S.nelson Physical Geology

Introduction
EENS 1110 Physical Geology
Tulane University Prof. Stephen A. Nelson
Introduction and Origin of the Earth
This page last updated on 10-Jan-2012
Geology, What is it?
Geology is the study of the Earth. It includes not only the surface process which have shaped
the Earth's surface, but the study of the ocean floors, and the interior of the Earth. It is not
only the study of the Earth as we see it today, but the history of the Earth as it has evolved to
its present condition.
z Important point: The Earth has evolved (changed) throughout its history, and will
continue to evolve.
z The Earth is about 4.6 billion years old, human beings have been around for only the
past 2 million years.
{ Thus, mankind has been witness to only 0.043% of Earth history.
{ The first multi-celled organisms appeared about 700 million years ago. Thus,
organisms have only been witness to about 15% of Earth's history.
Thus, for us to have an understanding of the earth upon which we live, we must look at
processes and structures that occur today, and interpret what must have happened in the past.
One of the major difficulties we have is with the time scale. Try to imagine 1 million years--
That's 50,000 times longer than most of you have lived. It seems like a long time doesn't it?
Yet, to geologists, 1 million years is a relatively short period of time. More discussion about
time in later lectures. But one thing we have to remember when studying the Earth is that
things that seem like they take a long time to us, may take only a short time to Earth.
Examples:
z A river deposits about 1mm of sediment (mud) each year. How thick is the mud after
100 years? -- 10 cm hardly noticeable over your lifetime.
z What if the river keeps depositing that same 1 mm/yr for 10 million years? Answer
10,000 meters (6.2 miles). Things can change drastically!
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Introduction
Why Study the Earth?
z We're part of it. Dust to Dust. Humans have the capability to make rapid changes. All
construction from houses to roads to dams are effected by the Earth, and thus require
some geologic knowledge. All life depends on the Earth for food and nourishment. The
Earth is there everyday of our lives.
z Energy and Mineral resources that we depend on for our lifestyle come from the Earth.
At present no other source is available.
z Geologic Hazards -- Earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, hurricanes, landslides, could

affect us at any time. A better understanding of the Earth is necessary to prepare for
these eventualities.
z Curiosity-- We have a better understanding of things happening around us. Science in

general. I'll try to relate geology (and science in general) to our everyday lives.
How did the Earth originate?
z We start at the beginning of the Universe, when, about 13.6 billion years ago, the Big
Bang created the universe from a point source.
z During this process, light elements, like H, He, Li, B, and Be formed. From this point
in time, the universe began to expand and has been expanding ever since.
(See figure 1.6 in your text)
z Concentrations of gas and dust within the universe eventually became galaxies
consisting of millions of stars.
z Within the larger stars, nuclear fusion processes eventually created heavier elements,
like C, Si, Ca, Mg, K, and Fe.
z Stars eventually collapse and explode during an event called a supernova. During a
supernova, heavier elements, from Fe to U, are formed. (See figure 1.9 in your text).
z Throughout galaxies clusters of gas attracted by gravity start to rotate and accrete to
form stars and solar systems. For our solar system this occurred about 4.6 billion years
ago.
z The ball at the center grows dense and hot, eventually nuclear fusion reactions start and
a star is born (in our case, the sun).
z Rings of gas and dust orbiting around the sun eventually condenses into small
particles. These particles are attracted to one another and larger bodies called
planetismals begin to form.
z .Planetesimals accumulate into a larger mass. An irregularly-shaped proto-Earth

develops.
z The interior heats and becomes soft. Gravity shapes the Earth into a sphere. The interior
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Introduction
differentiates into a nickel-iron core, and a stony (silicate) mantle.
z Soon, a small planetoid collides with Earth. Debris forms a ring around the Earth.The
debris coalesces and forms the Moon.
z The atmosphere develops from volcanic gases. When the Earth becomes cool enough,
moisture condenses and accumulates, and the oceans are born.
(see graphic on pages 30 and 31 of your text).
The Earth -- What is it?
The Earth has a radius of about 6371 km, although it is about 22 km larger at equator than at
poles.
Density, (mass/volume), Temperature, and Pressure increase with depth.
Internal Structure of the Earth:
Earth has layered structure. Layering can be viewed in two different ways:
1. Layers of different chemical composition
2. Layers of differing physical properties.
Compositional Layering
{ Crust - variable thickness and composition
Continental 10 - 70 km thick - "granitic" (made mostly of Oxygen and Silicon) in

composition
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Introduction
Oceanic 2 - 10 km thick - "basaltic" (less Silicon than in continental crust, more

Magnesium)
{ Mantle - 3488 km thick, made up of a rock called peridotite. Solid but can deform so
that it confects (moves in response to temperature differences).
{ Core - 2883 km radius, made up of Iron (Fe) and small amount of Nickel (Ni)
Layers of Differing Physical Properties
{ Lithosphere - about 100 km thick (deeper beneath continents)
{ Asthenosphere - about 250 km thick to depth of 350 km - solid rock, but soft and
flows easily.
{ Mesosphere - about 2500 km thick, solid rock, but still capable of flowing.
{ Outer Core - 2250 km thick, Fe and Ni, liquid
{ Inner core - 1230 km radius, Fe and Ni, solid
All of the above is known from observations that have been made from the surface of the
Earth, in particular, the way seismic (earthquake waves) pass through the Earth as we will
discuss later in the course.
The atmosphere is the outermost layer. It has the lowest density and consists mostly of
Nitrogen (78%) and Oxygen (21%).
Composition of the Earth
The bulk chemical composition of the Earth is mostly Iron (Fe, 34.6%), Oxygen (O2, 29.5%),
Silicon (Si, 15.2%), and Magnesium (Mg, 12.7%), with other elements making up the other
8%.
These elements are distributed unevenly due to the layering, with Fe being concentrated in the
core, Si, O2, and Mg being concentrated in the mantle, and Si, O2, and the other elements
being concentrated in the thin veneer of the crust.
How do we study the Earth?
In order to understand the Earth, we must use the scientific method. This first involves
making observations concerning what it there, what it is made of and what processes are
operating. These observations are then used to develop hypotheses or theories to explain
what we see. These hypotheses or theories are then tested by making further observations,
doing experiments, or doing some kind of modeling, either physically or theoretically.
An idea proposed early in the history of human study of the Earth was the principle of
Uniformitarianism.
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Introduction
Principle of Uniformitarianism
Processes that are operating during the present are the same processes that have operated in
the past. i.e. the present is the key to the past. If we look at processes that occur today, we
can infer that the same processes operated in the past.
Problems:
z Rates -- rates of processes may change over time for example a river might deposit 1
mm of sediment /yr if we look at it today. but, a storm could produce higher runoff and
carry more sediment tomorrow. Another example: the internal heat of the Earth may
have been greater in the past than in the present -- rates of processes that depend on the
amount of heat available may have changed through time.
z Observations -- we may not have observed in human history all possible processes.
Examples: Mt. St. Helens, Size of earthquakes.
Perhaps a better way of stating the Principle of Uniformitarianism is that the laws of nature
have not changed through time. Thus, if we understand the physical and chemical laws of
nature, these should govern all processes that have taken place in the past, are taking place in
the present, and will take place in the future.
Questions on this material that could be asked on an exam.
1. What are some reasons that we need to study and understand the Earth?
2. What is the age of the universe and the age of solar system (including the Earth)?
3. Where did the elements that make up the Earth come from?
4. What are the three most abundant elements in the (a) the entire Earth. (b) the Earth's
crust, and (c) the Earth's atmosphere?
5. Draw cross-sections of the Earth that shows the layers both in terms of differing chemical
composition and differing physical properties (these don't have to be to scale).
6. What are the main differences between the lithosphere and the asthenosphere?
7. What are the main differences between the outer core and the inner core?
8. What is the principle of Uniformitarianism?
Return to EENS 1110 Page
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Plate Tectonics
Continental Drift, Sea Floor Spreading and Plate Tectonics
Plate Tectonics is a theory developed in the late 1960s, to explain how the outer layers of the
Earth move and deform. The theory has caused a revolution in the way we think about the
Earth. Since the development of the theory, geologists have had to reexamine almost every
aspect of Geology. Plate tectonics has proven to be so useful that it can predict geologic events
and explain almost all aspects of what we see on the Earth.
Tectonic Theories
Tectonic theories attempt to explain why mountains, earthquakes, and volcanoes occur where
they do, the ages of deformational events, and the ages and shapes of continents and ocean
basins.
z Late 19th Century Theories
{ Contraction of the Earth due to cooling. This is analogous to what happens to the
skin of an apple as the interior shrinks as it dehydrates. It could explain
compressional features, like fold/thrust mountain belts, but could not explain
extensional features, such as rift valleys and ocean basins. Nor could it explain the
shapes and positions of the continents.
{ Expansion of the Earth due to heating. This was suggested after radioactivity was
discovered. This could explain why the continents are broken up, and could easily
explain extensional features, but did not do well at explaining compressional
features.
z Wegner's Theory of Continental Drift
Alfred Wegner was a German Meteorologist in the early 1900s who studied ancient
climates. Like most people, the jigsaw puzzle appearance of the Atlantic continental
margins caught his attention. He put together the evidence of ancient glaciations and the
distribution of fossil to formulate a theory that the continents have moved over the
surface of the Earth, sometimes forming large supercontinents and other times forming
separate continental masses. He proposed that prior to about 200 million years ago all of
the continents formed one large land mass that he called Pangea (see figures on pages 56
to 59 in your text).
The weakness of Wegner's theory, and the reason it was not readily accepted by
geologists was that he proposed that the continents slide over ocean floor. Geophysicists
disagreed, stating the ocean floor did not have enough strength to hold the continents and
too much frictional resistance would be encountered.
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Plate Tectonics
In 1950s and 1960s, studies of the Earth's magnetic field and how it varied through time
(paleomagnetism) provided new evidence that would prove that the continents do indeed
drift. In order to understand these developments, we must first discuss the Earth's
magnetic field and the study of Paleomagnetism.
The Earth's Magnetic Field and Paleomagnetism
The Earth has a magnetic

field that causes a compass
needle to always point
toward the North magnetic
pole, currently located near
the rotation pole. The
Earth's magnetic field is
what would be expected if
there were a large bar
magnet located at the
center of the Earth (we now
know that this is not what
causes the magnetic field,
but the analogy is still
good). The magnetic field
is composed of lines of
force as shown in the
diagram here.
A compass needle or a magnetic weight suspended from a string, points along these lines of
force. Note that the lines of force intersect the surface of the Earth at various angles that depend
on position on the Earth's surface. This angle is called the magnetic inclination. The
inclination is 0o at the magnetic equator and 90o at the magnetic poles. Thus, by measuring the
inclination and the angle to the magnetic pole, one can tell position on the Earth relative to the
magnetic poles.
In the 1950s it was

discovered that when
magnetic minerals cool
below a temperature
called the Curie
Temperature, domains
within the magnetic
mineral take on an
orientation parallel to
any external magnetic
field present at the time
they cooled below this
temperature.
At temperatures above the Curie Temperature, permanent magnetization of materials is not

possible. Since the magnetic minerals take on the orientation of the magnetic field present
during cooling, we can determine the orientation of the magnetic field present at the time the
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Plate Tectonics
rock containing the mineral cooled below the Curie Temperature, and thus, be able to
determine the position of the magnetic pole at that time. This made possible the study of
Paleomagnetism (the history of the Earth's magnetic field). Magnetite is the most common
magnetic mineral in the Earth's crust and has a Curie Temperature of 580oC
Initial studies of the

how the position of
the Earth's magnetic
pole varied with time
were conducted in
Europe. These studies
showed that the
magnetic pole had
apparently moved
through time. When
similar measurements
were made on rocks
of various ages in
North America,
however, a different
path of the magnetic
pole was found.
This either suggested that (1) the Earth has had more than one magnetic pole at various times in
the past (not likely), or (2) that the different continents have moved relative to each other over
time. Studies of ancient pole positions for other continents confirmed the latter hypothesis, and
seemed to confirm the theory of Continental Drift.
Sea-Floor Spreading
During World War II, geologists employed by the military carried out studies of the sea floor, a
part of the Earth that had received little scientific study. The purpose of these studies was to
understand the topography of the sea floor to find hiding places for both Allied and enemy
submarines. The topographic studies involved measuring the depth to the sea floor. These
studies revealed the presence of two important topographic features of the ocean floor:
z Oceanic Ridges - long sinuous ridges that occupy the middle of the Atlantic Ocean and
the eastern part of the Pacific Ocean.
z Oceanic Trenches - deep trenches along the margins of continents, particularly

surrounding the Pacific Ocean.
Another type of study involved towing a magnetometer (for measuring magnetic materials)
behind ships to detect submarines. The records from the magnetometers, however, revealed that
there were magnetic anomalies on the sea floor, with magnetic high areas running along the
oceanic ridges, and parallel bands of alternating high and low magnetism on either side of the
oceanic ridges. Before these features can be understood, we need to first discuss another
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Plate Tectonics
development in the field of Paleomagnetism - the discovery of reversals of the Earth's magnetic
field and the magnetic time scale .
z Reversals of the Earth's Magnetic Field. Studying piles of lava flows on the continents
geophysicists found that over short time scales the Earth's magnetic field undergoes
polarity reversals (The north magnetic pole becomes the south magnetic pole) By dating
the rocks using radiometric dating techniques and correlating the reversals throughout the
world they were able to establish the magnetic time scale.
Vine, Matthews, and Morely put this

information together with the bands
of magnetic stripes on the sea floor
and postulated that the bands
represents oppositely polarized
rocks on either side of the oceanic
ridges, and that new oceanic crust
and lithosphere was created at the
oceanic ridge by eruption and
intrusion of magma. As this magma
cooled it took on the magnetism of
the magnetic field at the time. When
the polarity of the field changed new
crust and lithosphere created at the
ridge would take on the different
polarity. This hypothesis led to the
theory of sea floor spreading.
If new oceanic crust and lithosphere is continually being created at the oceanic ridges, the
oceans should be expanding indefinitely, unless there were a mechanism to destroy the oceanic
lithosphere. Benioff zones and the oceanic trenches provided the answer: Oceanic lithosphere
returns to the mantle by sliding downward at the oceanic trenches (subducting). Because
oceanic lithosphere is cold and brittle, it fractures as it descends back into the mantle. As it
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Plate Tectonics
fractures it produces earthquakes that get progressively deeper.
Plate Tectonics
By combining the sea floor

spreading theory with continental
drift and information on global
seismicity, the new theory of
Plate Tectonics became a
coherent theory to explain crustal
movements.
Plates are composed of

lithosphere, about 100 km thick,
that "float" on the ductile
asthenosphere.
While the continents do indeed appear to drift, they do so only because they are part of larger
plates that float and move horizontally on the upper mantle asthenosphere. The plates behave as
rigid bodies with some ability to flex, but deformation occurs mainly along the boundaries
between plates.
The plate boundaries can be identified because they are zones along which earthquakes occur.
Plate interiors have much fewer earthquakes.
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Plate Tectonics
Types of Plate Boundaries

There are three types of plate boundaries:
1. Divergent Plate boundaries, where plates move away from each other.
2. Convergent Plate Boundaries, where plates move toward each other.
3. Transform Plate Boundaries, where plates slide past one another.
z Divergent Plate Boundaries
{ These are oceanic ridges where

new oceanic lithosphere is created
by upwelling mantle that melts,
resulting in basaltic magmas
which intrude and erupt at the
oceanic ridge to create new
oceanic lithosphere and crust. As
new oceanic lithosphere is
created, it is pushed aside in
opposite directions. Thus, the age
of the oceanic crust becomes
progressively older in both
directions away from the ridge.
{ Because oceanic lithosphere may get subducted, the age of the ocean basins is
relatively young. The oldest oceanic crust occurs farthest away from a ridge. In the
Atlantic Ocean, the oldest oceanic crust occurs next to the North American and
African continents and is about 160 million years old (Jurassic) (see figure 4.6 in
your text). In the Pacific Ocean, the oldest crust is also Jurassic in age, and occurs
off the coast of Japan.
{ Because the oceanic ridges are areas of young crust, there is very little sediment
accumulation on the ridges. Sediment thickness increases in both directions away
of the ridge, and is thickest where the oceanic crust is the oldest.
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Plate Tectonics
{ Knowing the age of the crust and the distance from the ridge, the relative
velocity of the plates can be determined. (Absolute velocity requires further
information to be discussed later).
{ Relative plate velocities vary both for individual plates and for different
plates.
{ Sea floor topography is controlled by the age of the oceanic lithosphere and the
rate of spreading.
{ If the spreading rate (relative velocity) is high, magma must be rising rapidly and
the lithosphere is relatively hot beneath the ridge. Thus for fast spreading centers
the ridge stands at higher elevations than for slow spreading centers. The rift valley
at fast spreading centers is narrower than at slow spreading centers.
As oceanic lithosphere moves away from the ridge, it cools and sinks deeper into
the asthenosphere. Thus, the depth to the sea floor increases with increasing age
away from the ridge.
z Convergent Plate Boundaries

{ When a plate of dense oceanic lithosphere moving in one direction collides with a
plate moving in the opposite direction, one of the plates subducts beneath the
other. Where this occurs an oceanic trench forms on the sea floor and the sinking
plate becomes a subduction zone. The Wadati-Benioff Zone, a zone of
earthquakes located along the subduction zone, identifies a subduction zone. The
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Plate Tectonics
earthquakes may extend down to depths of 700 km before the subducting plate
heats up and loses its ability to deform in a brittle fashion.
{ As the oceanic plate subducts, it begins to heat up causing the release water of
water into the overlying mantle asthenosphere. The water reduces the melting
temperature and results in the production of magmas. These magmas rise to the
surface and create a volcanic arc parallel to the trench.
{ If the subduction occurs beneath

oceanic lithosphere, an island arc
is produced at the surface (such as
the Japanese islands, the Aleutian
Islands, the Philippine islands, or
the Caribbean islands
{ If the subduction occurs beneath

continental crust, a continental
volcanic arc is produced (such as
the Cascades of the western U.S.,
or the Andes mountains of the
South America)
{ If one of the plates has continental lithosphere on its margin, the oceanic plate will
subduct because oceanic lithosphere has a higher density than continental
lithosphere.
{ Sediment deposited along the convergent margin, and particularly that in the trench
will be deformed by thrust faulting. This will break the rocks up into a chaotic
mixture of broken, jumbled, and thrust faulted rock know as an accretionary
prism.
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Plate Tectonics
z Transform Plate Boundaries
{ Where lithospheric plates slide past one another in a horizontal manner, a

transform fault is created. Earthquakes along such transform faults are shallow
focus earthquakes.
{ Most transform faults occur where

oceanic ridges are offset on the sea floor.
Such offset occurs because spreading
takes place on the spherical surface of
the Earth, and some parts of a plate must
be moving at a higher relative velocity
than other parts One of the largest such
transform boundaries occurs along the
boundary of the North American and
Pacific plates and is known as the San
Andreas Fault. Here the transform fault
cuts through continental lithosphere
Triple Junctions occur at points where thee plates meet. Various combinations can exist, Two
of these are shown in figure 4.10 in your text.
Hot Spots
Areas where rising plumes of hot mantle reach the surface, usually at locations far removed
from plate boundaries are called hot spots. Because plates move relative to the underlying
mantle, hot spots beneath oceanic lithosphere produce a chain of volcanoes. A volcano is active
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Plate Tectonics
while it is over the vicinity of the hot spot, but eventually plate motion results in the volcano
moving away from the plume and the volcano becomes extinct and begins to erode.
Because the Pacific Plate is one of

the faster moving plates, this type of
volcanism produces linear chains of
islands and seamounts, such as the
Hawaiian - Emperor chain, the Line
Islands, the Marshall-Ellice Islands,
and the Austral seamount chain. In
this case the hot spot is currently
located beneath the Big Island of
Hawaii (the active volcanoes) at the
south eastern end of the Hawaiian
Ridge.
Many other hot spots are known,

most in the ocean basins. Where hot
spots occur beneath continental
lithosphere, large volumes of rhyolite
are produced (See figure 4.11 in your
text).
Hot Spots and Absolute Plate Velocities

Plate velocities determined from the rate of sea floor spreading or by making
measurements across a plate boundary are only relative velocities. That is we know
the velocity of one plate only if we can assume that the adjacent plate is not
moving. In order to determine absolute plate velocities, we need some fixed
reference point that we know is not moving.One place where this might be possible
is in the Pacific Ocean, where the Hawaiian Islands are part of a chain of islands,
far removed from any plate boundary, where islands and seamounts in the chain
increase in age from the southeast to the northwest Furthermore, the island at the
southeast end of the chain, the Big Island of Hawaii, is the only island with
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Plate Tectonics
currently active volcanoes. The island chain appears to have formed as the Pacific
plate moved over a Hot Spot, an area in the Earth's mantle where hot material from
the Earth's interior is moving upward. If we can assume that such a hot spot is
stationary, then we can calculate the absolute velocity of the Pacific Plate as it has
moved over the hot spot.
By using hot spots and, more recently, the Global Positioning System (GPS), to
determine absolute velocities, we find that the African Plate is almost stationary
(expected because the African Plate is surrounded by oceanic ridges, and the Mid-
Atlantic Ridge is moving toward the west. Furthermore, the Atlantic Ocean is getting
bigger and the Pacific Ocean is getting smaller.
Evolving Plate Boundaries
Plate boundaries can evolve. New plate boundaries can form where mantle upwelling results
in creating a rift in the crust and plate boundaries can die when when two plates of continental
lithosphere collide.
Continental Rifting - A new divergent plate

boundary can form when continental
lithosphere stretches, and thins to form a rift
valley. As the rift widens and thins,
upwelling asthenosphere can melt to produce
magmas that start to create new oceanic
lithosphere and spread the new plates apart
(see figure 4.13 in your text)..
An example of an where rifting may be

forming a future diverging plate margin is an
area of northeastern Africa, called the East
African Rift Valley. Another area where this
is apparently occurring is the Basin and
Range Province of the Western U.S.
z Continental Collisions - When two

plates that have low density continental
lithosphere collide with one another
subduction ceases because the
continental lithosphere has too low of a
density to be subducted. As the plates
continue to collide fold - thrust
mountain belts that develop along the
zone of collision.
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Plate Tectonics
Currently the highest mountains in the world, the Himalayas represent this kind of event.
The Himalayas resulted from a collision of the plate containing India with the plate
containing Eurasia. This collision is still taking place and results in joining the two
formerly separate plates. The occurrence of ancient fold -thrust mountain belts such as
the Appalachian Mountains of the Eastern U.S., the Urals of Central Russia, and the Alps
of southern Europe, are evidence of ancient continental collision margins.
What Causes Plate Tectonics?
From seismic wave velocities we know that the asthenosphere behaves in ductile manner, that
is even though it is solid it can flow under stress and behave like a liquid. If this is the case,
then it can also convect. Convection is a mode of heat transfer wherein the heat moves with the
material. Convection is caused when material that occurs at a deeper level is heated to the point
where it expands and becomes less dense than the material above it. When this occurs, the hot
less dense material rises. In a confined space, rising hot material will eventually cool and
become denser than its surroundings. This cool dense material must then sink. This gives rise to
convection cells, with hot rising currents and cool descending currents.
If the asthenosphere is in fact moving as a result of convection, then convection could be the
mechanism responsible for plate tectonics. Hot rising currents would occur beneath oceanic
ridges.
Magma intruding into the ridge would push lithosphere apart at the ridge. As the new
lithosphere cools, it will slide off the topographic high that results from the upwelling of the
mantle and will eventually become cold and dense. This dense lithosphere will tend to pull the
rest of the lithosphere downward. A combination of dragging the lithosphere along the top of
the convection cell, ridge push, sliding, and slab pull all appear to be contributing factors to the
cause of plate tectonics.
There is still some debate as to whether asthenospheric convection drives the plates or the
plates themselves drive plate tectonics. Until we have a better idea of what is happening in the
mantle this debate will not likely be resolved. At least for now it appears that both convection
and slab pull are the major factors (note that your textbook comes to a bit different conclusion.
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Questions on this material that could be asked on an exam
1. Define the following: (a) Curie Temperate, (b) magnetic inclination, (c) convection
current. (d) sea floor spreading, (e) continental drift (be sure the you understand the
differences between (d) and (e).
2. For each of the following types of plate boundary, describe exactly what is present and
what happens at the boundary: (a) divergent boundary, (b) convergent boundary, (c)
transform boundary.
3. Explain magnetic anomalies found on the sea floor. Why do they occur and what do they
tell us about the development of the sea floor?
4. What is the difference between an island arc and a continental volcanic arc?
5. What is a continental rift valley and a continental collision zone? What happens at each
of these and what examples of current earth features can you point out?
6. On a schematic diagram like the one in the section above where it starts talking about
Plate Tectonics, be able to identify each of the features.
7. What are the possible causes of plate tectonics.
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Minerals Page 1 of 8
EENS1110 Physical Geology
Minerals
The Earth is composed of rocks. Rocks are aggregates of minerals. So minerals are the basic
building blocks of the Earth. Currently there are over 4,000 different minerals known and
dozens of new minerals are discovered each year. Our society depends on minerals as sources
of metals, like Iron (Fe), Copper (Cu), Gold (Au), Silver (Ag), Zinc (Zn), Nickel (Ni), and
Aluminum (Al), etc., and non-metals such as gypsum, limestone, halite, clay, and talc. Many
minerals of of great economic importance and their distribution, extraction, and availability
have played an important role in history. Minerals are composed of atoms. We'll start our
discussion with the geological definition of a Mineral.
Definition of a Mineral:
A mineral is
z Naturally formed - it forms in nature on its own (some say without the aid of humans]
z Solid ( it cannot be a liquid or a gas)
z With a definite chemical composition (every time we see the same mineral it has the
same chemical composition that can be expressed by a chemical formula).
z and a characteristic crystalline structure (atoms are arranged within the mineral in a
specific ordered manner).
z usually inorganic, although a mineral can be formed by an organic process.
A mineraloid is a substance that satisfies some, but not all of the parts of the definition. For
example, opal, does not have a characteristic crystalline structure, so it is considered a
mineraloid.
Note also that the "minerals" as used in the nutritional sense are not minerals as defined
geologically.
Examples
z Glass - can be naturally formed (volcanic glass called obsidian), is a solid, its chemical
composition, however, is not always the same, and it does not have a crystalline
structure. Thus, glass is not a mineral.
z Ice - is naturally formed, is solid, does have a definite chemical composition that can be
expressed by the formula H2O, and does have a definite crystalline structure when solid.
http://www.tulane.edu/~sanelson/eens1110/minerals.htm 1/19/2012
Thus, ice is a mineral, but liquid water is not (since it is not solid).
z Halite (salt) - is naturally formed, is solid, does have a definite chemical composition that
can be expressed by the formula NaCl, and does have a definite crystalline structure.
Thus halite is a mineral.
Atoms
Since minerals (in fact all matter) are made up of atoms, we must first review atoms. Atoms
make up the chemical elements. Each chemical element has nearly identical atoms. An atom is
composed of three different particles:
z Protons -- positively charged, reside in the center of the atom called the nucleus
z Electrons -- negatively charged, orbit in a cloud around nucleus
z Neutrons -- no charge, reside in the nucleus.
Each element has the same number of protons and the same number of electrons.
z Number of protons = Number of electrons.
z Number of protons = atomic number.
z Number of protons + Number of neutrons = atomic weight.
Isotopes are atoms of the same element with differing numbers of neutrons. i.e. the number of
neutrons may vary within atoms of the same element. Some isotopes are unstable which results
in radioactivity.
z Example:
{ K (potassium) has 19 protons. Every atom of K has 19 protons. Atomic number of
K = 19. Some atoms of K have 20 neutrons, others have 21, and others have 22.
Thus atomic weight of K can be 39, 40, or 41. 40K is radioactive and decays to
40Ar and 40Ca.
Structure of Atoms
Electrons orbit around the nucleus in different shells, A Stable electronic configuration for an
atom is one 8 electrons in outer shell Thus, atoms often loose electrons or gain electrons to
obtain stable configuration. Noble gases have completely filled outer shells, so they are stable.
Examples He, Ne, Ar, Kr, Xe, Rn. Others like Na, K loose an electron. This causes the charge
balance to become unequal. and produce charged atoms called ions. Positively charged atoms
are called cations. Elements like F, Cl, O gain electrons to become negatively charged.
Negatively charged ions are called anions.
The drive to attain a stable electronic configuration in the outermost shell along with the fact
that this sometimes produces oppositely charged ions, results in the binding of atoms together.
When atoms become attached to one another, we say that they are bonded together.
Types of bonding:
z Ionic Bonds - caused by the force of attraction between ions of opposite charge.
Example Na+1 and Cl-1. Bond to form NaCl (halite or salt).
Ionic bonds are moderately strong.
z Covalent Bonds - Electrons are

shared between two or more atoms so
that each atom has a stable electronic
configuration (completely filled
outermost shell) part of the time.
Example: H has one electron, needs

to 2 to be stable. O has 6 electrons in
its outer shell, needs 2 to be stable.
So, 2 H atoms bond to 1 O to form
H2O, with all atoms sharing
electrons, and each atom having a
stable electronic configuration part of
the time.
Covalent bonds are very strong

bonds.
z Metallic Bonds -- Similar to covalent bonding, except innermost electrons are also
shared. In materials that bond this way, electrons move freely from atom to atom and are
constantly being shared. Materials bonded with metallic bonds are excellent conductors
of electricity because the electrons can move freely through the material.
z Van der Waals Bonds -- a weak type of bond that does not share or transfer electrons.
Usually results in a zone along which the material breaks easily (cleavage). Good
examples's graphite and micas like biotite and muscovite.
Several different bond types can be present in a mineral, and these determine the physical
properties of the mineral.
Crystal Structure
All minerals, by definition are also crystals. Packing of atoms in a crystal structure requires an
orderly and repeated atomic arrangement. Such an orderly arrangement needs to fill space
efficiently and keep a charge balance. Since the size of atoms depends largely on the number of
electrons, atoms of different elements have different sizes.
Example of NaCl :
For each Na atom there is one Cl atom. Each Na is surrounded by Cl and each Cl is surrounded
by Na. The charge on each Cl is -1 and the charge on each Na is +1 to give a charged balanced
crystal.
The structure of minerals is often seen in the shape of crystals. The law of constancy of
interfacial angles --- Angles between the same faces on crystals of the same substance are
equal. This is a reflection of ordered crystal structure (See figure 5.5 in the textbook).
Crystal structure can be determined by the use of X-rays. A beam of X-rays can penetrate
crystals but is deflected by the atoms that make up the crystals. The image produced and
collected on film, can be used to determine the struture. The method is know as X-ray
diffraction.
Crystal structure depends on the conditions under which the mineral forms. Polymorphs are
minerals with the same chemical composition but different crystal structures. The conditions
are such things as temperature (T) and pressure (P), because these effect ionic radii.
At high T atoms vibrate more, and thus distances between them get larger. Crystal structure
changes to accommodate the larger atoms. At even higher T substances changes to liquid and
eventually to gas. Liquids and gases do not have an ordered crystal structure and are not
minerals.
Increase in P pushes atoms closer together. This makes for a more densely packed crystal
structure.
Examples:
z The compound Al2SiO5 has three different polymorphs that depend on the temperature
and pressure at which the mineral forms. At high P the stable form of Al2SiO5 is
kyanite, at low P the stable from is andalusite, and at high T it is sillimanite.
z Carbon (C) has two different polymorphs. At low T and P pure carbon is the mineral
graphite, (pencil lead), a very soft mineral. At higher T and P the stable form is
diamond, the hardest natural substance known. In the diagram, the geothermal gradient
( how temperature varies with depth or pressure in the Earth) is superimposed on the
stability fields of Carbon. Thus we know that when we find diamond it came from
someplace in the Earth where the temperature is greater than 1500oC and the pressure is
higher than 50,000 atmospheres (equivalent to a depth of about 170 km).
Ionic Substitution (Solid Solution)
Ionic substitution - (also called solid solution), occurs because some elements (ions) have the
same size and charge, and can thus substitute for one another in a crystal structure.
Examples:
z Olivines Fe2SiO4 and Mg2SiO4. Fe+2 and Mg+2 are about the same size, thus they can
substitute for one another in the crystal structure and olivine thus can have a range of
compositions expressed as the formula (Mg,Fe)2SiO4.
z Alkali Feldspars: KAlSi3O8 (orthoclase) and NaAlSi3O8, (albite) K+1 can substitute
for Na+1
z Plagioclase Feldspars: NaAlSi3O8 (albite) and CaAl2Si2O8 (anorthite) NaSi+5 can

substitutes for CaAl+5 (a complex solid solution).
Composition of Minerals
The variety of minerals we see depend on the chemical elements available to form them. In the
Earth's crust the most abundant elements are as follows:
1. O, Oxygen 45.2% by weight

2. Si, Silicon 27.2%
3. Al, Aluminum 8.0%
4. Fe, Iron 5.8%
5. Ca, Calcium 5.1%
6. Mg, Magnesium 2.8%
7. Na, Sodium 2.3%
8. K, Potassium 1.7%
9. Ti ,Titanium 0.9%
10. H, Hydrogen 0.14%

