiples, la fois pour l'entrepreneur et pour l'utilisateur final. Pour
l'entrepreneur, une plus grande partie du travail est ralise en usine,
sous contrle, et ce du simple lment de panneau constituant les murs
jusqu' des units de volume entires. Cette mthode permet d'obtenir une
meilleure qualit de la finition et une plus grande rapidit de construc-
tion, ce qui gnre son tour un cash-flow tout en permettant de rduire
les cots. Par ailleurs, le plus haut degr d'isolation thermique obtenu
entrane pour l'utilisateur final, une rduction des cots nergtiques; en
outre les constructions tant sches, il n'y a pas de problmes de fissura-
tion due au schage, et la juxtaposition de matriaux d'isolation placs
la source de la chaleur rduit le risque de condensation de surface. L'in-
sonorisation entre les logements est excellente, et les nuisances sonores
de voisins peuvent tre sensiblement rduites.
On peut dire que pendant 12 ans, le Royaume-Uni de 1975 1986 a t le
premier fabricant europen de logements ossature en bois en Europe et il
faut esprer que l'expos qui sera prsent permettra aux partenaires de la
CEE qui souhaiteraient accrotre leur production nationale de mieux ap-
prcier les principes d'ingnierie et de construction appliqus au Royaume-
Uni en matire de logements ossature en bois.
322
LE DEVELOPPEMENT DI LA CONSTRUCTIOH INDUSTRIELLE AU DANEMARK
B. LUND JOHANSEN
Conseil Danois de l'Information sur le Bois
Le dveloppement venir de la construction de logements au Danemark,

reposera sur des mthodes industrielles de construction et un trs large
emploi des lments prfabriqus.
Ces mthodes, qui existent dj seront orientes vers la construction
d'habitations moins grandes dont deux des plus importantes caractristiques
sont l'emploi d'une vaste gamme de matriaux et la varit de l'expression
architecturale.
Au cours des prochaines annes, on construira un maximum de 25.000
habitations par an, ce qui ne reprsente qu'un tiers de la production to-
tale de la fin des annes soixante-dix, poque laquelle la construction
de logements tait son apoge au Danemark.
Aprs la deuxime guerre mondiale, la punrie de logements tait grave.
Il tait ncessaire de dvelopper des mthodes de construction industri-
elles assurant une production efficace, rationnelle et conomique afin de
satisfaire aux exigences du march. L'objectif tait de crer un march de
la construction souple proposant un ventail d'lments d'une conception
modulaire de type "ouvert".
Au cours de cette priode, sont apparus divers systmes de construction
conformes au "concept modulaire", mais il s'agissait de systmes "ferms"
bass sur des lments en bton.
Au cours de annes soixante et soixante-dix, caractrises par l'norme
expansion des zones urbaines et par d'ambitieux programmes d'urbanisme, la
construction systmatise et rationalise de logements a fait l'objet de
critiques croissantes. On lui a reproch sa monotonie et son mpris des
valeurs architecturales et de l'environnement. Des enqutes d'opinion sur
la qualit de la vie dans les nouvelles zones urbaines ont rvl l'exis-
tence de graves problmes sociaux et les revendications en faveur d'un
amnagement urbain beaucoup plus humain sont alles en augmentant.
A la fin des annes soixante-dix, la punrie de logements tait un pro-
blme plus ou moins rsolu et la production a sensiblement diminu pour at-
teindre le niveau actuel de 22.000 habitations par an. L'aspiration une
plus grande varit et plus d'humanit dans la construction immobilire
s'est traduite au Danemark par l'amnagement de zones urbaines faible
densit et une conception nouvelle de la construction de logements carac-
trise par de petites sries d'habitations variant dans leur expression
architecturale et utilisant diffrents types de matriaux.
Le bois a toujours t l'un des matriaux de construction traditionnels
au Danemark. Pays importateur de bois, le Danemark est le plus gros consom-
mateur de ce matriau par habitant, aprs les pays nordiques eux-mmes,
producteurs. Le bois reste un matriau de construction important au Dane-
mark o il est utilis aussi bien pour les systmes porteurs que pour les
lments de construction ou le second oeuvre. Depuis quelque temps, l'uti-
lisation du bois et des structures de bois, a contribu renouveler le
style danois de construction. En mme temps, le dveloppement de mthodes
de construction simples faisant appel au lois, a galement conduit s'in-
terroger sur le bien-fond des normes programmes d'expansion urbaine axs
sur les structures et les lments en bton.
323
Cette volution montre qu'il est possible d'amliorer les mthodes
industrielles de construction mises au point au lendemain de la deuxime
guerre mondiale. Leurs principes sont toujours applicables mme si les
conditions de production ont chang et si l'on utilise de nouveaux
matriaux.
La construction de demain reposera de plus en plus sur des mthodes
industrielles combinant des lments de construction lourds avec des
matriaux de construction lgers comme le mtal, le pltre et le bois.
Une tendance comparable peut tre releve dans la construction des
btiments commerciaux et industriels au Danemark, ainsi que dans la cons-
truction de centres sportifs et de recration.
Cet expos fournira des exemples du processus de dveloppement qu'a
connu le secteur de la construction industrielle au Danemark et de la faon
dont il s'est transform au cours des annes quatre-vingts pour donner
naissance de nouvelles formes d'habitation en utilisant une large gamme
de matriaux et en adoptant une attitude plus consciente l'gard des
valeurs architecturales et humaines. Cette volution nous a valu des zones
urbaines de bien meilleure qualit, des quipements satisfaisants pour les
loisirs et des constructions industrielles et commerciales originales dans
lesquelles l'image de chaque entreprise a trouv son expression architec-
turale.
324
COUPOLES EN BOIS
A. JORISSEN
Ingnieur-conseil au Bureau LUning
INTRODUCTION
Le bois lamelle offre de grandes possibilits de ralisation d'ouvrages

modernes et trs attrayants dont les coupoles sont sans aucun doute un
exemple.
L'informatique moderne et ses systmes de CAO nous permettent de conce-
voir des ouvrages qui constituent un dfi pour tout constructeur-projeteur.
Les coupoles
Les coupoles sont des figures tridimensionnelles dont la forme peut

tre dtermin l'aide de fonctions mathmatiques. Les coupoles envisages
ici sont des sphres. Les coupoles et autres structures cintres ont t
pendant longtemps les seules constructions autorisant des "grandes por-
tes". La coupole en est l'une des formes les plus rsistantes.
Dans les coupoles, la compression due au poids propre s'exerce peu
prs dans le plan de la coupole. Les moments de flexion engendrs sont
rduits. Si une coupole d'un faible poids propre subit une charge de vent,
une section de sa surface est alors mise en traction.
La construction de coupoles peut se faire de diverses manires. Dans
les coupoles dcrites dans le prsent document le matriau ne recouvre pas
uniformment la surface. Celle-ci comporte un certain nombre de nervures.
Le remplissage des espaces vides peut se faire & 1' aide de divers
matriaux.
Selon le mode de rpartition des nervures, les coupoles se classent en
coupoles lattis, lamelles, Schwedler et godsiques.
La bois
Le bois peut absorber des efforts de compression, de traction et de

flexion. Son utilisation est freine par des prjugs quant a son inflamma-
bilit et sa sensibilit aux moisissures et autres parasites. Des remdes
ont t apports aux inconvnients, mais les prjugs n'ont pas toujours
disparu.
Le bois dans la construction de coupoles
Le choix d'un matriau de construction s'effectue en fonction de la

technique, du cot, de la scurit et de l'esthtique.
La coupole godsique en bois
La rpartition godsique des pices de bois sur la surface de la

sphre semble prsenter un intrt sur le plan de la rigidit et de la
325
rsistance. Le pre spirituel de la coupole godesique est Buckminster
Fuller.
La conception gomtrique
La surface de base est normalement un cercle. Le rayon au sol et la

hauteur sont connus; la sphre et la coupole sont ainsi dtermines. La
rpartition godsique des lments s'opre depuis le point le plus lev.
En principe, trois cercles passant par ce point sont tracs la surface de
la sphre. Ensuite une rotation est imprime ces cercles autour de leur
diamtre, selon un angle choisi. Cette rotation dtermine douze nouveaux
points d'intersection entre les cercles. Les autres points d'intersection
sont dtermins sur la surface de la coupole suivant un modle fixe. Au
niveau des fondations, la sphre est coupe horizontalement par un disque
plat.
RESUME
L'abandon du modle fixe proximit des fondations permet de limiter

un minimum le nombre de points d'intersection avec le sol, ainsi que le
nombre d'lments diffrents.
La conception en fonction de forces
Les fondations se trouvent en gnral au-dessus du plan mdian de la

sphre. Du fait de la rpartition uniforme de la surcharge, la structure
est en compression. La surface de compression se situe environ dans le plan
de la structure. Les moments de flexion sont faibles. Les pices de bois
matresses sont conues en fonction de la surcharge uniformment rpartie.
La charge de vent a peu de prise sur la structure en raison de l'aro-
dynamisme de la forme sphrique. Toutefois, il faut tenir compte du vent
lors du choix des organes d'assemblage des pices matresses.
La structure
Toutes les pices ont la mme section. Leur assemblage est ralis au
moyen d'une pice spcialement conue cet effet et brevete.
Les efforts de compression, de cisaillement, de traction et de flexion
peuvent tre transmis de pice en pice. Dans la plupart des cas, la dis-
.tance entre les pices matresses est trop grande pour le voligeage. Des
pannes sont donc ajoutes. Le voligeage, d'une paisseur de 21 mm, est
cintr suivant la forme de la sphre. Tous les autres lments sont en bois
lamelle.
Le montage
Nous contruisons la structure par encorbellements succesifs sans cha-

faudage compliqu. Pendant le montage, les pices de bois sont provisoire-
ment maintenues en suspension par l'assemblage.
326
Optimisation de la structure
La structure est optimise en faisant varier le nombre de pices, de

pannes, de points d'intersection au niveau des fondations et la surface
de la sphre. Les dimensions de ces variables sont importantes. Les
variables et les dimensions sont troitement lies. Le montage et le choix
du systme de pannes Jouent galement un rle. Dans certains cas, la hau-
teur de la coupole est aussi une variable. Il semble que l'optimisation de
la structure constitue un problme complexe. C'est une question de cots
qui s'additionnent i chaque modification du projet.
Conclusions gnrales:
1. une modification de la hauteur n'a aucun effet important sur le cot;

2. le voligeage est un poste onreux. Il est essentiel de rduire l'pais-
seur. Nous avons opt pour une paisseur de 21 mm;
3. les cots s'lvent moins vite si les pices de bois sont raccourcies
plutfit qu'allonges.
Dveloppements
Pour couvrir des halles de sport, telles que des patinoires et des
stades de football, nous avons combin la structure godsique et des char-
pentes traditionnelles cintres. Des combinaisons avec d'autres formes go-
mtriques, notamment des pyramides (surface triangulaires/4) et des cubes
doivent tre envisages.
327
L'AVENIR DK L'INGENIERIE DK LA CONSTRUCTION EN BOIS
- RECHERCHES ET DEVELOPPEMENTS -
J. EHLBECK
Universit de Karlsruhe
La construction en bois a, derrire elle, une longue tradition en

Europe. Cependant, malgr le niveau lev de certaines techniques arti-
sanales du travail du bois, l'ingnierie de la construction en bois doit
poursuivre ses efforts en vue de s'adapter aux procds de construction
modernes. Les exigences croissantes en matire de qualit conjointement
avec une rgression ventuelle de la qualit d bois offert sur le march,
la situation concurrentielle du bois face aux autres types de matriaux de
construction et les innovations techniques en font une ncessit absolue.
Pour atteindre ce but, il importe que les efforts au niveau de la recherche
et de la fromation des futurs ingnieurs soient intensifis.
L'volution de la filire bois en elle-mme semble s'orienter comme
suit:
- prservation et conservation des structures existantes en bois;
- encouragement des activits artisanales traditionnelles de transforma-
tion du bois au niveau des moyennes entreprises;
- dveloppement de 1'ingnierie-bois haut de gamme avec mise en oeuvre de
procds industriels.
Il s'y ajoute que la suppression des frontires nationales favorisent