11. Mn, Manganese 0.1%
12. P, Phosphorous 0.1%
Note that Carbon (one of the most abundant elements in life) is not among the top 12.
Because of the limited number of elements present in the Earth's crust there are only about
4000 minerals known. Only about 50of these minerals are common. The most common
minerals are those based on Si and O: the Silicates. Silicates are based on SiO4 tetrahedron. 4
Oxygens covalently bonded to one silicon atom
Properties of Minerals
Physical properties of minerals allow us to distinguish between minerals and thus identify
them, as you will learn in lab. Among the common properties used are:
z Habit - shape
z Color
z Streak (color of fine powder of the mineral)
z Luster -- metallic, vitreous, pearly, resinous (reflection of light)
z Cleavage (planes along which the mineral breaks easily)
z Density (mass/volume)
z Hardness: based on Mohs hardness scale as follows:
1. Talc
2. gypsum (fingernail)
3. calcite (penny)
4. fluorite
5. apatite (knife blade)
6. orthoclase (glass)
7. quartz
8. topaz
9. corundum
10. Diamond
Formation of Minerals
Minerals are formed in nature by a variety of processes. Among them are:
z Crystallization from melt (igneous rocks)
z Precipitation from water (chemical sedimentary rocks, hydrothermal ore deposits)
z Biological activity (biochemical sedimentary rocks)
z Change to more stable state - (the processes of weathering, metamorphism, and

diagenesis).
z Precipitation from vapor. (not common, but sometimes does occur around volcanic
vents)
Since each process leads to different minerals and different mineral polymorphs, we can
identify the process by which minerals form in nature. Each process has specific temperature
and pressure conditions that can be determined from laboratory experiments. Example: graphite
and diamond, as shown previously.
Rocks - Mixtures of Minerals
Mixtures or aggregates of minerals are called rocks. There are three basic kinds of rocks, each
type is determined by the process by which the rock forms.
z Igneous Rocks - form by solidification and crystallization from liquid rock, called
magma.
z Sedimentary Rocks - form by sedimentation of mineral and other rock fragments from
water, wind, or ice and can also form by chemical precipitation from water.
z Metamorphic Rocks - form as a result of increasing the pressure and/or temperature on a

previously existing rock to form a new rock.
Each of these rock forming processes results in distinctive mineral assemblages and textures in
the resulting rock. Thus, the different mineral assemblages and textures give us clues to how
the rock formed. An understanding of the rock forming processes and the resulting mineral
assemblage and texture will be the main goal of the next part of this course.
1. What it a mineral? Give some examples of minerals and non-minerals, and explain why
each is or is not a mineral.
2. What are the 4 types of chemical bonds. Which of these is stronger and which is the
weakest.
3. What are polymorphs? Give two examples of minerals that show polymorphism.
4. What are top 4 elements in the Earth's crust and how does this determine which minerals
are most abundant in the Earth's crust.
5. What is a solid solution? Give at least two examples of minerals that show solid
solution.
6. Give at least 6 examples of physical properties that can be used to identify minerals.
7. What are the five processes by which minerals form in nature?
Igneous Rocks Page 1 of 14
Magmas and Igneous Rocks
Magma and Igneous Rocks
Igneous Rocks are formed by crystallization from a liquid, or magma. They include two types
z Volcanic or extrusive igneous rocks form when the magma cools and crystallizes on the
surface of the Earth
z Intrusive or plutonic igneous rocks wherein the magma crystallizes at depth in the Earth.
Magma is a mixture of liquid rock, crystals, and gas. Characterized by a wide range of
chemical compositions, with high temperature, and properties of a liquid.
Magmas are less dense than surrounding rocks, and will therefore move upward. If magma
makes it to the surface it will erupt and later crystallize to form an extrusive or volcanic rock.
If it crystallizes before it reaches the surface it will form an igneous rock at depth called a
plutonic or intrusive igneous rock.
Types of Magma
Chemical composition of magma is controlled by the abundance of elements in the Earth. Si,
Al, Fe, Ca, Mg, K, Na, H, and O make up 99.9%. Since oxygen is so abundant, chemical
analyses are usually given in terms of oxides. SiO2 is the most abundant oxide.
1. Mafic or Basaltic-- SiO2 45-55 wt%, high in Fe, Mg, Ca, low in K, Na
2. Intermediate or Andesitic-- SiO2 55-65 wt%, intermediate. in Fe, Mg, Ca, Na, K
3. Felsic or Rhyolitic-- SiO2 65-75%, low in Fe, Mg, Ca, high in K, Na.
Gases - At depth in the Earth nearly all magmas contain gas. Gas gives magmas their
explosive character, because the gas expands as pressure is reduced.
z Mostly H O with some CO
2 2
z Minor amounts of Sulfur, Cl , and F
z Felsic magmas usually have higher gas contents than mafic magmas.
Temperature of Magmas
z Mafic/Basaltic - 1000-1200oC
z Intermediate/Andesitic - 800-1000oC
z Felsic/Rhyolitic - 650-800oC.
http://www.tulane.edu/~sanelson/eens1110/igneous.htm 1/23/2012
Viscosity of Magmas
Viscosity is the resistance to flow (opposite of fluidity). Depends on composition,

temperature, & gas content.
z Higher SiO2 content magmas have higher viscosity than lower SiO2 content magmas
z Lower Temperature magmas have higher viscosity than higher temperature magmas.
Summary Table
Solidified Solidified
Magma Chemical Gas
Volcanic Plutonic Temperature Viscosity
Type Composition Content
Rock Rock
45-55 SiO2 %,
Mafic or
Basaltic
Basalt Gabbro high in Fe, Mg, 1000 - 1200 oC Low Low
Ca, low in K, Na
55-65 SiO2 %,
Intermediate
or Andesite Diorite intermediate in 800 - 1000 oC Intermediate Intermediate
Andesitic Fe, Mg, Ca, Na,
K
65-75 SiO2 %,
Felsic or low in Fe, Mg, 650 - 800 oC
Rhyolite Granite High High
Rhyolitic Ca, high in K,
Na
Origin of Magma
As we have seen the only part of the earth that is liquid is the outer core. But the core is not
likely to be the source of magmas because it does not have the right chemical composition.
The outer core is mostly Iron, but magmas are silicate liquids. Thus magmas DO NOT COME
FROM THE MOLTEN OUTER CORE OF THE EARTH. Thus, since the rest of the earth
is solid, in order for magmas to form, some part of the earth must get hot enough to melt the
rocks present. We know that temperature increases with depth in the earth along the
geothermal gradient. The earth is hot inside due to heat left over from the original accretion
process, due to heat released by sinking of materials to form the core, and due to heat released
by the decay of radioactive elements in the earth. Under normal conditions, the geothermal
gradient is not high enough to melt rocks, and thus with the exception of the outer core, most of
the Earth is solid. Thus, magmas form only under special circumstances. To understand this
we must first look at how rocks and mineral melt.
As pressure increases in the Earth, the melting temperature changes as well. For pure minerals,
there are two general cases.
z For a pure dry (no H2O or CO2

present) mineral, the melting
temperate increases with increasing
pressure.
z For a mineral with H2O or CO2

present, the melting temperature
first decreases with increasing
pressure
Since rocks mixtures of minerals, they behave somewhat differently. Unlike minerals, rocks do
not melt at a single temperature, but instead melt over a range of temperatures. Thus, it is
possible to have partial melts from which the liquid portion might be extracted to form magma.
The two general cases are:
z Melting of dry rocks is similar to

melting of dry minerals, melting
temperatures increase with
increasing pressure, except there is a
range of temperature over which
there exists a partial melt. The
degree of partial melting can range
from 0 to 100%
z Melting of rocks containing water or

carbon dioxide is similar to melting
of wet minerals, melting temperatures
initially decrease with increasing
pressure, except there is a range of
temperature over which there exists a
partial melt.
Three ways to Generate Magmas
From the above we can conclude that in order to generate a magma in the solid part of the earth
either the geothermal gradient must be raised in some way or the melting temperature of the
rocks must be lowered in some way.
The geothermal gradient can be raised by upwelling of hot material from below either by uprise
solid material (decompression melting) or by intrusion of magma (heat transfer). Lowering the
melting temperature can be achieved by adding water or Carbon Dioxide (flux melting).
Decompression Melting -
Under normal conditions
the temperature in the
Earth, shown by the
geothermal gradient, is
lower than the beginning of
melting of the mantle.
Thus in order for the
mantle to melt there has to
be a mechanism to raise the
geothermal gradient. Once
such mechanism is
convection, wherein hot
mantle material rises to
lower pressure or depth,
carrying its heat with it.
If the raised geothermal gradient becomes higher than the initial melting temperature at any
pressure, then a partial melt will form. Liquid from this partial melt can be separated from the
remaining crystals because, in general, liquids have a lower density than solids. Basaltic
magmas appear to originate in this way.
Upwelling mantle appears to occur beneath oceanic ridges, at hot spots, and beneath
continental rift valleys. Thus, generation of magma in these three environments is likely
caused by decompression melting.
Transfer of Heat- When magmas that were generated by some other mechanism intrude into
cold crust, they bring with them heat. Upon solidification they lose this heat and transfer it to
the surrounding crust. Repeated intrusions can transfer enough heat to increase the local
geothermal gradient and cause melting of the surrounding rock to generate new magmas.
Transfer of heat by this mechanism may be responsible for generating some magmas in
continental rift valleys, hot spots, and subduction related environments.
Flux Melting - As we saw above, if water or carbon dioxide are added to rock, the melting
temperature is lowered. If the addition of water or carbon dioxide takes place deep in the earth
where the temperature is already high, the lowering of melting temperature could cause the
rock to partially melt to generate magma. One place where water could be introduced is at
subduction zones. Here, water present in the pore spaces of the subducting sea floor or water
present in minerals like hornblende, biotite, or clay minerals would be released by the rising
temperature and then move in to the overlying mantle. Introduction of this water in the mantle
would then lower the melting temperature of the mantle to generate partial melts, which could
then separate from the solid mantle and rise toward the surface.
Chemical Variability of Magmas
The chemical composition of magma can vary depending on the rock that initially melts (the
source rock), and process that occur during partial melting and transport.
Initial Composition of Magma
The initial composition of the magma is dictated by the composition of the source rock and the
degree of partial melting. In general, melting of a mantle source (garnet peridotite) results in
mafic/basaltic magmas. Melting of crustal sources yields more siliceous magmas.
In general more siliceous magmas form by low degrees of partial melting. As the degree of
partial melting increases, less siliceous compositions can be generated. So, melting a mafic
source thus yields a felsic or intermediate magma. Melting of ultramafic (peridotite source)
yields a basaltic magma.
Magmatic Differentiation
But, processes that operate during transportation toward the surface or during storage in the
crust can alter the chemical composition of the magma. These processes are referred to as
magmatic differentiation and include assimilation, mixing, and fractional crystallization.
Assimilation - As magma passes through cooler rock on its way to the surface it
may partially melt the surrounding rock and incorporate this melt into the
magma. Because small amounts of partial melting result in siliceous liquid
compositions, addition of this melt to the magma will make it more siliceous.
Mixing - If two magmas with different compositions happen to come in contact

with one another, they could mix together. The mixed magma will have a
composition somewhere between that of the original two magma compositions.
Evidence for mixing is often preserved in the resulting rocks.
Fractional Crystallization - When magma crystallizes it does so over a range of

temperature. Each mineral begins to crystallize at a different temperature, and if
these minerals are somehow removed from the liquid, the liquid composition will
change. The processes is called magmatic differentiation by Fractional
Crystallization.
Because mafic minerals like olivine and pyroxene crystallize first, the process
results in removing Mg, Fe, and Ca, and enriching the liquid in silica. Thus crystal
fractionation can change a mafic magma into a felsic magma.
Crystals can be removed by a variety of processes. If the crystals are more dense
than the liquid, they may sink. If they are less dense than the liquid they will float.
If liquid is squeezed out by pressure, then crystals will be left behind. Removal of
crystals can thus change the composition of the liquid portion of the magma. Let
me illustrate this using a very simple case.
Imagine a liquid containing 5 molecules of MgO and 5 molecules of SiO2. Initially

the composition of this magma is expressed as 50% SiO2 and 50% MgO. i.e.
Now let's imagine I remove 1 MgO molecule by putting it into a crystal and
removing the crystal from the magma. Now what are the percentages of each
molecule in the liquid?
If we continue the process one more time by removing one more MgO molecule
Thus, composition of liquid can be changed.
Bowen's Reaction Series

Bowen found by experiment that the order in which minerals crystallize from a basaltic magma
depends on temperature. As a basaltic magma is cooled Olivine and Ca-rich plagioclase
crystallize first. Upon further cooling, Olivine reacts with the liquid to produce pyroxene and
Ca-rich plagioclase react with the liquid to produce less Ca-rich plagioclase. But, if the olivine
and Ca-rich plagioclase are removed from the liquid by crystal fractionation, then the
remaining liquid will be more SiO2 rich. If the process continues, an original basaltic magma
can change to first an andesite magma then a rhyolite magma with falling temperature
Igneous Environments and Igneous Rocks
The environment in which magma completely solidifies to form a rock determines:
1. The type of rock
2. The appearance of the rock as seen in its texture
3. The type of rock body.
In general there are two environments to consider:
The intrusive or plutonic environment is below the surface of the earth. This environment is
characterized by higher temperatures which result in slow cooling of the magma. Intrusive or
plutonic igneous rocks form here.
Where magma erupts on the surface of the earth, temperatures are lower and cooling of the
magma takes place much more rapidly. This is the extrusive or volcanic environment and
results in extrusive or volcanic igneous rocks.
Extrusive Environments
When magmas reach the surface of the Earth they erupt from a vent called a volcano. They
may erupt explosively or non-explosively.
z Non-explosive eruptions are favored by low gas content and low viscosity magmas
(basaltic to andesitic magmas and sometimes rhyolitic magma).
{ Usually begin with fire fountains due to release of dissolved gases
{ Produce lava flows on surface
{ Produce Pillow lavas if erupted beneath water
z Explosive eruptions are favored by high gas content and high viscosity (andesitic to
rhyolitic magmas).
{ Expansion of gas bubbles is resisted by high viscosity of magma - results in

building of pressure
{ High pressure in gas bubbles causes the bubbles to burst when reaching the low
pressure at the Earth's surface.
{ Bursting of bubbles fragments the magma into pyroclasts and tephra (ash).
{ Cloud of gas and tephra rises above volcano to produce an eruption column that
can rise up to 45 km into the atmosphere.
Tephra that falls from the eruption column
produces a tephra fall deposit.
If eruption column collapses a pyroclastic flow

may occur, wherein gas and tephra rush down the
flanks of the volcano at high speed. This is the
most dangerous type of volcanic eruption. The
deposits that are produced are called ignimbrites.
Intrusive Environments
Magma that cools at depth form bodies of rocks called intrusive bodies or plutonic bodies
called plutons, from Greek god of the underworld - Pluto. When magma intrudes it usually
affects the surrounding rock and is also affected by the surrounding rock. It may
metamorphose the surrounding rocks or cause hydrothermal alteration. The magma itself may
also cool rapidly near the contact with the surrounding rock and thus show a chilled margin
next to the contact.
It may also incorporate pieces of the surrounding

rocks without melting them. These incorporated
pieces are called xenoliths (foreign rocks).
Magma intrudes by injection into fractures in the rock

and expanding the fractures. The may also move by
a process called stoping, wherein bocks are loosened
by magma at the top of the magma body with these
blocks then sinking through the magma to accumulate
on the floor of the magma body.
In relatively shallow environments intrusions are usually tabular bodies like dikes and sills or
domed roof bodies called laccoliths.
z Dikes are small (<20 m wide)

shallow intrusions that show a
discordant relationship to the rocks
in which they intrude. Discordant
means that they cut across
preexisting structures. They may
occur as isolated bodies or may
occur as swarms of dikes
emanating from a large intrusive
body at depth.
z Sills are also small (<50 m thick)

shallow intrusions that show a
concordant relationship with the
rocks that they intrude. Sills
usually are fed by dikes, but these
may not be exposed in the field.
z Laccoliths are somewhat large

intrusions that result in uplift and
folding of the preexisting rocks
above the intrusion. They are also
concordant types of intrusions.
Deeper in the earth intrusion of magma can form bulbous bodies called plutons and the
coalescence of many plutons can form much larger bodies called batholiths.
z Plutons are large intrusive bodies, of any shape that intrude in replace rocks in an
irregular fashion.
z Stocks are smaller bodies that are likely fed from deeper level batholiths. Stocks may
have been feeders for volcanic eruptions, but because large amounts of erosion are
required to expose a stock or batholith, the associated volcanic rocks are rarely exposed.
z If multiple intrusive events occur

in the same part of the crust, the
body that forms is called a
batholith. Several large
batholiths occur in the western
U.S. - The Sierra Nevada
Batholith, the Coast Range
Batholith, and the Idaho
Batholith, for example (See
figure 6.10d in your text).
During a magmatic event there is usually a close relationship between intrusive activity and
extrusive activity, but one cannot directly observe the intrusive activity. Only after erosion of
the extrusive rocks and other rock above the intrusions has exposed the intrusions do they
become visible at the earth's surface (see figure 6.10a in your text).
The rate of cooling of magma depends largely on the environment in which the magma cools.
Rapid cooling takes place on the Earth's surface where there is a large temperature contrast
between the atmosphere/ground surface and the magma. Cooling time for material erupted into
air and water can be as short as several seconds. For lava flows cooling times are on the order
of days to weeks. Shallow intrusions cool in months to years and large deep intrusions may
take millions of years to cool.
Because cooling of the magma takes place at a different rate, the

crystals that form and their interrelationship (texture) exhibit different
properties.
z Fast cooling on the surface results in many small crystals or

quenching to a glass. Gives rise to aphanitic texture (crystals
cannot be distinguished with the naked eye), or obsidian
(volcanic glass).
z Slow cooling at depth in the earth results in fewer much larger crystals,
gives rise to phaneritic texture.
z Porphyritic texture develops when slow cooling is followed

by rapid cooling. Phenocrysts = larger crystals, matrix or
groundmass = smaller crystals.
Classification of Igneous Rocks
Igneous rocks are classified on the basis of texture and chemical composition, usually as
reflected in the minerals that from due to crystallization. You will explore the classification of
igneous rocks in the laboratory portion of this course.
Extrusive/Volcanic Rocks
Basalts, Andesites, and Rhyolites are all types of volcanic rock distinguished on the basis of
their mineral assemblage and chemical compostion (see figure 6.13 in your text). These rocks
tend to be fine grained to glassy or porphyritic. Depending on conditions present during
eruption and cooling, any of these rock types may form one of the following types of volcanic
rocks.
z Obsidian - dark colored volcanic glass showing concoidal fracture and few to no
crystals. Usually rhyolitic .
z Pumice - light colored and light weight rock consisting of mostly holes (vesicles) that
were once occupied by gas, Usually rhyolitic or andesitic.
z Vesicular rock - rock filled with holes (like Swiss cheese) or vesicles that were once
occupied by gas. Usually basaltic and andesitic.
z If vesicles in a vesicular basalt are later filled by precipitation of calcite or quartz, the
fillings are termed amygdules and the basalt is termed an amygdularl basalt.
z Pyroclasts = hot, broken fragments. Result from explosively ripping apart of magma.
Loose assemblages of pyroclasts called tephra. Depending on size, tephra can be
classified as bombs. lapilli, or ash.
z Rock formed by accumulation and cementation of tephra called a pyroclastic rock or

tuff. Welding, compactioncause tephra (loose material) to be converted in pyroclastic
rock.
Intrusive/Plutonic Igneous Rocks
Shallow intrusions like dikes and sills are usually fine grained and sometimes porphritic
because cooling rates are similar to those of extrusive rocks. Classification is similar to the
classification for volcanic/extrusive rocks. Coarse grained rocks, formed at deeper levels in the
earth include gabbros, diorites, and granites. Note that these are chemically equivalent to
basalts, andesites, and rhyolites, but may have different minerals or different proportions of
mineral because their crystallization history is not interrupted as it might be for extrusive rocks
(see figure 6.13 in your text).
Pegmatites are very coarse grained igneous rocks consisting mostly of quartz and feldspar as
well as some more exotic minerals like tourmaline, lepidolite, muscovite. These usually form
dikes related to granitic plutons.
Distribution of Igneous Activity
Igneous activity is currently taking place as it has in the past in various tectonic settings.
These include diverging and converging plate boundaries, hot spots, and rift valleys.
Divergent Plate Boundaries
At oceanic ridges, igneous activity involves eruption of basaltic lava flows that form pillow
lavas at the oceanic ridges and intrusion of dikes and plutons beneath the ridges. The lava
flows and dikes are basaltic and the plutons mainly gabbros. These processes form the bulk of
the oceanic crust as a result of sea floor spreading. Magmas are generated by decompression
melting as hot solid asthenosphere rises and partially melts.
Convergent Plate Boundaries
Subduction at convergent plate boundaries introduces water into the mantle above the
subduction and causes flux melting of the mantle to produce basaltic magmas. These rise
toward the surface differentiating by assimilation and crystal fractionation to produce andesitic
and rhyolitic magmas. The magmas that reach the surface build island arcs and continental
margin volcanic arcs built of basalt, andesite, and rhyolite lava flows and pyroclastic material.
The magmas that intrude beneath these arcs can cause crustal melting and form plutons and
batholiths of diorite and granite
Hot Spots
As discussed previously, hot spots are places are places where hot mantle ascends toward the
surface as plumes of hot rock. Decompression melting in these rising plumes results in the
production of magmas which erupt to form a volcano on the surface or sea floor, eventually
building a volcanic island. As the overriding plate moves over the hot spot, the volcano moves
off of the hot spot and a new volcano forms over the hot spot. This produces a hot spot track
consisting of lines of extinct volcanoes leading to the active volcano at the hot spot. A hot spot
located beneath a continent can result in heat transfer melting of the continental crust to
produce large rhyolitic volcanic centers and plutonic granitic plutons below. A good example
of a continental hot spot is at Yellowstone in the western U.S. Occasionally a hot spot is
coincident with an oceanic ridge. In such a case, the hot spot produces larger volumes of
magma than normally occur at ridge and thus build a volcanic island on the ridge. Such is the
case for Iceland which sits atop the Mid-Atlantic Ridge.
Rift Valleys
Rising mantle beneath a continent can result in extensional fractures in the continental crust to
form a rift valley. As the mantle rises it undergoes partial melting by decompression, resulting
in the production of basaltic magmas which may erupt as flood basalts on the surface. Melts
that get trapped in the crust can release heat resulting in melting of the crust to form rhyolitic
magmas that can also erupt at the surface in the rift valley. An excellent example of a
continental rift valley is the East African Rift.
Large Igneous Provinces
In the past, large volumes of mostly basaltic magma have erupted on the sea floor to form large
volcanic plateaus, such as the Ontong Java Plateau in the eastern Pacific. Such large volume
eruptions can have affects on the oceans because they change the shape of ocean floor and
cause a rise in sea level, that sometimes floods the continents. The plateaus form obstructions
which can drastically change ocean currents. These changes in the ocean along with massive
amounts of gas released by the magmas can alter climate and have drastic effects on life on the
planet.
Examples of questions on this material that could be asked on an exam.
1. What are the three main types of magma and how are they distinguished in terms of their
chemical composition, temperature, and viscosity?
2. What is the main difference between the way that pure minerals melt and the way the
rocks melt? What effect does the addition of volatiles like H20 and CO2 have?
3. What are the main gases that occur in magma?
4. What are three ways that magma can be generated? Explain each.
5. Define the following: (a) dike, (b) sill, (c) xenolith, (d) stoping, (e) batholith, (f)
obsidian, (g) pumice, (h) pyroclast, (i) pegmatite. (Use drawings if it helps).
6. What does the texture of an igneous rocks tell us about cooling history?
7. Describe the following igneous textures (a) aphanitic, (b) phaneritic, (c) porphyritic.
8. Describe the distribution of igneous activity on Earth.
Weathering and Soils Page 1 of 7

Weathering and Soils
Earth is covered by a thin veneer of sediment. The veneer caps igneous and metamorphic
basement. This sediment cover varies in thickness from 0 to 20 km. It is thinner (or missing)
where igneous and metamorphic rocks outcrop, and is thicker in sedimentary basins.
In order to make this sediment and sedimentary rock, several steps are required:
z Weathering Breaks pre-existing rock into small fragments or new minerals
z Transportation of the sediments to a sedimentary basin.
z Deposition of the sediment
z Burial and Lithification to make sedimentary rock.
Each Step in the process of forming sediment and sedimentary rocks leaves clues in the
sediment. These clues can be interpreted to determine the history of the sediment and thus the
history of the Earth.
Weathering
Geologists recognize two categories of weathering processes

1. Physical Weathering - disintegration of rocks and minerals by a physical or mechanical
process.
2. Chemical Weathering - chemical alteration or decomposition of rocks and minerals.
Although we separate these processes, as we will see, both work together to break down rocks
and minerals to smaller fragments or to minerals more stable near the Earth's surface.Both
types are a response to the low pressure, low temperature, and water and oxygen rich nature of
the earths surface.
Physical Weathering
The mechanical breakup or disintegration of rock doesn't change mineral makeup. It creates
broken fragments or detritus. which are classified by size:
z Coarse-grained Boulders, Cobbles, and Pebbles.

z Medium-grained Sand
z Fine-grained Silt and clay (mud).
Physical weathering takes place by a variety of processes. Among them are:
z Development of Joints - Joints are regularly spaced fractures or cracks in rocks that
show no offset across the fracture (fractures that show an offset are called faults).
{ Joints form as a result of expansion due to cooling or relief of pressure as

overlying rocks are removed by erosion.
http://www.tulane.edu/~sanelson/eens1110/weathering.htm 1/30/2012
{ Igneous plutons crack in onion like exfoliation layers. These layers break off as
sheets that slide off of a pluton. Over time, this process creates domed remnants.
(See figure B.4 in your text) Examples: Half-Dome (CA.) (see figure 22.12a in
your text) and Stone Mountain (GA.).
{ Joints form free space in rock by which other agents of chemical or physical
weathering can enter.
z Crystal Growth - As water percolates through fractures and pore spaces it may contain
ions that precipitate to form crystals. As these crystals grow they may exert an outward
force that can expand or weaken rocks.
z Thermal Expansion - Although daily heating and cooling of rocks do not seem to have
an effect, sudden exposure to high temperature, such as in a forest or grass fire may cause
expansion and eventual breakage of rock. Campfire example.
z Root Wedging - Plant roots can extend into fractures and grow, causing expansion of the
fracture. Growth of plants can break rock - look at the sidewalks of New Orleans for
example.
z Animal Activity - Animals burrowing or moving through cracks can break rock.
z Frost Wedging - Upon freezing, there is an increase in the volume of the water (that's
why we use antifreeze in auto engines or why the pipes break in New Orleans during the
rare freeze). As the water freezes it expands and exerts a force on its surroundings. Frost
wedging is more prevalent at high altitudes where there may be many freeze-thaw cycles.
Chemical Weathering
Since many rocks and minerals are formed under conditions present deep within the Earth,
when they arrive near the surface as a result of uplift and erosion, they encounter conditions
very different from those under which they originally formed. Among the conditions present
near the Earth's surface that are different from those deep within the Earth are:
z Lower Temperature (Near the surface T = 0-50oC)
z Lower Pressure (Near the surface P = 1 to several hundred atmospheres)
z Higher free water (there is a lot of liquid water near the surface, compared with deep in
the Earth)
z Higher free oxygen (although O2 is the most abundant element in the crust, most of it is
tied up bonded into silicate and oxide minerals - at the surface there is much more free
oxygen, particularly in the atmosphere).
Because of these differing conditions, minerals in rocks react with their new environment to
produce new minerals that are stable under conditions near the surface. Minerals that are stable
under P, T, H2O, and O2 conditions near the surface are, in order of most stable to least stable:
z Iron oxides, Aluminum oxides - such as hematite Fe2O3, & gibbsite Al(OH)3.
z Quartz*
z Clay Minerals
z Muscovite*
z Alkali Feldspar*
z Biotite*
z Amphiboles*
z Pyroxenes*
z Ca-rich plagioclase*
z Olivine*
Note the minerals with a *. These are igneous minerals that crystallize from a liquid. Note the
minerals that occur low on this list are the minerals that crystallize at high temperature from
magma. The higher the temperature of crystallization, the less stable are these minerals at the
low temperature found near the Earth's surface (see Bowen's reaction series in the igneous
rocks chapter).
The main agent responsible for chemical weathering reactions is water and weak acids formed
in water.
z An acid is solution that has abundant free H+ ions.
z The most common weak acid that occurs in surface waters is carbonic acid.
z Carbonic acid is produced in rainwater by reaction of the water with carbon dioxide
(CO2) gas in the atmosphere.
H+ is a small ion and can easily enter crystal structures, releasing other ions into the
water.
Types of Chemical Weathering Reactions
z Hydrolysis - H+ or OH- replaces an ion in the mineral. Example:
z Leaching - ions are removed by dissolution into water. In the example above we say
that the K+ ion was leached.
z Oxidation - Since free oxygen (O2) is more common near the Earth's surface, it may
react with minerals to change the oxidation state of an ion. This is more common in Fe
(iron) bearing minerals, since Fe can have several oxidation states, Fe, Fe+2, Fe+3. Deep
in the Earth the most common oxidation state of Fe is Fe+2.
z Dehydration - removal of H2O or OH- ion from a mineral.
z Complete Dissolution - all of the mineral is completely dissolved by the water.
z Living Organisms - Organisms like plants, fungi, lichen, and bacteria can secrete organic
acids that can cause dissolution of minerals to extract nutrients. The role of
microorganisms like bacteria has only recent been discovered.
Weathering of Common Rocks

Rock Primary Minerals Residual Minerals* Leached Ions
Feldspars Clay Minerals Na+, K+
Micas Clay Minerals K+
Granite Quartz Quartz ---
Clay Minerals + Hematite +
Fe-Mg Minerals
Goethite Mg+2
Feldspars Clay Minerals Na+, Ca+2
Basalt Fe-Mg Minerals Clay Minerals Mg+2
Magnetite Hematite, Goethite ---
Limestone Calcite None Ca+2, CO3-2
*Residual Minerals = Minerals stable at the Earth's surface and left in the rock after
weathering.
Interaction of Physical and Chemical Weathering
Since chemical weathering occurs on the surface of minerals, the water and acids that control
chemical weathering require access to the surface. Physical weathering breaks the rock to
provide that surface. Fracturing the rocks, as occurs during jointing, increases the surface area
that can be exposed to weathering and also provides pathways for water to enter the rock. (See
figure B.7 in your text). As chemical weathering proceeds, new softer minerals, like oxides or
clay minerals, will create zones of weakness in rock that will allow for further physical
weathering. Dissolution of minerals will remove material that holds the rock together, thus
making it weaker.
When rock weathers, it usually does so by working inward from a surface that is exposed to the
weathering process. If joints and fractures in rock beneath the surface form a 3-dimensional
network, the rock will be broken into cube like pieces separated by the fractures. Water can
penetrate more easily along these fractures, and each of the cube-like pieces will begin to
weather inward. The rate of weathering will be greatest along the corners of each cube,
followed by the edges, and finally the faces of the cubes. As a result the cube will weather into
a spherical shape, with unweathered rock in the center and weathered rock toward the outside.
Such progression of weathering is referred to as spheroid al weathering (See figures B.8 in your
text).
Factors that Influence Weathering
z Rock Type & Structure

{ Different rocks are composed of different minerals, and each mineral has a
different susceptibility to weathering. For example a granite consisting mostly of
quartz is already composed of a mineral that is very stable on the Earth's surface,
and will not weather much in comparison to limestone, composed entirely of
calcite, which will eventually dissolve completely in a wet climate.
{ Bedding planes, joints, and fractures, all provide pathways for the entry of water.
A rock with lots of these features will weather more rapidly than a massive rock
containing no bedding planes, joints, or fractures.
{ If there are large contrasts in the

susceptibility to weathering within a
large body of rock, the more
susceptible parts of the rock will
weather faster than the more resistant
portions of the rock. This will result
in differential weathering.
z Slope - On steep slopes weathering products may be quickly washed away by rains. On
gentle slopes the weathering products accumulate. On gentle slopes water may stay in
contact with rock for longer periods of time, and thus result in higher weathering rates.
z Climate- High amounts of water and higher temperatures generally cause chemical
reactions to run faster. Thus warm humid climates generally have more highly
weathered rock, and rates of weathering are higher than in cold dry climates. Example:
limestones in a dry desert climate are very resistant to weathering, but limestones in a
tropical climate weather very rapidly.
z Animals- burrowing organisms like rodents, earthworms, & ants, bring material to the
surface were it can be exposed to the agents of weathering.
Soils
Soil consists of rock and sediment that has been modified by physical and chemical interaction
with organic material and rainwater, over time, to produce a substrate that can support the
growth of plants. Soils are an important natural resource. They represent the interface
between the lithosphere and the biosphere - as soils provide nutrients for plants. Soils consist
of weathered rock plus organic material that comes from decaying plants and animals. The
same factors that control weathering control soil formation with the exception, that soils also
requires the input of organic material as some form of Carbon.
When a soil develops on rock, a soil profile develops as shown below. These different layers
are not the same as beds formed by sedimentation, instead each of the horizons forms and
grows in place by weathering and the addition of organic material from decaying plants and
plant roots.
Although you will not be expected to know all of the soil terminology discussed on page 196,
the following terms are important.
z Caliche - Calcium Carbonate (Calcite) that forms in arid soils in the K-horizon by
chemical precipitation of calcite. The Ca and Carbonate ions are dissolved from the
upper soil horizons and precipitated at the K-horizon. In arid climates the amount of
water passing through the soil horizons is not enough to completely dissolve this caliche,
and as result the thickness of the layer may increase with time.
z Laterites - In humid tropical climates intense weathering involving leaching occurs,

leaving behind a soil rich in Fe and Al oxides, and giving the soil a deep red color. This
extremely leached soil is called a laterite.
Soil Erosion
In most climates it takes between 80 and 400 years to form about one centimeter of topsoil
(an organic and nutrient rich soil suitable for agriculture). Thus soil that is eroded by poor
farming practices is essentially lost and cannot be replaced in a reasonable amount of time.
This could become a critical factor in controlling world population.
Questions on this material that might be asked on an exam
1. What is the difference between physical weathering and chemical weathering?
2. What types of things cause physical weathering?
3. Define the following: (a) acid, (b) leaching, (c) hydrolysis, (d) dissolution, (e) oxidation,
(f) differential weathering, (g) joints, (h) caliche, (i) laterite
4. How do physical weathering and chemical weathering interact with each other?
5. Contrast the weathering process that would take place in hot humid tropical climates with
those that would take place in hot, dry, desert climates.
6. What is a soil and how is a soil formed?
7. Why is it important for humans to prevent the erosion of soils?
Sedimentary Rocks Page 1 of 10

Sediment and Sedimentary Rocks
This page last updated on 01-Feb-2012
Sedimentary Rocks
Rivers, oceans, winds, and rain runoff all have the ability to carry the particles washed off of
eroding rocks. Such material, called detritus, consists of fragments of rocks and minerals.
When the energy of the transporting current is not strong enough to carry these particles, the
particles drop out in the process of sedimentation. This type of sedimentary deposition is
referred to as clastic sedimentation. Another type of sedimentary deposition occurs when
material is dissolved in water, and chemically precipitates from the water. This type of
sedimentation is referred to as chemical sedimentation. A third process can occur, wherein
living organisms extract ions dissolved in water to make such things as shells and bones. This
type of sedimentation is called biochemical sedimentation. The accumulation of plant matter,
such as at the bottom of a swamp, is referred to as organic sedimentation. Thus, there are 4
major types of sedimentary rocks: Clastic Sedimentary Rocks, Chemical Sedimentary Rocks,
Biochemical Sedimentary Rocks, and Organic Sedimentary Rocks.
Clastic Sediments and Sedimentary Rocks

The formation of a clastic sediment and sedimentary rocks involves five processes:
1. Weathering - The first step is transforming solid rock into smaller fragments or dissolved
ions by physical and chemical weathering as discussed in the last lecture.
2. Erosion - Erosion is actually many process which act together to lower the surface of the
earth. In terms of producing sediment, erosion begins the transpiration process by
moving the weathered products from their original location. This can take place by
gravity (mass wasting events like landslides or rock falls), by running water. by wind, or
by moving ice. Erosion overlaps with transpiration.
3. Transportation - Sediment can be transported by sliding down slopes, being picked up
by the wind, or by being carried by running water in streams, rivers, or ocean currents.
The distance the sediment is transported and the energy of the transporting medium all
leave clues in the final sediment that tell us something about the mode of transportation.
4. Deposition - Sediment is deposited when the energy of the transporting medium

becomes too low to continue the transport process. In other words, if the velocity of the
transporting medium becomes too low to transport sediment, the sediment will fall out
and become deposited. The final sediment thus reflects the energy of the transporting
medium.
5. Lithification (Diagenesis) - Lithification is the process that turns sediment into rock. The
first stage of the process is compaction. Compaction occurs as the weight of the
overlying material increases. Compaction forces the grains closer together, reducing pore
space and eliminating some of the contained water. Some of this water may carry mineral
components in solution, and these constituents may later precipitate as new minerals in
the pore spaces. This causes cementation, which will then start to bind the individual
http://www.tulane.edu/~sanelson/eens1110/sedrx.htm 2/1/2012
particles together.
Classification - Clastic sedimentary particles and sedimentary rocks are classified in terms of
grain size and shape, among other factors.
Name of Size Range Loose Consolidated Rock
Particle Sediment
Boulder >256 mm Gravel
Conglomerate or Breccia (depends on
Cobble 64 - 256 mm Gravel
rounding)
Pebble 2 - 64 mm Gravel
Sand 1/16 - 2mm Sand Sandstone
Silt 1/256 - 1/16 mm Silt Siltstone
Clay <1/256 mm Clay Claystone, mudstone, and shale
In general, the coarser sediment gets left behind by the transportation process. Thus, coarse
sediment is usually found closer to its source and fine grained sediment is found farther from
the source.
Textures of Clastic Sedimentary Rocks
When sediment is transported and deposited, it leaves clues to the mode of transport and
deposition. For example, if the mode of transport is by sliding down a slope, the deposits that
result are generally chaotic in nature, and show a wide variety of particle sizes. Grain size and
the interrelationship between grains gives the resulting sediment texture. Thus, we can use the
texture of the resulting deposits to give us clues to the mode of transport and deposition.
Sorting - The degree of uniformity of grain size. Particles become sorted on the basis of
density, because of the energy of the transporting medium. High energy currents can carry
larger fragments. As the energy decreases, heavier particles are deposited and lighter
fragments continue to be transported. This results in sorting due to density.
If the particles have the same density, then the

heavier particles will also be larger, so the
sorting will take place on the basis of size. We
can classify this size sorting on a relative basis -
well sorted to poorly sorted. Sorting gives clues
to the energy conditions of the transporting
medium from which the sediment was deposited.
Examples
{ Beach deposits and wind blown deposits generally show good sorting because the
energy of the transporting medium is usually constant.
{ Stream deposits are usually poorly sorted because the energy (velocity) in a
stream varies with position in the stream and time.
Rounding - During the

transportation process, grains
may be reduced in size due to
abrasion. Random abrasion
results in the eventual rounding
off of the sharp corners and
edges of grains. Thus, rounding
of grains gives us clues to the
amount of time a sediment has
been in the transportation cycle.
Rounding is classified on
relative terms as well.
Sediment Maturity
Sediment Maturity refers to the length of time that the sediment has been in the sedimentary
cycle. Texturally mature sediment is sediment that is well rounded, (as rounding increases
with transport distance and time) and well sorted (as sorting gets better as larger clasts are left
behind and smaller clasts are carried away. Because the weathering processes continues during
sediment transport, mineral grains that are unstable near the surface become less common as
the distance of transport or time in the cycle increases. Thus compositionally mature sediment
is composed of only the most stable minerals.
For example a poorly sediment containing glassy angular volcanic fragments, olivine crystals
and plagioclase is texturally immature because the fragments are angular, indicating they have
not been transported very far and the sediment is poorly sorted, indicating that little time has
been involved in separating larger fragments from smaller fragments. It is compositionally
immature because it contains unstable glass along with minerals that are not very stable near
the surface - olivine and plagioclase.
On the other hand a well sorted beach sand consisting mainly of well rounded quartz grains is
texturally mature because the grains are rounded, indicating a long time in the transportation
cycle, and the sediment is well sorted, also indicative of the long time required to separate the
coarser grained material and finer grained material from the sand. The beach sand is
compositionally mature because it is made up only of quartz which is very stable at the earth's
surface.
Types of Clastic Sedimentary Rocks
We next look at various clastic sedimentary rocks that result from lithification of sediment.
Conglomerates and Breccias
Conglomerate and Breccia are rocks that contain an abundance of coarse grained clasts
(pebbles, cobbles, or boulders). In a conglomerate, the coarse grained clasts are well rounded,
indicating that they spent considerable time in the transportation process and were ultimately
deposited in a high energy environment capable of carrying the large clasts. In a breccia, the
coarse grained clasts are very angular, indicating the the clasts spent little time in the
transportation cycle.
Sandstones
A Sandstone is made of sand-sized particles and forms in many different depositional settings.
Texture and composition permit historic interpretation of the transport and depositional cycle
and sometimes allows determination of the source. Quartz is, by far, the dominant mineral in
sandstones. Still there are other varieties. A Quartz arenite is nearly 100% quartz grains. An
Arkose contains abundant feldspar. In a lithic sandstone, the grains are mostly small rock
fragments. A Wacke is a sandstone that contains more than 15% mud (silt and clay sized
grains).. Sandstones are one of the most common types of sedimentary rocks.
Mudrocks
Mudrocks are made of fine grained clasts (silt and clay sized) . A siltstone is one variety that
consists of silt-sized fragments. A shale is composed of clay sized particles and is a rock that
tends to break into thin flat fragments (See figure 7.4e in your text). A mudstone is similar to a
shale, but does not break into thin flat fragments. Organic-rich shales are the source of
petroleum.
Fine grained clastics are deposited in non-agitated water, calm water, where there is little
energy to continue to transport the small grains. Thus mudrocks form in deep water ocean
basins and lakes.
Biochemical and Organic Sediments and Sedimentary Rocks
Biochemical and Organic sediments and sedimentary rocks are those derived from living
organisms. When the organism dies, the remains can accumulate to become sediment or
sedimentary rock. Among the types of rock produced by this process are:
Biochemical Limestone - calcite (CaCO3) is precipitated by organisms usually to form a shell

or other skeletal structure. Accumulation of these skeletal remains results in a limestone.
Sometimes the fossilized remains of the organism are preserved in the rock, other times
recrystallization during lithification has destroyed the remains. Limestones are very common
sedimentary rocks.
Biochemical Chert - Tiny silica secreting planktonic organism like Radiolaria and Diatoms can
accumulate on the sea floor and recrystallize during lithification to form biochemical chert.
The recrystallization results in a hard rock that is usually seen as thin beds (see figure 7.22a in
your test).
Diatomite - When diatoms accumulate and do not undergo recrystallization, they form a white
rock called diatomite as seen if the White Cliffs of Dover (see figure 7.20b in your text).
Coal - Coal is an organic rock made from organic carbon that is the remains of fossil plant
matter. It accumulates in lush tropical wetland settings and requires deposition in absence of
Oxygen. It is high in carbon and can easily be burned to obtain energy.
Chemical Sediments and Sedimentary Rocks
Dissolved ions released into water by the weathering process are carried in streams or
groundwater. Eventually these dissolved ions end in up in the ocean, explaining why sea water
is salty. When water evaporates or the concentration of the ions get too high as a result of some
other process, the ions recombine by chemical precipitation to form minerals that can
accumulate to become chemical sediments and chemical sedimentary rocks. Among these are:
Evaporites - formed by evaporation of sea water or lake water. Produces halite (salt) and
gypsum deposits by chemical precipitation as concentration of solids increases due to water
loss by evaporation. This can occur in lakes that have no outlets (like the Great Salt Lake) or
restricted ocean basins, like has happened in the Mediterranean Sea or the Gulf of Mexico in
the past.
Travertine - Groundwater containing dissolve Calcium and bicarbonate ions can precipitate
calcite to form a chemically precipitated limestone, called travertine. This can occur in lakes,
hot springs, and caves.
Dolostones - Limestone that have been chemically modified by Mg-rich fluids flowing through
the rock are converted to dolostones. CaCO3 is recrystallized to a new mineral dolomite CaMg
(CO3)2.
Chemical Cherts - Groundwater flowing through rock can precipitate SiO2 to replace minerals
that were present. This produces a non-biogenic chert. There are many varsities of such chert
that are given different names depending on their attributes, For example:
Flint Black or gray from organic matter.