les changes des connaissances et expriences particulires au niveau
rgional, notamment dans le cadre de l'limination des entraves au commerce
dans les Communauts europennes.
La recherche dans le domaine de la construction en bois se doit de
prendre en compte ces diverses orientations, ce qui l'oblige redfinir
ses objectifs et tablir un nouvel ordre de priorit. Trois points forts
se dgagent pour l'avenir:
- tude des proprits du bois de construction et des matriaux contenant

du bois. Les travaux devront porter notamment sur l'amlioration des
procds de classement en fonction de la distribution de rsistance et,
surtout, sur l'action exerce par le temps et par les facteurs externes,
tels que l'humidit et la temprature, sur les proprits qui ont une
incidence sur la construction. En ce qui concerne les produits en bois
qui font en permanence l'objet de transformations et d'amliorations
technologiques, il convient de dterminer en continu les donnes
mcaniques et de rsistance du matriau.et de les mettre la disposi-
tion des concepteurs.
- acquisition de connaissances nouvelles en ce qui concerne les techniques

d'assemblage des pices des structures. Les assemblages constituent le
maillon le plus faible des structures en bois. Jusqu'ici, la recherche
fondamentale oriente ne s'est pas assez intresse aux dformations
subies par les assemblages. Les analyses thoriques devront tre
compltes par des essais. Il y aura lieu notamment d'tudier les fonc-
tions de distribution de paramtres, compte tenu de toutes les grandeurs
susceptibles d'entraner une dispersion des rsultats.
328
- analyse du comportement des lments des structures et de la fiabilit
des constructions en bols. En raison de la non-linarit du comportement
du matriau et des assemblages soumis l'Influence de facteurs ex-
ternes, tels que les charges, le climat et le temps, le comportement de
l'ensemble de la construction est trs complexe. De ce fait, 11 y a lieu
de concevoir et de contrler de nouveaux modles de calcul pour les
principales techniques de construction l'aide des nouvelles mthodes
de traitement lectronique des donnes et de mettre au point des tech-
niques simples, directement applicables dans la pratique, afin d'tre en
mesure de mieux valuer le niveau de fiabilit des structures en bois.
Pour ce faire, il faudra, dans une premire tape, introduire la nou-

velles approche probabillstique de la scurit dans le domaine de l'ing
nierie-boia.
L'alignement international des calculs de la stabilit statique pour-
rait avoir galement pour effet de promouvoir la construction en bois dans
les pays o les techniques du travail du bois sont moins values. La mise
en commun des efforts au niveau de la recherche sur les constructions en
bois pourra assurer la ressource naturelle renouvelable constitue par le
bois et par les matriaux drivs composs de bois de bonnes perspectives
d'avenir dans le secteur du btiment.
329
LIST OF PARTICIPANTS
AASHEIM, E. BANGA, J.K.A.

Slvillngenir Technical employee timber centre
NORSK TRETEKNISK INSTITUTT CENTRUM HOUT (TIMBER CENTRE)
Postboks 113 PO Box 401
Blindera (Forsknlngsvn. 3 b) NL - 1400 AK BUSSUM
N - 0314 OSLO 3
BAUSZUS, W.
Ingnieur
AASS, A. CMA, Centrale Marketinggesellschaft
Consulting engineer der Deutschen Agrarwlrtschaft m.b.H.
INGENIORENE LUND & AASS Koblenzer Strae 148
14 b Thomas Heftyes gate D - 5300 BONN 2
N - 0264 OSLO 2
BECKER, K.
AGIE de SELSATEN, J. PrUfing. ftlr Baustatik
Director BRO FUR BAUSTATIK
EXCOSER Ahornweg 80
59, av. Edmond Mesens D - 6056 HEUSENSTAMM
B - 1040 BRUXELLES
BECKMANN, G.
EWALD BECKMANN GmbH + Co.
ANDERSEN, O.F. Relsterberg 4
Forbundssekretaer D - 5779 ESLOHE-BREMKE
TRAEINDUSTRIFORBUNDET I DANMARK
Mimeragade 47.2
DK - 2200 KOBENHAVN N BECKMANN, J.
EWALD BECKMANN GmbH + Co.
Relsterberg 4
ARBAIZA MENDOZA, C.E. D - 5779 ESLOHE-BREMKE
Architect
JUNTA DEL ACUERDO DE CARMAGENA
Apartado 18 BELL, T.J.
PERU - LIMA 18 Consulting engineer
WREN & BELL
11 Chester Street
UK - EDINBURGH EH3 7RF
ARRIAGA MARTITEGUI, F.
Arqultecto
ASOCIACION DE INVESTIGACION TECNICA BENEDETTI, C.
DE LAS INDUSTRIAS DE LA MADERA Y Archltetto
CORCHO (A.I.T.I.M.) SVILUPPO LEGNO S.R.L. (CENTRO LEGNO)
2, Calle de la Flora n 3 16, Via Guido D'Arezzo
E - 28013 MADRID I - 00198 ROMA
330
BIRKELAND, R. BRUNINGHOFF, H.
Dlrnctor Bautechnlk/Iagenleurholzbau
NORSK TRETRKNTSK INSTITUTT BERG. UNIVERSITT WUPPERTAL
Pistboka 113 PaulusVlrchstrae 7
Blindera (Forskalngsvn. 3b) D - 5600 WUPPERTAL 1
H - 0314 OSLO 3
BLUMER, H. CALLUY, P.
Baulag. ETH Secrtaire Gnral
BLUMER AG BUREAU NATIONAL DE DOCUMENTATION SUR
Mooshalde 14 LB BOIS
CH - 9104 WALDSTATT 109-111, rua Royale
B - 1000 BRUXELLES
BRCHET, M.
Ingnieur CASSELBRANT, S.
MINIDTERB DE LA RECHERCHE ET DE LA Reaearchleader
TECHNOLOGIE SWEDISH INSTITUTE FOR WOOD
1, rue Deacarcea TECHNOLOGY RESEARCH
F - 75231 PARIS Cedex 05 Box 5609
S - 11486 STOCKHOLM
BRAUN, F.
Directeur Gnrele CECCOTTI, A.
COMISSION DES COMMUNAUTES Engineer
EUROPEENNES UNIVERSITA' DI FIRENZE
Direction Gnrale "March Intrieur Dlpartiaento dl Ingegnerla Civile
et affaire Industrielle" 3, via dl S. Marta
200, rue de la Loi I - 50139 FIRENZE
B - 1049 BRUXELLES
CIMORELLI, C.
BRAVO, H. COMMISSION DES COMMUNAUTS
Engineer EUROPEENNES
SCURODO DE CARTACEMA Direction gnrale
Calla Salvia Alegre N 670 "March Intrieur et affaires
ECUADOR - QUITO Industrielle"
200, rue de la Loi
B - 1049 BRUXELLES
BREITSCHAFT, G.
Prsident dee
INSTITUTS FUR BAUTECHNIK COLCLOUGH, P.
Relchpletschufer 72-76 Head of the forest products
D - 1000 BERLIN 30 department
EOLAS - THE IRISH SCIENCE 4
TECHNOLOGY AGENCY
BREMS, I. Glasnevln
BREMS HOUTHANDEL NV IRL - DUBLIN 9
Ragelandstraat 30
B - 3460 HALEN
CONRADS, A.
BROCART, L. Bau-Ingenieur
Technical Officer INC. BRO UND HOLZBAUBETRIBB
CEN ALFONS CONRADS
2, rue Brederode loduatrlestrate 14-38
B - 1000 BRUXELLES D - 5190 STOLBERG-MAUSBACH
331
COPPENS, H. DE LADONCHAMPS, R.
Engineer Ingnieur
T.C.H.N / C.T.I.B. SYNDICAT DES FABRICANTS DE PANNEAUX
830, Chausse d'Alsemberg A BASE DE BOIS
B - 1180 BRUXELLES 30 A, Avenue Marceau
F - 75008 PARIS
COUZENS, B.C.
Development Director
HYDRO-AIR INTERNATIONAL (UK) Ltd DELOS, Y.
Midland House Enseignant (Matre de conferences)
New Road Dpt. GENIE CIVIL - I.U.T."A"
Halesowen - Domaine Universitaire
UK - WEST MIDLANDS BG3 3MY F - 33405 TALENCE CEDEX
CRUBILE, P. DESCLOS, P.M.

Ingnieur Ingnieur
CENTRE TECHNIQUE DU BOIS CO.F.I.
10, avenue de St. Mande 15, rue du Faubourg Montmartre
F - 75012 PARIS F - 75009 PARIS
CRUZ, H.H. DRING, G.A.

Engineer Consulting engineer
LABORATORIO NACIONAL DE ENGENHARIA G.A. DRING & ASSOCIATES
CIVIL (LNEC) Box 485
101, Avenlda do Brasil CND - BOISSEVAIN MANITOBA ROK OEO
P - 1799 LISBOA Codex
CUISENAIRE, Y. DUBOIS, J.
Ingnieur Ingnieur
S.C. SECO CENTRE SCIENTIFIQUE ET TECHNIQUE DE
53, rue d'ArIon LA CONSTRUCTION
B - 1040 BRUXELLES Station Exprimentale du C.S.T.C.
21, av. Pierre Holoffe
B - 1342 LIMELETTB
DECKER, E.
Kaufmann
EUGEN DECKER HOLZINDUSTRIE
D - 5552 MORBACH DUKE-EVANS, D.G.
Director -General Trade Association
DECUYPER, M. UK 6 IRELAND PARTICLEBOARD ASSN.
Promotion Manager Maxwell Road
FONDS D'ETUDES ET DE RECHERCHES DES UK - STEVENAGE HERTS. SGI 2EP
SCIERIES ET INDUSTRIES CONNEXES asbl
163, rue Royale
B - 1210 BRUXELLES
EHLBECK, J.
Ingenieur
DEKKER, W.A. UNIVERSITT KARLSRUHE
Managing Director Ingenieurholzbau und
DE GROOT-VROOMSHOOP B.V. Baukonstruktionen
Churchlllstraat 77 Kaiserstrae 12
NL - 7681 XS VROOMSHOOP D - 7500 KARLSRUHE 1
332
EHRBNTRBICH, J. GENETAT, C.
COMMISSION DBS COMMUNAUTES M.Sc (Clv. Eng.)
EUROPEENNES TRXINFORMATION AB
Direction gnrale Droctnlng Kristinas va*g 71
"March* intrieur et affaire S - 11428 STOCKHOLM
Industrielles"
200, rua da la Lot GORCHS, M.
B - 1049 BRUXELLES Bauingenieur
ACHBERGER HOLZBAU
GutenbergstraOe 7
D - 8903 BOSINGEN 1
ELLEGAARD, N.
Conaultlng anglnaar
BIRCH & KROGBOE GRAVIGNT, L.
Teknlkerbyen 34 COMMISSION DES COMMUNAUTES
DK - 2830 VIRUM EUROPEENNES
Direction Generale
"March Intrieur et affaires
EMMER, G. Industrielles"
Bauingenieur 200, rue de la Loi
INGENIEURBRO GERHARD EMMER B - 1049 BRUXELLES
As tarnvag 11
D - 7600 OFFENBURG GSCHWENDNER, H.-P.
Dlpl.-Ing.
UNIVERSITT DER BUNDESWEHR
ERICSSON, B. Lehrstuhl Konstruktive Gestaltung
Direktor, arklcekc SAR und Holzbau
TRXINFORMATION AB WernerHelsenbergWeg 39
Droctnlng Kriseln vXg 71 D 8014 NEUBIBBRG
S - 11428 STOCKHOLM
GSEDL, J.
EWBANK, G. Ingenieur
Technical manager ING. BRO JRGEN GSEDL
RENTOKIL LIMITED Box 1347
Feicourt D 6057 DIETZENBACH
UK EAST GRINSTEAD W. SUSSEX
RH19 2JY GUGLIBLMI, G.
Ing. arch.
POLITECNICO DI TORINO
Dlpartlaento dl Ingegnerla
FODOR, R. Strutturale
Dlpl.Ing. (Statiker) 120, Largo Re Ueberto I
LANDESGEWERBEANSTALT B ATERN I 10128 TORINO
KonradAdanauarAllee 49
D 8900 AUGSBURG
GUNNEWIJK, R.J.J.
Secretary of the European Conference
on Timber Structures
FREINGRUBER, H.C. Korvezeestraat 38
Univ. Assistent NL 2628 DB DELFT
TUWlen
Institut fr Tragverkslahre und GNTHER, K.H.
Baukonstruktionen des Holt und Dlploa Bauingenieur
Stahlbaues INGENIEURBRO SUTHER UND GNTHER
Karlsplats 13 SchlllarstraSe 3
A 1040 WIEN D 6650 HOMBURG/SAAR
333
HAAS, P. JANSEN, C.
Dipl. Ing. Dipl.-ing. Holztechnik
Beratender Ingenieur VBI ACHBERGER HOLZBAU
Hauptstrasse 54 Gutenbergstrae 7
0 - 7016 GERLINGEN D - 8903 BOSINGEN l
HANSSENS, W.
COMMISSION DES COMMUNAUTES JOHANSEN, B.L.
EUROPEENNES Managing Director
Direction Gnrale "Science, DANISH TIMBER INFORMATION COUNCIL
Recherche et Dveloppement" Lyngby Hovedgade 27
200, rue de la Loi DK - 2800 LYNGBY
B - 1049 BRUXELLES
JORISSEN, A.
HARRINGTON, J. Consulting engineer
Consulting Engineer H.E. LUNING ADVIESBUREAU VOOR
JAMES HARRINGTON ASSOCIATES TECHNISCHE HOUTCONSTRIJCTIES B.V.
24 Lower Baggot Street Gasthulsstraat 11
IRL - DUBLIN 2 NL - 7001 AX DOKTINCHEM
HARTL, H.
Bauingenieur KAIRI, M.
UNIVERSITT INNSBRUCK Dipl.-Ing.
Zivil-Ingenieur-Bro FINNFOREST GmbH,
Stolyga8se 24 HOLZHANDELSGESELLSCHAFT
A - 1193 WIEN Fischerstrae 45
D - 4000 DSSELDORF 30
HECKER, E.
Bauingenieur KANISTRAS, C.
HECKER + KAISER FERTIGBAU GMBH & CO Architect
HOLZBAU 47 Stournazi Street
Windmilhlenweg 28 GR - 10682 ATHENS
D - 3477 MARIENMUNSTER 1
KINCAID, R.
HOENDERBOOM, A. European marketing manager
Techn. Secretary SOUTHERN PINE MARKETING COUNCIL
NED. BOND VAN TIMMERFABRIKANTEN WESTERN WOOD PRODUCTS ASSOCIATION
Postbus 24 101 Wigraore Street
NL - 1400 AA BUSSUM UK - LONDON W1H 9AB
HH, R.
Diplomingenieur KLARE, F.
ANTON HESS GmbH & Co KG Bauingenieur
HOLZLEIMBAU HECKER + KAISER
Postfach 1460 Windmilhlenweg 28
D - 8760 MILTENBERG D - 3477 MARIENMUNSTER l
HUUHTANEN, J.
Bureau engineer KLEINSCHMIDT, E.A.
MINISTRY OF THE ENVIRONMENT Dipl. Ing-, Lehrbeauftragter der
Planning and Building Department Universitt Dortmund
PL 399 Grosser Ring 53
SF - 00121 HELSINKI D - 4270 DORSTEN 11 - WULFEN
334
KOLB, J . LUKGB, L.W.
D i p l . Zlaaieraelster Dipl. Ing.
LIGNUM (Arbeitsgemeinschaft fUr das COFI
Hole) Ercberger Alle 67
FalkanstraSe 26 D - 5100 AACHEN 1
CH - 8008 ZURICH
LUND, T.B.
KONDRUP, C. Civil engineer
Civil engineer JOBS. J0RGENSEN A/S
COWICONSULT CONSULTING ENGINEERS
Slotsaarken 17 Teknlkerbyen 5
DK - 2970 H0RSHOLM DK - 2830 VIRUM
KRUMPEN, R. LUNDSGAARD, S.
Kaufnann Clvlllngenl^r
JOSEF KRUMPEN A/S LIKTRAB LILLSHEDEN
D - 5541 HALLSCHLAG DK - 9850 HIRTSHALS
KURSTJENS, P. LUNINC, H.E.