Jasper Red or yellow from Fe oxides.
Petrified wood Wood grain preserved by silica.
Agate Concentrically layered rings
Sedimentary Structures
As mentioned previously, all stages of the sedimentary cycle leave clues to processes that were
operating in the past. Perhaps the most easily observable clues are structures left by the
depositional process. We here discuss sedimentary structures and the information that can be
obtained from these structures.
Stratification and Bedding
Because sediment is deposited in low lying areas that often extend over wide areas, successive
depositional events produce layers called bedding or stratification that is usually the most
evident feature of sedimentary rocks. The layering can be due to differences in color of the
material, differences in grain size, or differences in mineral content or chemical
composition. All of these differences can be related to differences in the environment present
during the depositional events. (see figure 7.10 in your text).
A series of beds are referred to as strata. A sequence of strata that is sufficiently unique to be
recognized on a regional scale is termed a formation. A formation is the fundamental geologic
mapping unit. (See figure 7.11 in your text).
z Rhythmic Layering - Alternating parallel layers having different properties. Sometimes

caused by seasonal changes in deposition (Varves). i.e. lake deposits wherein coarse
sediment is deposited in summer months and fine sediment is deposited in the winter
when the surface of the lake is frozen.
z Cross Bedding - Sets of beds that are inclined relative to

one another. The beds are inclined in the direction that
the wind or water was moving at the time of deposition.
Boundaries between sets of cross beds usually represent
an erosional surface. Very common in beach deposits,
sand dunes, and river deposited sediment.
z Graded Bedding - As current velocity decreases, first the larger or more

dense particles are deposited followed by smaller particles. This results in
bedding showing a decrease in grain size from the bottom of the bed to the
top of the bed. Sediment added as a pulse of turbid water. As pulse wanes,
water loses velocity and sediments settle. Coarsest material settles first,
medium next, then fine. Multiple graded-bed sequences called turbidites
(see figure 7.14 in your text).
z Non-sorted Sediment - Sediment showing a mixture of grain sizes results from such
things as rockfalls, debris flows, mudflows, and deposition from melting ice.
z Ripple Marks -
Water flowing
over loose
sediment creates
bedforms by
moving sediment
with the flow.
Bedforms are linked to flow velocity and sediment size. Ripples are characteristic
of shallow water deposition and can also be caused by wind. blowing over the
surface. Sand dunes are similar, but on a larger scale. Ripples are commonly
preserved in sedimentary rocks.
Asymmetric ripples (as shown above) indicate flow direction,with the steep slope
on the down - current direction. Ripples persevered in ancient rocks can also be
indicators of up/down direction in the original sediment.
Symmetric ripples form as a result of constant wave energy oscillating back and
forth.
z Mudcracks - result from the drying out of wet sediment at

the surface of the Earth. The cracks form due to shrinkage
of the sediment as it dries. When present in rock, they
indicate that the surface was exposed at the earth's surface
and then rapidly buried.
z Sole Marks - Flutes are troughs eroded in soft sediment that can become filled with
mud. Both the flutes and the resulting casts (called flute casts) can be preserved in rock.
z Raindrop Marks - pits (or tiny craters) created by falling rain. If present, this suggests
that the sediment was exposed to the surface of the Earth just prior to burial.
z Fossils - Remains of once living organisms. Probably the most important indicator of
the environment of deposition.
{ Different species usually inhabit specific environments.
{ Because life has evolved - fossils give clues to relative age of the sediment.
{ Can also be important indicators of past climates.
z Rock Color
{ Sulfides along with buried organic matter give rocks a dark color. Indicates
deposition in a reducing environment.
{ Deposition in oxidizing environment produces red colored iron oxides and is often
indicative of deposition in a non-marine environment. Such red colored rocks are
often referred to as red beds.
Sedimentary Environments
If we look at various environments now present on Earth, we can find characteristics in the
sediment that are unique to each environment. If we find those same characteristics in
sedimentary rocks, it allows us to interpret the environment of the past. Each environment has
its own energy regime and sediment delivery, transport and depositional conditions that are
reflected in the sediment deposited.
Sedimentary Environments can be divided into the following

z Terrestrial (Non-marine) environments
{ Glacial
{ Alluvial fans
{ Sand Dunes
{ Mountain Streams
{ Lakes
{ Rivers
z Marine environments
{ Deltas
{ Coastal Beaches
{ Shallow Marine Clastics
{ Shallow Marine Carbonates
{ Deep Marine
We will cover most of these environments in more detail later in the course.
For now familiarize yourself with each of these by reading pages 202 to 206 in your text.
Transgressions and Regressions
Throughout geologic history sea level has risen and fallen by as much as a few hundred meters
many times. These changes are the result of changes earth's climate or changes in the shape of
the sea floor as a result of tectonics.
When sea level rises, the coast migrates inland. This is called a Transgression. Beach sand
gets buried by marine sediments and the sea floor subsides due to the weight of the sediment.
During a transgression, the beach sand forms an extensive layer, but does not all have the same
age. When sea level falls, the coast migrates seaward. This is called a Regression. The
sedimentary sequence then repeats itself in a vertical sense as the sedimentary environment
migrates back and forth. See figure 7.21 in your text.
Diagenesis
LIthification of sediment into sedimentary rocks takes place after the sediment has been
deposited and buried. The processes by which the sediment becomes lithified into a hard
sedimentary rock is called diagenesis and includes all physical, chemical and biological
processes that act on the sediment. The first step in diagenesis is the compaction of the
sediment and loss of water as a result of the weight of the overlying sediment. Compaction and
burial may cause recrystallization of the minerals to make the rock even harder. Fluids flowing
through the rock and organisms may precipitate new minerals in the pore spaces between grains
to form a cement that holds the sediment together. Common cements include quartz, calcite,
and hematite.
Other conditions present during diagenesis, such as the presence of absence of free oxygen may
cause other alterations to the original sediment. In an environment where there is excess
oxygen (Oxidizing Environment) organic remains will be converted to carbon dioxide and
water. Iron will change from Fe2+ to Fe3+, and will change the color of the sediment to a deep
red (rust) color. In an environment where there is a depletion of oxygen (Reducing
Environment), organic material may be transformed to solid carbon in the form of coal, or may
be converted to hydrocarbons, the source of petroleum.
Diagenesis is also a response to increasing the temperature and pressure as sediment gets buried
deeper. As temperature increases beyond about 200oC, we enter the realm of metamorphism,
the subject of our next discussion.
1. What are the four types of sedimentary rocks.? Give some examples of each.
2. How are clastic sedimentary rocks classified?
3. What characteristics of sediment would tell you that the sediment is texturally and
compositionally mature or immature?
4. Define the following (a) evaporites, (b) coal, (c) travertine, (d) varves, (e) fossils, (f)
transgression, (g) regression.
5. What information can be obtained about the depositional processes when one finds the
following features in sediment or sedimentary rocks (a) cross-beds, (b) ripple marks, (c)
mudcracks, (d) sole marks?
6. What is the significance of red colored sediment? What is the significance of black
colored sediment with high amounts of organic material?
7. How does sediment turn into hard sedimentary rock?
Metamorphic Rocks Page 1 of 13

Metamorphism and Metamorphic Rocks
Definition of Metamorphism
The word "Metamorphism" comes from the Greek: Meta = change, Morph = form, so
metamorphism means to change form. In geology this refers to the changes in mineral
assemblage and texture that result from subjecting a rock to pressures and temperatures
different from those under which the rock originally formed.
The original rock that has undergone metamorphism is called the protolith. Protolith can be
any type of rock and sometimes the changes in texture and mineralogy are so dramatic that is
difficult to distinguish what the protolith was.
z Note that diagenesis and weathering are also a changes in form that occur in rocks. In
geology, however, we restrict diagenetic processes to those which occur at temperatures
below 200oC and pressures below about 300 MPa (MPa stands for Mega Pascals), this is
equivalent to about 3,000 atmospheres of pressure.
z Metamorphism therefore occurs at temperatures and pressures higher than 200oC and
300 MPa. Rocks can be subjected to these higher temperatures and pressures as they
become buried deeper in the Earth. Such burial usually takes place as a result of tectonic
processes such as continental collisions or subduction.
z The upper limit of metamorphism occurs at the pressure and temperature of wet partial
melting of the rock in question. Once melting begins, the process changes to an igneous
process rather than a metamorphic process.
During metamorphism the protolith undergoes changes in texture of the rock and the mineral
make up of the rock. These changes take place mostly in the solid state and are caused by
changes in physical or chemical conditions, which in turn can be caused by such things as
burial, tectonic stress, heating by magma or interactions with fluids.
Factors that Control Metamorphism
Metamorphism occurs because rocks undergo changes in temperature and pressure and may be
subjected to differential stress and hydrothermal fluids. Metamorphism occurs because some
minerals are stable only under certain conditions of pressure and temperature. When pressure
and temperature change, chemical reactions occur to cause the minerals in the rock to change to
an assemblage that is stable at the new pressure and temperature conditions. But, the process is
complicated by such things as how the pressure is applied, the time over which the rock is
subjected to the higher pressure and temperature, and whether or not there is a fluid phase
present during metamorphism.
http://www.tulane.edu/~sanelson/eens1110/metamorphic.htm 2/2/2012
z Temperature
{ Temperature increases with depth in the Earth along the Geothermal Gradient.
Thus higher temperature can occur by burial of rock.
{ Temperature can also increase due to igneous intrusion.
z Pressure increases with depth of burial, thus, both pressure and temperature will vary
with depth in the Earth. Pressure is defined as a force acting equally from all directions.
It is a type of stress, called hydrostatic stress, or uniform stress.
If the stress is not equal from all directions, then the stress is called a differential stress.
There are two kinds of differential stress. Normal stress causes objects to be compressed
in the direction of maximum principal stress and extended in the direction of minimal
stress. If differential stress is present during metamorphism, it can have a profound
effect on the texture of the rock. Shear stress causes objects to be smeared out in the
direction of applied stress.
Differential stress if acting on a rocks can have a profound affect on the appearance or
texture of the rock.
Rounded grains can become flattened in the

direction of maximum stress.
Minerals that crystallize or grow in the

differential stress field can have a preferred
orientation. This is especially true of the
sheet silicate minerals (the micas: biotite
and muscovite, chlorite, talc, and
serpentine).
These sheet silicates will grow with their sheets orientated perpendicular to the direction
of maximum stress. Preferred orientation of sheet silicates causes rocks to be easily
broken along approximately parallel sheets. Such a structure is called a foliation.
z Fluid Phase.- Any existing open space between mineral grains in a rock can potentially
contain a fluid. This fluid is mostly H2O, but contains dissolved ions. The fluid phase is
important because chemical reactions that involve changing a solid mineral into a new
solid mineral can be greatly speeded up by having dissolved ions transported by the
fluid. If chemical alteration of the rock takes place as a result of these fluids, the
process is called metasomatism.
z Time - Because metamorphism involves changing the rock while it is solid, metamorphic
change is a slow process. During metamorphism, several processes are at work.
Recrystallization causes changes in minerals size and shape. Chemical reactions occur
between the minerals to form new sets of minerals that are more stable at the pressure
and temperature of the environment, and new minerals form as a result of polymorphic
phase transformations (recall that polymorphs are compounds with the same chemical
formula, but different crystal structures.
Laboratory experiments suggest that the the sizes of the mineral grains produced during
metamorphism increases with time. Thus coarse grained metamorphic rocks involve long
times of metamorphism. Experiments suggest that the time involved is tens of millions
of years.
Grade of Metamorphism
Metamorphic grade is a general term for

describing the relative temperature and
pressure conditions under which metamorphic
rocks form. As the temperature and/or
pressure increases on a body of rock we say
that the rock undergoes prograde
metamorphism or that the grade of
metamorphism increases.
z Low-grade metamorphism takes place at temperatures between about 200 to 320oC, and
relatively low pressure. Low grade metamorphic rocks are characterized by an
abundance of hydrous minerals (minerals that contain water, H2O, in their crystal
structure).
{ Examples of hydrous minerals that occur in low grade metamorphic rocks:
Clay Minerals
Serpentine
Chlorite
z High-grade metamorphism takes place at temperatures greater than 320oC and relatively
high pressure. As grade of metamorphism increases, hydrous minerals become less
hydrous, by losing H2O and non-hydrous minerals become more common.
{ Examples of less hydrous minerals and non-hydrous minerals that characterize

high grade metamorphic rocks:
Muscovite - hydrous mineral that eventually disappears at the highest

grade of metamorphism
Biotite - a hydrous mineral that is stable to very high grades of

metamorphism.
Pyroxene - a non hydrous mineral.
Garnet - a non hydrous mineral.

Retrograde Metamorphism
As temperature and pressure fall due to erosion of overlying rock or due to tectonic uplift, one
might expect metamorphism to a follow a reverse path and eventually return the rocks to their
original unmetamorphosed state. Such a process is referred to as retrograde metamorphism. If
retrograde metamorphism were common, we would not commonly see metamorphic rocks at
the surface of the Earth. Since we do see metamorphic rocks exposed at the Earth's surface
retrograde metamorphism does not appear to be common. The reasons for this include:
z chemical reactions take place more slowly as temperature is decreased
z during prograde metamorphism, fluids such as H2O and CO2 are driven off, and these
fluids are necessary to form the hydrous minerals that are stable at the Earth's surface.
z chemical reactions take place more rapidly in the presence of fluids, but if the fluids are
driven off during prograde metamorphism, they will not be available to speed up
reactions during retrograde metamorphism.
Metamorphic Rock Types
There are two major subdivisions of metamorphic rocks.

1. Foliated These have a planar foliation caused by the preferred orientation (alignment)
of minerals and formed under differential stress.
They have a significant amount of sheet silicate (platy minerals and are classified by
composition, grain size, and foliation type.
2. Non-foliated These have no evident planar fabric or foliation, crystallized under

conditions where there was no differential stress, and are comprised of equant minerals
only. These are classified mainly by the minerals present or the chemical composition of
the protolith.
Foliated Metamorphic Rocks
Example - metamorphism of
a shale, made up initially of
clay minerals and quartz all
of clay or silt size.
z Slate - Slates form at low metamorphic grade by the growth of fine grained chlorite and
clay minerals. The preferred orientation of these sheet silicates causes the rock to easily
break along the planes parallel to the sheet silicates, causing a slatey cleavage. Note that
in the case shown here, the maximum stress is applied at an angle to the original bedding
planes, so that the slatey cleavage has developed at an angle to the original bedding.
Because of the nearly perfect breakage along planes, slates are useful for blackboards and
shingles.
z Phyllite - Fine mica-rich rock, formed by low medium grade metamorphism. In a

phyllite, the clay minerals have recrystallized into tiny micas (biotite and muscovite
which reflect a satiny luster. Phyllite is between slate and schist.
z Schist - The size of the mineral grains tends to enlarge with increasing grade of
metamorphism. Eventually the rock develops a near planar foliation caused by the
preferred orientation of sheet silicates (mainly biotite and muscovite). Quartz and
Feldspar grains, however show no preferred orientation. The irregular planar foliation at
this stage is called schistosity.
Schist often has other minerals besides micas. These include minerals like -
Quartz, Feldspars, Kyanite, Garnet, Staurolite, and Sillimanite.
When these non-mica minerals occur with a grain size greater than the rest of the
rock, they are called pophyroblasts.
z Gneiss As metamorphic grade increases, the sheet silicates become unstable and dark
colored minerals like hornblende and pyroxene start to grow. These dark colored
minerals tend to become segregated in distinct bands through the rock, giving the rock a
gneissic banding. Because the dark colored minerals tend to form elongated crystals,
rather than sheet- like crystals, they still have a preferred orientation with their long
directions perpendicular to the maximum differential stress.
z Granulite - At the highest grades of metamorphism all of the hydrous minerals and sheet
silicates become unstable and thus there are few minerals present that would show a
preferred orientation. The resulting rock will have a granulitic texture that is similar to a
phaneritic texture in igneous rocks.
z Migmatites If the temperature reaches the solidus temperature (first melting

temperature), the rock may begin to melt and start to co-mingle with the solids. Usually
these melts are felsic with the mafic material remaining metamorphic.
Non-foliated Metamorphic Rocks
Non-foliated rocks lack a planar fabric . Absence of foliation possible for several reasons:
z Rock not subjected to differential stress.
z Dominance of equant minerals (like quartz, feldspar, and garnet).
z Absence of platy minerals (sheet silicates).
Non-foliated rocks are given specific names based on their mineralogy and composition:
Amphibolite - These rocks are dark colored rocks with amphibole (usually hornblende) as their
major mineral. They are usually poorly foliated and form at intermediate to high grades of
metamorphism of basaltic or gabbroic protoliths.
Hornfels - These are very fine grained rocks that usually form as a result of magma intruding
into fined grained igneous rocks or shales. The magma causes a type of metamorphism called
contact metamorphism (to be discussed later).
Quartzite - A rock made up almost entirely of quartz. They are formed by metamorphism of
quartz arenites (sandstones). Since quartz is stable over a large range of temperatures and
pressures, no new minerals are formed during metamorphism, and the only metamorphic effect
that occurs is recrystallization of the quartz resulting in interlocking crystals that make up a
very hard rock.
Marble - A limestone or dolostone made up only of calcite or dolomite will metamorphose to a

marble which is made mostly recrystallized calcite or dolomite. The Recrystallization usually
obliterates all fossils. Marbles have a variety of colors and are often complexly banded. They
are commonly used as a decorative stone.
Protolith Composition
Although textures and structures of the protolith are usually destroyed by metamorphism, we
can still get an idea about the original rock from the minerals present in the metamorphic rock.
Minerals that form, do so because the chemical elements necessary to form them are present in
the protolith.
General terms used to describe the chemical composition of both the protolith and the resulting
metamorphic rock are:
Pelitic Alumina rich rocks, usually shales or mudstones. These start out originally with clay
minerals and as a result of metamorphism, Alumina rich minerals like micas, chlorite, garnet,
kyanite, sillimanite and andalusite form. Because of the abundance of sheet silicates, pelitic
rocks commonly form slates, phyllites, schists, and gneisses during metamorphism.
Mafic - These are Mg and Fe rich rocks with low amounts of Si. Minerals like biotite,
hornblende and plagioclase form during metamorphism and commonly produce amphibolites.
Calcareous - These are calcium-rich rocks usually derived from limestones or dolostones, and
thus contain an abundance of Calcite. Marbles are the type of metamorphic rock that results.
Quartzo-Feldspathic - Rocks that contain an abundance of quartz and feldspar fall into this
category. Protoliths are usually granites, rhyolites, or arkose sandstones and metamorphism
results in gneisses containing an abundance of quartz, feldspar, and biotite.
Types of Metamorphism
Metamorphism can take place in several different environments where special conditions exist
in terms of pressure, temperature, stress, conditions, or chemical environments. We here
describe several diff rent types of metamorphism that are recognized.
z Contact Metamorphism (also called thermal metamorphism) - Occurs adjacent to
igneous intrusions and results from high temperatures associated with the igneous
intrusion. Since only a small area surrounding the intrusion is heated by the magma,
metamorphism is restricted to a zone surrounding the intrusion, called a metamorphic
aureole. Outside of the contact aureole, the rocks are unmetamorphosed. The grade of
metamorphism increases in all directions toward the intrusion. Because temperature
differences between the surrounding rock and the intruded magma are larger at shallow
levels in the crust, contact metamorphism is usually referred to as high temperature, low
pressure metamorphism. The rock produced is often a fine-grained rock that shows no
foliation, called a hornfels.
z Burial Metamorphism - When sedimentary rocks are buried to depths of several hundred
meters, temperatures greater than 300oC may develop in the absence of differential
stress. New minerals grow, but the rock does not appear to be metamorphosed. The
main minerals produced are the Zeolites. Burial metamorphism overlaps, to some extent,
with diagenesis, and grades into regional metamorphism as temperature and pressure
increase.
z Dynamic Metamorphism - This type of metamorphism is due to mechanical

deformation, like when two bodies of rock slide past one another along a fault zone.
Heat is generated by the friction of sliding along the zone, and the rocks tend to crushed
and pulverized due to the sliding. Dynamic metamorphism is not very common and is
restricted to a narrow zone along which the sliding occurred. The rock that is produced
is called a mylonite.
z Regional Metamorphism - This type of

metamorphism occurs over large areas
that were subjected to high degrees of
deformation under differential stress.
Thus, it usually results in forming
metamorphic rocks that are strongly
foliated, such as slates, schists, and
gneisses. The differential stress usually
results from tectonic forces that produce a
compression of the rocks, such as when
two continental masses collide with one
another. Thus, regionally metamorphosed
rocks occur in the cores of mountain
ranges or in eroded mountain ranges.
Compressive stresses result in folding of
the rock, as shown here, and results in
thickening of the crust which tends to
push rocks down to deeper levels where
they are subjected to higher temperatures
and pressures (See Figure 8.20 in your
text).
A map of a hypothetical regionally metamorphosed area is shown in the figure

below. Most regionally metamorphosed areas can be divided into zones where a
particular mineral, called an index mineral, is characteristic of the zone. The
zones are separated by lines (surfaces in three dimensions) that mark the first
appearance of the index mineral. These lines are called isograds (meaning equal
grade) and represent lines (really surfaces) where the grade of metamorphism is
equal. A maps of a regionally metamorphosed areas are can be seen in figure 8.15
of your text.
Hydrothermal Metamorphism - Near oceanic ridges where the oceanic crust is broken up by
extensional faults, sea water can descend along the cracks. Since oceanic ridges are areas
where new oceanic crust is created by intrusion and eruption of basaltic magmas, these water-
rich fluids are heated by the hot crust or magma and become hydrothermal fluids. The
hydrothermal fluids alter the basaltic oceanic crust by producing hydrous minerals like chlorite
and talc. Because chlorite is a green colored mineral the rocks hydrothermal metamorphic
rocks are also green and often called greenstones.
Subduction Related Metamorphism - At a subduction zone, the oceanic crust is pushed

downward resulting in the basaltic crust and ocean floor sediment being subjected to relatively
high pressure. But, because the oceanic crust by the time it subducts is relatively cool, the
temperatures in the crust are relatively low. Under the conditions of low temperature and high
pressure, metamorphism produces an unusual blue mineral, glaucophane. Compressional
stresses acting in the subduction zone create the differential stress necessary to form schists and
thus the resulting metamorphic rocks are called blueschist
Shock Metamorphism - When a large meteorite collides with the Earth, the kinetic energy is
converted to heat and a high pressure shock wave that propagates into the rock at the impact
site. The heat may be enough to raise the temperature to the melting temperature of the earth
rock. The shock wave produces high enough pressure to cause quartz to change its crystal
structure to more a dense polymorph like coesite or stishovite. Ancient meteorite impact sites
have been discovered on the basis of finding this evidence of shock metamorphism.
Metamorphic Facies
In general, metamorphic rocks do not undergo significant changes in chemical composition

during metamorphism. The changes in mineral assemblages are due to changes in the
temperature and pressure conditions of metamorphism. Thus, the mineral assemblages that are
observed must be an indication of the temperature and pressure environment that the rock was
subjected to. This pressure and temperature environment is referred to as Metamorphic

Facies.
The sequence of
metamorphic facies observed
in any metamorphic terrain,
depends on the geothermal
gradient that was present
during metamorphism. A
high geothermal gradient
such as the one labeled "A"
in the figure shown here,
might be present around an
igneous intrusion, and would
result in metamorphic rocks
belonging to the hornfels
facies. Under a normal
geothermal gradient, such as
"B" in the figure, rocks
would progress from zeolite
facies to greenschist,
amphibolite, and eclogite
facies as the grade of
metamorphism (or depth of
burial) increased.
If a low geothermal gradient was present, such the one labeled "C" in the diagram, then rocks
would progress from zeolite facies to blueschist facies to eclogite facies. Thus, if we know the
facies of metamorphic rocks in the region, we can determine what the geothermal gradient must
have been like at the time the metamorphism occurred.
The Rock Cycle
Before moving on to the rest of the course, you should read Interlude C in your textbook
(pages 239-245). Now that we have discussed the three types of rocks, it is important to
understand how the atoms that make up these rocks cycle through the earth. This cycling
involves process that will be discussed in detail throughout the remainder of this course. Since
the rock cycle links the rock forming processes to tectonic process and to surface process
(most of which will be discussed throughout the rest of the course) , it is important to
understand the concept of the rock cycle and the various linkages involved.
z The rock cycle involves cycling of elements
between various types of rocks, and thus
mostly involves the lithosphere.
z The rock cycle involves the three types of
rocks as reservoirs (1) igneous, (2)
sedimentary, and (3) metamorphic.
z Chemical elements can reside in each type
of rock, and geologic processes move these
elements into another type of rock.
z Energy for the parts of the crustal cycle near the Earth's surface is solar and gravitational
energy (which control erosion and weathering), whereas
z energy that drives processes beneath the surface is geothermal and gravitational energy
(which control uplift, subsidence, melting, and metamorphism).
We here start our discussion with Volcanoes and Volcanic eruptions and processes that are
involved in the production of igneous rocks at the earth's surface.
1. Define the following: (a) geothermal gradient, (b) metamorphism, (c) differential stress,
(d) prograde metamorphism, (e) metasomatism (f) protolith, (g) foliation, (i)
metamorphic aureole, (j) isograd, (k) greenstone, (l) blueschist.
2. Starting with a shale, describe the textural changes that would occur to the rock during
prograde metamorphism with differential stress conditions present.
3. Why is retrograde metamorphism uncommon?
4. Describe the following non-foliated metamorphic rocks (a) amphibolite, (b) quartzite, (c)
marble, (d) hornfels.
5. What are the terms used to describe the general chemical composition of metamorphic
rocks?. Describe the type of rocks and minerals four nd in each.
6. What are the various types of metamorphism? Describe the rocks produced by each.
7. What is the progression of metamorphic facies that would occur along a high geothermal
gradient, a normal geothermal gradient, and a low geothermal gradient.
Volcanoes and Volcanic Eruptions Page 1 of 20
Volcanoes and Volcanic Eruptions

Magmas and Lava
Since volcanic eruptions are caused by magma (a mixture of liquid rock, crystals, and
dissolved gas) expelled onto the Earth's surface, we'll first review the characteristics of magma
that we covered previously.
Three basic types of magma:

1. Mafic or Basaltic-- SiO2 45-55 wt%, high in Fe, Mg, Ca, low in K, Na
2. Intermediate or Andesitic-- SiO2 55-65 wt%, intermediate. in Fe, Mg, Ca, Na, K
3. Felsic or Rhyolitic-- SiO2 65-75%, low in Fe, Mg, Ca, high in K, Na.
Gases - At depth in the Earth nearly all magmas contain gas. Gas gives magmas their
explosive character, because the gas expands as pressure is reduced.
z Mostly H O with some CO
2 2
z Minor amounts of Sulfur, Cl , and F
z Felsic magmas usually have higher gas contents than mafic magmas.
Temperature of Magmas
z Mafic/Basaltic - 1000-1200oC
z Intermediate/Andesitic - 800-1000oC
z Felsic/Rhyolitic - 650-800oC.
Viscosity of Magmas
Viscosity is the resistance to flow (opposite of fluidity). Depends on composition,

temperature, & gas content.
z Higher SiO2 content magmas have higher viscosity than lower SiO2 content magmas
z Lower Temperature magmas have higher viscosity than higher temperature magmas.
Thus, basaltic magmas tend to be fairly fluid (low viscosity), but their viscosity is still 10,000
to 100,0000 times more viscous than water. Rhyolitic magmas tend to have even higher
viscosity, ranging between 1 million and 100 million times more viscous than water. (Note that
solids, even though they appear solid have a viscosity, but it very high, measured as trillions
time the viscosity of water). Viscosity is an important property in determining the eruptive
behavior of magmas.
http://www.tulane.edu/~sanelson/eens1110/volcanoes.htm 1/27/2012
Summary Table
Magma Solidified Solidified Chemical
Temperature Viscosity Gas Content
Type Volcanic Rock Plutonic Rock Composition
45-55 SiO2 %, high
Mafic or o
Basalt Gabbro in Fe, Mg, Ca, low in 1000 - 1200 C Low Low
Basaltic
K, Na
Intermediate 55-65 SiO2 %,
or Andesite Diorite intermediate in Fe, 800 - 1000 oC Intermediate Intermediate
Andesitic Mg, Ca, Na, K
65-75 SiO2 %, low in
Felsic or
Rhyolitic
Rhyolite Granite Fe, Mg, Ca, high in 650 - 800 oC High High
K, Na
The Products of Volcanic Eruptions
Lava Flows
When magma reaches the surface of the earth, it is called lava. Since it its a liquid, it flows
downhill in response to gravity as a lava flows. Different magma types behave differently as
lava flows, depending on their temperature, viscosity, and gas content.
z Pahoehoe Flows - Basaltic lava flows with low viscosity start to cool when exposed to
the low temperature of the atmosphere. This causes a surface skin to form, although it is
still very hot and behaves in a plastic fashion, capable of deformation. Such lava flows
that initially have a smooth surface are called pahoehoe flows. Initially the surface skin
is smooth, but often inflates with molten lava and expands to form pahoehoe toes or rolls
to form ropey pahoehoe. (See figure 9.3d in your text). Pahoehoe flows tend to be thin
and, because of their low viscosity travel long distances from the vent.
z A'A' Flows - Higher viscosity basaltic and andesitic lavas also initially develop a smooth
surface skin, but this is quickly broken up by flow of the molten lava within and by gases
that continue to escape from the lava. This creates a rough, clinkery surface that is
characteristic of an A'A' flow (see figure 9.3e in your text).
z Lava Tubes - Once the surface skin becomes solid, the lava can continue to flow beneath
the surface in lava tubes. The surface skin insulates the hot liquid lava form further
cooling. When the eruption ends, liquid lava often drains leaving an open cave (see
figure 9.3 in your text).
z Pillow Lavas - When lava erupts on the sea floor or other body of water, the surface skin
forms rapidly, and, like with pahoehoe toes inflates with molten lava. Eventually these
inflated balloons of magma drop off and stack up like a pile of pillows and are called
pillow lavas. Ancient pillow lavas are readily recognizable because of their shape, their
glassy margins and radial fractures that formed during cooling (see figure 9.4b in your
text).
z Columnar Jointing - When thick basaltic or andesitic lavas cool, they contract. The
contraction results in fractures and often times results in a type of jointing called
columnar jointing. The columns are usually hexagonal in shape. This often happens
when lavas pool in depressions or deep canyons (see figure 9.4a in your text).
z Siliceous Lava Flows - High viscosity andesitic and rhyolitic lava flows, because they
cant flow very easily, form thick stubby flows that dont move far from the vent.
z Lava Domes or Volcanic Domes - result from the extrusion of highly viscous, gas poor
andesitic and rhyolitic lava. Since the viscosity is so high, the lava does not flow away
from the vent, but instead piles up over the vent. Blocks of nearly solid lava break off the
outer surface of the dome and roll down its flanks to form a breccia around the margins
of domes.
The surface of
volcanic domes
are generally
very rough, with
numerous spines
that have been
pushed up by the
magma from
below.
Pyroclastic Material
If the magma has high gas content and high viscosity, the gas will expand in an explosive
fashion and break the liquid into clots that fly through the air and cool along their path through
the atmosphere. Alternatively it blast out solid pieces of rock that once formed the volcanic
edifice. All of these fragments are referred to as Pyroclasts = hot, broken fragments. Loose
assemblages of pyroclasts called tephra. Depending on size, tephra can be classified as bombs.
blocks, lapilli, or ash.
Tephra and Pyroclastic Rocks