Tlaber engineer Engineer
DELFT UNIVERSITY H.E. LUNING ADVB. V. TECHN.
Faculty of Civil Engineering HOUTCONSTRUCTIES B.V.
P.O. Box 5048 Gasthulsstraat 11
NL - 2600 GA DELFT NL - 7001 AX DOBTINCHEM
KUIPBRS, J. MAACK, P.
Professor Ingenieur
DELFT UNIVERSITY INGENIEURBRO FUR BAUWESEN
Henry Dunantlaan 57 SchulstraBe 22
NL - 2614 GK DELFT D - 2125 SALZHAUSEN
LARSEN, H.J. HARSH, R.F.

Director OVB ARUP 6 PARTNERS
DANISH BUILDING RESEARCH INSTITUTE 13 Fltzroy Street
P.O. Box 119 UK - W1P 6BQ LONDON
DK - 2970 H0RSHOLN
LEBRUN, J. MASUHR, D.
Directeur Ingenieur
DUBOIS CONSTRUCT S.A. BRUDERVERLAG
9, rue Laterale BlsaarckstraOe 21
B - 6190 TRAZEGNIBS D - 7500 KARLSRUHE 1
MBIBRHOFER, U.A.
LOBEL, Y. Bauingenieur
Ingenieur EIDG. MATBRIALPRUFUNGS- UND
CKTKN-APAVE VERSUCHSANSTALT (BMPA)
191, rue de Vauglrard UeberlandstraO 129
F - 75015 PARIS CH - 8600 DUBENDORF
335
MENZEL, G. MUSZALA, W.
Bau-Iagenleur Bauingenieur
FELS-WERKE GmbH LANDESGEWERBEANSTALT BAYERN, PRUFAMT
Geheimrat-Ebert-Strae 12 FR BAUSTATIK
Postfach 1460 Regensburger Strae 330
D - 3380 GOSLAR D - 8500 NRNBERG 30
MESQUITA, A.
Ing'ileur c i v i l NICOLAY, D.
A.M.MESQUITA & FILHOS LDa (L.N.E.C.) COMMISSION DES COMMUNAUTES
3651, rua de S.Gens EUROPEENNES
P - 4457 SENHORA DA HORA CODEX Direction Gnrale
"Tlcommunication, industries de
l'information et innovation"
METTEM, C.J. L - 2920 LUXEMBOURG
Chartered Engineer
TIMBER RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT
ASSOCIATION NIELSEN, P.
TRADA Structural engineer
Stocking Lane, .TYSK TEKNOLOGISK
Hughenden Valley Teknologlparken
UK - HIGH WYCOMBE BUCKS HP14 4ND DK - 8000 RHUS C
NILLES, A.
MEUZELAAR, L-C. Charpentier
Technical Manager PREFALUX
DGV-VROOMSHOOP B.V. L - 6101 JUNGLINSTER
Churchillstraat 77
NL - 7681 XS VRO0MSH0OP NOVEMBER,
Ingnieur
S.C. SECO
MITZNER, R. 53, rue d'Arlon
Engineer B - 1040 BRUXELLES
AMERICAN PLYWOOD ASSN.
101 Wlgmore Street
UK - LONDON W1H 9AB O'KEEFFE, M-
COMMISSION DES COMMUNAUTS
EUROPENNES
MOREAU, P. Direction gnrale
Directeur technico-commercial "March intrieur et affaires
RAMBERT SA industrielles"
B.O. Box 221 200, rue de la Loi
F - 93553 AUBERVILLIERS Cedex B - 1049 BRUXELLES
MORGAN, D.A. OLESEN, B.F.

Technical Officer CivllingentSr M.Sc.
BRITISH WOODWORKING FEDERATION AALBORG UNIVERSITETSCENTER
82 New Cavendish Street Sohngrdsholmsvej 57
UK - LONDON WIM 8AD DK - 9000 AALBORG
PALMER, P.
MORLAYS, R. Senior lecturer
Enseignant BRIGHTON POLYTECHNIC
INSTITUT UNIVERSITAIRE DE Civil Engineering Department
TECHNOLOGIE RENNES Cockcroft Building
Rue du Clos et Courtelle Moulsecoomb
F - RENNES UK - BRIGHTON, E. SUSSEX BN2 4GJ
336
PARK, J. RAADSCHELDERS, J.G.H.
GANG - NAIL SYSTEMS LTD. Ingenieur
Christy Estate ADVISEREND INGENIKURSBUREAU RUPPERT
Ivy road B.V.
UK - ALDRRSHOT HAMTS GUI2 4XG Achterdijk 64
NL - 1191 JL OUDERKERK AAN DE AMSTEL
Docent
DELFT UNIVERSITY OP TECHNOLOGY
PAUCAR, T. Faculty of Civil Engineering
Ingenlero P.O. Box 904
JUNTA NACIONAL DEL ACUERDO DE NL - 2600 GA DELFT
CARTAGENA
Prolongacion Guardia civil n1' 320
MZ "D" Dpto. 304 RASK, J.
San BorJa Economist
PERU - LIMA CONSTRUCTION WORKERS ASSOCIATION
Mimersgade 47
DK - 2200 COPENHAGEN N.
PINHEIKO, A.J.
Eng. Sllvlcultor RASMUSSEN, <S.
CONSORCIL - CONSORCIO DE INDUSTRIAIS Bauingenieur
EXPORTADORES DE MADEIRA, LOA LIMTRAE LILLEHEDEN
Via Raplda - Lea da Palmeira DK - 98S0 HIRTSHALS
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RAVEALA, A.
PIONTEK, J. Managing director
Ingenieur FINNISH WOODINFORMATION
INGENIEURBRO FR BAUWESEN Aleksanterlnkatu 48 B
Pforzhelner Strae 55 SF - 00100 HELSINKI
D - 7505 ETTLINGEN
REHAAG, A.
Geschxftsfhrer
PONTIFICE DE SOUSA, P.M. KOHLBECHER & Co. GmbH, HOLZWERKE
Civil engineer Postfach 16 80
LABORATORIO NACIONAL DR ENGENHARIA Aa Holzplatz
CIVIL D - 6620 VOLKLINGEN-FURSTENHAUSEN
101, av. do Braall
P - 1799 LISBOA Codex
RIESELER, L.
Baudirektor
POOS, A. LANDESGEWERBEANSTALT BAYERN
COMMISSION DBS COMMUNAUTES Zweigstelle Wrsburg
EUROPEENNES DrelkronenstraBe 31
Direction Centrale D - 8700 WURZBURG
"Personnel at administration"
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ROTONDO', P.P.
COMMISSION DBS COMMUNAUTS
PREBENSEN, K. EUROPEENNES
Civil engineer Direction Gnrale
COWICONSULT "Tlcommunication, Industries de
Slotsmarken 17 l'Information et Innovation"
DK - 2970 H0RSHOLM L - 2920 LUXEMBOURG
337
ROTTMULLER, V. SCHWANER, K.
Dipl. Ing. (univ.) Dipl.-Ing.
GANG-NAIL SYSTEME GmbH ARBEITSGEMEINSCHAFT HOLZ e.V.
GeyerspergerstraQe 73 FUllenbachstrae 6
D - 8000 MNCHEN 21 D - 4000 DUSSELDORF 30
RUYSCH, N. SCOTT, D.L.