Average Particle Unconsolidated Material
Pyroclastic Rock
Size (mm) (Tephra)
>64 Bombs or Blocks Agglomerate
2 - 64 Lapilli Lapilli Tuff
<2 Ash Ash Tuff
z Blocks are angular fragments that were solid when ejected.
z Bombs have an aerodynamic shape indicating they were liquid when ejected.
z Bombs and lapilli that consist mostly of gas bubbles (vesicles) result in a low density
highly vesicular rock fragment called pumice.
Rock formed by accumulation and cementation of tephra called a pyroclastic rock or tuff.
Welding, compaction and deposition of other grains cause tephra (loose material) to be
converted into pyroclastic rock.
Volcanic Landforms
Volcanic landforms are controlled by the geological processes that form them and act on them
after they have formed. Thus, a given volcanic landform will be characteristic of the types of
material it is made of, which in turn depends on the prior eruptive behavior of the volcano.
Here we discuss the major volcanic landforms and how they are formed Most of this material
will be discussed with reference to slides shown in class that illustrate the essential features of
each volcanic landform.
Shield Volcanoes
z A shield volcano is
characterized by gentle upper
slopes (about 5o) and
somewhat steeper lower slopes
(about 10o).
z Shield volcanoes are composed almost entirely of relatively thin lava flows built up over
a central vent.
z Most shields were formed by low viscosity basaltic magma that flows easily down slope
away from the summit vent.
z The low viscosity of the magma allows the lava to travel down slope on a gentle slope,
but as it cools and its viscosity increases, its thickness builds up on the lower slopes
giving a somewhat steeper lower slope.
z Most shield volcanoes have a roughly circular or oval shape in map view.
z Very little pyroclastic material is found within a shield volcano, except near the eruptive
vents, where small amounts of pyroclastic material accumulate as a result of fire
fountaining events.
Stratovolcanoes (also called Composite Volcanoes)
z Have steeper slopes than shield volcanoes, with slopes of 6 to 10o low on the flanks to
30o near the top.
z The steep slope near the summit is due partly to thick, short viscous lava flows that do
not travel far down slope from the vent.
z The gentler slopes near the base are due to accumulations of material eroded from the
volcano and to the accumulation of pyroclastic material.
z Stratovolcanoes show inter-layering of lava flows and pyroclastic material, which is why
they are sometimes called composite volcanoes. Pyroclastic material can make up over
50% of the volume of a stratovolcano.
z Lavas and pyroclastics are usually andesitic to rhyolitic in composition.
z Due to the higher viscosity of magmas erupted from these volcanoes, they are usually
more explosive than shield volcanoes.
z Stratovolcanoes sometimes have a crater at the summit that is formed by explosive

ejection of material from a central vent. Sometimes the craters have been filled in by
lava flows or lava domes, sometimes they are filled with glacial ice, and less commonly
they are filled with water.
z Long periods of repose (times of inactivity) lasting for hundreds to thousands of years,
make this type of volcano particularly dangerous, since many times they have shown no
historic activity, and people are reluctant to heed warnings about possible eruptions.
Cinder Cones
z Cinder cones are small volume cones consisting predominantly of ash and scoria that
result from mildly explosive eruptions. They usually consist of basaltic to andesitic
material.
z They are actually fall deposits that are built surrounding the eruptive vent.
z Slopes of the cones are controlled by the angle of repose (angle of stable slope for loose
unconsolidated material) and are usually between about 25 and 35o.
z They show an internal

layered structure due to
varying intensities of the
explosions that deposit
different sizes of
pyroclastics.
z On young cones, a depression at the top of the cone, called a crater, is evident, and
represents the area above the vent from which material was explosively ejected. Craters
are usually eroded away on older cones.
z If lava flows are emitted from tephra cones, they are usually emitted from vents on the
flank or near the base of the cone during the later stages of eruption.
z Cinder and tephra cones usually occur around summit vents and flank vents of
stratovolcanoes.
z An excellent example of cinder cone is Parcutin Volcano in Mexico. This volcano was
born in a farmers corn field in 1943 and erupted for the next 9 years. Lava flows erupted
from the base of the cone eventually covered two towns.
Craters and Calderas
z Craters are circular depressions, usually less than 1 km in diameter, that form as a result
of explosions that emit gases and ash.
z Calderas are much larger depressions, circular to elliptical in shape, with diameters
ranging from 1 km to 50 km. Calderas form as a result of collapse of a volcanic
structure. The collapse results from evacuation of the underlying magma chamber.
z Crater Lake Caldera in southern
Oregon is an 8 km diameter caldera
containing a lake The caldera formed
about 6800 years ago as a result of the
eruption of about 75 km3 of rhyolite
magma in the form of tephra, found as
far away as Canada, accompanied by
pyroclastic flows that left thick deposits
of tuff on the flanks of the volcano.
Subsequent eruptions have built a
cinder cone on the floor of the caldera,
which now forms an island called
Wizard Island.
z In stratovolcanoes the collapse and formation

of a caldera results from rapid evacuation of
the underlying magma chamber by voluminous
explosive eruptions that form extensive fall
deposits and pyroclastic flows.
z On shield volcanoes, like in Hawaii, the

evacuation of the magma chamber is a slow
drawn out processes, wherein magma is
withdrawn to erupt on from the rift zones on
the flanks.
z Larger calderas have formed within the past

million years in the western United States.
These include Yellowstone Caldera in
Wyoming, Long Valley Caldera in eastern
California, and Valles Caldera in New Mexico.
z The Yellowstone caldera is an important

example, as it illustrates the amount of repose
time that might be expected from large rhyolitic
systems, and the devastating effect caldera
forming eruptions can have on widespread areas.
{ Yellowstone Caldera which occupies most

of Yellowstone National Park, is actually
the third caldera to form in the area within
the past 2 million years. The three
calderas formed at 2.0 million years ago,
1.3 million years ago, and the latest at
600,000 years ago. Thus the repose time is
on the average about 650,000 years.
{ Tephra fall deposits from the latest eruption are found in Louisiana and into the
Gulf of Mexico, and covered much of the Western part of the United States.
{ The eruption 600,000 years ago produced about 1000 km3 of rhyolite (in
comparison, the eruption of Mt. St. Helens in May of 1980 produced only 0.75
km3.
{ Magma still underlies Yellowstone caldera, as evidenced by the large number of

hot springs and geysers in the area.
Volcanic Eruptions
In general, magmas that are generated deep within the Earth begin to rise because they are less
dense than the surrounding solid rocks. As they rise they may encounter a depth or pressure
where the dissolved gas no longer can be held in solution in the magma, and the gas begins to
form a separate phase (i.e. it makes bubbles just like in a bottle of carbonated beverage when
the pressure is reduced).
When a gas bubble forms, it will also continue to grow in size as pressure is reduced and more
of the gas comes out of solution. In other words, the gas bubbles begin to expand. If the liquid
part of the magma has a low viscosity, then the gas can expand relatively easily. When the
magma reaches the Earth's surface, the gas bubble will simply burst, the gas will easily expand
to atmospheric pressure, and a effusive or non-explosive eruption will occur, usually as a lava
flow
If the liquid part of the magma has a high viscosity, then the gas will not be able to expand very
easily, and thus, pressure will build up inside of the gas bubble(s). When this magma reaches
the surface, the gas bubbles will have a high pressure inside, which will cause them to burst
explosively on reaching atmospheric pressure. This will cause an explosive volcanic eruption
and the production of pyroclastic material.
Effusive Eruptions
Effusive or Non explosive eruptions are favored by low gas content and low viscosity magmas
(basaltic to andesitic magmas).
z If the viscosity is low, non-explosive eruptions usually begin with fire fountains due to
release of dissolved gases.
z Lava flows are produced on the surface, and these run like liquids down slope, along the
lowest areas they can find.
z If the magma emerges along a fracture, it results in a fissure eruption, often called a
"curtain of fire"
z Lava flows produced by eruptions under water are called pillow lavas.
z If the viscosity is high, but the gas content is low, then the lava will pile up over the vent
to produce a lava dome or volcanic dome.
Explosive Eruptions
Explosive eruptions are favored by high gas content & high viscosity magmas (andesitic to
rhyolitic magmas). The explosive bursting of bubbles fragments the magma into clots of liquid
that cool as they fall through the air. These solid particles become pyroclasts or volcanic ash.
Clouds of gas and tephra

that rise above a volcano
produce an eruption
column that can rise up
to 45 km into the
atmosphere. Eventually
the tephra in the eruption
column will be picked up
by the wind, carried for
some distance, and then
fall back to the surface as
a tephra fall or ash fall.
This type of eruption is
called a Plinian
eruption.
If the pressure in the bubbles is low, the eruption will produce an eruption column only a few
hundred meters high, and most of the pyroclastic material will fall to close to the vent to build a
cinder cone. This type of eruption is called a Strombolian eruption, and is considered mildly
explosive.
If the eruption column collapses a
pyroclastic flow will occur, wherein
gas and tephra rush down the flanks of
the volcano at high speed. This is the
most dangerous type of volcanic
eruption. The deposits that are
produced are called ignimbrites if they
contain pumice or pyroclastic flow
deposits if they contain non-vesicular
blocks.
A Plinian eruption and pyroclastic flow from Vesuvius volcano killed about 20,000 people in
Pompeii in 79 CE.
If the gas pressure inside the
magma is directed outward
instead of upward, a lateral blast
can occur. When this occurs on
the flanks of a lava dome, a
pyroclastic flows called a
glowing avalanche or nue
ardentes (in French) can also
result. Directed blasts often
result from sudden exposure of
the magma by a landslide or
collapse of a lava dome.
This happened at Mt. Pele Volcano in Martinique in 1902 and killed about 30,000 people.
Lahars (Volcanic Mudflows)
A volcanic eruption usually leaves lots of loose unconsolidated fragmental debris. When this
loose material mixes with water from rainfall, melting of snow or ice, or draining of a crater
lake, a mudflow results. Volcanic mudflows are called lahars. These can occur accompanying
an eruption or occur long after an eruption. Lahars may be hot or cold and move at high
velocity as they fill stream valleys that drain the volcano. At the base of the volcano, they
spread out and cover wide areas. In general, they dev estate anything in their path, carrying
away homes, buildings, bridges, and destroying roads, and killing livestock and people.
In 1985 a lahar produced by a mild eruption of Nevado de Ruiz volcano in Colombia wiped
out the village of Armero, about 60 km away from the volcano and killed about 23,000 people.
It is important to understand that lahars can occur accompanying an eruption, or can occur
simply as the result of heavy rainfall or sudden snow melt, without an eruption.
Volcanic Gases
Although the predominant gas erupted from volcanoes is H2O vapor, other gases are erupted
can have disastrous effects on life. Poisonous gases like Hydrogen Chloride (HCl), Hydrogen
Sulfide (H2S), SO2, Hydrogen Fluoride (HF), and Carbon Dioxide (CO2). The Chlorine,
Sulfur. and Fluorine gases can kill organisms by direct ingestion, or by absorption onto plants
followed by ingestion by organisms.
In 1986 an CO2 gas emission from
Lake Nyos in Cameroon killed more
than 1700 people and 3000 cattle.
The gases can also have an effect on

the atmosphere and climate. Much
of the water on the surface of the
earth was produced by volcanoes
throughout earth history.
Sulfur gases in the atmosphere, along with volcanic ash, reflect incoming solar radiation back
into space and have a cooling effect on the atmosphere, thus lowering average global
temperatures. The effect lasts only as long as the gases and ash remain in the atmosphere,
normally a few years at the most. CO2 gas, produces the opposite effect. It is a greenhouse
gas which absorbs solar radiation and causes a warming effect. Eruptions in the past that
produced huge quantities of this gas may have been responsible for mass extinction events
The Eruption of Mount. St. Helens, 1980

Prior to 1980, Mount St. Helens last erupted in 1857. On March 21, 1980 a 4.2 earthquake
occurred beneath the volcano signaling the beginning of an eruption. Small eruptions took
place through mid April and the summit of the mountain developed a new crater due to the
explosions. By the end of April surveys showed that the north face of the mountain had begun
to bulge upwards and outwards at rates up to 1 m per day. By May 12, the bulge had displaced
parts of the northern part of the volcano a distance of about 150 m. Geologists now recognized
that this bulge could soon develop into a landslide.
At 8:32 AM on May 18, 1980 a magnitude 5.0 earthquake occurred beneath Mt. St. Helens.
This led to a violent eruption that took place over about the next minute. The earthquake
triggered a large landslide that began to slide out to the north, initially as three large blocks.
As the first block, began to slide downward, the magma

chamber beneath the volcano became exposed to
atmospheric pressure. The gas inside the magma
expanded rapidly, producing a lateral blast that moved
outward toward the north. As the second slide block
began to move downwards a vertical eruption column
began to form above the volcano. The lateral blast
rapidly overtook the slide block and roared through an
area to the north of the mountain, knocking down all
trees in its path and suffocating all living things, Within
the next 10 seconds the third slide block moved out
toward the north. The landslide thus became a debris
avalanche and left a deposit extending about 20 km
down the valley (see map below). The southern shores
of Spirit Lake were displaced about 1 km northward and
the level of the lake was raised about 40 m.
Within about the first

minute of the eruption the
summit of Mount St.
Helens had been reduced
by about 500 m. The
magma however continued
to erupt in a Plinian
eruption column that
reached up to 26 km into
the atmosphere.
The eruption column collapsed several times to produce pyroclastic flows that moved into
Spirit Lake and the upper reaches of the Toutle River Valley. This Plinian phase lasted about 9
hours and spread tephra in a plume to the east, darkening the area at midday to make it appear
like night.
In all, 62 people lost their lives, either by being buried by the debris avalanche deposit, or
suffocating by breathing the hot gases and dust of the blast.
Over the next several days melted snow combined with the new ash to produce lahars that
roared down the North and South Forks of the Toutle River and drainages to the south of the
volcano.
In general, the eruption had been much larger than most anticipated, but the fact that a hazards
study had been carried out, that public officials were quick to act and evacuate the danger zone,
and that the volcano was under constant monitoring, resulted in the minimization of loss of life
to only 62 instead of a much larger number that could have been killed had not these efforts
been in place.
Since the 1980 eruption, several volcanic domes have been emplaced in the crater and some
have been blasted out. In the future, it is expected that new domes will continue to form,
eventually building the volcano back to a form that will look more like it did prior to the 1980
eruption.
Predicting Volcanic Eruptions
Before discussing how we can predict volcanic eruptions, its important to get some terminology
straight by defining some commonly used terms.
Active Volcano - An active volcano to volcanologists is a volcano that has shown eruptive
activity within recorded history. Thus an active volcano need not be in eruption to be
considered active.
z Currently there are about 600 volcanoes on Earth considered to be active volcanoes.
z Each year 50 to 60 of volcanoes actually erupt.
Extinct Volcano - An extinct volcano is a volcano that has not shown any historic activity, is
usually deeply eroded, and shows no signs of recent activity. How old must a volcano be to be
considered extinct depends to a large degree on past activity.
Dormant Volcano - A dormant volcano (sleeping volcano) is somewhere between active and
extinct. A dormant volcano is one that has not shown eruptive activity within recorded history,
but shows geologic evidence of activity within the geologic recent past. Because the lifetime of
a volcano may be on the order of a million years, dormant volcanoes can become active
volcanoes all of sudden. These are perhaps the most dangerous volcanoes because people
living in the vicinity of a dormant volcano may not understand the concept of geologic time,
and there is no written record of activity. These people are sometimes difficult to convince
when a dormant volcano shows signs of renewed activity.
Long - Term Forecasting and Volcanic Hazards Studies
z Studies of the geologic history of a volcano are generally necessary to make an

assessment of the types of hazards posed by the volcano and the frequency at which these
types of hazards have occurred in the past. The best way to determine the future
behavior of a volcano is by studying its past behavior as revealed in the deposits
produced by ancient eruptions. Because volcanoes have such long lifetimes relative to
human recorded history, geologic studies are absolutely essential.
z Once this information is available, geologists can then make forecasts concerning what
areas surrounding a volcano would be subject to the various kinds of activity should they
occur in a future eruption, and also make forecasts about the long - term likelihood or
probability of a volcanic eruption in the area.
z During such studies, geologists examine sequences of layered deposits and lava flows.
Armed with knowledge about the characteristics of deposits left by various types of
eruptions, the past behavior of a volcano can be determined.
z Using radiometric age dating of the deposits the past frequency of events can be
determined.
z This information is then combined with knowledge about the present surface aspects of
the volcano to make volcanic hazards maps which can aid other scientists, public
officials, and the public at large to plan for evacuations, rescue and recovery in the event
that short-term prediction suggests another eruption.
z Such hazards maps delineate zones of danger expected from the hazards discussed above:
lava flows, pyroclastic flows, tephra falls, lahars, floods, etc.
Short - Term Prediction based on Volcanic Monitoring
Short - term prediction of volcanic eruptions involves monitoring the volcano to determine
when magma is approaching the surface and monitoring for precursor events that often signal a
forthcoming eruption.
z Earthquakes - As magma moves toward the surface it usually deforms and fractures
rock to generate earthquakes. Thus an increase in earthquake activity immediately below

the volcano is usually a sign that an eruption will occur.
z Ground Deformation - As magma moves into a volcano, the structure may inflate. This
will cause deformation of the ground which can be monitored. Instruments like tilt
meters measure changes in the angle of the Earth's surface. Other instruments track
changes in distance between several points on the ground to monitor deformation.
z Changes in Heat Flow - Heat is everywhere flowing out of the surface of the Earth. As
magma approaches the surface or as the temperature of groundwater increases, the
amount of surface heat flow will increase. Although these changes may be small they be
measured using infrared remote sensing.
z Changes in Gas Compositions - The composition of gases emitted from volcanic vents
and fumaroles often changes just prior to an eruption. In general, increases in the
proportions of hydrogen chloride (HCl) and sulfur dioxide (SO2) are seen to increase
relative to the proportion of water vapor.
In general, no single event can be used to predict a volcanic eruption, and thus many events are
usually monitored so that taken in total, an eruption can often be predicted. Still, each volcano
behaves somewhat differently, and until patterns are recognized for an individual volcano,
predictions vary in their reliability. Furthermore, sometimes a volcano can erupt with no
precursor events at all.
Volcanic Hazards
The main types of volcanic hazards have been discussed above, so here we only briefly discuss
them. You should make sure you understand what each of these are, and what effects each
type of hazard can have. We will not likely have time to discuss these again in detail, so the
following material is mostly for review.
Primary Effects of Volcanism
z Lava Flows - lava flows are common in Hawaiian and Strombolian type of eruptions, the
least explosive. Although they have been known to travel as fast as 64 km/hr, most are
slower and give people time to move out of the way. Thus, in general, lava flows are
most damaging to property, as they can destroy anything in their path.
z Pyroclastic Flows - Pyroclastic flows are one of the most dangerous aspects of
volcanism. They cause death by suffocation and burning. They can travel so rapidly that
few humans can escape.
z Ash falls - Although tephra falls blanket an area like snow, they are far more destructive
because tephra deposits have a density more than twice that of snow and tephra deposits
do not melt like snow an cause the collapse of roof. They and can affect areas far from
the eruption. Tephra falls destroy vegetation, including crops, and can kill livestock that
eat the ash covered vegetation. Tephra falls can cause loss of agricultural activity for
years after an eruption.
z Poisonous Gas Emissions , as discussed above.
Secondary and Tertiary Effects of Volcanism
z Mudflows (Lahars) As discussed above, mudflows can both accompany an eruption and
occur many years after an eruption. They are formed when water and loose ash deposits
come together and begin to flow. The source of water can be derived by melting of snow
or ice during the eruption, emptying of crater lakes during an eruption, or rainfall that
takes place any time with no eruption.
z Debris Avalanches, Landslides, and Debris Flows - Volcanic mountains tend to
become oversteepened as a result of the addition of new material over time as well due to
inflation of the mountain as magma intrudes. Oversteepened slopes may become
unstable, leading to a sudden slope failure that results in landslides, debris flows or debris
avalanches. Debris avalanches, landslides, and debris flows do not necessarily occur
accompanied by a volcanic eruption. There are documented cases of such occurrences
where no new magma has been erupted.
z Flooding - Drainage systems can become blocked by deposition of pyroclastic flows and
lava flows. Such blockage may create a temporary dam that could eventually fill with
water and fail resulting in floods downstream from the natural dam. Volcanoes in cold
climates can melt snow and glacial ice, rapidly releasing water into the drainage system
and possibly causing floods. Jokaulhlaups occur when heating of a glacier results in rapid
outburst of water from the melting glacier.
z Tsunami - Debris avalanche events, landslides, caldera collapse events, and pyroclastic
flows entering a body of water may generate tsunami. During the 1883 eruption of
Krakatau volcano, in the straits of Sunda between Java and Sumatra, several tsunami
were generated by pyroclastic flows entering the sea and by collapse accompanying
caldera formation. The tsunami killed about 36,400 people, some as far away from the
volcano as 200 km.
z Volcanic Earthquakes - Earthquakes usually precede and accompany volcanic

eruptions, as magma intrudes and moves within the volcano. Although most volcanic
earthquakes are small, some are large enough to cause damage in the area immediately
surrounding the volcano, and some are large enough to trigger landslides and debris
avalanches, such as in the case of Mount St. Helens.
z Atmospheric Effects- Fined grained ash and sulfur gases expelled into the atmosphere
reflect solar radiations and cause cooling of the atmosphere. CO2 released by volcanoes
can cause warming of the atmosphere.
Volcanoes and Plate Tectonics
Global Distribution of Volcanoes
In the discussion we had on igneous rocks and how magmas form, we pointed out that since the
upper parts of the Earth are solid, special conditions are necessary to form magmas. These
special conditions do not exist everywhere beneath the surface, and thus volcanism does not
occur everywhere. If we look at the global distribution of volcanoes we see that volcanism
occurs four principal settings.
1. Along divergent plate boundaries, such as Oceanic Ridges or spreading centers.

2. In areas of continental extension (that may become divergent plate boundaries in the
future).
3. Along converging plate boundaries where subduction is occurring.
4. And, in areas called "hot spots" that are usually located in the interior of plates, away
from the plate margins.
Since we discussed this in the lecture on igneous rocks, we only briefly review this material
here.
z Diverging Plate Margins
Active volcanism is currently taking place along all

of oceanic ridges, but most of this volcanism is
submarine volcanism. One place where an oceanic
ridge reaches above sea level is at Iceland, along the
Mid-Atlantic Ridge. Here, most eruptions are
basaltic in nature, but, many are explosive
strombolian types or explosive phreatic or
phreatomagmatic types. As seen in the map to the
right, the Mid-Atlantic ridge runs directly through
Iceland
Volcanism also occurs in continental

areas that are undergoing episodes of
rifting. A classic example is the East
African Rift Valley, where the
African plate is being split. The
extensional deformation occurs
because the underlying mantle is
rising from below and stretching the
overlying continental crust.
Upwelling mantle may melt to
produce magmas, which then rise to
the surface, often along normal faults
produced by the extensional
deformation. Basaltic and rhyolitic
volcanism is common in these areas.
In the same area, the crust has rifted
apart along the Red Sea, and the Gulf
of Aden to form new oceanic ridges.
This may also be the fate of the East
African Rift Valley at some time in
the future.
Other areas where extensional deformation is occurring within the crust is Basin
and Range Province of the western U.S. (eastern California, Nevada, Utah, Idaho,
western Wyoming and Arizona) and the Rio Grande Rift, New Mexico. These are
also areas of recent basaltic and rhyolitic volcanism.
z Converging Plate Margins
All around the Pacific Ocean, is a zone often

referred to as the Pacific Ring of Fire, where
most of the world's most active and most
dangerous volcanoes occur. The Ring of Fire
occurs because most of the margins of the
Pacific ocean coincide with converging
margins along which subduction is occurring
The convergent boundary along the

coasts of South America, Central
America, Mexico, the northwestern U.S.
(Northern California, Oregon, &
Washington), western Canada, and
eastern Alaska, are boundaries along
which oceanic lithosphere is being
subducted beneath continental
lithosphere. This has resulted in the
formation of continental volcanic arcs
that form the Andes Mountains, the
Central American Volcanic Belt, the
Mexican Volcanic Belt, the Cascade
Range, and the Alaskan volcanic arc.
The Aleutian Islands (west of Alaska),

the Kurile-Kamchatka Arc, Japan,
Philippine Islands, and Marianas Islands,
New Zealand, and the Indonesian Islands,
along the northern and western margins
of the Pacific Ocean are zones where
oceanic lithosphere is being subducted
beneath oceanic lithosphere. These are
all island arcs.
{ As discussed previously, the magmas are likely generated by flux melting of the
mantle overlying the subduction zone to produce basaltic magmas.
{ Through magmatic differentiation, basaltic magmas change to andesitic and
rhyolitic magma.
{ Because these magmas are often gas rich and have all have relatively high
viscosity, eruptions in these areas tend to be violent, with common Strombolian,

Plinian and Pelean eruptions.
{ Volcanic landforms tend to be cinder cones, stratovolcanoes, volcanic domes, and
calderas.
{ Repose periods between eruptions tend to be hundreds to thousands of years, thus
giving people living near these volcanoes a false sense of security.
z Hot Spots
Volcanism also occurs in areas that are not associated with plate boundaries, in the
interior of plates. These are most commonly associated with what is called a hot spot.
Hot spots appear to result from plumes of hot mantle material upwelling toward the
surface, independent of the convection cells though to cause plate motion. Hot spots tend
to be fixed in position, with the plates moving over the top. As the rising plume of hot
mantle moves upward it begins to melt to produce magmas. These magmas then rise to
the surface producing a volcano. But, as the plate carrying the volcano moves away from
the position over the hot spot, volcanism ceases and new volcano forms in the position
now over the hot spot. This tends to produce chains of volcanoes or seamounts (former
volcanic islands that have eroded below sea level).
The Hawaiian Ridge is one such hot spot

trace. Here the Big Island of Hawaii is
currently over the hot spot, the other
Hawaiian islands still stand above sea
level, but volcanism has ceased.
Northwest of the Hawaiian Islands, the
volcanoes have eroded and are now
seamounts.
Plateau Basalts or Flood Basalts
z Plateau or Flood basalts are extremely large volume outpourings of low viscosity basaltic
magma from fissure vents. The basalts spread huge areas of relatively low slope and
build up plateaus.
z Many of these outpourings appear to have occurred along a zone that eventually
developed into a rift valley and later into a diverging plate boundary.
z In Oregon and Washington of the

northwestern U.S., the Columbia River
Basalts represent a series of lava flows all
erupted within about 1 million years 12
million years ago. One of the basalt flows,
the Roza flow, was erupted over a period of
a few weeks traveled about 300 km and has
a volume of about 1500 km3.
Examples of questions on this material that could be asked on an exam
1. What are the major gases in magma? What are the minor gases in magma? Why is the
amount of gas in magma important in relation to volcanic eruptions?
2. What chemical and physical characteristics of magma are most important in whether the
magma erupts explosively or non-explosively?
3. Define the following terms (a) viscosity, (b) block, (c) bomb, (d) ash, (e) eruption
column, (f) pyroclastic flow, (g) lateral blast
4. Compare and contrast the different types of volcanic eruptions
5. Define the following and state what kind of magma characteristically erupts from each:
(a) shield volcano, (b) stratovolcano, (c) cinder cone, (d) lava dome.
6. What is a caldera and how do calderas form?
7. What kind of volcanic landforms would you expect to find in each of the following
tectonic settings (a) diverging plate boundary, (b) converging plate boundary, (c) hot
spot
8. Give examples of volcanoes that occur at (a) hot spots, (b) diverging plate boundaries,
and (c) converging plate boundaries.
9. What are the main volcanic hazards? Which of these have the greatest potential to cause
damage at large distances from the volcano?
10. Define an active volcano, a dormant volcano, and an extinct volcano?
11. What is the best indicator of the future behavior of a volcano and how is thus
determined?
12. What types of monitoring is necessary for short term prediction of volcanic eruptions?
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Earthquakes & Earth's Interior Page 1 of 24
Earthquakes and the Earth's Interior
Earthquakes
Earthquakes occur when energy stored in elastically strained rocks is suddenly released. This
release of energy causes intense ground shaking in the area near the source of the earthquake
and sends waves of elastic energy, called seismic waves, throughout the Earth. Earthquakes can
be generated by bomb blasts, volcanic eruptions, sudden volume changes in minerals, and
sudden slippage along faults. Earthquakes are definitely a geologic hazard for those living in
earthquake prone areas, but the seismic waves generated by earthquakes are invaluable for
studying the interior of the Earth.
In or discussion of earthquake we want to answer the following questions:
1. What causes earthquakes?

2. How are earthquakes studied?
3. What happens during an earthquake?
4. Where do earthquakes occur?
5. Can earthquakes be predicted?
6. Can humans be protected from earthquakes?
7. What can earthquakes tell us about the interior of the earth?
Causes of Earthquakes
Within the Earth rocks are constantly subjected to forces that tend to bend, twist, or fracture
them. When rocks bend, twist or fracture they are said to deform. Strain is a change in shape,
size, or volume. The forces that cause deformation are referred to as stresses. To understand
the causes of earthquakes we must first explore stress and strain.
Stress and Strain
Recall that stress is a force applied over an area. A uniform stress is where the forces act
equally from all directions. Pressure is a uniform stress and is referred and is also called
confining stress or hydrostatic stress. If stress is not equal from all directions then the stress is a
differential stress.
http://www.tulane.edu/~sanelson/eens1110/earthint.htm 2/9/2012
Three kinds of differential

stress occur.
1. Tensional stress (or

extensional stress),
which stretches rock;
2. Compressional stress,
which squeezes rock;
and
3. Shear stress, which

result in slippage and
translation.
When a rock is subjected to increasing stress it changes its shape, size or volume. Such a
change in shape, size or volume is referred to as strain. When stress is applied to rock, the rock
passes through 3 successive stages of deformation.
z Elastic Deformation -- wherein
the strain is reversible.
z Ductile Deformation -- wherein

the strain is irreversible.
z Fracture -- irreversible strain

wherein the material breaks.
We can divide materials into two classes that depend on their relative behavior under stress.
z Brittle materials have a small to large region of elastic behavior, but only a small region
of ductile behavior before they fracture.
z Ductile materials have a small region of elastic behavior and a large region of ductile
behavior before they fracture.
How a material behaves will depend on several factors. Among them are:
z Temperature - At high temperature molecules and their bonds can stretch and move, thus
materials will behave in more ductile manner. At low Temperature, materials are brittle.
z Confining Pressure - At high confining pressure materials are less likely to fracture
because the pressure of the surroundings tends to hinder the formation of fractures. At
low confining stress, material will be brittle and tend to fracture sooner.
z Strain rate -- Strain rate refers to the rate at which the deformation occurs (strain divided
by time). At high strain rates material tends to fracture. At low strain rates more time is
available for individual atoms to move and therefore ductile behavior is favored.
z Composition -- Some minerals, like quartz, olivine, and feldspars are very brittle. Others,
like clay minerals, micas, and calcite are more ductile This is due to the chemical bond
types that hold them together. Thus, the mineralogical composition of the rock will be a
factor in determining the deformational behavior of the rock. Another aspect is presence
or absence of water.
In general, rocks near the surface of the earth behave in a brittle fashion, unless they are
deformed slowly. Thus, when they are acted upon by differential stress, they tend to fracture.
Faults
Most natural earthquakes are caused by sudden slippage along a fault. Faults occur when
brittle rocks fracture and there is displacement of one side of the fracture relative to the other
side. The amount of displacement in a single slippage event is rarely more that 10 to 20 m for
large earthquakes, but after many events the displacement could be several hundred
kilometers.
Types of Faults
Faults can be divided into several different types depending on the direction of relative
displacement or slip on the fault. Most faults make an angle with the ground surface, and this
angle is called the dip angle. If the dip angle is 90o the fault plane is vertical. Faults can be
divided into two major classes.
Dip Slip Faults - Dip slip faults are faults that have an inclined fault plane and along which the
relative displacement or offset has occurred along the dip direction. Note that in looking at the
displacement on any fault we don't know which side actually moved or if both sides moved, all
we can determine is the relative sense of motion.
For any inclined fault plane we define the block above the fault as the hanging wall
block and the block below the fault as the footwall block
z Normal Faults - are faults that
result from horizontal extensional
stresses in brittle rocks and where
the hanging-wall block has
moved down relative to the
footwall block.
z Reverse Faults - are faults that

result from horizontal
compressional stresses in brittle
rocks, where the hanging-wall
block has moved up relative the
footwall block.
z A Thrust Fault is a special case of

a reverse fault where the dip of the
fault is less than 45o. Thrust faults
can have considerable
displacement, measuring hundreds
of kilometers, and can result in
older strata overlying younger
strata.
Strike Slip Faults - are faults where the displacement on the fault has taken place along a
horizontal direction. Such faults result from shear stresses acting in the crust. Strike slip faults
can be of two varieties, depending on the sense of displacement. To an observer standing on
one side of the fault and looking across the fault, if the block on the other side has moved to the
left, we say that the fault is a left-lateral strike-slip fault. If the block on the other side has
moved to the right, we say that the fault is a right-lateral strike-slip fault. The famous San
Andreas Fault in California is an example of a right-lateral strike-slip fault. Displacements on
the San Andreas fault are estimated at over 600 km.
Oblique Slip Faults - If the displacement has both a vertical component and a horizontal
component (i.e. a combination of dip slip and strike slip) it is called an oblique slip fault.
Blind Faults
A blind fault is one that does not break the surface of the earth. Instead, rocks above the fault
have behaved in ductile fashion and folded over the tip of the fault.
Active Faults
An active fault is one that has shown recent displacement and likely has the potential to
produce earthquakes. Since faulting is part of the deformation process, ancient faults can be
found anywhere that deformation has taken place in the past. Thus, not every fault one sees is
necessarily an active fault.
Surface Expression of Faults
Where faults have broken the surface of the earth they can be delineated on maps and are called
fault lines or fault zones. Recent ruptures of dip slip faults at the surface show a cliff that is
called a fault scarp. Strike slip faults result in features like linear valleys, offset surface
features (roads, stream channels, fences, etc.) or elongated ridges.(see figure 10.5 and10.33 in
your textbook).
How Faults Develop

The elastic rebound theory suggests that if slippage along a fault is hindered such that elastic
strain energy builds up in the deforming rocks on either side of the fault, when the slippage
does occur, the energy released causes an earthquake.

This theory was discovered by
making measurements at a
number of points across a
fault. Prior to an earthquake it
was noted that the rocks
adjacent to the fault were
bending. These bends
disappeared after an
earthquake suggesting that the
energy stored in bending the
rocks was suddenly released
during the earthquake.
Friction between the blocks then keeps the fault from moving again until enough strain has
accumulated along the fault zone to overcome the friction and generate another earthquake.
Once a fault forms, it becomes a zone of weakness in the crust, and so long as the tectonic
stresses continue to be present more earthquakes are likely to occur on the fault. Thus faults
move in spurts and this behavior is referred to as Stick Slip. If the displacement during an
earthquake is large, a large earthquake will be generated. Smaller displacements generate
smaller earthquakes. Note that even for small displacements of only a millimeter per year, after
1 million years, the fault will accumulate 1 km of displacement.
Fault Creep - Some faults or parts of faults move continuously without generating
earthquakes. This could occur if there is little friction on the fault and tectonic stresses are
large enough to move the blocks in opposite directions. This is called fault creep. Note that if
creep is occurring on one part of a fault, it is likely causing strain to build on other parts of the
fault.
How Earthquakes Are Measured
When an earthquake occurs, the elastic energy is released and sends out vibrations that travel in
all directions throughout the Earth. These vibrations are called seismic waves.
The point within the earth
where the fault rupture starts is
called the focus or hypocenter.
This is the exact location within

the earth were seismic waves
are generated by sudden release
of stored elastic energy.
The epicenter is the point on

the surface of the earth directly
above the focus. Sometimes the
media get these two terms
confused.
Seismic Waves
Seismic waves emanating from the focus can travel in several ways, and thus there are several
different kinds of seismic waves.
Body Waves -
emanate from the
focus and travel in all
directions through the
body of the Earth.
There are two types of
body waves: P-waves
and S waves.
z P - waves - are Primary waves. They travel with a velocity that depends on the elastic
properties of the rock through which they travel.
Where, Vp is the velocity of the P-wave, K is the incompressibility of the material, is

the rigidity of the material, and is the density of the material.
P-waves are the same thing as sound waves. They move through the material by
compressing it, but after it has been compressed it expands, so that the wave moves by
compressing and expanding the material as it travels. Thus the velocity of the P-wave
depends on how easily the material can be compressed (the incompressibility), how rigid
the material is (the rigidity), and the density of the material. P-waves have the highest
velocity of all seismic waves and thus will reach all seismographs first.
z S-Waves - Secondary waves, also called shear waves. They travel with a velocity that
depends only on the rigidity and density of the material through which they travel:
S-waves travel through material by shearing it or changing its shape in the direction
perpendicular to the direction of travel. The resistance to shearing of a material is the
property called the rigidity. It is notable that liquids have no rigidity, so that the velocity
of an S-wave is zero in a liquid. (This point will become important later). Note that S-
waves travel slower than P-waves, so they will reach a seismograph after the P-wave.
Surface Waves - Surface waves differ from body waves in that they do not travel through the
earth, but instead travel along paths nearly parallel to the surface of the earth. Surface waves
behave like S-waves in that they cause up and down and side to side movement as they pass,
but they travel slower than S-waves and do not travel through the body of the Earth. Love
waves result in side to side motion and Rayleigh waves result in an up and down rolling
motion. (see figure 10.10 in your text). Surface waves are responsible for much of the shaking
that occurs during an earthquake.
The study of how seismic waves behave in the Earth is called seismology. Seismic waves are
measured and recorded on instruments called seismometers.
Seismometers
Seismic waves travel through

the earth as elastic vibrations.
A seismometer is an
instrument used to record
these vibrations and the
resulting graph that shows the
vibrations is called a
seismogram.
The seismometer must be able to move with the vibrations, yet part of it must remain nearly
stationary. This is accomplished by isolating the recording device (like a pen) from the rest of
the Earth using the principal of inertia. For example, if the pen is attached to a large mass
suspended by a spring, the spring and the large mass move less than the paper which is attached
to the Earth, and on which the record of the vibrations is made.
The record of an earthquake, a seismogram, as recorded by a seismometer, will be a plot of
vibrations versus time. On the seismogram time is marked at regular intervals, so that we can
determine the time of arrival of the first P-wave and the time of arrival of the first S-wave.
(Note again, that because P-waves have a higher velocity than S-waves, the P-waves arrive at
the seismographic station before the S-waves).
Locating the Epicenter of an Earthquake

In order to determine the location of an
earthquake, we need to have recorded a
seismogram of the earthquake from at least
three seismographic stations at different
distances from the epicenter. In addition, we
need one further piece of information - that
is the time it takes for P-waves and S-waves
to travel through the earth and arrive at a
seismographic station. Such information has
been collected over the last 100 or so years,
and is available as travel time curves.
From the seismographs at each station

one determines the S-P interval (the
difference in the time of arrival of the
first S-wave and the time of arrival of
the first P-wave. Note that on the travel
time curves, the S-P interval increases
with increasing distance from the
epicenter. Thus the S-P interval tells us
the distance to the epicenter from the
seismographic station where the
earthquake was recorded.
Thus, at each station we can draw a circle on a map that has a radius equal to the distance from
the epicenter. Three such circles will intersect in a point that locates the epicenter of the
earthquake.
Earthquake Size
Whenever a large destructive earthquake occurs in the world the press immediately wants to
know where the earthquake occurred and how big the earthquake was (in California the
question is usually - Was this the Big One?). The size of an earthquake is usually given in
terms of a scale called the Richter Magnitude. Richter Magnitude is a scale of earthquake size
developed by a seismologist named Charles F. Richter. The Richter Magnitude involves
measuring the amplitude (height) of the largest recorded wave at a specific distance from the
earthquake. While it is correct to say that for each increase in 1 in the Richter Magnitude, there
is a tenfold increase in amplitude of the wave, it is incorrect to say that each increase of 1 in
Richter Magnitude represents a tenfold increase in the size of the Earthquake (as is commonly
incorrectly stated by the Press).
A better measure of the size of an earthquake is the amount of energy released by the
earthquake. The amount of energy released is related to the Magnitude Scale by the following
equation:
Log E = 11.8 + 1.5 M

Where Log refers to the logarithm to the base 10, E is the energy released in ergs, and M is the
Magnitude.
Anyone with a hand calculator can solve this equation by plugging in various values of M and
solving for E, the energy released. I've done the calculation for you in the following table:
Magnitude Energy Factor

(ergs)
1 2.0 x 1013
31 x
2 6.3 x 1014
3 2.0 x 1016
31 x
4 6.3 x 1017
5 2.0 x 1019
31 x
6 6.3 x 1020
7 2.0 x 1022
31 x
8 6.3 x 1023
From these calculations you can see that each increase in 1 in Magnitude represents a 31 fold
increase in the amount of energy released. Thus, a magnitude 7 earthquake releases 31 times
more energy than a magnitude 6 earthquake. A magnitude 8 earthquake releases 31 x 31 or 961
times more energy than a magnitude 6 earthquake.
Although the Richter Magnitude is the scale most commonly reported when referring to the
size of an earthquake, it has been found that for larger earthquakes a more accurate
measurement of size is the moment magnitude, Mw. The moment magnitude is a measure of
the amount of strain energy released by the earthquake as determined by measurements of the
shear strength of the rock and the area of the rupture surface that slipped during the earthquake.
z Note that it usually takes more than one seismographic station to calculate the magnitude
of an earthquake. Thus you will hear initial estimates of earthquake magnitude
immediately after an earthquake and a final assigned magnitude for the same earthquake
that may differ from initial estimates, but is assigned after seismologists have had time to
evaluate the data from numerous seismographic stations.
z The moment magnitude for large earthquakes is usually greater than the Richter
magnitude for the same earthquake. For example the Richter magnitude for the 1964
Alaska earthquake is usually reported as 8.6, whereas the moment magnitude for this
earthquake is calculated at 9.2. The largest earthquake ever recorded was in Chile in
1960 with a moment magnitude of 9.5, The Summatra earthquake of 2004 had a moment
magnitude of 9.0. Sometimes a magnitude is reported for an earthquake and no
specification is given as to which magnitude (Richter or moment) is reported. This
obviously can cause confusion. But, within the last few years, the tendency has been to
report the moment magnitude rather than the Richter magnitude.
z The Hiroshima atomic bomb released an amount of energy equivalent to a moment

magnitude 6 earthquake.
z Note that magnitude scales are open ended with no maximum or minimum. The largest
earthquakes are probably limited by rock strength. Meteorite impacts could cause larger
earthquakes than have ever been observed.
Frequency of Earthquakes of Different Magnitude

Worldwide
Number of Earthquakes
Magnitude Description
per Year
> 8.5 0.3
Great
8.0 - 8.4 1
7.5 - 7.9 3
7.0 - 7.4 15 Major
6.6 - 6.9 56
6.0 - 6.5 210 Destructive
5.0 - 5.9 800 Damaging
4.0 - 4.9 6,200
3.0 - 3.9 49,000
Minor
2.0 - 2.9 300,000
0 - 1.9 700,000
Modified Mercalli Intensity Scale
Note that the Richter magnitude scale results in one number for the size of the earthquake.
Maximum ground shaking will occur only in the area of the epicenter of the earthquake, but the
earthquake may be felt over a much larger area. The Modified Mercalli Scale was developed in
the late 1800s to assess the intensity of ground shaking and building damage over large areas.
z The scale is applied after the earthquake by conducting surveys of people's response to the
intensity of ground shaking and destruction.
Intensity Characteristic Effects Richter
Scale
Equivalent
I People do not feel any Earth movement <3.4
II A few people notice movement if at rest and/or on upper floors of tall buildings
III People indoors feel movement. Hanging objects swing back and forth. People outdoors 4.2
might not realize that an earthquake is occurring
IV People indoors feel movement. Hanging objects swing. Dishes, windows, and doors 4.3 - 4.8
rattle. Feels like a heavy truck hitting walls. Some people outdoors may feel
movement. Parked cars rock.
V Almost everyone feels movement. Sleeping people are awakened. Doors swing 4.9-5.4
open/close. Dishes break. Small objects move or are turned over. Trees shake. Liquids
spill from open containers
VI Everyone feels movement. People have trouble walking. Objects fall from shelves. 5.5 - 6.1
Pictures fall off walls. Furniture moves. Plaster in walls may crack. Trees and bushes
shake. Damage slight in poorly built buildings.
VII People have difficulty standing. Drivers feel cars shaking. Furniture breaks. Loose 5.5 - 6.1
bricks fall from buildings. Damage slight to moderate in well-built buildings;
considerable in poorly built buildings.
VIII Drivers have trouble steering. Houses not bolted down shift on foundations. Towers & 6.2 - 6.9
chimneys twist and fall. Well-built buildings suffer slight damage. Poorly built
structures severely damaged. Tree branches break. Hillsides crack if ground is wet.
Water levels in wells change.
IX Well-built buildings suffer considerable damage. Houses not bolted down move off 6.2 - 6.9
foundations. Some underground pipes broken. Ground cracks. Serious damage to
Reservoirs.
X Most buildings & their foundations destroyed. Some bridges destroyed. Dams 7.0 - 7.3
damaged. Large landslides occur. Water thrown on the banks of canals, rivers, lakes.
Ground cracks in large areas. Railroad tracks bent slightly.
XI Most buildings collapse. Some bridges destroyed. Large cracks appear in the ground. 7.4 - 7.9
Underground pipelines destroyed. Railroad tracks badly bent.
XII Almost everything is destroyed. Objects thrown into the air. Ground moves in waves >8.0
or ripples. Large amounts of rock may move.
z The Modified Mercalli Scale is shown in the table above. Note that correspondence
between maximum intensity and Richter Scale magnitude only applies in the area
around the epicenter.
z A given earthquake will have zones of different intensity all surrounding a zone of
maximum intensity.
z The Mercalli Scale is very useful in examining the effects of an earthquake over a large
area, because it will is responsive not only to the size of the earthquake as measured by
the Richter scale for areas near the epicenter, but will also show the effects of the
efficiency that seismic waves are transmitted through different types of material near the
Earth's surface.
z The Mercalli Scale is also useful for determining the size of earthquakes that occurred
before the modern seismographic network was available (before there were
seismographic stations, it was not possible to assign a Magnitude).
What Happens During an Earthquake?
Earthquakes produce several effects that cause damage and destruction. Some of these effects
are the direct result of the ground shaking produced by the arrival of seismic waves and others
are secondary effects. Among these effects are the following:
Ground Shaking - Shaking of the ground caused by the passage of seismic waves near the
epicenter of the earthquake is responsible for the collapse of most structures. The intensity of
ground shaking depends on distance from the epicenter and on the type of bedrock underlying
the area.
z In general, loose unconsolidated sediment is subject to more intense shaking than solid
bedrock.
z Damage to structures from shaking depends on the type of construction. Concrete and
masonry structures, because they are brittle are more susceptible to damage than wood
and steel structures, which are more flexible.
Different kinds of shaking occur due to passage of different kinds of waves. As the P-waves
arrive the ground will move up and down. The S-waves produce waves that both move the
ground up and down and back and forth in the direction of wave motion. The Love waves
shake the ground from side to side, and the Rayleigh waves create a rolling up and down
motion (see figure 10.25 in your text).
Ground Rupture - Ground rupture only occurs along the fault zone that moves during the
earthquake. Thus, structures that are built across fault zones may collapse, whereas structures
built adjacent to, but not crossing the fault may survive.
Fire - Fire is a secondary effect of earthquakes. Because power lines may be knocked down
and because natural gas lines may rupture due to an earthquake, fires are often started closely
following an earthquake. The problem is compounded if water lines are also broken during the
earthquake since there will not be a supply of water to extinguish the fires once they have
started. In the 1906 earthquake in San Francisco more than 90% of the damage to buildings was
caused by fire.
Landslides and Debris/Rock Falls - In mountainous regions subjected to earthquakes ground

shaking may trigger rapid mass-wasting events like landslides, rock and debris falls, slumps,
and debris avalanches.
Liquefaction -
Liquefaction is a
processes that occurs
in water-saturated
unconsolidated
sediment due to
shaking. In areas
underlain by such
material, the ground
shaking causes the
grains to loose grain
to grain contact, and
thus the material
tends to flow.
You can demonstrate this process to yourself next time your go the beach. Stand on the
sand just after an incoming wave has passed. The sand will easily support your weight
and you will not sink very deeply into the sand if you stand still. But, if you start to shake
your body while standing on this wet sand, you will notice that the sand begins to flow as
a result of liquefaction, and your feet will sink deeper into the sand.
Aftershocks - Earthquakes can change the stress state in rocks near the hypocenter and this
may induce numerous earthquakes that occur after the main earthquake. These are almost
always smaller earthquakes, but they can be numerous and last for many months after the main
earthquake. Aftershocks are particularly dangerous because that can cause further damage to
already damaged structures and make it unsafe for rescue efforts to be pursued.
Tsunami - Tsunami are giant ocean waves that can rapidly travel across oceans. Earthquakes
that occur along coastal areas can generate tsunami, which can cause damage thousands of
kilometers away on the other side of the ocean.
Tsunami can be generated by anything that disturbs a body of water. This includes
earthquakes that cause vertical offset of the sea floor, volcanic eruptions into a body of water,
landslides into a body of water, underwater explosions, and meteorite impacts.
In general, the larger the earthquake, eruption, landslide, explosion or meteorite, the more
likely it will be able to travel across an ocean. Smaller events may, however cause a tsunami
that affect areas in the vicinity of the triggering event.
Tsunami waves have wavelengths and velocities much higher that wind driven ocean
waves. Velocities are on the order of several hundred km/hr, similar to a jet airplane. They
usually are more than one wave, that hit the coastline tens of minutes to hours apart. Although
wave heights are barely perceptible in the open ocean, the waves become amplified as the
approach the shore and may build to several tens of meters. Thus, when the come ashore, the
can flood areas far away from the coast. Often the trough of a tsunami wave arrives before the
crest, This produces a phenomenon called drawdown where the ocean recedes from the normal
shoreline by as much as a kilometer.
Tsunami warning systems have been developed for the Pacific Ocean basin and, recently, the
Indian Ocean where a tsunami killed over 250,000 people in 2004. But, such warning systems
depend on the ability to detect and forecast a tsunami after an earthquake occurs and may take
several hours to come up with an accurate forecast of wave heights and travel time.
Knowing something about these aspects of tsunami could save your life. It suggests that
1. If you are near the beach and feel an earthquake immediately get to higher ground.
Tsunami warnings require time and if you are near enough to the earthquake that
generates a tsunami that you feel the earthquake, there may not be enough time for a
warning to be sounded, nor will there be enough time to get out of the way once you see
the wave approaching.
2. If you are near the beach and see the ocean recede far offshore, immediately get to higher
ground, as the receding ocean indicates that the trough of a tsunami wave has arrived and
will be followed by the crest.
3. If you survive the first wave of a tsunami, don't go back to the coast assuming the event
is over. Several waves are possible and any of them could be the largest of the waves.
Wait for authorities to issue an "all clear signal".
4. Don't even consider "surfing the tsunami wave" or riding it out. The waves are so
powerful and last such a long time, that you would have little chance of surviving.
Where do Earthquakes Occur
The distribution and frequency of earthquakes is referred to as seismicity. Most earthquakes

occur along relatively narrow belts that coincide with plate boundaries (see figure 10.18 in your
text).
This makes sense, since
plate boundaries are
zones along which
lithospheric plates mover
relative to one another.
Earthquakes along these
zones can be divided into
shallow focus
earthquakes that have
focal depths less than
about 70 km and deep
focus earthquakes that
have focal depths
between 75 and 700 km.
Earthquakes at Diverging Plate Boundaries

Diverging plate boundaries are zones where two plates move away from each other, such as at
oceanic ridges. In such areas the lithosphere is in a state of tensional stress and thus normal
faults and rift valleys occur. Earthquakes that occur along such boundaries show normal fault
motion and tend to be shallow focus earthquakes, with focal depths less than about 20 km. Such
shallow focal depths indicate that the brittle lithosphere must be relatively thin along these
diverging plate boundaries.
Earthquakes at Converging Plate Boundaries -
Convergent plate boundaries are boundaries where two plates run into each other. Thus, they
tend to be zones where compressional stresses are active and thus reverse faults or thrust faults
are common. There are two types of converging plate boundaries. (1) subduction boundaries,
where oceanic lithosphere is pushed beneath either oceanic or continental lithosphere; and (2)
collision boundaries where two plates with continental lithosphere collide.
z Subduction boundaries -At subduction boundaries cold oceanic lithosphere is pushed

back down into the mantle where two plates converge at an oceanic trench. Because the
subducted lithosphere is cold, it remains brittle as it descends and thus can fracture under
the compressional stress. When it fractures, it generates earthquakes that define a zone of
earthquakes with increasing focal depths beneath the overriding plate. This zone of
earthquakes is called the Benioff Zone. Focal depths of earthquakes in the Benioff Zone
can reach down to 700 km.
z Collision boundaries - At collisional boundaries two plates of continental lithosphere

collide resulting in fold-thrust mountain belts. Earthquakes occur due to the thrust
faulting and range in depth from shallow to about 200 km.
Earthquakes at Transform Fault Boundaries

Transform fault boundaries are plate boundaries where lithospheric plates slide past one
another in a horizontal fashion. The San Andreas Fault of California is one of the longer
transform fault boundaries known. Earthquakes along these boundaries show strike-slip motion
on the faults and tend to be shallow focus earthquakes with depths usually less than about 50
km.
Intraplate Earthquakes - These are earthquakes that occur in the stable portions of continents
that are not near plate boundaries. Many of them occur as a result of re-activation of ancient
faults, although the causes of some intraplate earthquakes are not well understood.
z Examples - New Madrid Region, Central U.S., Charleston South Carolina, Along St.
Lawrence River - U.S. - Canada Border.
Earthquake Risk
The risk that an earthquake will occur close to where you live depends on whether or not
tectonic activity that causes deformation is occurring within the crust of that area. For the U.S.,
the risk is greatest in the most tectonically active area, that is near the plate margin in the
Western U.S. Here, the San Andreas Fault which forms the margin between the Pacific Plate
and the North American Plate, is responsible for about 1 magnitude 8 or greater earthquake per
century. Also in the western U.S. is the Basin and Range Province where extensional stresses in
the crust have created many normal faults that are still active. Historically, large earthquakes
have also occurred in the area of New Madrid, Missouri;and Charleston, South Carolina. (See
figure 10.34 in your text). Why earthquakes occur in these other areas is not well understood. If
earthquakes have occurred before, they are expected to occur again.
Long-Term Forecasting
Long-term forecasting is based mainly on the knowledge of when and where earthquakes have
occurred in the past. Thus, knowledge of present tectonic setting, historical records, and
geological records are studied to determine locations and recurrence intervals of earthquakes.
Two methods of earthquake forecasting are being employed - paleoseismology and seismic
gaps.
z Paleoseismology - the study of prehistoric earthquakes. Through study of the offsets in

sedimentary layers near fault zones, it is often possible to determine recurrence intervals
of major earthquakes prior to historical records. If it is determined that earthquakes have
recurrence intervals of say 1 every 100 years, and there are no records of earthquakes in
the last 100 years, then a long-term forecast can be made and efforts can be undertaken to
reduce seismic risk.
z Seismic gaps - A seismic gap is a zone along a tectonically active area where no
earthquakes have occurred recently, but it is known that elastic strain is building in the
rocks. If a seismic gap can be identified, then it might be an area expected to have a
large earthquake in the near future.
Short-Term Prediction
z Short-term predication involves monitoring of processes that occur in the vicinity of

earthquake prone faults for activity that signify a coming earthquake.
z Anomalous events or processes that may precede an earthquake are called precursor
events and might signal a coming earthquake.
z Despite the array of possible precursor events that are possible to monitor, successful
short-term earthquake prediction has so far been difficult to obtain. This is likely
because:
{ the processes that cause earthquakes occur deep beneath the surface and are
difficult to monitor.
{ earthquakes in different regions or along different faults all behave differently, thus
no consistent patterns have so far been recognized
Among the precursor events that may be important are the following:
z Ground Uplift and Tilting - Measurements taken in the vicinity of active faults
sometimes show that prior to an earthquake the ground is uplifted or tilts due to the
swelling of rocks caused by strain building on the fault. This may lead to the formation
of numerous small cracks (called microcracks). This cracking in the rocks may lead to
small earthquakes called foreshocks.
z Foreshocks - Prior to a 1975 earthquake in China, the observation of numerous
foreshocks led to successful prediction of an earthquake and evacuation of the city of the
Haicheng. The magnitude 7.3 earthquake that occurred, destroyed half of the city of
about 100 million inhabitants, but resulted in only a few hundred deaths because of the
successful evacuation.
z Water Level in Wells - As rocks become strained in the vicinity of a fault, changes in
pressure of the groundwater (water existing in the pore spaces and fractures in rocks)
occur. This may force the groundwater to move to higher or lower elevations, causing
changes in the water levels in wells.
z Emission of Radon Gas - Radon is an inert gas that is produced by the radioactive decay
of uranium and other elements in rocks. Because Radon is inert, it does not combine
with other elements to form compounds, and thus remains in a crystal structure until
some event forces it out. Deformation resulting from strain may force the Radon out and
lead to emissions of Radon that show up in well water. The newly formed microcracks
discussed above could serve as pathways for the Radon to escape into groundwater.
Increases in the amount of radon emissions have been reported prior to some earthquakes
z Strange Animal Behavior - Prior to a magnitude 7.4 earthquake in Tanjin, China,
zookeepers reported unusual animal behavior. Snakes refusing to go into their holes,
swans refusing to go near water, pandas screaming, etc. This was the first systematic
study of this phenomenon prior to an earthquake. Although other attempts have been
made to repeat a prediction based on animal behavior, there have been no other
successful predictions.
Controlling Earthquakes
Although no attempts have yet been made to control earthquakes, earthquakes have been
known to be induced by human interaction with the Earth. This suggests that in the future
earthquake control may be possible.
Examples of human induced earthquakes
z For ten years after construction of the Hoover Dam in Nevada blocking the Colorado
River to produce Lake Mead, over 600 earthquakes occurred, one with magnitude of 5
and 2 with magnitudes of 4.
z In the late 1960s toxic waste injected into hazardous waste disposal wells at Rocky Flats,
near Denver apparently caused earthquakes to occur in a previously earthquake quiet
area. The focal depths of the quakes ranged between 4 and 8 km, just below the 3.8 km-
deep wells.
z Nuclear testing in Nevada set off thousands of aftershocks after the explosion of a 6.3
magnitude equivalent underground nuclear test. The largest aftershocks were about
magnitude 5.
In the first two examples the increased seismicity was apparently due to increasing fluid
pressure in the rocks which resulted in re-activating older faults by increasing strain.
The problem, however, is that of the energy involved. Remember that for every increase in
earthquake magnitude there is about a 30 fold increase in the amount of energy released. Thus,
in order to release the same amount of energy as a magnitude 8 earthquake, 30 magnitude 7
earthquakes would be required. Since magnitude 7 earthquakes are still very destructive, we
might consider generating smaller earthquakes. If we say that a magnitude 4 earthquake might
be acceptable, how many magnitude 4 earthquakes are required to release the same amount of
energy as a magnitude 8 earthquake? Answer 30 x 30 x 30 x 30 =810,000! Still, in the future
it may be possible to control earthquakes either with explosions to gradually reduce the stress
or by pumping fluids into the ground.
Mitigating for Earthquake Hazards
Many seismologists have said that "earthquakes don't kill people, buildings do". This is because
most deaths from earthquakes are caused by buildings or other human construction falling
down during an earthquake. Earthquakes located in isolated areas far from human population
rarely cause any deaths. Thus, in earthquake prone areas like California, there are strict
building codes requiring the design and construction of buildings and other structures that will
withstand a large earthquake. While this program is not always completely successful, one fact
stands out to prove its effectiveness. In 1986 an earthquake near San Francisco, California with
a Richter Magnitude of 7.1 killed about 40 people. Most were killed when a double decked
freeway collapsed. About 10 months later, an earthquake with magnitude 6.9 occurred in the
Armenia, where no earthquake proof building codes existed. The death toll in the latter
earthquake was about 25,000!
Another contrast occurred in 2010. On January 12, an earthquake of Moment Magnitude 7.0
occurred in Haiti. The country is one of the poorest on earth, had no earthquake resistant
building codes, and most of the construction was poorly reinforced concrete. The destruction
was massive with an estimated 250,000 deaths. On February 27, a Moment Magnitude 8.8
earthquake occurred in Chile, a country where earthquake resistant building codes were
enforced. The death toll from this larger earthquake was about 520, again, proving the
effectiveness of building codes.
How Seismic Waves Help Understand Earth's Internal Structure
Much of what we know about the interior of the Earth comes from knowledge of seismic wave
velocities and their variation with depth in the Earth. Recall that body wave velocities are as
follows:
Where K = incompressibility
= rigidity
= density
If the properties of the earth, i.e. K,, and where the same throughout, then Vp and Vs would
be constant throughout the Earth and seismic waves would travel along straight line paths
through the Earth. We know however that density must change with depth in the Earth, because
the density of the Earth is 5,200 kg/cubic meter and density of crustal rocks is about 2,500
kg/cubic meter. If the density were the only property to change, then we could make estimates
of the density, and predict the arrival times or velocities of seismic waves at any point away
from an earthquake. Observations do not follow the predictions, so, something else must be
happening. In fact we know that K, , and change due to changing temperatures, pressures
and compositions of material. The job of seismology is, therefore, to use the observed seismic
wave velocities to determine how K, , and change with depth in the Earth, and then infer
how pressure , temperature, and composition change with depth in the Earth. In other words to
tell us something about the internal structure of the Earth.
Reflection and Refraction of Seismic Waves
If composition (or physical properties) change abruptly at some interface, then seismic wave
will both reflect off the interface and refract (or bend) as they pass through the interface. Two
cases of wave refraction can be recognized.
1. If the seismic wave velocity in the rock above an interface is less than the seismic wave
velocity in the rock below the interface, the waves will be refracted or bent upward
relative to their original path.
2. If the seismic wave velocity decreases when passing into the rock below the interface,
the waves will be refracted down relative to their original path.
z If the seismic wave velocities gradually increase
with depth in the Earth, the waves will
continually be refracted along curved paths that
curve back toward the Earth's surface.
One of the earliest discoveries of seismology was a discontinuity at a depth of 2900 km where
the velocity of P-waves suddenly decreases. This boundary is the boundary between the mantle
and the core and was discovered because of a zone on the opposite side of the Earth from an
earthquake focus receives no direct P-waves because the P-waves are refracted inward as a
result of the sudden decrease in velocity at the boundary.
This zone is called
a P-wave shadow
zone.
This discovery was followed by the discovery of an S-wave shadow zone. The S-wave shadow
zone occurs because no S-waves reach the area on the opposite side of the Earth from the focus.
Since no direct S-waves arrive in this zone, it implies that no S-waves pass through the core.
This further implies the velocity of S-wave in the core is 0. In liquids = 0, so S-wave velocity
is also equal to 0. From this it is deduced that the core, or at least part of the core is in the liquid
state, since no S-waves are transmitted through liquids.
Thus, the S-wave shadow zone is
best explained by a liquid outer
core.
Seismic Wave Velocities in the Earth

Over the years seismologists have collected data on how seismic wave velocities vary with
depth in the Earth. Distinct boundaries, called discontinuities are observed when there is sudden
change in physical properties or chemical composition of the Earth. From these discontinuities,
we can deduce something about the nature of the various layers in the Earth. As we discussed
way back at the beginning of the course, we can look at the Earth in terms of layers of differing
chemical composition, and layers of differing physical properties.
z Layers of Differing Composition - The Crust - Mohorovicic discovered boundary the

boundary between crust and mantle, thus it is named the Mohorovicic Discontinuity or
Moho, for short. The composition of the crust can be determined from seismic waves by
comparing seismic wave velocities measured on rocks in the laboratory with seismic
wave velocities observed in the crust. Then from travel times of waves on many
earthquakes and from many seismic stations, the thickness and composition of the crust
can be inferred.
{ In the ocean basins crust is about 8 to 10 km thick, and has a composition that is
basaltic.
{ Continental crust varies between 20 and 60 km thick. The thickest continental

crust occurs beneath mountain ranges and the thinnest beneath lowlands. The
composition of continental crust varies from granitic near the top to gabbroic near
the Moho.
{ The Mantle - Seismic wave velocities increase abruptly at the Moho. In the mantle
wave velocities are consistent with a rock composition of peridotite which consists
of olivine, pyroxene, and garnet.
.
{ The Core - At a depth of 2900 Km P-wave velocities suddenly decrease and S-
wave velocities go to zero. This is the top of the outer core. As discussed above,
the outer core must be liquid since S-wave velocities are 0. At a depth of about
4800 km the sudden increase in P-wave velocities indicate a solid inner core. The
core appears to have a composition consistent with mostly Iron with small
amounts of Nickel.
z Layers of Different Physical Properties

{ At a depth of about 100 km there is a sudden decrease in both P and S-wave
velocities. This boundary marks the base of the lithosphere and the top of the
asthenosphere. The lithosphere is composed of both crust and part of the upper
mantle. It is a brittle layer that makes up the plates in plate tectonics, and appears to
float and move around on top of the more ductile asthenosphere.
{ At the top of the asthenosphere is a zone where both P- and S-wave velocities are
low. This zone is called the Low-Velocity Zone (LVZ). It is thought that the low
velocities of seismic waves in this zone are caused by temperatures approaching
the partial melting temperature of the mantle, causing the mantle in this zone to
behave in a very ductile manner.
{ At a depth of 400 km there is an abrupt increase in the velocities of seismic waves,

thus this boundary is known as the 400 - Km Discontinuity. Experiments on mantle
rocks indicate that this represents a temperature and pressure where there is a
polymorphic phase transition, involving a change in the crystal structure of
Olivine, one of the most abundant minerals in the mantle.
{ Another abrupt increase in seismic wave velocities occurs at a depth of 670 km. It
is uncertain whether this discontinuity, known as the 670 Km Discontinuity, is the
result of a polymorphic phase transition involving other mantle minerals or a
compositional change in the mantle, or both.
Seismic Tomography
Most of you are aware of the techniques used in modern medicine to see inside the human
body. These are things like CT scans, ultrasound, and X-rays. All them use waves, either
sound waves or electromagnetic waves, that penetrate the body and reflect and refract from and
through body parts that have different physical properties. The techniques require a source of
waves with enough energy to penetrate, the ability to generate these waves continuously in
places that will penetrate the area of interest, and the ability to detect the resulting reflected and
refracted waves when they emerge. Similar imaging can be done for the earth, but it is much
more complicated. Seismic waves from a large earthquake can penetrate the earth, but each
earthquake is a single point source for the waves. Seismometers can detect the waves when
they emerge, but seismometers are not placed everywhere on the earth's surface. Nevertheless,
if data is collected over many years, the information can be used to produce an image of the
interior of the earth. Such images are sill pretty primitive, but allow us to see areas that are
hotter than their surroundings, where seismic wave velocities are slower and areas that are
cooler than their surroundings where velocities are higher. Such images from seismic
tomography are shown on pages 339-340 of your text.
1. Define the following terms (a), stress (b) confining stress, (c) differential stress, (d)
tensional stress (e) compressional stress, (e) strain (f) liquifaction, (g) fault creep, (h)
Benioff Zone.
2. What are the three stages of deformation that all materials go through as stress is
increased?
3. What is the difference between a brittle material and a ductile material?
4. Explain the following types of faults: (a) normal fault, (b) reverse fault, (c) thrust fault,
(d) strike-slip fault, and (e) transform fault.
5. Explain the elastic rebound theory on the cause earthquakes.
6. What is the difference between the epicenter and the focus of an earthquake.
7. What are seismic waves and what is the difference between a P-wave, an S-wave and a
Surface waves?
8. For each increase of magnitude by a factor of 1, how much more energy is released?
9. What is the difference between Richter magnitude and Moment magnitude and which of
these scales is a more accurate measure of the energy released by large earthquakes?
10. What is the difference between the magnitude scale and the Modified Mercalli Scale?
11. How does ground shaking during an earthquake depend on such things as distance from
the epicenter and type of bedrock?
12. Why are fires common during earthquakes?
13. What is the difference between tsunami and wind-driven ocean waves?
14. What steps can you take to avoid being killed by a tsunami?
15. What are the concepts of paleosiesmology and seismic gaps, and what information can
studies in these areas provide?
16. Why has short-term earthquake prediction been unsuccessful?
17. What kinds of precursor events have been explored in an attempt to predict earthquakes?
18. Is it possible for humans to induce earthquakes?
19. In what tectonic settings do earthquakes occur? Explain why earthquakes occur in each
of these settings.
20. What are P-wave and S-wave shadow zones and what do they tell us about the interior of
the earth?
Deformation of Rock Page 1 of 18
Deformation of Rock
Mount Everest is the highest peak on Earth at 29,028 feet above sea level.
The rock at the top of the peak is a marine limestone, deposited on the sea floor about 450
million years ago! This is an amazing fact that begs the question - how did that rock get there?
In this discussion we will try to answer that question. The topics we will cover include:
z Review of Stress and Strain

z Brittle Deformation Faults and Joints
z Ductile deformation Folds
z Mountain Building Processes
Stress and Strain
We start our discussion with a brief review of the concepts of stress and strain. Recall that
stress is a force acting on a material that produces a strain. Stress is a force applied over an
area and therefore has units of Force/area (like lb/in 2 ). Pressure is a stress where the forces act
equally from all directions.
If stress is not equal from all
directions then we say that
the stress is a differential
stress. Three kinds of
differential stress occur.
1. Tensional stress (or

extensional stress),
which stretches rock;
2. Compressional stress,
which squeezes rock;
and
3. Shear stress, which

result in slippage and
translation.
When rocks deform they are said to strain. A strain is a change in size, shape, or volume of a
material. We here modify that definition somewhat to say that a strain also includes any kind of
movement of the material, including translation and tilting.
http://www.tulane.edu/~sanelson/eens1110/deform.htm 2/10/2012
Stages of Deformation
When a rock is subjected to increasing stress it passes through 3 successive stages of

deformation.
z Elastic Deformation -- wherein the
strain is reversible.
z Ductile Deformation -- wherein the

strain is irreversible.
z Fracture - irreversible strain

wherein the material breaks.
We can divide materials into two classes that depend on their relative behavior under stress.
z Brittle materials have a small or large region of elastic behavior but only a small region
of ductile behavior before they fracture.
z Ductile materials have a small region of elastic behavior and a large region of ductile
behavior before they fracture.
How a material behaves will depend on several factors. Among them are:
z Temperature - At high temperature molecules and their bonds can stretch and move, thus
materials will behave in more ductile manner. At low Temperature, materials are brittle.
z Confining Pressure - At high confining pressure materials are less likely to fracture
because the pressure of the surroundings tends to hinder the formation of fractures. At
low confining stress, material will be brittle and tend to fracture sooner.
z Strain rate -- At high strain rates material tends to fracture. At low strain rates more time
is available for individual atoms to move and therefore ductile behavior is favored.
z Composition -- Some minerals, like quartz, olivine, and feldspars are very brittle. Others,
like clay minerals, micas, and calcite are more ductile This is due to the chemical bond
types that hold them together. Thus, the mineralogical composition of the rock will be a
factor in determining the deformational behavior of the rock. Another aspect is presence
or absence of water. Water appears to weaken the chemical bonds and forms films
around mineral grains along which slippage can take place. Thus wet rock tends to
behave in ductile manner, while dry rocks tend to behave in brittle manner.
Brittle-Ductile Properties of the Lithosphere
We all know that rocks near the surface of the Earth behave in a brittle manner. Crustal rocks
are composed of minerals like quartz and feldspar which have high strength, particularly at low
pressure and temperature. As we go deeper in the Earth the strength of these rocks initially
increases.
At a depth of about 15 km we reach a point called

the brittle-ductile transition zone. Below this
point rock strength decreases because fractures
become closed and the temperature is higher,
making the rocks behave in a ductile manner. At
the base of the crust the rock type changes to
peridotite which is rich in olivine. Olivine is
stronger than the minerals that make up most
crustal rocks, so the upper part of the mantle is
again strong. But, just as in the crust, increasing
temperature eventually predominates and at a
depth of about 40 km the brittle-ductile transition
zone in the mantle occurs. Below this point rocks
behave in an increasingly ductile manner.
Deformation in Progress
Only in a few cases does deformation of rocks occur at a rate that is observable on human time
scales. Abrupt deformation along faults, usually associated with earthquakes occurs on a time
scale of minutes or seconds. Gradual deformation along faults or in areas of uplift or
subsidence can be measured over periods of months to years with sensitive measuring
instruments.
Evidence of Past Deformation
Evidence of deformation that has occurred in the past is very evident in crustal rocks. For
example, sedimentary strata and lava flows generally follow the law of original horizontality.
Thus, when we see such strata inclined instead of horizontal, evidence of an episode of
deformation.
Since many geologic features are planar in nature, we a way to uniquely define the orientation
of a planar feature we first need to define two terms - strike and dip.
For an inclined plane the strike is the compass direction of any horizontal line on the plane. The
dip is the angle between a horizontal plane and the inclined plane, measured perpendicular to
the direction of strike.
In recording strike and dip measurements on a geologic map, a symbol is used that has a long
line oriented parallel to the compass direction of the strike. A short tick mark is placed in the
center of the line on the side to which the inclined plane dips, and the angle of dip is recorded
next to the strike and dip symbol as shown above. For beds with a 900 dip (vertical) the short
line crosses the strike line, and for beds with no dip (horizontal) a circle with a cross inside is
used as shown below.
For linear structures, a similar method is used, the strike or bearing is the compass direction and
angle the line makes with a horizontal surface is called the plunge angle.
Fracture of Brittle Rocks
As we have discussed previously, brittle rocks tend to fracture when placed under a high
enough stress. Such fracturing, while it does produce irregular cracks in the rock, sometimes
produces planar features that provide evidence of the stresses acting at the time of formation of
the cracks. Two major types of more or less planar fractures can occur: joints and faults.
Joints
As we learned in our discussion of physical weathering, joints are fractures in rock that show
no slippage or offset along the fracture. Joints are usually planar features, so their orientation
can be described as a strike and dip. They form from as a result of extensional stress acting on
brittle rock. Such stresses can be induced by cooling of rock (volume decreases as temperature
decreases) or by relief of pressure as rock is eroded above thus removing weight.
Joints provide pathways for water and thus pathways for chemical weathering attack on
rocks. If new minerals are precipitated from water flowing in the joints, this will form a vein.
Many veins observed in rock are mostly either quartz or calcite, but can contain rare minerals
like gold and silver. These aspects will be discussed in more detail when we talk about
valuable minerals from the earth in a couple of weeks.
Because joints provide access of water to rock, rates of weathering and/or erosion are usually
higher along joints and this can lead to differential erosion.
From an engineering point of view, joints are important structures to understand. Since they
are zones of weakness, their presence is critical when building anything from dams to
highways. For dams, the water could leak out through the joints leading to dam failure. For
highways the joints may separate and cause rock falls and landslides.
Faults
Faults occur when brittle rocks fracture and there is an offset along the fracture. When the
offset is small, the displacement can be easily measured, but sometimes the displacement is so
large that it is difficult to measure.
Types of Faults
As we found out in our discussion of earthquakes, faults can be divided into several different
types depending on the direction of relative displacement. Since faults are planar features, the
concept of strike and dip also applies, and thus the strike and dip of a fault plane can be
measured. One division of faults is between dip-slip faults, where the displacement is measured
along the dip direction of the fault, and strike-slip faults where the displacement is horizontal,
parallel to the strike of the fault. Recall the following types of faults:
z Dip Slip Faults - Dip slip faults are faults that have an inclined fault plane and along
which the relative displacement or offset has occurred along the dip direction. Note that
in looking at the displacement on any fault we don't know which side actually moved or
if both sides moved, all we can determine is the relative sense of motion.
{ Normal Faults - are faults that result from horizontal tensional stresses in brittle
rocks and where the hanging-wall block has moved down relative to the footwall
block.
Horsts & Grabens - Due to the tensional stress responsible for normal faults, they
often occur in a series, with adjacent faults dipping in opposite directions. In such a
case the down-dropped blocks form grabens and the uplifted blocks form horsts.
In areas where tensional stress has recently affected the crust, the grabens may
form rift valleys and the uplifted horst blocks may form linear mountain ranges.
The East African Rift Valley is an example of an area where continental extension
has created such a rift. The basin and range province of the western U.S. (Nevada,
Utah, and Idaho) is also an area that has recently undergone crustal extension. In
the basin and range, the basins are elongated grabens that now form valleys, and
the ranges are uplifted horst blocks.
Half-Grabens - A normal fault that has a curved fault plane with the dip decreasing
with depth can cause the down-dropped block to rotate. In such a case a half-
graben is produced, called such because it is bounded by only one fault instead of
the two that form a normal graben.
{ Reverse Faults - are faults that result from horizontal compressional stresses
in brittle rocks, where the hanging-wall block has moved up relative the
footwall block.
A Thrust Fault is a special case of a reverse fault where the dip of the fault is less than
45o. Thrust faults can have considerable displacement, measuring hundreds of