Research Employee THE TIMBER & BRICK HOMES CONSORTIUM
TNO TIMBER RESEARCH INSTITUTE 40 High Street
P.O. Box 151 Rlckmansworth
N - 2600 AD DELFT UK - HERTS WD3 1ES
RYAN, N. SEOANE, I.
Senior Research Officer COMMISSION DES COMMUNAUTES
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SAGOT, G. SOOTHILL, C
Consultant industriel Structural Engineer
9, rue de Renville ANDREWS KENT AND STONE
F - 76400 FCAMP Seacourt Tower, We9t Way
UK - BOTLEY, OXFORD 0X2 OJJ
SCHABO, E.
Charpentes SOUTHEE, R.W.
SCHABO EDMOND Conseiller technique
5, rue Ed Grenier BUREAU DE PROMOTION DES INDUSTRIES
L - 1642 LUXEMBOURG DU BOIS UK. (BPIB UK)
Maggs House, Suite 310
78 Queens Road
SCHAFROTH, R. UK - CLIFTON BRISTOL BS8 1QQ
Tech. Betriebsleiter SHS
SCHWEIZ. HOLZINDUSTRIEVERBAND
Ulmenstrae 1 STECK, G.
CH - 4313 MHLIN Professor
FACHHOCHSCHULE MNCHEN
Karlstrae 6
SCHOLLMEYER, F. D - 8000 MNCHEN
Ministerialrat Dipl.-Ing.
MINISTERIUM FUR STADTENTWICKLUNG,
WOHNEN UND WEHRKEHR STEUERWALD, T.
Abteilung V Diplomingenieur
Haroldstrae 5 ANTON HESS GmbH & CO. KG
D - 4000 DUSSELDORF 1 HOLZLEIMBAU.
Postfach 1460
D - 8760 MILTENBERG
SCHOT, F.
Assistant professor
EINDHOVEN UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY STIEDA, C.K.A.
Faculty of Architecture, Building Research engineer
and Planning FORINTEK CANADA CORP.
Den Dolech 2 6620 NW Marine Drive
NL - 5612 AZ EINDHOVEN CND - VANCOUVER, B.C. V6T 1X2
338
STONE, M.F. THOMAS, M.
WEYERHAUSER COMPANY COMMISSION DES COMMUNAUTES
TACOMA WASHINGTON EUROPEENNES
Southern Pine Marketing Council Direction gnrale
Western Wood Products Association "March intrieur et affaires
101 Wigmore Street ln-lutitrWilles"
UK - LONDON W1H 9AB 200, rue de la Loi
B - 1049 BRUXELLES
STROHMAIRR, M.
Baudlrektor THRANE, V.
LANDESGEWERBEANSTALT BAYERN Managing Director
Zweigstelle Regensburg TASINGE TRAE A/S
PrUfenlnger Strae 137 DK - 5700 SVENDBORG
D - 8400 RKGENSBURG
STURM, H.G. TOULIATOS, P.

Dlplom-Kaufmann Architect
FA. MATTH. STURM HOLZVERARBEITUNG NATIONAL TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY OF
GmbH ATHENS
Postfach 1263 Department of Architectural
D - 7922 HERBRECHTINGEN Technology
42 Patission street
GR - 10682 ATHENS
SUNLEY, J.G.
Director
TIMBER RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT TOWNSLEY, W.E.
ASSOCIATION Forest products consultant
Stocking Lane COUNCIL OF FOREST INDUSTRIES OF
Hughenden Valley BRITISH COLUMBIA
UK - HIGH WYCOMBE Tlleaan House
BUCKINGHAMSHIRE HP14 4ND 131-133 Upper Richmond Road
UK - LONDON SW15 2TR
SWAGEMAKERS, J.J.
PRODAK
Chassveld 11
P.O. Box 1195 TUMLER, D.
NL - 4801 BD BREDA Prfingenieur fllr Baustatik
INGENIEURBRO TUMLER
CMcillenstrae 48
SZTABHOLZ, A. D - 5000 KLN 1
Secrtaire Gnral
SYNDICAT NATIONAL DES CONSTRUCTEURS
DE CHARPENTES EN BOIS LAMELLE COLLE
9, rue la Prousa VAN DEN BOSSCHE, P.
F - 7S784 PARIS Cedex 16 Ingnieur
T.C.H.N. / C.T.I.B.
830, Chausse d'Alsemberg
TEN GEUZENDAM, J. B - 1180 BRUXELLES
COMMISSION DES COMMUNAUTES
EUROPENNES
Direction Gnrale VANDBRICK, F.
"March intrieur et affaires Administrateur Dlgu
Industrielles" BREMS HOUTHANDEL NV
200, rue de la Loi Hagelandstraat 30
B - 1049 BRUXELLES B - 3460 HALEN
339
VAN DER ZEE, A. WATT, P.
Bouwkundig Ingenieur Engineer
Roosenburgstraat 30 COUNCIL OF FOREST INDUSTRIES OF
NL - 5624 JT EINDHOVEN BRITISH COLUMBIA
Tlleman House
131-133 Upper Richmond Road
VANGGAARD, 0. UK - LONDON SH15 2TR
THE ROYAL DANISH ACADEMY OF FINE
ARTS
School of Architecture WEDENIG, E.
Department of Structures Betriebsleiter
Peder Skramsgade 1.4 GANG-NAIL SYSTEME GmbH
DR - 1054 COPENHAGEN K Geyerspergerstrae 73
D - 8000 MNCHEN 21
VAN MERRIENBOER, A. WERNER, G.

Research Employee Civil Engineer, Head of Dept.
TNO TIMBER RESEARCH INSTITUTE FMPA REF.14 TIMBER ENGINEERING
P.O. Box 151 Pfaffenwaldrlng 4
N - 2600 AD DELFT D - 7000 STUTTGART 80
WINTER, W.
VINCKIER, A.G. Ingnieur
Professeur INSTITUT DE STATIQUE ET STRUCTURES
UNIVERSITE DE GAND IB0IS-C0NSTRUCTI0N EN BOIS
Director Laboratory for Strength of GCB (Ecublena)
Materials Dpartement de Gnie Civil
Slnt-Pietersnleuvstraat 41 CH - 1015 LAUSANNE
B - 9000 GENT
WIRZ, J.
WAGNER, C. Dipl. Bauingenieur ETH/SIA
Professor SCHWEIZ. HOLZFACHSCHULE BIEL
FACHHOCHSCHULE ROSENHEIM Alte BernstraBe 62b
Marlenberger Strae 26 CH - 3075 RUFENACHT
D - 8200 ROSENHEIM
YEOMANS, D.
LIVERPOOL UNIVERSITY
WALTER, H. School of Architecture and Building
Bauingenieur Engineering
Sonnenhang 21 Leverhulme Square
D - 6209 AARBERGEN 3 UK - LIVERPOOL L69 3BX
340
INDEX OF AUTBORS
BRAUN, P., 3 LARSEN, H.J., 5, 15, 229, 233, 279, 283