kilometers, and can result in older strata overlying younger strata.
z Strike Slip Faults - are faults where the relative motion on the fault has taken place along
a horizontal direction. Such faults result from shear stresses acting in the crust. Strike slip
faults can be of two varieties, depending on the sense of displacement. To an observer
standing on one side of the fault and looking across the fault, if the block on the other
side has moved to the left, we say that the fault is a left-lateral strike-slip fault. If the
block on the other side has moved to the right, we say that the fault is a right-lateral
strike-slip fault. The famous San Andreas Fault in California is an example of a right-
lateral strike-slip fault. Displacements on the San Andreas fault are estimated at over 600
km.
Evidence of Movement on Faults
Since movement on a fault involves rocks sliding past each other there may be left evidence of
movement in the area of the fault plane.
z Fault Breccias are crumbled up rocks consisting of angular fragments that were formed
as a result of grinding and crushing movement along a fault. When the rock is broken
into clay or silt size particles as a result of slippage on the fault, it is referred to as fault
gouge.
z Slickensides are scratch marks that are left on the fault plane as one block moves relative
to the other. Slickensides can be used to determine the direction and sense of motion on a
fault.
z Mylonite - Along some faults rocks are sheared or drawn out by ductile deformation
along the fault. This results in a type of localized metamorphism called dynamic
metamorphism (also called cataclastic metamorphism. The resulting rock is a fine
grained metamorphic rock show evidence of shear, called a mylonite. Faults that show
such ductile shear are referred to as shear zones.
Deformation of Ductile Rocks
When rocks deform in a ductile manner, instead of fracturing to form faults or joints, they may
bend or fold, and the resulting structures are called folds. Folds result from compressional
stresses or shear stresses acting over considerable time. Because the strain rate is low and/or the
temperature is high, rocks that we normally consider brittle can behave in a ductile manner
resulting in such folds.
Geometry of Folds - Folds are described by their form and orientation. The sides of a fold are
called limbs. The limbs intersect at the tightest part of the fold, called the hinge. A line
connecting all points on the hinge is called the fold axis. An imaginary plane that includes the
fold axis and divides the fold as symmetrically as possible is called the axial plane of the fold.
We recognize several different kinds of folds.
Monoclines are the simplest types of

folds. Monoclines occur when horizontal
strata are bent upward so that the two
limbs of the fold are still horizontal.
Anticlines are folds where the originally

horizontal strata has been folded upward,
and the two limbs of the fold dip away
from the hinge of the fold.
Synclines are folds where the originally

horizontal strata have been folded
downward, and the two limbs of the fold
dip inward toward the hinge of the fold.
Synclines and anticlines usually occur
together such that the limb of a syncline is
also the limb of an anticline.
z In the diagrams above, the fold axes are horizontal, but if the fold axis is not horizontal
the fold is called a plunging fold and the angle that the fold axis makes with a horizontal
line is called the plunge of the fold.
Note that if a plunging fold intersects a

horizontal surface, we will see the
pattern of the fold on the surface (see
also figures 11.16e in your text.
Domes and Basins are formed as a result of vertical crustal motion. Domes look like an
overturned bowl and result from crustal upwarping. Basins look like a bowl and result from
subsidence (see figure 11.15 in your text).
Folds are described by the severity of folding. an open fold has a large angle between limbs, a
tight fold has a small angle between limbs.
Further classification of folds include:
z If the two limbs of the fold dip away from the axis with the same angle, the fold is said to
be a symmetrical fold.
z If the limbs dip at different angles, the folds are said to be asymmetrical folds.
z If the compressional stresses that cause the folding are intense, the fold can close up and
have limbs that are parallel to each other. Such a fold is called an isoclinal fold (iso
means same, and cline means angle, so isoclinal means the limbs have the same angle).
Note the isoclinal fold depicted in the diagram below is also a symmetrical fold.
z If the folding is so intense that the strata on one limb of the fold becomes nearly upside
down, the fold is called an overturned fold.
z An overturned fold with an axial plane that is nearly horizontal is called a recumbant
fold.
z A fold that has no curvature in its hinge and straight-sided limbs that form a zigzag
pattern is called a chevron fold.
Folds and Topography
Since different rocks have different resistance to erosion and weathering, erosion of folded
areas can lead to a topography that reflects the folding. Resistant strata would form ridges that
have the same form as the folds, while less resistant strata will form valleys (see figure11.15 in
you text).
How Folds Form
Folds develop in two ways:
z Flexural folds form when layers slip as stratified rocks are bent. This results in the
layers maintaining their thickness as they bend and slide over one another. These are
generally formed due to compressional stresses acting from either side.
z Flow folds form when rocks are very ductile and flow like a fluid. Different parts of the
fold are drawn out by this flow to different extents resulting in layers becoming thinner
in some places and thicker in outer places. The flow results in shear stresses that smear
out the layers.
z Folds can also form

in relationship to
faulting of other parts
of the rock body. In
this case the more
ductile rocks bend to
conform to the
movement on the
fault.
z Also since even ductile

rocks can eventually
fracture under high stress,
rocks may fold up to a
certain point then fracture
to form a fault.
Folds and Metamorphic Foliation
As we saw in our discussion of metamorphic rocks, foliation is a planar fabric that develops in
rocks subject to compressional stress during metamorphism. It may be present as flattened or
elongated grains, with the flattening occurring perpendicular to the direction of compressional
stress. It also results from the reorientation, recrystallization, or growth of sheet silicate
minerals so that their sheets become oriented perpendicular to the compressional stress
direction. Thus, we commonly see a foliation that is parallel to the axial plane of the fold.
Shearing of rock during metamorphism can also draw out grains in the direction of shear.
Mountains and Mountain Building Processes
One of the most spectacular results of deformation acting within the crust of the Earth is the
formation of mountain ranges. Mountains frequently occur in elongate, linear belts. They are
constructed by tectonic plate interactions in a process called orogenesis.
Mountain building (orogenesis) involves
z Structural deformation.
z Faulting.
z Folding.
z Igneous Processes.
z Metamorphism.
z Glaciation.
z Erosion.
z Sedimentation
Constructive processes, like deformation, folding, faulting, igneous processes and

sedimentation build mountains up; destructive processes like erosion and glaciation, tear them
back down again.
Mountains are born and have a finite life span. Young mountains are high, steep, and growing
upward. Middle-aged mountains are cut by erosion. Old mountains are deeply eroded and often
buried. Ancient orogenic belts are found in continental interiors, now far away from plate
boundaries, but provide information on ancient tectonic processes. Since orogenic continental
crust generally has a low density and thus is too buoyant to subduct, if it escapes erosion it is
usually preserved.
Uplift and Isostasy
The fact that marine limestones occur at the top of Mt. Everest, indicates that deformation can
cause considerable vertical movement of the crust. Such vertical movement of the crust is
called uplift. Uplift is caused by deformation which also involves thickening of the low
density crust and, because the crust "floats" on the higher density mantle, involves another
process that controls the height of mountains.
The discovery of this process and its consequences involved measurements of gravity. Gravity
is measured with a device known as a gravimeter. A gravimeter can measure differences in the
pull of gravity to as little as 1 part in 100 million. Measurements of gravity can detect areas
where there is a deficiency or excess of mass beneath the surface of the Earth. These
deficiencies or excesses of mass are called gravity anomalies.
A positive gravity anomaly indicates that an excess of mass exits beneath the area. A negative
gravity anomaly indicates that there is less mass beneath an area.
Negative anomalies exist beneath mountain ranges, and mirror the topography and crustal
thickness as determined by seismic studies. Thus, the low density continents appear to be
floating on higher density mantle.
The protrusions of the crust into the mantle are referred to as crustal roots. Normal crustal
thickness, measured from the surface to the Moho is 35 to 40 km. But under mountain belts
crustal thicknesses of 50 to 70 km are common. In general, the higher the mountains, the
thicker the crust.
What causes this is the principal of isostasy. The principal can be demonstrated by floating
various sizes of low density wood blocks in your bathtub or sink. The larger blocks will both
float higher and extend to deeper levels in the water and mimic the how the continents float on
the mantle (see figure 11.26 in your text).
It must be kept in mind, however that it's not just the crust that floats, it's the entire
lithosphere. So, the lithospheric mantle beneath continents also extends to deeper levels and
is thicker under mountain ranges than normal. Because the lithosphere is floating in the
asthenosphere which is more ductile than the brittle lithosphere, the soft asthenosphere can
flow to compensate for any change in thickness of the crust caused by erosion or deformation.
The Principle of isostasy states that there is a flotational balance between low density rocks
and high density rocks. i.e. low density crustal rocks float on higher density mantle rocks. The
height at which the low density rocks float is dependent on the thickness of the low density
rocks. Continents stand high because they are composed of low density rocks (granitic
composition). Ocean basins stand low, because they are composed of higher density basaltic
and gabbroic rocks.
Isostasy is best illustrated by effects of glaciation. During an ice age crustal rocks that are
covered with ice are depressed by the weight of the overlying ice. When the ice melts, the
areas previously covered with ice undergo uplift.
Mountains only grow so long as there are forces causing the uplift. As mountains rise, they
are eroded. Initially the erosion will cause the mountains to rise higher as a result of isostatic
compensation. But, eventually, the weight of the mountain starts to depress the lower crust
and sub-continental lithosphere to levels where they start to heat up and become more ductile.
This hotter lithosphere will then begin to flow outward away from the excess weight and the
above will start to collapse.
The hotter rocks could eventually partially melt, resulting in igneous intrusions as the magmas
move to higher levels, or the entire hotter lower crust could begin to rise as a result of their
lower density. These processes combined with erosion on the surface result in exhumation,
which causes rocks from the deep crust to eventually become exposed at the surface.
Causes of Mountain Building
There are three primary causes of mountain building.

1. Convergence at convergent plate boundaries.
2. Continental Collisions.
3. Rifting
z Convergent Plate Margins
When oceanic lithosphere subducts beneath continental lithosphere magmas generated

above the subduction zone rise, intrude, and erupt to form volcanic mountains. The
compressional stresses generated between the trench and the volcanic arc create fold-
thrust mountain belts, and similar compression behind the arc create a fold-thrust belt
resulting in mountains. Mountains along the margins of western North and South
America, like the Andes and the Cascade range formed in this fashion.
Island arcs off the coast of continents can get pushed against the continent. Because of
their low density, they don't subduct, but instead get accreted to the edge of the
continent. Mountain ranges along the west coast of North America formed in this
fashion (see figure 11.22 in your text).
z Continental Collisions
Plate tectonics can cause continental crustal blocks to collide. When this occurs the rocks
between the two continental blocks become folded and faulted under compressional
stresses and are pushed upward to form fold-thrust mountains. The Himalayan
Mountains (currently the highest on Earth) are mountains of this type and were formed as
a result of the Indian Plate colliding with the Eurasian plate. Similarly the Appalachian
Mountains of North America and the Alps of Europe were formed by such processes.
z Rifting
Continental Rifting occurs where continental crust is undergoing extensional

deformation. This results in thinning of the lithosphere and upwelling of the
asthenosphere which results in uplift. The brittle lithosphere responds by producing
normal faults where blocks of continental lithosphere are uplifted to form grabens or half
grabens. The uplifted blocks are referred to a fault-block mountains.
The Basin and Range province in the western United states formed in this manner,
including the Sierra Nevada on its western edge and the Grand Tetons in Wyoming..
Cratons and Orogens
The continents can be divided into two kinds of structural units
z Cratons form the cores of the continents. These are portions of continental crust that
have attained isostatic and tectonic stability and have cooled substantially since their
formation. They were formed and were deformed more than a billion years ago and are
the oldest parts of the continents. The represent the deep roots of former mountains and
consist of metamorphic and plutonic igneous rocks, all showing extensive evidence of
deformation.
z Orogens are broad elongated belts of deformed rocks that are draped around the cratons.
They appear to be the eroded roots of former mountain belts that formed by continent -
continent collisions. Only the youngest of these orogens still form mountain ranges (see
figure 13.10) in your text).
The observation that the orogens are generally younger towards the outside of any continent
suggests that the continents were built by collisions of plates that added younger material to the
outside edges of the continents, and is further evidence that plate tectonics has operated for at
least the last 2 billion years.
Case Study of the Appalachian Mountains
The Appalachian Mountain Range extending from northern Alabama to Nova Scotia have a
history that dates back about 1 billion years. This history will be discussed in class and is
covered in section 11.32of your textbook.
1. Define the following: (a) fault breccia, (b) slickensides, (c) mylonite, (d) fold axis, (e)
axial plane, (f) plunging fold, (g) orogenesis, (h) isostasy.
2. Explain in words or drawings the essential aspects of the following features: (a) normal
fault, (b) reverse fault, (c) thrust fault, (d) horsts and grabens, (e) half grabens.
3. Draw cross sections of an anticline and a syncline and label the fold hinge, fold limbs,
fold axis, and the axial plane of each.
4. What is the difference between a flexural fold and a flow fold?
5. Is it possible for faults to cause folds or folds to cause faults? Explain.
6. In which settings are mountains formed and what kind of mountains are formed in each?
7. What processes are involved in exhumation and what is the final result of exhumation?
8. Explain how crustal thickness varies on the Earth and how we know this?
9. Why is metamorphic foliation often parallel to the axial planes of folds?
10. For each of the following types of mountain ranges give some examples: (a) fold-thrust,
(b) block-fault, (c) volcanic
Geologic Time Page 1 of 16
Geologic Time
From the beginning of this course, we have stated that the Earth is about 4.6 billion years old.
How do we know this and how do we know the ages of other events in Earth history?
Prior to the late 17th century, geologic time was thought to be the same as historical time.
Archbishop James Ussher of Armagh, Ireland, 1654, added up generations from the Old
Testament and determined that Earth formed on October 23, 4004 BCE.
The goal of this lecture is come to come to a scientific understanding of geologic time and the
age of the Earth. In order to do so we will have to understand the following:
1. The difference between relative age and numeric age.

2. The principles that allow us to determine relative age (the principles of stratigraphy).
3. How we can use fossils and rocks to understand Earth History.
4. How rock units are named and correlated from one locality to another.
5. How the Geologic Column was developed so that relative age could be systematically
described.
6. How we can determine the numeric age of the Earth and events in Earth History.
In order to understand how scientists deal with time we first need to understand the concepts of
relative age and numeric age.
z Relative age - Relative means that we can determine if something is younger than or
older than something else. Relative age does not tell how old something is; all we know
is the sequence of events. For example: The a volcano is younger than the rocks that
occur underneath it.
z Numeric age- Numeric age means that we can more precisely assign a number (in years,
minutes, seconds, or some other units of time) to the amount of time that has passed.
Thus we can say how old something is. For Example this metamorphic rock is 3.96
billion years old.
To better understand these concepts, let's look at an archeological example: Imagine we are a
group of archeologists studying two different trash pits recently discovered on the Tulane
University campus and at the Audubon Zoo (where they all aksed for you). By carefully
digging, we have found that each trash pit shows a sequence of layers. Although the types of
trash in each pit is quite variable, each layer has a distinctive kind of trash that distinguishes it
from other layers in the pits.
http://www.tulane.edu/~sanelson/eens1110/geotime.htm 2/16/2012
What can we say and learn from these excavations?
z Relative age of trash layers - Because of the shape of the pits the oldest layers of trash
occur below younger layers i.e. the inhabitants of the area likely deposited the trash by
throwing it in from the top, eventually filling the pits. Thus the relative age of the trash
layers is, in order from youngest to oldest.:
{ 5.25" Disk Layer - Youngest

{ Al Cans Layer
{ Tin Cans Layer
{ Ceramic Cups Layer
{ Stone Tools Layer - Oldest
Notice that at this point we do not know exactly how old any layer really is. Thus
we do not know the numeric age of any given layer.
z The civilizations that deposited the trash had a culture and industrial capabilities that
evolved through time. The oldest inhabitants used primitive stone tools, later inhabitants
used cups made of ceramics, even later inhabitants eventually used tin cans and then
changed to Aluminum cans, and then they developed a technology that used computers.
This shows that society has evolved over the years.
z Similar cultures must have existed in both areas and lived at the same time. Thus we can
make correlations between the layers found at the different sites by reasoning that layers
containing similar distinctive discarded items (artifacts) were deposited during the same
time period.
z Because the Ceramic Cups layer is found at the Tulane site, but not at the Zoo site, the
civilization that produced the Ceramic cups probably did not live in the Zoo area. Thus,
we can recognize a break in the depositional sequence at the Zoo site. The surface
marking the break in deposition would be called an unconformity in geologic terms, and
represents time missing from the depositional record.
z The trash pits contain some clues to numeric age:
{ The Tulane trash pit has an old license plate in the Tin Cans layer. This plate
shows a date of 1950, thus the Tin Cans layer is about 61 years old.
{ The Zoo trash pit has a Bacchus Doubloon in the Al Cans layer. The date on the
doubloon is 1980. Thus the Al Cans layer is about 31 years old.
In geology, we use similar principles to determine relative ages, correlations, and numeric ages.
z Relative ages - Principles of Stratigraphy
z Correlations - Fossils, key beds, lithologic similarity
z Numeric ages - Radiometric dating.
Principles of Stratigraphy
Stratigraphy is the study of strata (sedimentary layers) in the Earth's crust. Geologist in the
1800s worked out 7 basic principles of stratigraphy that allowed them, and now us, to work out
the relative ages of rocks. Once these age relations were worked out, another principle fell into
place - the principle of fossil succession. We discuss the 7 principles of stratigraphy first and
then see how these apply to fossils.
Principle of Uniformitarianism
The principle of Uniformitarianism was postulated by James Hutton (1726-1797) who
examined rocks in Scotland and noted that features like mudcracks, ripple marks, graded
bedding, etc. where the same features that could be seen forming in modern environments. He
concluded that process that are currently operating on the Earth must be the same processes that
operated in the past. This principle is often stated as "the present is the key to the past". A
more modern way of stating the same principle is that the laws of nature (as outlined by the
laws of chemistry and physics) have operated in the same way since the beginning of time, and
thus if we understand the physical and chemical principles by which nature operates, we can
assume that nature operated the same way in the past.
Principle of Superposition
Because of Earth's gravity, deposition of sediment will occur depositing older layers first
followed by successively younger layers. Thus, in a sequence of layers that have not been
overturned by a later deformational event, the oldest layer will be on the bottom and the
youngest layer on top. This is the same principle used to determine relative age in the trash pits
discussed previously. In fact, sedimentary rocks are, in a sense, trash from the Earth's surface
deposited in basins.
Principle of Original Horizontality

Sedimentary strata are deposited in layers that are horizontal or nearly horizontal, parallel to or
nearly parallel to the Earth's surface. Sediment deposited on steep slopes will be washed away
before it is buried and lithified to become sedimentary rock, but sediment deposited in nearly
horizontal layers can be buried and lithified. Thus rocks that we now see inclined or folded
have been disturbed since their original deposition.
Principle of Original Continuity

If layers are deposited horizontally over the sea floor, then they would be expected to be
laterally continuous over some distance. Thus, if the strata are later uplifted and then cut by a
canyon, we know that the same strata would be expected to occur on both sides of the canyon.
Look at the many photographs of the Grand Canyon in your textbook. Note that you can
follow the layers all along the walls of the canyon, and you can find the same layers on both
sides of the canyon. The Grand Canyon is particularly good for this because different
sedimentary rocks have different colors.
Principle of Cross-cutting Relations
Younger features truncate (cut across) older features. Faults, dikes, erosion, etc., must be
younger than the material that is faulted, intruded, or eroded.
For example, the mudstone, sandstone and

shale are cut by the basalt dike, so we
know that the mudstone, sandstone, and
shale had to be present before the intrusion
of the basalt dike. Thus, we know that the
dike is younger than the mudstone,
sandstone, and shale.
Similarly, the rhyolite dike cuts only the mudstone and the sandstone, but does not cut across
the shale. Thus, we can deduce that the mudstone and shale are older than the rhyolite dike.
But, since the rhyolite dike does not cut across the shale, we know the shale is younger than the
rhyolite dike.
In the diagram to the right,the fault cuts the
limestone and the sandstone, but does not
cut the basalt. Thus we know that the fault
is younger than the limestone and shale,
but older than the basalt above.
Principle of Inclusions
If we find a rock fragment enclosed within another rock, we say the fragment is an inclusion. If
the enclosing rock is an igneous rock, the inclusions are called xenoliths. In either case, the
inclusions had to be present before they could be included in the younger rock, therefore, the
inclusions represent fragments of an older rock.
In the example here, as the

basalt flowed out on the
surface it picked up inclusions
of the underlying sandstone.
So we know the sandstone is
older than the basalt flow.
Similarly, the overlying rhyolite flow contains inclusions of the basalt, so we know that the
basalt is older than the rhyolite.
This principle is often useful
for distinguishing between a
lava flow and a sill. (Recall
that a sill is intruded between
existing layers). In the case
shown here, we know that the
basalt is a sill because it
contains inclusions of both the
underlying rhyolite and the
overlying sandstone.
.
This also tells us that the sill is younger than the both the rhyolite and the sandstone.
Principle of Chilled or Baked Margins
When a hot magma intrudes into cold country rock, the magma along the margins of the
intrusion will cool more rapidly than the interior.
Rapid cooling of magma results in fine
grained rock or glassy rock and if this
occurs along the margins of the
intrusion, we will see the effects of rapid
cooling along the margins. Since
slower cooling will occur farther away
from the margin the rock farther away
will be coarser grained. Thus, if we see
chilled margins, we know that the
intrusions must be younger that
surrounding rock because the
surrounding rock had to have been there
first in order to cause the cooling effect.
When magma comes in

contact with soil or cold
rock, it may cause the soil
or rock to heat up
resulting in a baked zone
in the surrounding rock
near the contacts with the
igneous rock. Such
margins indicate that the
igneous rock is younger
that the soil or rock that
was baked.
Application of the Principles of Stratigraphy

Figure 12.5 in your textbook shows a cross section of an imaginary sequence of rocks and
shows how the geologic history of this sequence of rocks can be worked out by applying the
principles of stratigraphy. Although we will go over this in lecture, you should study the
methods and reasoning used so that you could determine the geologic history of any sequence
of rocks.
Fossil Succession
Once geologists had worked the relative ages of rocks throughout the world, it became clear
that fossils that were contained in the rock could also be used to determine relative age. It was
soon recognized that some fossils of once living organisms only occurred in very old rocks and
others only occurred in younger rocks. Furthermore, some fossils were only found within a
limited range of strata and these fossils, because they were so characteristic of relative age were
termed index fossils. With this new information, in combination with the other principles of
stratigraphy, geologists we able to recognize how life had changed or evolved throughout Earth
history. This recognition led them to the principle of fossil succession, which basically says
that there is a succession of fossils that relate to the age of the rock.
Unconformities - Breaks in the Stratigraphic Record
Because the Earth's crust is continually changing, i.e. due to uplift, subsidence, and
deformation, erosion is acting in some places and deposition of sediment is occurring in other
places. When sediment is not being deposited, or when erosion is removing previously
deposited sediment, there will not be a continuous record of sedimentation preserved in the
rocks. We call such a break in the stratigraphic record a hiatus (a hiatus was identified in our
trash pit example by the non-occurrence of the Ceramic Cups layer at the Zoo site). When we
find evidence of a hiatus in the stratigraphic record we call it an unconformity. An
unconformity is a surface of erosion or non-deposition. Three types of unconformities are
recognized.
Angular Unconformity
Because of the Principles of Stratigraphy, if we see a cross section like this in a road cut or
canyon wall where we can recognize an angular unconformity, then we know the geologic
sequence of events that must have occurred in the area to produce the angular unconformity.
Angular unconformities are easy to recognize in the field because of the angular relationship of
layers that were originally deposited horizontally.
Nonconformity
Nonconformities occur where rocks that formed deep in the Earth, such as intrusive igneous
rocks or metamorphic rocks, are overlain by sedimentary rocks formed at the Earth's surface.
The nonconformity can only occur if all of the rocks overlying the metamorphic or intrusive
igneous rocks have been removed by erosion.
Disconformity
Disconformities are much harder to recognize in the field, because often there is no angular
relationship between sets of layers. Disconformity are usually recognized by correlating from
one area to another and finding that some strata is missing in one of the areas. The
unconformity recognized in the Zoo trash pit is a disconformity.
Disconformities can also be recognized if features that indicate a pause in deposition, like
paleosols (ancient soil horizons), or erosion, like stream channels are present.
Variation in Unconformities
The nature of an unconformity can change with distance. Notice how if we are only examining
a small area in the figure above, we would determine a different type of unconformity at each
location, yet the unconformity itself was caused by the same erosional event.
Stratigraphic Formations and Their Correlation
A Formation is a a rock or group of rocks that differ from rocks that occur above or below and
have distinctive characteristics and fossils such that the rocks can be recognized over wide
areas. Formations are given a formal name, normally a geographic locality. If it is a group of
rocks, for example, interbedded sandstones and shales, then it might be called something like
the Toroweap Formation. If it is a single rock type, then only the rock name is specified in the
formation name, for example the Kaibab Limestone. If several formations can be grouped
together as a distinctive set of formations, this called a Group. For example the Supai Group.
Geologist often make a graphic to display stratigraphic information in an understandable way.

Such a graphic, as shown above is a called a stratigraphic column. The column shows the
relative thicknesses of each Formation or Group, the Formation Name, and gives an
approximate idea of whether the rocks are hard- cliff forming units or softer more easily
erodable units.
People often say that rocks exposed in the Grand Canyon offer a complete record of geologic
history, however this is incorrect. Note that there are several unconformities in the Grand
Canyon Stratigraphic Column that represent gaps in the record. For example the
Nonconformity near the bottom represent a gap of about 1.5 to 2 billion years. Nowhere on
Earth is there a complete section that shows strata deposited over the entire history of the
Earth. In the past, some areas were above sea level and being eroded and other areas were
below sea level where deposition was occurring. Thus, in order to develop a complete record,
correlations must be undertaken in order to see how everything fits together.
Stratigraphic Correlation
In order for rock units to be correlated over wide areas, they must be determined to be
equivalent. Determination of equivalence is based first on lithologic similarity. If the rock
units have the same type of rocks and look similar then they may correlate. Sometime very
distinctive rocks that don't change over large distances can be identified. These are referred to
as key beds. Relative age must also be taken into account. If rocks are equivalent they must
have the same relative age relationships to surrounding rocks in all areas. Finally, fossils,
since they are key indicators of relative age as well as depositional environment, can be used to
determine equivalence.
The Geologic Column
Over the past 150 years detailed studies of rocks throughout the world based on stratigraphic
correlation have allowed geologists to correlate rock units and break them into time units. The
result is the geologic column (on next page), which breaks relative geologic time into units of
known relative age.
Note that the geologic column was established and fairly well known before geologists had a
means of determining numeric ages. Thus, in the geologic column shown below, the numeric
ages in the far right-hand column were not known until recently.
Large divisions are Eons - Oldest to Youngest are
z Hadean (very few rocks of this age are known, thus they are deeply buried if still present
at all.
z Archean (Ancient Rocks)
z Proterozoic (Proto means early, zoic is life - so this means early life)
These three units above are often referred to as the Precambrian.
z Phanerozoic (means visible life)
The Eons are divided into Eras (only Phanerozoic Eras are shown in the chart). These include,
from oldest to youngest:
z Paleozoic (means ancient life)

z Mesozoic (means middle life, also called the age of dinosaurs)
z Cenozoic (means recent life, also called the age of mammals).
The Eras are divided into Periods. The Periods are often named after specific localities.
The Paleozoic Era has the following Periods:
z Cambrian
z Ordovician (first vertebrate organisms - fish)
z Silurian (first land plants)
z Devonian (first amphibians)

z Carboniferous (in the U.S. this is further divided into:
Mississippian and Pennsylvanian (first reptiles)
z Permian
The Mesozoic Era has the following Periods:
z Triassic (first dinosaurs)

z Jurassic
z Cretaceous (first mammals. ended with extinction of dinosaurs).
The Cenozoic Era has the following Periods:
z Tertiary
z Quaternary
Further subdivisions of Periods are called Epochs. Only Epochs of the Cenozoic Era are shown
in the Chart.
Note that for this course, you need to know the Eons, Eras, and Periods in age order. You will
not be asked about the Epochs (at least for now). Also, you will not be asked to give the
numeric ages for the above (at least for now).
Numeric Ages
Although geologists can easily establish relative ages of rocks based on the principles of
stratigraphy, knowing how much time a geologic Eon, Era, Period, or Epoch represents is a
more difficult problem without having knowledge of numeric ages of rocks. In the early years
of geology, many attempts were made to establish some measure of numeric time.
z Age of Earth was estimated on the basis of how long it would take the oceans to obtain
their present salt content. This assumes that we know the rate at which the salts (Na, Cl,
Ca, and CO3 ions) are input into the oceans by rivers, and assumes that we know the rate
at which these salts are removed by chemical precipitation. Calculations in 1889 gave
estimate for the age of the Earth of 90 million years.
z Age of Earth was estimated from time required to cool from an initially molten state.
Assumptions included, the initial temperature of the Earth when it formed, the present
temperature throughout the interior of the Earth, and that there are no internal sources of
heat. Calculations gave estimate of 100 million years for the age of the Earth.
In 1896 radioactivity was discovered, and it was soon learned that radioactive decay occurs at a
constant rate throughout time. With this discovery, Radiometric dating techniques became
possible, and gave us a means of measuring numeric age.
Radiometric Dating
Radiometric dating relies on the fact that there are different types of isotopes.
z Radioactive Isotopes - isotopes (parent isotopes) that spontaneously decay at a constant
rate to another isotope.

z Radiogenic Isotopes - isotopes that are formed by radioactive decay (daughter isotopes).
The rate at which

radioactive isotopes
decay is often stated as
the half-life of the
isotope (t1/2). The half-
life is the amount of
time it takes for one half
of the initial amount of
the parent, radioactive
isotope, to decay to the
daughter isotope. Thus,
if we start out with 1
gram of the parent
isotope, after the
passage of 1 half-life
there will be 0.5 gram
of the parent isotope
left.
After the passage of two half-lives only 0.25 gram will remain, and after 3 half lives only 0.125
will remain etc.
Some examples of isotope systems used to date geologic materials. Note that with the
exception of 14C, all techniques can only be used to date igneous rocks. Some elements occur
in such small concentration or have such long half lives, that they cannot be used to date young
rocks, so any given isotope system can only be used if the material available is suitable for that
method.
Parent Daughter t1/2 Useful Range Type of Material
238U 206Pb
4.5 b.y
235U 207Pb >10 million years

710 m.y
232Th 208 Igneous Rocks and Minerals
Pb 14 b.y
40 40Ar & 40Ca
K 1.3 b.y >10,000 years
87Rb 87
Sr 47 b.y >10 million years
14C 14
N 5,730 y 100 - 70,000 years Organic Material
Example: Potassium - Argon (K-Ar) Dating
In nature there are three isotopes of potassium:
{
39K - non-radioactive (stable)
40
{ K - radioactive with a half life of 1.3 billion years, 40K decays to 40Ar and 40Ca,
only the K-Ar branch is used in dating.
{
41K - non-radioactive (stable)
z K is an element that goes into many minerals, like feldspars and biotite. Ar, which is a
noble gas, does not go into minerals when they first crystallize from a magma because Ar
does not bond with any other atom.
z When a K-bearing mineral crystallizes from a magma it will contain K, but will not
contain Ar. With passage of time, the 40K decays to 40Ar, but the 40Ar is now trapped in
the crystal structure where the 40K once was.
z Thus, by measuring the amount of 40K and 40Ar now present in the mineral, we can
determine how many half lives have passed since the igneous rock crystallized, and thus
know the absolute age of the rock.
Example - Radiocarbon (14C) Dating

Radiocarbon dating is different than the other methods of dating because it cannot be used to
directly date rocks, but can only be used to date organic material produced by once living
organisms.
14C is continually being produced in the Earth's upper atmosphere by bombardment of 14N by cosmic
z
14 14
rays. Thus the ratio of C to N in the Earth's atmosphere is constant.
z Living organisms continually exchange Carbon and Nitrogen with the atmosphere by breathing, feeding,
and photosynthesis. Thus, so long as the organism is alive, it will have the same ratio of 14C to 14N as the
atmosphere.
z When an organism dies, the 14C decays back to 14N, with a half-life of 5,730 years. Measuring the
amount of 14C in this dead material thus enables the determination of the time elapsed since the organism
died.
z Radiocarbon dates are obtained from such things as bones, teeth, charcoal, fossilized wood, and shells.
z Because of the short half-life of 14C, it is only used to date materials younger than about 70,000 years.
Other Numeric Age Methods
There are other means by which we can determine numeric age, although most of these methods are not capable of
dating very old materials. Among the methods are:
z Tree Ring Dating- based on annual growth rings produced by trees.
z Fission Track Dating - based on counting scars left by nuclear decay products in minerals
z The Magnetic time scale, based on reversals of the Earth's magnetic field.
Absolute Dating and the Geologic Column
Using the methods of absolute dating, and cross-cutting relationships of igneous rocks,
geologists have been able to establish the numeric ages for the geologic column. For example,
imagine some cross section such as that shown below.
From the cross-cutting relationships and stratigraphy we can determine that:
{ The Oligocene rocks are younger than the 30 m.y old lava flow and older than the
20 m.y. old lava flow.
{ The Eocene rocks are younger than the 57 m.y. old dike and older than the 36 m.y.
old dike that cuts through them.
{ The Paleocene rocks are older than both the 36 m.y. old dike and the 57 m.y. old
dike (thus the Paleocene is older than 57 m.y.
By examining relationships like these all over the world, numeric age has been
very precisely correlated with the Geologic Column. But, because the geologic
column was established before radiometric dating techniques were available, note
that the lengths of the different Periods and Epochs are variable.
The Age of the Earth
Theoretically we should be able to determine the age of the Earth by finding and dating the
oldest rock that occurs. So far, the oldest rock found and dated has an age of 3.96 billion
years. Individual zircon grains in sandstones have been dated to 4.1 to 4.0 billion years old.
But, is this the age of the Earth? Probably not, because rocks exposed at the Earth's surface are
continually being eroded, and thus, it is unlikely that the oldest rock will ever be found. But,
we do have clues about the age of the Earth from other sources:
z Meteorites - These are pieces of planetary material that fall from outer space to the
surface of the Earth. Most of these meteorites appear to have come from within our solar
system and either represent material that never condensed to form a planet or was once in
a planet that has since disintegrated. The ages of the most primitive meteorites all cluster
around 4.6 billion years.
z Moon Rocks - The only other planetary body in our solar system from which we have
collected samples of are moon rocks (samples of Mars rocks have never been returned to
Earth). The ages obtained on Moon rocks are all within the range between 4.0 and 4.6
billion years. Thus the solar system and the Earth must be at least 4.6 billion years old.
Summary
We have now presented most of the tools necessary to interpret Earth history. These tools
include knowledge of different kinds of rocks and the conditions under which they form and
the laws of stratigraphy. To make sure you have acquired the knowledge necessary to use
these tools, make sure you understand how the interpretations were made in the production of
the artwork on pages 418-419 in your textbook and figure 12.5.
1. Define the following: (a) relative age, (b) numeric age, (c) index fossil, (d) baked zone,
(e) chilled margin, (f) key bed, (g) fission track dating.
2. What are the principles of stratigraphy and what is the importance of these principles?
3. What are the three different kinds of unconformities, and what does each tell us about the
geologic history when we find one?
4. Be able to interpret the geologic history in terms of relative age if you were to be given
any geologic cross section, such as the one shown in figure 12.5 in your textbook.
5. Know the relative ages and names of all of the Geologic Eons, Eras, and Periods in the
Geologic Column. Make sure you understand what the prefixes Protero, Phanero, Paleo,
Meso, and Ceno mean as well as the suffix -zoic.
6. What is the radioactive half-life, and how is it used to determine numeric age?
7. What is the main difference between Radiocarbon age dating and other methods of
radiometric age dating?
Energy Resources Page 1 of 11
Energy Resources
Energy
Energy is the capacity to do work and is required for life processes. An energy resource is
something that can produce heat, power life, move objects, or produce electricity. Matter that
stores energy is called a fuel. Human energy consumption has grown steadily .throughout
human history. Early humans had modest energy requirements, mostly food and fuel for fires to
cook and keep warm. In today's society, humans consume as much as 110 times as much
energy per person as early humans. Most of the energy we use today come from fossil fuels
(stored solar energy). But fossils fuels have a disadvantage in that they are non-renewable on a
human time scale, and cause other potentially harmful effects on the environment. In any
event, the exploitation of all energy sources (with the possible exception of direct solar energy
used for heating), ultimately rely on materials on planet Earth.
Some of the questions we want to answer in this discussion are:
1. What sources of Energy are available?

2. How do the energy sources rely on resources available on Earth?
3. Which energy sources are renewable on a human time scale?
4. Since fossil fuels (oil, natural gas, coal) are our main source of energy, how are they
formed, how do we find them and exploit them?
5. What is the future for our energy needs?
Energy Sources
There are 5 fundamental sources of energy:
1. Nuclear fusion in the Sun (solar energy)

2. Gravity generated by the Earth & Moon.
3. Nuclear fission reactions.
4. Energy in the interior of the Earth.
5. Energy stored in chemical bonds.
Solar Energy
Solar Energy arrives from the Sun by electromagnetic radiation. It can be used directly for heat
and converted to electricity for other uses. It is a nearly unlimited source, it is renewable, and
largely, non-polluting.
Gravity Generated by the Earth & Moon.
Gravitational pull of the Moon on the Earth causes tides. Tidal flow can be harnessed to drive
turbines. This is also a nearly unlimited source of energy and is largely non-polluting.
http://www.tulane.edu/~sanelson/eens1110/energy.htm 2/29/2012
Combining both both solar energy and gravity provides other useful sources of energy. Solar
radiation heats air and evaporates water. Gravity causes cooler air to sink and condense water
vapor. Gravity then pulls condensed water back to Earth, where it flows downhill. The
circulation of the atmosphere by the process is what we call the wind. Energy can be extracted
from the wind using windmills. Water flowing downhill has a result of gravity can also be
harnessed for energy to drive turbines and generate electricity. This is called hydroelectric
energy. This sources of energy are mostly renewable, but only locally, and are generally non-
polluting.
Nuclear Fission Reactions
Radioactive Uranium is concentrated and made into fuel rods that generate large amounts of
heat as a result of radioactive decay. This heat is used to turn water into steam. Expansion of
the steam can then be used to drive a turbine and generate electricity. Once proposed as a
cheap, clean, and safe way to generate energy, Nuclear power has come under some disfavor.
Costs of making sure nuclear power plants are clean and safe and the problem of disposing of
radioactive wastes, which are unsafe, as well as questions about the safety of the plants under
human care, have contributed to this disfavor.
Energy in the Interior of the Earth
Decay of radioactive elements has produced heat throughout Earth history. It is this heat that
causes the temperature to increase with depth in the Earth and is responsible for melting of
mantle rocks to form magmas. Magmas can carry the heat upward into the crust. Groundwater
circulating in the vicinity of igneous intrusions carries the heat back toward the surface. If this
hot water can be tapped, it can be used directly to heat homes, or if trapped at great depth under
pressure it can be turned into steam which will expand and drive a turbine to generate
electricity.
Energy Stored in Chemical Bonds
Energy stored in chemical bonds drives chemical reactions. When the reactions take place this
energy is either released or absorbed. If it is absorbed, it is stored in the chemical bond for later
use. If it is released, it can produce useful heat energy. electricity, and light.
Hydrogen Fuel Cells are one example: A chemical reaction occurs wherein Hydrogen reacts
with Oxygen in an electrolyte bath to produce H2O, and releases electricity and heat. The
reaction is non-polluting, but currently has problems, such as safely storing and distributing
compressed hydrogen gas, and producing hydrogen efficiently.
Biomass Energy is an other example. It involves burning (a chemical reaction) of wood, or

other organic byproducts. Such organic material is produced by photosynthesis, a chemical
process which derives energy from the Sun and stores that energy until the material is burned.
Fossil Fuels - Biomass energy that is buried within the Earth where it is stored until humans
extract and burn it to release the energy. Among these sources are petroleum (Oil & natural
gas), oil shale, tar sands, and coal. All of which will be one of the primary topics of our
discussion here.
Geology and Energy Resources
Exploitation for human use of nearly all of the energy sources listed above, requires geologic
knowledge.
While using direct solar energy to heat water and homes does not require geologic knowledge,
the making of solar cells does, because the material to make such cells requires knowledge of
specific mineral deposits. Chemicals to produce wires (iron, copper, gold), batteries, (Li, Cd,
Ni), and electric motors (Fe, Cu, Rare Earth Elements) all must be extracted from the Earth
using geologic knowledge.
Hydroelectric energy requires geologic knowledge in order to make sure that dams are built in
areas where they will not collapse and harm human populations.
Finding fossil fuels and geothermal energy certainly requires geologic knowledge.
Nuclear energy requires geologists to find deposits of uranium to generate the fuels, geologists
to find sites for nuclear power plants that will not fall apart due to such things as earthquakes,
landslides, floods, or volcanic eruptions, and requires geologists to help determine safe storage
sites for nuclear waste products.
Again, here will concentrate on the fossil fuels.

Fossil Fuels
The origin of fossil fuels, and biomass energy in general, starts with photosynthesis.
Photosynthesis is the most important chemical reaction to us as human beings, because without
it, we could not exist. Photosynthesis is the reaction that combines water and carbon dioxide
from the Earth and its atmosphere with solar energy to form organic molecules that make up
plants and oxygen essential for respiration. Because all life forms depend on plants for
nourishment, either directly or indirectly, photosynthesis is the basis for life on Earth. The
chemical reaction is so important, that everyone should know it (Hint).
Note that if the reaction runs in reverse, it produces energy. Thus when oxygen is added to
organic material, either through decay by reaction with oxygen in the atmosphere, or by adding
oxygen directly by burning, energy is produced, and water and carbon dioxide return to the
Earth or its atmosphere.
Petroleum
To produce a fossil fuel, the organic matter must be rapidly buried in the Earth so that it does
not oxidize (react with oxygen in the atmosphere). Then a series of slow chemical reactions
occur which turn the organic molecules into hydrocarbons- Oil and Natural Gas, together called
Petroleum. Hydrocarbons are complex organic molecules that consist of chains of hydrogen
and carbon.
Petroleum (oil and natural gas) consists of many different such hydrocarbons, but the most
important of these are a group known as the paraffins. Paraffins have the general chemical
formula:
CnH2n+2
As the value of n in the formula increases, the following compounds are produced:
n Formula Compound Use
1 CH4 methane
2 C2H6 ethane
Natural Gas
3 C3H8 propane
4 C4H10 butane
5 C5H12 pentane
6 C6H14 hexane
7 C7H16 heptane Gasoline
8 C8H18 octane
9 C9H20 nonane
>9 various various Lubricating Oils, Plastics

When we extract petroleum containing these compounds and add oxygen to it, either in
furnaces, stoves, or carburetors the following reaction takes place:
Formation of Petroleum
The process of petroleum formation involves several steps:
z Organic matter from organisms must be produced in great abundance.
z This organic matter must be buried rapidly before oxidation takes place.
z Slow chemical reactions transform the organic material into the hydrocarbons found in
petroleum.
The organic matter that eventually becomes petroleum is derived from photosynthetic
microscopic organisms, like plankton and bacteria, originally deposited along with clays in the
oceans. The resulting rocks are usually black shales that form the petroleum source rock.
As the black shale is buried to depths of 2 to 4 km it is heated. This heating breaks the organic
material down into waxy kerogen. Continued heating breaks down the kerogen with different
compounds forming in different temperatures ranges -
Oil and gas 90 to 160C.

Gas only 160 to 250C.
Graphite >250C.
If temperatures get higher than the petroleum forming window (90 to 150 C ) then only
graphite forms, which is not a useful hydrocarbon. Thus oil is not formed during
metamorphism and older rocks that have been heated will also lose their oil forming potential.
Most oil and gas is not found in the source rock. Although black shales (oil shales) are found,
it is difficult to extract the oil from such rock. Nature, however, does separate the oil and
gas. As a result of compaction of the sediments containing the petroleum, the oil and natural
gas are forced out and migrate into a reservoir rock.
Petroleum Reservoirs
Reservoir rock contains pore space between the mineral grains (this is called porosity). It is
within this pore space that fluids are stored. Sands and sandstones are the best reservoir rocks
because of the pore space left around the rounded sand grains. Highly fractured rock of also a
good reservoir rock, because the fractures provide lots of open space. Limestone, if it has often
been partially dissolved, also has high porosity.
Another essential property of reservoir rock is that it must have good permeability.
Permeability is the degree of interconnections between the pores. Low permeability means that
the fluids cannot easily get into or out of the pore spaces. Highly cemented sandstones,
unweatherd limestones, and unfractured rock have low permeability.
Since oil and natural gas have a density lower than that of water, the petroleum migrates
upward. It would continue upward and seep out at the surface where it would oxidize, if it
were not for some kind of trap that keeps it in the Earth until it is extracted.
Oil Traps
An oil or gas reserve requires trapping in the reservoir. A trap is a geological configuration that
holds oil and gas. It must be overlain by impermeable rock called a seal or caprock, which
prevents the petroleum from migrating to the surface. Exploration for petroleum reservoirs
requires geologists to find trap and seal configurations where petroleum may be found.
Oil traps can be divided into those that form as a result of geologic structures like folds and
faults, called structural traps, and those that form as a result of stratigraphic relationships
between rock units, called stratigraphic traps. If petroleum has migrated into a reservoir
formed by one of these traps, note that the petroleum, like groundwater, will occur in the pore
spaces of the rock. Natural gas will occur above the oil, which in turn will overly water in the
pore spaces of the reservoir. This occurs because the density of natural gas is lower than that of
oil, which is lower than that of water.
Structural Traps
z Anticlines - If a permeable
reservoir rocks like a
sandstone or limestone is
sandwiched between
impermeable rock layers
like shales or mudstones,
and the rocks are folded into
an anticline, petroleum can
migrate upward in the
permeable reservoir rocks,
and will occur in the hinge
region of the anticline.
Since anticlines in the subsurface can often be found by observing the orientation
of rocks on the surface, anticlinal traps were among the first to be exploited by
petroleum geologists.
Note that synclines will not form an oil trap (Why?).

z Fault Traps
If faulting can juxtapose

permeable and impermeable
rocks so that the permeable
rocks always have
impermeable rocks above
them, then an oil trap can
form. Note that both normal
faults and reverse faults can
form this type of oil trap.
Since faults are often exposed at the Earth's surface, the locations of such traps can
often be found from surface exploration.
z Salt Domes - During the

Jurassic Period, the Gulf
of Mexico was a
restricted basin. This
resulted in high
evaporation rates &
deposition of a thick layer
of salt on the bottom of
the basin. The salt was
eventually covered with
clastic sediments. But salt
has a lower density than
most sediments and is
more ductile than most

sedimentary rocks.
Because of its low density, the salt moved upward through the sedimentary rocks as salt
domes. The intrusion of the salt deforms the sedimentary strata along its margins,
folding it upward to create oil traps. Because some salt domes get close to the surface,
surface sediments overlying the salt dome are often domed upward, making the locations
of the subsurface salt and possible oil traps easy to locate.
Stratigraphic Traps
z Unconformities - An
angular unconformity might
form a suitable oil trap if the
layers above the
unconformity are
impermeable rocks and
permeable rocks layer are
sandwiched between
impermeable layers in the
inclined strata below the
unconformity.
This type of trap is more difficult to locate because the unconformity may not be exposed
at the Earth's surface. Locating possible traps like this usually requires subsurface
exploration techniques, like drilling exploratory wells or using seismic waves to see what
the structure looks like.
z Lens Traps
Layers of sand often form lens like
bodies that pinch out. If the rocks
surrounding these lenses of sand are
impermeable and deformation has
produced inclined strata, oil and
natural gas can migrate into the sand
bodies and will be trapped by the
impermeable rocks.
This kind of trap is also difficult to locate from the surface, and requires subsurface
exploration techniques.
Petroleum Distribution
As we have seen, in order to form a petroleum reserve, the development of 4 features is

necessary :
1. Formation of a source rock.

2. Formation of a migration pathway so that the petroleum can move upwards
3. Filling a suitable reservoir rock with petroleum.
4. Development of an oil trap to prevent the oil from migrating out of the reservoir.
Because these features must develop in the specified order, development of an oil reserve is
geologically rare. As a result, petroleum reserves reserves are geographically limited. The
largest known reserves are currently in the Persian Gulf (see figure 14.10 in your text)..
Although the distribution of petroleum reserves is widespread, the ages of the petroleum and
the reservoirs is somewhat limited. Since older rocks have had more time to erode or
metamorphose, most reservoirs of petroleum occur in younger rocks. Most petroleum is
produced from rocks of Cenozoic age, with less produced from rocks of Mesozoic and
Paleozoic age.
Petroleum Exploration and Production
The first petroleum reservoirs exploited by humans were found as a result of seeps on the
surface. The 1st oil well was drilled in Titusville, PA., in 1859. Oil wells eased petroleum
recovery and initiated an oil boom, and within years, 1,000s of oil wells had been drilled. It
was soon realized that a systematic approach to oil exploration was essential to prevent drilling
dry holes.
First step is to make geologic maps of sedimentary rocks and structures. Based on surface
mapping and drill holes, geologic cross sections are made and such cross-sections often reveal
structures and potential reservoir rocks that could then be drilled.
Geophysical techniques were soon developed in order to see beneath the surface and find
reservoirs that could not be detected from the surface. The most useful technique is seismic
reflection profiling which can be done on both land in at sea. This technique involves
generating seismic waves from either small explosions on land or air guns in the water. The
seismic waves reflect back to surface from different rock interfaces below the surface and these
reflected waves are then detected by receivers called geophones. By moving the source and
the receivers along the surface, and tracing the pulse of each seismic wave, a cross section can
be constructed that reveals potential reservoir rocks. These sections are correlated with drill
holes where the geology is known, to produce a detailed picture of the subsurface. (see figure
14.8 in your text).
Once potential reservoir rocks are located, drilling from the surface attempts to tap into the
reservoirs. A diamond rotary bit pulverizes rock to drill the hole. High-density drilling mud is
then pumped in to cool the drill bit and lift the rock cuttings. The heavy mud also helps to
prevent blowouts.As the bit advances, the open borehole deepens. Drill pipe is added by a drill
derrick, a tower that stands above the surface. Some derricks are mounted on offshore
platforms and many of these platforms can drill many holes in many directions.
When a petroleum reservoir is encountered, drilling ceases and steel casing is inserted to line
the hole and prevent collapse. After the casing has been emplaced, the well is pumped to
recover the oil and gas.
Primary recovery uses the reservoir pressure and pumping to extract the oil, but his is usually
inefficient; and enables recovery of only about 30% of the oil. Secondary recovery methods are
then used to extract as much of the rest as possible. Secondary recover involves pumping in
fluids, like steam or CO2 to help push the oil out. Sometimes hydrofracturing using high
pressure or explosives, can be used to artificially increase permeability and allow for more
efficient extraction.
Oil Shale and Tar Sands
z Oil shale is shale that contains abundant organic matter that has not decomposed
completely to produce petroleum. Oil can be extracted from oil shales, but they must be
heated to high enough temperatures to drive the oil out. Since this process requires a lot
of energy, exploitation of oil shales is not currently cost-effective, but may become so as
other sources of petroleum become depleted. Known deposits of oil shale are extensive.
z Tar Sands are sandstones that have thick accumulations of viscous oil in their pore
spaces. Extraction of this oil also requires heating the rock and is therefore energy
intensive and not currently cost effective.
Coal
Coal is a sedimentary/metamorphic rock produced in swamps where there is a large-scale

accumulation of organic matter from plants. As the plants die they accumulate to first become
peat. Compaction of the peat due to burial drives off volatile components like water and
methane, eventually producing a black- colored organic- rich coal called lignite. Further
compaction and heating results in a more carbon- rich coal called bituminous coal. If the rock
becomes metamorphosed, a high grade coal called anthracite is produced. However, if
temperatures and pressures become extremely high, all of the carbon is converted to graphite.
Graphite will burn only at high temperatures and is therefore not useful as an energy source.
Anthracite coal produces the most energy when burned, with less energy produced by
bituminous coal and lignite.
Coal is found in beds called seams, usually ranging in thickness from 0.5 to 3m, although some
seams reach 30 m. The major coal producing period in geologic history was during the
Carboniferous and Permian Periods, the continents were apparently located near the equator
and covered by shallow seas. This type of environment favored the growth of vegetation and
rapid burial to produce coal.
Known reserves of coal far exceed those of other fossil fuels, and may be our best bet for an
energy source of the future. Still, burning of the lower grades of coal, like lignite and
bituminous coal produces large amounts of waste products, like SO2 and soot, that pollute the
atmosphere. This problem needs to be overcome before we can further exploit this source of
energy.
Mining of coal is still a problem from an aesthetic point of view. Seams near the surface are
often strip mined and backfilled, leaving temporary scars on the landscape. Deep coal seams
have to be mined through tunnels, which often collapse, catch fire, or explode as a result of
ignition of coal dust or methane released from the coal. Coal miners often suffer from black-
lung disease from years of breathing coal dust.
Energy for the Future
Currently, society relies mostly on fossil fuels for energy (39% natural gas, 24% natural gas,
23% Coal, 8 % nuclear, and 6% other). Since fossil fuels are non-renewable sources of energy,
at least in human lifetimes), we need to ask how much longer society can rely on this source.
Further, what are the options for the future?
Non-Renewable Resources
First we look at the reserves of various non-renewable energy resources. Look at figure 14.19c
in your text. Note that Uranium (for nuclear energy) and Coal appear to be most plentiful,
while Tar sands and oil shale are currently not economical. The current known oil reserves
will likely run out sometime between 2050 and 2150.
Currently we are consuming oil at a rate 3 times that of the discovery of new resources. Even
in terms of 4,000 years of human history, the oil age will be very short lasting only 150 to 200
years.
Coal reserves could last for about 300 years if we can cope with the associated
pollution. Natural Gas is cleaner and can probably last for another 200 years. Nuclear seems
like a good bet in terms of available resources, but can it be made cheap, clean, and safe? Will
the recent problems with nuclear reactors during the March 11, 2011 earthquake have an effect
on the future of nuclear energy?
Tar Sands and Oil Shale will require research to find more efficient way to extract, the
resource, but will likely be necessary to replace oil in the short term.
Renewable Resources
Wind power is limited to areas with high consistent winds, and so is limited to very specific
areas. The wind mills are not aesthetically pleasing to look at at, make a lot of noise and kill
large numbers of birds, all problems that would need to be overcome to expand this resource.
As for hydroelectric resources, they will not likely increase, since most rivers are already
dammed and there are few places left where new hydroelectric facilities could be built.
Geothermal energy is limited to areas of known thermal activity (mainly recently active
volcanic areas). It is a great local resource, but will never play a major role as an energy
resource.
Solar energy is a huge source, but requires other resources (Li, Rare Earth Elements) to
exploit. Many of these problems might be overcome with new research and the development
of new technologies.
Hydrogen Fuel Cells are another promising resources with plenty of supply, but needs further
research and technological development.
Future energy resources have huge environmental, political and economic implications that
could change the world order. Still, the geologic aspects of energy resources will play a large
role.
1. What are the five sources of energy available to us? Give some examples of each
source?
2. Even though the fossil fuels are considered an energy source based on energy stored in
chemical bonds, in reality, where did that energy originate?
3. Which energy sources are considered renewable on a human time scale?
4. What is photosynthesis and why is it important?
5. Name and describe 5 types of oil traps.
6. Why is petroleum mainly produced out of rocks with relatively young geologic ages?
7. What are the problems associated with the recovery of energy from oil shales, tar sands,
and coal?
8. What are the different grades of coal? Which of these grades produce the most and least
amount of energy when burned?
9. If we run out of oil, what energy sources hold the most promise for the future of our
society?
Mineral Resources Page 1 of 7
Mineral Resources
This page last updated on 20-Mar-2012
Mineral Resources
Almost all Earth materials are used by humans for something. We require metals for making
machines, sands and gravels for making roads and buildings, sand for making computer chips,
limestone and gypsum for making concrete, clays for making ceramics, gold, silver, copper and
aluminum for making electric circuits, and diamonds and corundum (sapphire, ruby, emerald)
for abrasives and jewelry.
In this discussion, we hope to answer the following questions:
1. What constitutes a mineral resource and an ore?
2. What determines whether or not a mineral sources is economical to exploit?
3. By what processes do ores form?
4. How are mineral resources found and exploited?
5. What happens when a mineral resource become scarce as a result of human

consumption?
6. What are the adverse effects of exploiting mineral resource.
Mineral resources can be divided into two major categories - Metallic and Nonmetallic.
Metallic resources are things like Gold, Silver, Tin, Copper, Lead, Zinc, Iron, Nickel,
Chromium, and Aluminum. Nonmetallic resources are things like sand, gravel, gypsum, halite,
Uranium, dimension stone.
A mineral resource is a volume of rock enriched in one or more useful materials. In this sense
a mineral refers to a useful material, a definition that is different from the way we defined a
mineral back in Chapter 5. Here the word mineral can be any substance that comes from the
Earth.
Finding and exploiting mineral resources requires the application of the principles of geology
that you we have discussed or will discuss throughout this course. Some minerals are used as
they are found in the ground, i.e. they require no further processing or very little processing.
For example - gemstones, sand, gravel, and salt (halite). Most minerals must be processed
before they are used. For example:
z Iron is the found in abundance in minerals, but the process of extracting iron from
http://www.tulane.edu/~sanelson/eens1110/minresources.htm 3/20/2012
different minerals varies in cost depending on the mineral. It is least costly to extract the
iron from oxide minerals like hematite (Fe2O3), magnetite (Fe3O4), or limonite [Fe
(OH)]. Although iron also occurs in olivines, pyroxenes, amphiboles, and biotite, the
concentration of iron in these minerals is less, and cost of extraction is increased because
strong bonds between iron, silicon, and oxygen must be broken.
z Aluminum is the third most abundant mineral in the Earth's crust. It occurs in the most
common minerals of the crust - the feldspars (NaAlSi3O8, KalSi3O8, & CaAl2Si2O8, but
the cost of extracting the Aluminum from these minerals is high. Thus, deposits
containing the mineral gibbsite [Al(OH)3], are usually sought. This explains why
recycling of Aluminum cans is cost effective, since the Aluminum in the cans does not
have to be separated from oxygen or silicon.
Because such things as extraction costs, labor costs, and energy costs vary with time and from
country to country, what constitutes an economically viable deposit of minerals varies
considerably in time and place. In general, the higher the concentration of the substance, the
more economical it is to mine. Thus we define an ore as a body of material from which one or
more valuable substances can be extracted economically. An ore deposit will consist of ore
minerals, that contain the valuable substance. Gangue minerals are minerals that occur in the
deposit but do not contain the valuable substance.
Since economics is what controls the grade or concentration of the substance in a deposit that
makes the deposit profitable to mine, different substances require different concentrations to be
profitable. But, the concentration that can be economically mined changes due to economic
conditions such as demand for the substance and the cost of extraction.
Examples:
z The copper concentration in copper ore deposits has shown changes throughout history.
From 1880 to about 1960 the grade of copper ore showed a steady decrease from about
3% to less than 1%, mainly due to increased efficiency of mining. From about 1960 to
1980 the grade increased to over 1% due to increasing costs of energy and an abundant
supply produced by cheaper labor in other countries.
z Gold prices vary on a daily basis. When gold prices are high, old abandoned mines re-
open, when the price drops, gold mines close. The cost of labor is currently so high in the
U.S. that few gold mines can operate profitably, but in third world countries where labor
costs are lower, gold mines that have ore concentrations well below those found in the
U.S. can operate with a profit.
For every substance we can determine the concentration necessary in a mineral deposit for
profitable mining. By dividing this economical concentration by the average crustal abundance
for that substance, we can determine a value called the concentration factor. The table below
lists average crustal abundances and concentration factors for some of the important materials
that are commonly sought. For example, Al, which has an average crustal abundance of 8%,
has a concentration factor of 3 to 4. This means that an economic deposit of Aluminum must
contain between 3 and 4 times the average crustal abundance, that is between 24 and 32%
Aluminum, to be economical.
Substance Average Crustal Abundance Concentration Factor
Al (Aluminum) 8.0% 3 to 4
Fe (Iron) 5.8% 6 to7
Ti (Titanium) 0.86% 25 to 100
Cr (Chromium) 0.0096% 4,000 to 5,000
Zn (Zinc) 0.0082% 300
Cu (Copper) 0.0058% 100 to 200
Ag (Silver) 0.000008% ~1000
Pt (Platinum) 0.0000005% 600
Au (Gold) 0.0000002% 4,000 to 5,000
U (Uranium) 0.00016% 500 to 1000

Note that we will not likely ever run out of a useful substance, since we can always find
deposits of any substance that have lower concentrations than are currently economical. If the
supply of currently economical deposits is reduced, the price will increase and the
concentration factor will increase.
Origin of Mineral Resources
Mineral deposits can be classified on the basis of the mechanism responsible for concentrating
the valuable substance.
z Magmatic Ore Deposits - substances are concentrated within a body of igneous rock by
magmatic processes like crystal fractionation and crystal settling.
Magmatic process such as partial melting, crystal fractionation, or crystal settling in a

magma chamber can concentrate ore minerals containing valuable substances by taking
elements that were once widely dispersed in low concentrations in the magma and
concentrating them in minerals that separate from the magma.
Examples:
{ Pegmatites - During fractional crystallization water and elements that do not enter
the minerals separated from the magma by crystallization will end up as the last
residue of the original magma. This residue is rich in silica and water along with
elements like the Rare Earth Elements (many of which are important for making
phosphors in color television picture tubes), Lithium, Tantalum, Niobium, Boron,
Beryllium, Gold, and Uranium. This residue is often injected into fractures
surrounding the igneous intrusion and crystallizes as a rock called a pegmatite that
characteristically consists of large crystals.
{ Crystal Settling. As minerals crystallize from a magma body, heavy minerals may
sink to the bottom of the magma chamber. Such heavy minerals as chromite,
olivine, and ilmenite contain high concentrations of Chromium, Titanium,
Platinum, Nickel, and Iron. These elements thus attain higher concentrations in the
layers that form on the bottom of the magma chamber.
z Hydrothermal Ore Deposits - Concentration by hot aqueous (water-rich) fluids flowing
through fractures and pore spaces in rocks.
Hydrothermal deposits are produced when groundwater circulates to depth and heats up
either by coming near a hot igneous body at depth or by circulating to great depth along
the geothermal gradient. Such hot water can dissolve valuable substances throughout a
large volume of rock. As the hot water moves into cooler areas of the crust, the dissolved
substances are precipitated from the hot water solution. If the cooling takes place rapidly,
such as might occur in open fractures or upon reaching a body of cool surface water, then
precipitation will take place over a limited area, resulting in a concentration of the
substance attaining a higher value than was originally present in the rocks through which
the water passed.
Examples:
{ Massive sulfide deposits at oceanic spreading centers. Hot fluids circulating above
the magma chambers at oceanic ridges can scavenge elements like Sulfur, Copper,
and Zinc from the rocks through which they pass. As these hot fluids migrate back
toward the seafloor, they come in contact with cold groundwater or sea water and
suddenly precipitate these metals as sulfide minerals like sphalerite (zinc sulfide)
and chalcopyrite (Copper, Iron sulfide).
{ Vein deposits surrounding igneous intrusions. Hot water circulating around
igneous intrusions scavenges metals and silica from both the intrusions and the
surrounding rock. When these fluids are injected into open fractures, they cool
rapidly and precipitate mainly quartz, but also a variety of sulfide minerals, and
sometimes gold, and silver within the veins of quartz. Rich deposits of copper,
zinc, lead, gold, silver, tin, mercury, and molybdenum result.
{ Stratabound ore deposits in lake or oceanic sediments. When hot groundwater
containing valuable metals scavenged along their flow paths enters unconsolidated
sediments on the bottom of a lake or ocean, it may precipitate ore minerals in the
pore spaces between grains in the sediment. Such minerals may contain high
concentrations of lead, zinc, and copper, usually in sulfide minerals like galena
(lead sulfide), sphalerite (zinc sulfide), and chalcopyrite (copper-iron sulfide).
Since they are included within the sedimentary strata they are called stratabound
mineral deposits.
z Sedimentary Ore Deposits - substances are concentrated by chemical precipitation from
lake or sea water.
Although clastic sedimentary processes can form mineral deposits, the term sedimentary
mineral deposit is restricted to chemical sedimentation, where minerals containing
valuable substances are precipitated directly out of water.
Examples:
{ Evaporite Deposits - Evaporation of lake water or sea water results in the loss of
water and thus concentrates dissolved substances in the remaining water. When the
water becomes saturated in such dissolved substance they precipitate from the
water. Deposits of halite (table salt), gypsum (used in plaster and wall board),
borax (used in soap), and sylvite (potassium chloride, from which potassium is
extracted to use in fertilizers) result from this process.
{ Iron Formations - These deposits are of iron rich chert and a number of other iron
bearing minerals that were deposited in basins within continental crust during the
Proterozoic (2 billion years or older). They appear to be evaporite type deposits,
but if so, the composition of sea water must have been drastically different than it
is today.
z Placer Ore Deposits - substances are concentrated by flowing surface waters either in
streams or along coastlines.
The velocity of flowing water determines whether minerals are carried in suspension or
deposited. When the velocity of the water slows, large minerals or minerals with a higher
density are deposited. Heavy minerals like gold, diamond, and magnetite of the same size
as a low density mineral like quartz will be deposited at a higher velocity than the quartz,
thus the heavy minerals will be concentrated in areas where water current velocity is low.
Mineral deposits formed in this way are called placer deposits. They occur in any area
where current velocity is low, such as in point bar deposits, between ripple marks, behind
submerged bars, or in holes on the bottom of a stream. The California gold rush in 1849
began when someone discovered rich placer deposits of gold in streams draining the
Sierra Nevada Mountains. The gold originally formed in hydrothermal veins, but it was
eroded out of the veins and carried in streams where it was deposited in placer deposits.
z Residual Ore Deposits - substances are concentrated by chemical weathering processes.
During chemical weathering and original body of rock is greatly reduced in volume by
the process of leaching, which removes ions from the original rock. Elements that are not
leached form the rock thus occur in higher concentration in the residual rock. The most
important ore of Aluminum, bauxite, forms in tropical climates where high temperatures
and high water throughput during chemical weathering produces highly leached lateritic
soils rich in both iron and aluminum. Most bauxite deposits are relatively young because
they form near the surface of the Earth and are easily removed by erosion acting over
long periods of time.
In addition, an existing mineral deposit can be turned in to a more highly concentrated
mineral deposit by weathering in a process called secondary enrichment.

Mineral Deposits and Plate Tectonics
Because different
types of mineral
deposits form in
different
environments,
plate tectonics
plays a critical role
in the location of
different
geological
environments. The
diagram to the
right shows the
different mineral
deposits that occur
in different
tectonic
environments.
Mineral Exploration and Production
Ores are located by evidence of metal enrichment. Geologists look for hints in rocks exposed
near the surface, for example, the enrichment process often results in discoloration of the soil
and rock. When such hints are found, geophysical survey's involving measuring gravity,
magnetism, or radioactivity are conducted. Geochemical surveys are conducted which analyze
the composition of water, sediment, soil, rocks, and sometimes even plants and trees.
Once it is determined that a valuable material could be present, the deposit is assessed by
conducting core drilling to collect subsurface samples, followed by chemical analysis of the
samples to determine the grade of the ore If the samples show promise of being economic to
mine, then plans are made to determine how it will me mined.
If the ore body is within 100 meters from the surface, open-pit mines, large excavations open to
the air.are used to extract the ore before processing. Open pit mines are less expensive and
less dangerous than tunnel mines, although they do leave large scars on the land surface. If the
ore body is deeper, or narrowly dispersed within the non-ore bearing rock tunneling is
necessary to extract the ore from underground mines. Mine tunnels are linked to a vertical
shaft, called and adit. Ores are removed from the walls of the tunnels by drilling and blasting,
with the excavated ores being hauled to the surface from processing. Underground mines are
both more expensive and dangerous than open pit mines and still leave scares on the landscape
where non-ore bearing rock is discarded as tailings. .
Global Mineral Needs
Because the processes that form ores operate on geologic time scales, the most economic
mineral resources are essentially nonrenewable.New deposits cannot be generated in human
timescales. But, as mentioned previously, as the reserves of materials become depleted it is
possible to find other sources that are more costly to exploit. Furthermore, mineral resources
are not evenly distributed.
Some countries are mineral-rich; some are mineral-poor. This is a particular issue for strategic
mineral resources. These strategic metals are those for which economical source do not exist in
the U.S., must be imported from other potentially non-friendly nations, but are needed for
highly specialized applications such as national security, defense, or aerospace applications.
These metals include, Manganese, Cobalt, Platinum, and Chromium, all of which are
stockpiled by the U.S. government in case supplies are cut off.
How long current mineral resources will last depends on consumption rates and reserve
amounts.
Some mineral resources will run out soon, for example global resources of Pb, Zn, and Au?
will likely run out in about 30 years. U.S. resources of Pt, Ni, Co, Mn, Cr less than 1 year.
Thus, continued use of scarce minerals will require discovery of new sources, increase in price
to make hard-to-obtain sources more profitable, increased efficiency, conservation, or
recycling, substitution of new materials, or doing without.
Environmental Issues
Extraction and processing has large environmental impacts in terms of such things as air
quality, surface water quality, groundwater quality, soils, vegetation, and aesthetics. Acid
mine drainage is one example, Sulfide minerals newly exposed to Oxygen and water near the
surface create sulfuric acid. Rainwater falling on the mine tailings becomes acidified and can
create toxic conditions in the runoff. This can mobilize potentially dangerous heavy metals
and kill organisms in the streams draining the tailings.
1. Define the following: (a) ore, (b) concentration factor, (c) secondary enrichment, (d)
strategic metal, (e) acid mine drainage.
2. Explain how each of the following types of ore deposits form and give examples of each
(a) magmatic ore deposits, (b) hydrothermal ore deposits, (c) sedimentary ore deposits,
(d) residual ore deposits, (e) placer ore deposits.
3. What techniques are used to find ore deposits.
4. Explain why such things seemingly common things such as sand, gravel, limestone, and
gypsum can also be considered mineral resources.
5. What are the adverse effects of the exploitation of mineral resources.
Mass Movements
Mass Movements
This page last updated on 01-Apr-2012
Mass movements (also called mass-wasting) is the down-slope movement of Regolith (loose
uncemented mixture of soil and rock particles that covers the Earth's surface) by the force of
gravity without the aid of a transporting medium such as water, ice, or wind. Still, as we shall
see, water plays a key role.
Mass movements are part of a continuum of erosional processes between weathering and
stream transport. Mass movement causes regolith and rock to move down-slope where sooner
or later the loose particles will be picked up by another transporting agent and eventually
moved to a site of deposition such as an ocean basin or lake bed.
Mass movement processes are occurring continuously on all slopes; some act very slowly,
others occur very suddenly, often with disastrous results.
In this discussion, we hope to answer the following questions:
1. What determines whether or not a slope is stable or unstable?
2. How are the different mass movement processes classified?
3. How are mass movement events triggered?
4. What observations might suggest that the area is unstable and may start to move?
5. How can we mitigate against mass movement hazards?
We start with a discussion of the forces acting at the surface that cause mass movements.
Gravity
Gravity is the main force responsible for mass movements.