LUND JOHANSEN, B., 188, 270, 323
BRNINGHOFF, H., 75, 243, 295
MARSH, R.F., 98, 248, 301
CECCOTTI, A., 151, 265, 318 MEIERHOFER, U.A., 123, 252, 306
DRING, 6.A., 94, 244, 296 NATTERER, J., 50, 240, 292
EHLBECK, J., 217, 275, 328 SCOTT, D., 169, 267, 320
HANSSENS, H., 130, 255, 309 SUNLEY, J.G., 29, 236, 287
HILSON, B.O., 113, 250, 303
WINTER, W., 50, 240, 292
JORISSEN, A., 196, 272, 325
YEOMANS, D.T., 41, 238, 290
KUIPERS, J., 223
KOLB, J., 136, 262, 315
341
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EUR 12136 Timber structures
Edited by: H. J. Larsen, J. Kuipers, J. Ehrentreich
Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications of the European Communities
1989 - VIII, 341 pp. - 16.2 x 22.9 cm
EN - DE - FR
ISBN 92-825-9944-2
Catalogue number: CD-NA-12136-3A-C
Price (excluding VAT) in Luxembourg: ECU 30
The Commission of the European Communities (CEC) is supporting work concerning the
elaboration of a series of Eurocodes for the design and construction of building and civil
engineering structures in different materials.
A European conference on timber structures, as proposed to the CEC by the drafting panel
of Eurocode 5 dealing with timber structures and by the CIB (International Council for
Building Research, Studies and Documentation), was held from 14 to 16 September 1988
in Luxembourg.
The conference on timber structures dealt firstly with the draft Eurocode 5, in which the
design rules for load-bearing timber structures have been given, and which was published
some time before the conference took place. The conference aimed to give the necessary
information about its background, and also to open a thorough discussion. It was
especially hoped that the interested parties in industry and the designers, architects and
engineers would take part in these discussions. This aim was fully reached, thanks to the
ample participation of people from all areas in the use of timber for structural purposes.
This presentation of Eurocode 5 will allow valuable comments to be obtained for its final
drafting.
A second goal of the symposium was to demonstrate the possibilities the use of timber
gives for building and engineering structures. Many examples of historical and especially
modern applications were demonstrated and discussed, as well as various philosophies
about better education in the use and possibilities of timber.
The third aim was to inform the participants about work of the Commission services
concerning the harmonization of codes and standards and about its programmes in the
field of forestry and use of wood.
Within the three conference days some 20 papers were presented, giving openings to the
much wider amount of reports, proceedings etc., which exist and which are the
background of the most interesting developments in timber engineering. These
proceedings present the lectures of the conference together with the essential points of
the discussions.
Illllllll
CO
NOTICE TO THE READER
All scientific and technical reports published by the Commission

of the European Communities are announced in the monthly
periodical 'euro abstracts'. For subscription (1 year: ECU
76.50) please write to the address below.
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+ * + OFFICE FOR OFFICIAL PUBLICATIONS 111 11II111111||| III I I I I I I I III

OF THE
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Commission of the European Communities

EUR 12136 EN- DE -FR

Commission of the European Communities

1989 IZZ EUR 12136 EN - D - F R

Cataloguing data can be found at the end of this publication

Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications of the European Communities, 1989

ISBN 92-825-9944-2 Catalogue number: CD-NA-12136-3A-C

ECSC-EEC-EAEC, Brussels Luxembourg, 1989

Printed in the FR of Germany

The CommitI on of the E u r o p e a n C o m m u n i t i e s ( C E C ) Is s u p p o r t i n g

One of the w o r l d ' s largest natural r e s o u r c e s of m a t e r i a l s Is the

The C o n f e r e n c e on timber s t r u c t u r e s dealt f i r s t l y with the draft

A second goal of the symposium t h e r e f o r e w a s to d e m o n s t r a t e the

W i t h i n the three c o n f e r e n c e days some twenty p a p e r s w e r e

EHRENTREICH H.J. LARSEN

EUROCODES, ESPECIALLY EUROCODE 5

EUROCODES, GENERAL DESIGN PRINCIPLES

EARLY STRUCTURAL DESIGN: IDEAS FROM ABROAD

QUALITY CRITERIA FOR TIMBER STRUCTURES

EUROCODE 5 - CALCULATION AND DESIGN RULES FOR STRUCTURAL MEMBERS

EUROCODE 5: THE OVERSEAS VIEW

EUROCODE 5 - WILL I USE IT?

TIMBER ENGINEERING EDUCATION - PROPOSALS FOR CHANGE

AIMS AND RESULTS OF THE EEC TIMBER RESEARCH PROGRAMMES

MODERN TIMBER CONSTRUCTION IN SWITZERLAND:

NEW TRENDS IN DESIGN CALCULATIONS OF

TIMBER FRAMED HOUSING - THE UNITED KINGDOM CONTEXT

THE DEVELOPMENT OF INDUSTRIALIZED BUILDING IN DENMARK

THE FUTURE IN TIMBER ENGINEERING

ZUSAMMENFASSUNGEN DER VORTRGE 227

RESUMES DES EXPOSES 277

LIST OF PARTICIPANTS 330

INDEX OF AUTHORS 341

Chairman: C.K.A.STIEDA, Forintek Canada Corporation

EUROCODES, ESPECIALLY EUROCODE 5

EUROCODES, GENERAL DESIGN PRINCIPLES

Mr Chairman, ladies and gentlemen, it gives me great pleasure to take

Eurocode are building Standards. Their purpose, among other things,

Eurocodes are building standards drawn up by the Commission of the

Eurocode 1 Common unified rules

Eurocode 1 is the background document setting out the general thinking

The objectives of the Eurocodes include:

to promote the internal market by removing obstacles to trade arising

It is the Commission's intention that for the time being Eurocodes

4. STANDARDS USED AS MODELS

Before work on a Eurocode could start it was necessary to have an

5. THE DRAFTING OF EUROCODE 5

This present draft of Eurocode 5 was compiled for the Commission by a

6. COORDINATION OF THE WORK

The Coordination Group for the Eurocodes is responsible for

7. PRINCIPLES AND APPLICATION RULES

The text of Eurocodes distinguishes between Principles and Application

8. DEVIATION rROM THE CODE

A comments section, containing explanations, justifications and

The Eurocodes, in their present form, comprise general requirements

11. RELATED STANDARDS

As with the other Eurocodes, the draft Eurocode 5 is very largely

It is assumed that these will be replaced by CEN standards before the

Testing standards. Further reference to ISO standards could be made

No less important are the standards relating to terminology, preferred

Eurocode 5 comprises the following four main sections:

The first section, which includes Chapter 1, (Introduction) and