Gravity is a force that acts everywhere on the Earth's
surface, pulling everything in a direction toward the
center of the Earth. On a flat surface, parallel to the
Earth's surface, the force of gravity acts downward.
So long as the material remains on the flat surface it
will not move under the force of gravity. Of course if
the material forming the flat surface becomes weak or
fails, then the unsupported support mass will move
downward.
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On a slope, the force of gravity can be resolved into two components: a component acting
perpendicular to the slope, and a component acting parallel to the slope.
z The perpendicular component of gravity, gp, helps to hold the object in place on the
slope.
z The component of gravity acting parallel to the slope, gs, causes a shear stress parallel to
the slope and helps to move the object in the down-slope direction.
z On a steeper slope, the shear stress component of gravity, gs, increases, and the
perpendicular component of gravity, gp, decreases.
z Another force resisting movement down the slope is grouped under the term shear
strength and includes frictional resistance and cohesion among the particles that make up
the object.
z When the sheer stress becomes greater than the combination of forces holding the object
on the slope, the object will move down-slope.
z Thus, down-slope movement is favored by steeper slope angles (increasing the shear
stress) and anything that reduces the shear strength (such as lowering the cohesion
among the particles or lowering the frictional resistance.
z For unconsolidated material, the angle that forms a stable slope is called the angle of
repose.
The Role of Water
Although water is not always directly involved as the transporting medium in mass movement
processes, it does play an important role.
Addition of water from rainfall or snow melt adds weight to the slope. Water can seep into the
soil or rock and replace the air in the pore space or fractures. Since water is heavier than air,
this increases the weight of the soil.
If the material becomes saturated with water, vibrations could cause liquifaction to occur, just
like often happens during earthquakes.
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Water can reduce the friction along a sliding surface.
Water has the ability to change the angle of repose (the slope angle which is the stable angle for
the slope).
Think about building a sand castle on the beach. If the sand is totally dry, it is impossible to
build a pile of sand with a steep face like a castle wall. If the sand is somewhat wet, however,
one can build a vertical wall. If the sand is too wet, then it flows like a fluid and cannot remain
in position as a wall.
z Dry unconsolidated grains will form a pile with a slope angle determined by the angle of
repose. The angle of repose is the steepest angle at which a pile of unconsolidated grains
remains stable, and is controlled by the frictional contact between the grains. In general,
for dry materials the angle of repose increases with increasing grain size, but usually lies
between about 30 and 45 o. Coarser grained and angular particles have a steeper angle of
repose than fine grained and rounded particles.
z Slightly wet unconsolidated materials exhibit a very high angle of repose because surface
tension between the water and the grains tends to hold the grains in place.
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Mass Movements
z When the material becomes saturated with water, the angle of repose is reduced to very
small values and the material tends to flow like a fluid. This is because the water gets
between the grains and eliminates grain to grain frictional contact.
Troublesome Earth Materials
z Expansive and Hydrocompacting Soils - These are soils that contain a high proportion of
a type of clay mineral called smectites or montmorillinites. Such clay minerals expand
when they become wet as water enters the crystal structure and increases the volume of
the mineral. When such clays dry out, the loss of water causes the volume to decrease
and the clays to shrink or compact (This process is referred to as hydrocompaction).
Another material that shows similar swelling and compaction as a result of addition or
removal of water is peat. Peat is organic-rich material accumulated in the bottoms of
swamps as decaying vegetable matter.
z Sensitive Soils - In some soils the clay minerals are arranged in random fashion, with
much pore space between the individual grains. This is often referred to as a "house of
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Mass Movements
cards" structure. Often the grains are held in this position by salts (such as gypsum,
calcite, or halite) precipitated in the pore space that "glue" the particles together.As water
infiltrates into the pore spaces, as discussed above, it can both be absorbed onto the clay
minerals, and can dissolve away the salts holding the "house of cards" together.
Compaction of the soil or shaking of the soil can thus cause a rapid change in the
structure of the material. The clay minerals will then line up with one another and the
open space will be reduced.
But this may cause a loss in shear strength of the soil and result in slippage down slope or
liquefaction.
z Some water saturated clays are stable so long as they arent disturbed, but when shaking
occurs, just like sands, they can turn into a runny fluid. These are referred to as quick
clays.
Weak Materials and Structures
Rocks often contain planar structures that become slippage surfaces if weight is added or
support is removed.
z Bedding Planes - These are basically planar layers of rocks upon which original
deposition occurred. Since they are planar and since they may have a dip down-slope,
they can form surfaces upon which sliding occurs, particularly if water can enter along
the bedding plane to reduce cohesion. In the diagram below, note how the slope above
the road on the left is inherently less stable than the slope above the road on the right.
z Weak Layers - Some rocks are stronger than others. In particular, clay minerals
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Mass Movements
generally tend to have a low shear strength. If a weak rock or soil occurs between
stronger rocks or soils, the weak layer will be the most likely place for failure to occur,
especially if the layer dips in a down-slope direction as in the illustration above.
Similarly, loose unconsolidated sand has no cohesive strength. A layer of such sand then
becomes a weak layer in the slope.
z Joints & Fractures - If the joints are parallel to the slope they may become a sliding
surface. Combined with joints running perpendicular to the slope (as seen in the
sandstone body in the illustration above), the joint pattern results in fractures along which
blocks can become loosened to slide down-slope.
z Foliation Planes - Foliation in metamorphic rocks is mainly caused by the alignment of

sheet silicate minerals. Because the sheet silicates can break easily parallel to their sheet
structure, the foliation or schistosity may become a slip surface, particularly if it it dips in
the down-slope direction.
Mass Movement Processes
The down-slope movement of material, whether it be bedrock, regolith, or a mixture of these, is

commonly referred to as a landslide. All of these processes generally grade into one another, so
classification of mass movement processes is somewhat difficult. We will use a common
classification of mass movements, which divides the processes into two broad categories and
further subdivides these categories.
1. Slope Failures - a sudden failure of the slope resulting in transport of debris down hill by
sliding, rolling, falling, or slumping.
2. Sediment Flows - material flows down hill mixed with water or air.
Slope Failures
z Slumps - types of slides wherein

downward rotation of rock or regolith
occurs along a curved surface. The upper
surface of each slump block remains
relatively undisturbed, as do the
individual blocks. Slumps leave arcuate
scars or depressions on the hill slope.
Heavy rains or earthquakes usually
trigger slumps.
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z Rock Falls and Debris Falls - Rock falls

occur when a piece of rock on a steep
slope becomes dislodged and falls down
the slope. Debris falls are similar, except
they involve a mixture of soil, regolith,
and rocks. A rock fall may be a single
rock, or a mass of rocks, and the falling
rocks can dislodge other rocks as they
collide with the cliff. At the base of most
cliffs is an accumulation of fallen material
termed talus. The slope of the talus is
controlled by the angle of repose for the
size of the material. Since talus results
from the accumulation of large rocks or
masses of debris the angle of repose is
usually greater than it would be for sand.
z Rock Slides and Debris Slides - Rock

slides and debris slides result when rocks
or debris slide down a pre-existing surface,
such as a bedding plane or joint surface.
Piles of talus are common at the base of a
rock slide or debris slide.
Sediment Flows
Sediment flows occur when sufficient force is applied to rocks and regolith that they begin to
flow down slope. A sediment flow is a mixture of rock, regolith with some water. They can be
broken into two types depending on the amount of water present.
1. Slurry Flows- are sediment flows that contain between about 20 and 40% water. As the
water content increases above about 40% slurry flows grade into streams.
2. Granular Flows - are sediment flows that contain between 20 and 0% water. Note that
granular flows are possible with little or no water. Fluid-like behavior is given these
flows by mixing with air.
Each of these classes of sediment flows can be further subdivided on the basis of the velocity at
which flowage occurs.
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z Slurry Flows (high amounts of water)

{ Solifluction - flowage at rates measured on the order of centimeters per year of
regolith containing water. Solifluction produces distinctive lobes on hill slopes (see
figure 16.2d) in your text). These occur in areas where the soil remains frozen and
is then is thawed for a short time to become saturated with water .
{ Debris Flows- these occur at higher velocities than solifluction, and often result
from heavy rains causing saturation of the soil and regolith with water. They
sometimes start with slumps and then flow down hill forming lobes with an
irregular surface consisting of ridges and furrows.
{ Mudflows- a highly fluid, high velocity mixture of sediment and water that has a
consistency of wet concrete. These usually result from heavy rains in areas where
there is an abundance of unconsolidated sediment that can be picked up by
streams. Thus, after a heavy rain streams can turn into mudflows as they pick up
more and more loose sediment. Mudflows can travel for long distances over gently
sloping stream beds. Because of their high velocity and long distance of travel they
are potentially very dangerous. Mudflows on volcanoes are called lahars.
z Granular Flows (low amounts of water)

{ Creep- the very slow, usually continuous movement of regolith down slope. Creep
occurs on almost all slopes, but the rates vary. Evidence for creep is often seen in
bent trees, offsets in roads and fences, and inclined utility poles (see figure 16.2c in
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Mass Movements
your text).
{ Earthflows - are usually associated with heavy rains and move at velocities
between several cm/yr and 100s of m/day. They usually remain active for long
periods of time. They generally tend to be narrow tongue-like features that begin at
a scarp or small cliff
{ Grain Flows - usually form in relatively dry material, such as a sand dune, on a
steep slope. A small disturbance sends the dry unconsolidated grains moving
rapidly down slope.
Debris Avalanches - These are very high velocity flows of large volume mixtures
{
of rock and regolith that result from complete collapse of a mountainous slope.
They move down slope and then can travel for considerable distances along
relatively gentle slopes. They are often triggered by earthquakes and volcanic
eruptions. Snow avalanches are similar, but usually involve only snow.
Mass-Movements in Cold Climates
Mass movements in cold climates is governed by the fact that water is frozen as ice during long
periods of the year. Ice, although it is solid, does have the ability to flow, and freezing and
thawing cycles can also contribute to movement.
z Rock Glaciers - a lobe of ice-cemented rock debris (mostly rocks with ice between the
blocks) that slowly moves downhill (see figure 16.2e in your text).
Subaqueous Mass movement
Mass movements also occur on slopes in the ocean basins. Most slope failure can occur due to
over-accumulation of sediment on slope or in a submarine canyon, or could occur as a result of
a shock like an earthquake. 3 types can occur - (1) Submarine slumps Coherent blocks break
and slip, similar to slumps on land. (2) Submarine debris flows Moving material breaks apart
and flows, similar to debris flows on land. (3) Sediment moves as a turbulent cloud, called a
turbidity current. (See figure 16.8 in your text).
Gigantic submarine slope failures are widespread on the ocean floor, particularly around
islands like Hawaii and off the east and gulf coasts of North America. They are much larger
than land-based slope failures and are an important process sculpting adjacent land. When they
occur, they create catastrophic tsunamis. (See figures 16.9 in your text).
Triggering Events
A mass movement can occur any time a slope becomes unstable. Sometimes, as in the case of
creep or solifluction, the slope is unstable all of the time and the process is continuous. But
other times, triggering events can occur that cause a sudden instability to occur. Here we
discuss major triggering events, but it should be noted that it if a slope is very close to
instability, only a minor event may be necessary to cause a failure and disaster. This may be
something as simple as an ant removing the single grain of sand that holds the slope in place.
z Shocks and vibrations - A sudden shock, such as an earthquake may trigger slope
instability. Minor shocks like heavy trucks rambling down the road, trees blowing in the
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Mass Movements
wind, or human made explosions can also trigger mass movement events.
z Slope Modification -
Modification of a slope
either by humans or by
natural causes can result
in changing the slope
angle so that it is no
longer at the angle of
repose. A mass movement
can then restore the slope
to its angle of repose.
z Undercutting - streams
eroding their banks or
surf action along a coast
can undercut a slope
making it unstable.
z Changes in Hydrologic Characteristics - heavy rains can saturate regolith reducing grain
to grain contact and reducing the angle of repose, thus triggering a mass movement.
Heavy rains can also saturate rock and increase its weight. Changes in the groundwater
system can increase or decrease fluid pressure in rock and also trigger mass movements.
z Changes in slope strength - Weathering creates weaker material, and thus leads to slope
failure. Vegetation holds soil in place and slows the influx of water. Trees put down
roots that hold the ground together and strengthen the slope. Removal of tress and
vegetation either by humans or by a forest fire, often results in slope failures in the next
rainy season.
z Volcanic Eruptions - produce shocks like explosions and earthquakes. They can also
cause snow to melt or discharges from crater lakes, rapidly releasing large amounts of
water that can be mixed with regolith to reduce grain to grain contact and result in debris
flows, mudflows, and landslides.
Assessing Mass Movement Hazards
As we have seen mass movements can be extremely hazardous and result in extensive loss of
life and property. But, in most cases, areas that are prone to such hazards can be recognized
with some geologic knowledge, slopes can be stabilized or avoided, and warning systems can
be put in place that can reduce vulnerability.
Because there is usually evidence in the form of distinctive deposits and geologic structures left
by recent mass movements, it is possible to construct maps of all areas prone to possible
landslide hazards (see the National Landslide hazards map at
http://landslides.usgs.gov/learning/nationalmap/).
Detailed local maps can usually be obtained from individual state agencies.
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Planners can use such hazards maps to make decisions about land use policies in such areas or,
as will be discussed below, steps can be taken to stabilize slopes to attempt to prevent a disaster
or minimize its effects.
Short-term prediction of mass-wasting events is somewhat more problematical. For earthquake
triggered events, the same problems that are inherent in earthquake prediction are
present. Slope destabilization and undercutting triggered events require constant
monitoring. Mass movement hazards from volcanic eruptions can be predicted with the same
degree of certainty that volcanic eruptions can be predicted, but again, the threat has to be
realized and warnings need to be heeded. Hydrologic conditions such as heavy precipitation
can be forecast with some certainty, and warnings can be issued to areas that might be
susceptible to mass movement processes caused by such conditions. Still, it is difficult of know
exactly which hill slope of the millions that exist will be vulnerable to an event triggered by
heavy rainfall.
Some warning signs can be recognized by observations of things around you:
z Springs, seeps, or saturated ground in areas that have not typically been wet before.
z New cracks or unusual bulges in the ground, street pavements or sidewalks.
z Soil moving away from foundations.
z Ancillary structures such as decks and patios tilting and/or moving relative to the main
house.
z Tilting or cracking of concrete floors and foundations.
z Broken water lines and other underground utilities.
z Leaning telephone poles, trees, retaining walls or fences
z Offset fence lines.
z Sunken or down-dropped road beds.
z Rapid increase in creek water levels, possibly accompanied by increased turbidity (soil
content).
z Sudden decrease in creek water levels though rain is still falling or just recently stopped.
z Sticking doors and windows, and visible open spaces indicating jambs and frames out of
plumb.
z A faint rumbling sound that increases in volume is noticeable as the landslide nears.
z Unusual sounds, such as trees cracking or boulders knocking together, might indicate
moving debris. (from USGS Landslide Hazards -
http://landslides.usgs.gov/learning/prepare/)
Prevention and Mitigation
All slopes are susceptible to mass movement hazards if a triggering event occurs. Thus, all
slopes should be assessed for potential landslide hazards. Mass movements can sometimes be
avoided by employing engineering techniques to make the slope more stable. Among them are:
z Steep slopes can be covered or sprayed with concrete covered or with a wire mesh to
prevent rock falls.
z Retaining walls could be built to stabilize a slope.
z If the slope is made of highly fractured rock, rock bolts may be emplaced to hold the
slope together and prevent failure.
z Drainage pipes could be inserted into the slope to more easily allow water to get out and
avoid increases in fluid pressure, the possibility of liquefaction, or increased weight due
to the addition of water.
z Oversteepened slopes could be graded to reduce the slope to the natural angle of repose.
z In mountain valleys subject to mudflows, plans could be made to rapidly lower levels of
water in human-made reservoirs to catch and trap the mudflows.
Page 11 of 12 4/1/2012
Mass Movements
z Trees or other vegetation could be planted on bare slopes to help hold soil.
Some slopes, however, cannot be stabilized, or only stabilized at great expense. In these cases,
humans should avoid these areas or use them for purposes that will not increase susceptibility
of lives or property to mass movement hazards.
Conclusion
Hopefully the information provided here will help you avoid death or loss of your property by
mass movement
1. What is the main force responsible for mass movements? How is this force affected by
slope angle?
2. In what ways does water added to a slope affect its stability?
3. Define the following (a) angle of repose, (b) sensitive soils, (c) hydrocompacting clays,
(d) groundwater, (e) quick clays
4. What features in rock reduce the stability of slopes?
5. What are the major triggering events for mass movements?
6. Is it possible to determine whether or not a slope has stability problems? If so, what does
one look for?
7. What kinds of things can be done to mitigate against mass movement hazards?
Page 12 of 12 4/1/2012
Streams and Drainage Systems Page 1 of 18
Streams and Drainage Systems
Streams
A stream is a body of water that carries rock particles and dissolved ions and flows down slope
along a clearly defined path, called a channel. Thus, streams may vary in width from a few
centimeters to several tens of kilometers. Streams are important for several reasons:
z Streams carry most of the water that goes from the land to the sea, and thus are an
important part of the water cycle.
z Streams carry billions of tons of sediment to lower elevations, and thus are one of the
main transporting mediums in the production of sedimentary rocks.
z Streams carry dissolved ions, the products of chemical weathering, into the oceans and
thus make the sea salty.
z Streams are a major part of the erosional process, working in conjunction with
weathering and mass wasting. Much of the surface landscape is controlled by stream
erosion, evident to anyone looking out of an airplane window.
z Streams are a major source of water, waste disposal, and transportation for the world's
human population. Most population centers are located next to streams.
z When stream channels fill with water the excess flows onto the the land as a flood.
Floods are a common natural disaster.
The objectives for this discussion are as follows:
1. How do drainage systems develop and what do they tell us about the geology of an area?
2. How do stream systems operate?
3. How do streams erode the landscape?
4. What kinds of depositional features result from streams?
5. How do drainage systems evolve?
6. What causes flooding and how can we reduce the damage from floods?
http://www.tulane.edu/~sanelson/eens1110/streams.htm 4/2/2012
Drainage Systems
Development of Streams - Steamflow begins when water is added to the surface from rainfall,
melting snow,and groundwater. Drainage systems develop in such a way as to efficiently move
water off the land. Streamflow begins as moving sheetwash which is a thin surface layer of
water. The water moves down the steepest slope and starts to erode the surface by creating
small rill channels. As the rills coalesce, deepen, and downcut into channels larger channels
form. Rapid erosion lengthens the channel upslope in a process called headward erosion. Over
time, nearby channels merge with smaller tributaries joining a larger trunk stream. (See figure
17.3 in your text). The linked channels become what is known as a drainage network. With
continued erosion of the channels, drainage networks change over time.
Drainage Patterns - Drainages tend to

develop along zones where rock type
and structure are most easily eroded.
Thus various types of drainage patterns
develop in a region and these drainage
patterns reflect the structure of the
rock.
z Dendritic drainage patterns are

most common. They develop on a
land surface where the underlying
rock is of uniform resistance to
erosion.
z Radial drainage patterns develop

surrounding areas of high
topography where elevation drops
from a central high area to
surrounding low areas.
z Rectangular drainage patterns develop where linear zones of weakness, such as joints or
faults cause the streams to cut down along the weak areas in the rock.
z Trellis drainage patterns develop where registrant rocks break up the landscape (see
figure 17.4a in your textbook).
Drainage Basins - Each stream in a drainage system drains a certain area, called a drainage
basin (also called a catchment or a watershed). In a single drainage basin, all water falling in
the basin drains into the same stream. A drainage divide separates each drainage basin from
other drainage basins. Drainage basins can range in size from a few km2, for small streams, to
extremely large areas, such as the Mississippi River drainage basin which covers about 40% of
the contiguous United States (see figure 17.5c in your text).
Continental Divides - Continents can be divided into large drainage basins that empty into
different ocean basins. For example: North America can be divided into several basins west of
the Rocky Mountains that empty into the Pacific Ocean. Streams in the northern part of North
America empty into the Arctic Ocean, and streams East of the Rocky Mountains empty into the
Atlantic Ocean or Gulf of Mexico. Lines separating these major drainage basins are termed
Continental Divides. Such divides usually run along high mountain crests that formed recently
enough that they have not been eroded. Thus major continental divides and the drainage
patterns in the major basins reflect the recent geologic history of the continents.
Permanent Streams - Streams that flow all year are called permanent streams. Their surface
is at or below the water table. They occur in humid or temperate climates where there is
sufficient rainfall and low evaporation rates. Water levels rise and fall with the seasons,
depending on the discharge.
Ephemeral Streams - Streams that only occasionally have water flowing are called ephemeral
streams or dry washes. They are above the water table and occur in dry climates with low
amounts of rainfall and high evaporation rates. They flow mostly during rare flash floods.
Geometry and Dynamics of Stream Channels
Discharge
The stream channel is the conduit for water being carried by the stream. The stream can
continually adjust its channel shape and path as the amount of water passing through the
channel changes. The volume of water passing any point on a stream is called the discharge.
Discharge is measured in units of volume/time (m3/sec or ft3/sec).
Q=AxV
Discharge (m3/sec) = Cross-sectional Area [width x average depth] (m2) x Average Velocity
(m/sec).
As the amount of water in a stream increases, the stream must adjust its velocity and cross
sectional area in order to form a balance. Discharge increases as more water is added through
rainfall, tributary streams, or from groundwater seeping into the stream. As discharge
increases, generally width, depth, and velocity of the stream also increase.
Velocity
A stream's velocity depends on position in the stream channel, irregularities in the stream
channel caused by resistant rock, and stream gradient. Friction slows water along channel
edges. Friction is greater in wider, shallower streams and less in narrower, deeper streams.
In straight channels, highest velocity is in the center. In curved channels,The maximum

velocity traces the outside curve where the channel is preferentially scoured and deepened. On
the inside of the curve were the velocity is lower, deposition of sediment occurs. The deepest
part of the channel is called the thalweg, which meanders with the curve the of the
stream. Flow around curves follows a spiral path.
Stream flow can be either laminar, in which all water molecules travel along similar parallel
paths, or turbulent, in which individual particles take irregular paths. Stream flow is
characteristically turbulent. This is chaotic and erratic, with abundant mixing, swirling eddies,
and sometimes high velocity. Turbulence is caused by flow obstructions and shear in the
water. Turbulent eddies scour the channel bed, and can keep sediment in suspension longer
than laminar flow and thus aids in erosion of the stream bottom.
Cross Sectional Shape
Cross-sectional shape varies with position in the stream, and discharge. The deepest part of
channel occurs where the stream velocity is the highest. Both width and depth increase
downstream because discharge increases downstream. As discharge increases the cross
sectional shape will change, with the stream becoming deeper and wider.
Erosion by Streams
Streams erode because they have the ability to pick up rock fragments and transport them to a
new location. The size of the fragments that can be transported depends on the velocity of the
stream and whether the flow is laminar or turbulent. Turbulent flow can keep fragments in
suspension longer than laminar flow.
Streams can also erode by undercutting their banks resulting in mass-wasting processes like
slumps or slides. When the undercut material falls into the stream, the fragments can be
transported away by the stream.
Streams can cut deeper into their channels if the region is uplifted or if there is a local change
in base level. As they cut deeper into their channels the stream removes the material that once
made up the channel bottom and sides.
Although slow, as rocks move along the stream bottom and collide with one another, abrasion
of the rocks occurs, making smaller fragments that can then be transported by the stream.
Finally, because some rocks and minerals are easily dissolved in water, dissolution also occurs,
resulting in dissolved ions being transported by the stream.
Sediment Transport and Deposition
The rock particles and dissolved ions carried by the stream are the called the stream's load.
Stream load is divided into three categories.
z Suspended Load - particles that are carried along with the water in the main part of the
streams. The size of these particles depends on their density and the velocity of the
stream. Higher velocity currents in the stream can carry larger and denser particles.
z Bed Load - coarser and denser
particles that remain on the bed of the
stream most of the time but move by
a process of saltation (jumping) as a
result of collisions between particles,
and turbulent eddies. Note that
sediment can move between bed load
and suspended load as the velocity of
the stream changes.
z Dissolved Load - ions that have been introduced into the water by chemical weathering
of rocks. This load is invisible because the ions are dissolved in the water. The dissolved
load consists mainly of HCO3-2 (bicarbonate ions), Ca+2, SO4-2, Cl-, Na+2, Mg+2, and
K+. These ions are eventually carried to the oceans and give the oceans their salty
character. Streams that have a deep underground source generally have higher dissolved
load than those whose source is on the Earth's surface.
The maximum size of particles that can be carried as suspended load by the stream is called
stream competence. The maximum load carried by the stream is called stream capacity. Both
competence and capacity increase with increasing discharge. At high discharge boulder and
cobble size material can move with the stream and are therefore transported. At low discharge
the larger fragments become stranded and only the smaller, sand, silt, and clay sized fragments
move.
When flow velocity decreases the competence is reduced and sediment drops out. Sediment
grain sizes are sorted by the water. Sands are removed from gravels; muds from both. Gravels
settle in channels. Sands drop out in near channel environments. Silts and clays drape
floodplains away from channels.
Changes Downstream
As one moves along a stream in the downstream direction:
z Discharge increases, as noted above, because water is added to the stream from tributary
streams and groundwater.
z As discharge increases, the width, depth, and average velocity of the stream increase.
z The gradient of the stream, however, will decrease.

It may seem to be counter to your observations that velocity increases in the downstream
direction, since when one observes a mountain stream near the headwaters where the gradient
is high, it appears to have a higher velocity than a stream flowing along a gentle gradient. But,
the water in the mountain stream is likely flowing in a turbulent manner, due to the large
boulders and cobbles which make up the streambed. If the flow is turbulent, then it takes longer
for the water to travel the same linear distance, and thus the average velocity is lower.
Also as one moves in the downstream direction,
z The size of particles that make up the bed load of the stream tends to decrease. Even
though the velocity of the stream increases downstream, the bed load particle size
decreases mainly because the larger particles are left in the bed load at higher elevations
and abrasion of particles tends to reduce their size.
z The composition of the particles in the bed load tends to change along the stream as
different bedrock is eroded and added to the stream's load.
Long Profile
A plot of elevation versus distance. Usually shows a steep gradient or slope, near the source of
the stream and a gentle gradient as the stream approaches its mouth. The long profile is
concave upward, as shown by the graph below.
Base Level
Base level is defined as the limiting level below which a stream cannot erode its channel. For
streams that empty into the oceans, base level is sea level. Local base levels can occur where
the stream meets a resistant body of rock, where a natural or artificial dam impedes further
channel erosion, or where the stream empties into a lake.
When a natural or artificial dam impedes stream flow, the stream adjusts to the new base level
by adjusting its long profile. In the example here, the long profile above and below the dam are
adjusted. Erosion takes place downstream from the dam (especially if it is a natural dam and
water can flow over the top). Just upstream from the dam the velocity of the stream is lowered
so that deposition of sediment occurs causing the gradient to become lower. The dam
essentially become the new base level for the part of the stream upstream from the dam.
In general, if base level is lowered, the stream cuts downward into its channel and erosion is
accelerated. If base level is raised, the stream deposits sediment and readjusts its profile to the
new base level.
Valleys and Canyons
Land far above base level is subject to downcutting by the stream. Rapid downcutting creates
an eroded trough which can become either a valley or canyon. A valley has gently sloping
sidewalls that show a V-shape in cross-section. A Canyon has steep sidewalls that form cliffs.
Whether or valley or canyon is formed depends on the rater of erosion and strength of the
rocks. In general, slow downcutting and weak, easily erodable rocks results in valleys and
rapid downcutting in stronger rocks results in canyons.
Because geologic processes stack strong and weak rocks, such stratigraphic variation often
yields a stair step profile of the canyon walls, as seen in the Grand Canyon. Strong rocks yield
vertical cliffs, whereas weak rocks produce more gently sloped canyon walls.
Active downcutting flushes sediment out of channels. Only after the sediment is flushed our
can further downcutting occur. Valleys store sediment when base level is raised.
Rapids
Rapids are turbulent water with a rough surface. Rapids occur where the stream gradient
suddenly increases, where the stream flows over large clasts in the bed of the stream, or where
there is an abrupt narrowing of the channel. Sudden change in gradient may occur where an
active fault crosses the stream channel. Large clasts may be transported into the stream by a
tributary stream resulting in rapids where the two streams join. Abrupt narrowing of the
stream may occur if the stream encounters strong rock that is not easily subject to erosion.
Waterfalls
Waterfalls are temporary base levels caused by strong erosion resistant rocks. Upon reaching
the strong rock, the stream then cascades or free falls down the steep slope to form a
waterfalls. Because the rate of flow increases on this rapid change in gradient, erosion occurs
at the base of the waterfall where a plunge pool forms. This can initiate rapid erosion at the
base, resulting in undercutting of the cliff that caused the waterfall. When undercutting occurs,
the cliff becomes subject to rockfalls or slides. This results in the waterfall retreating upstream
and the stream eventually eroding through the cliff to remove the waterfall.
Niagara Falls in upstate New York is a good example. Lake Erie drops 55 m flowing toward
Lake Ontario. A dolostone caprock is resistant and the underlying shale erodes. Blocks of
unsupported dolostone collapse and fall.
Niagara Falls continuously erodes south toward Lake Erie. In temporary diversion of the water
that flows over the American Falls section revealed huge blocks of rock. The rate of southward
retreat of Niagara Falls is presently 0.5 m/yr. Eventually the falls will reach Lake Erie, and
when that happens Lake Erie will drain.
Channel Patterns
Straight Channels - Straight stream channels are rare. Where they do occur, the channel is
usually controlled by a linear zone of weakness in the underlying rock, like a fault or joint
system.
Even in straight channel

segments water flows in
a sinuous fashion, with
the deepest part of the
channel changing from
near one bank to near
the other. Velocity is
highest in the zone
overlying the deepest
part of the stream. In
these areas, sediment is
transported readily
resulting in pools.
Where the velocity of
the stream is low,
sediment is deposited to
form bars.
The bank closest to the zone of highest velocity is usually eroded and results in a cutbank.
Meandering Channels - Because of the velocity structure of a stream, and especially in

streams flowing over low gradients with easily eroded banks, straight channels will eventually
erode into meandering channels. Erosion will take place on the outer parts of the meander
bends where the velocity of the stream is highest. Sediment deposition will occur along the
inner meander bends where the velocity is low. Such deposition of sediment results in exposed
bars, called point bars. Because meandering streams are continually eroding on the outer
meander bends and depositing sediment along the inner meander bends, meandering stream
channels tend to migrate back and forth across their flood plain.
If erosion on the outside meander bends continues to take place, eventually a meander bend can
become cut off from the rest of the stream. When this occurs, the cutoff meander bend, because
it is still a depression, will collect water and form a type of lake called an oxbow lake.
Braided Channels - In streams having highly

variable discharge and easily eroded banks,
sediment gets deposited to form bars and
islands that are exposed during periods of low
discharge. In such a stream the water flows in a
braided pattern around the islands and bars,
dividing and reuniting as it flows downstream.
Such a channel is termed a braided channel.
During periods of high discharge, the entire
stream channel may contain water and the
islands are covered to become submerged bars.
During such high discharge, some of the islands
could erode, but the sediment would be re-
deposited as the discharge decreases, forming
new islands or submerged bars. Islands may
become resistant to erosion if they become
inhabited by vegetation
Stream Deposits
Sudden changes in velocity can result in deposition by streams. Within a stream we have seen
that the velocity varies with position, and, if sediment gets moved to the lower velocity part of
the stream the sediment will come out of suspension and be deposited. Other sudden changes in
velocity that affect the whole stream can also occur. For example if the discharge is suddenly
increased, as it might be during a flood, the stream will overtop its banks and flow onto the
floodplain where the velocity will then suddenly decrease. This results in deposition of such
features as levees and floodplains. If the gradient of the stream suddenly changes by emptying
into a flat-floored basin, an ocean basin, or a lake, the velocity of the stream will suddenly
decrease resulting in deposition of sediment that can no longer be transported. This can result in
deposition of such features as alluvial fans and deltas.
z Floodplains and Levees - As a stream overtops its banks during a flood, the velocity of
the flood will first be high, but will suddenly decrease as the water flows out over the
gentle gradient of the floodplain. Because of the sudden decrease in velocity, the coarser
grained suspended sediment will be deposited along the riverbank, eventually building up
a natural levee. Natural levees provide some protection from flooding because with each
flood the levee is built higher and therefore discharge must be higher for the next flood to
occur. (Note that the levees we see along the Mississippi River here in New Orleans are
not natural levees, but man made levees, built to protect the floodplain from floods. Still,
the natural levees do form the high ground as evidenced by the flooding that occurred as
a result of levee breaches during Hurricane Katrina).
z Terraces - Terraces are exposed former floodplain deposits that result when the stream
begins down cutting into its flood plain (this is usually caused by regional uplift or by
lowering the regional base level, such as a drop in sea level).
z Alluvial Fans - When a steep
mountain stream enters a flat valley,
there is a sudden decrease in gradient
and velocity. Sediment transported
in the stream will suddenly become
deposited along the valley walls in
an alluvial fan. As the velocity of the
mountain stream slows it becomes
choked with sediment and breaks up
into numerous distributary channels.
z Deltas - When a stream enters a

standing body of water such as a
lake or ocean, again there is a sudden
decrease in velocity and the stream
deposits its sediment in a deposit
called a delta. Deltas build outward
from the coastline, but will only
survive if the ocean currents are not
strong enough to remove the
sediment.
As the velocity of a stream decreases on entering the delta, the stream becomes
choked with sediment and conditions become favorable to those of a braided
stream channel, but instead of braiding, the stream breaks into many smaller
streams called distributary streams.
Over the last 1,000 years, most of the land that makes up southern Louisiana has
been built by the Mississippi River depositing sediment to form delta lobes.
These delta lobes have shifted back and forth through time as the River's course
changed in response to changes in sea level and the River trying to maintain the
shortest and steepest path to the Gulf of Mexico (see figure 17.25a)
Drainage Evolution
Landscapes on Earth's surface evolve over time with the main cause of change being
streamflow and the resulting erosion and deposition. For example:
Uplift sets a new base level which causes streams to cut deeper, resulting in widening of
valleys and erosion of hills. If these erosional processes were to continue, the landscape would
be eroded to base level.
Stream Piracy
Stream piracy is where one stream erodes headward to capture the drainage of another
stream. The stream with more vigorous erosion (steeper gradient), intercepts another stream
and water from the captured stream no flows into the pirating stream (see figure 17.25 in your
text).
Drainage Reversal
Drainage reversals can occur as a result of tectonic processes. For example, in the early
Mesozoic when Africa and South America were part of the same continent, South America
drained westward. Eventually Africa separated from South America to form the Atlantic
Ocean on the eastern side of South America. On the west coast, subduction began and the
resulting compression caused the uplift of the Andes mountains. As the uplift occurred, the
drainage had to reverse to flow to the east into the Atlantic Ocean (see figure 17.26 in your
text).
Superposed and Antecedent Streams
In looking at the landscape, it is often evident that streams sometimes cut through deformed
terrain seemingly ignoring the geologic structures and hardness of the rock. If a stream initially
develops on younger flat strata made of soft material and then cuts downward into the
underlying deformed strata while maintaining the course developed in the younger strata, it is
referred to as a superposed stream, because the stream pattern was superposed on the
underlying rocks. In such cases much of the original soft strata is removed. (see figure 17.28
in your text).
If tectonic uplift raises the ground beneath established streams and if erosion keeps pace with
uplift, the stream will cut downward and maintain its original course. In such a case, the stream
is called an antecedent stream, because the stream was present before the uplift occurred . (See
figure 17.29 in your textbook).
Some antecedent streams have incised meanders. The meanders initially develop on a gentle
gradient then uplift raises the landscape (dropping the base level) and the meanders cut
downward into the uplifted landscape (see figure 17.27 in your text for an example).
Floods
Floods occur when the discharge of the stream becomes too high to be accommodated in the
normal stream channel. When the discharge becomes too high, the stream widens its channel by
overtopping its banks and flooding the low-lying areas surrounding the stream. The areas that
become flooded are called floodplains.
Floodwaters are devastating to people and property. During a flood discharge exceeds the
storage volume of the stream channel. Velocity (thus, competence and capacity) increase and
water leaves the channel and flows onto adjacent land. Water slows away from the thalweg,
dropping sediment.
Causes of Flooding
1. Heavy rains dump large volumes of water on the landscape increasing the amount of
water flowing into the stream.
2. If the soil has become saturated as a result of rain so that there is no room in the soil for
water to infiltrate, the water instead will run into stream channels and increase the
discharge.
3. In the winter, if a sudden increase in temperature rapidly melts snow causing an influx of
water into the drainage system.
4. When a natural or artificial dam breaks or levee breaks, releasing water into a channel
with a sudden increase in discharge or releases water from the channel onto the
surrounding floodplain.
Flood Stage
z The term stage refers to the height of a river (or any other body of water) above a locally
defined elevation. This locally defined elevation is a reference level, often referred to as
datum. For example, for the lower part of the Mississippi River, reference level or
datum, is sea level (0 feet). Currently the Mississippi River is at a stage of about 12.5
feet, that is 12.5 feet above sea level. Other river systems have a reference level that is
not sea level. Most rivers in the United States have gaging stations where measurements
are continually made of the river's stage and discharge. These are plotted on a graph
called a hydrograph, which shows the stage or discharge of the river, as measured at the
gaging station, versus time.
z When the discharge of a river increases, the channel may become completely full. Any
discharge above this level will result in the river overflowing its banks and causing a
flood. The stage at which the river will overflow its banks is called bankfull stage or
flood stage. For example, the graph below is a hydrograph of the Mississippi River at St.
Louis, Missouri during the time period of the 1993 flood. Discharge is plotted on the Y-
axis, and dates are plotted on the x-axis. Note that stages corresponding to various
discharges are shown on the left-hand y-axis, and that the spacing between equal units of
stage are not equal along the y-axis.
z Note that for the 1993 Mississippi River Flood, the

river reached flood stage of 30 feet above datum
on about June 26 and peaked (or crested) at just
under 50 feet above datum on August 1. The
sudden drops seen in discharge around July 15 and
July 20 corresponded to breaks in the levee system
upstream from St. Louis that caused water to flow
onto the floodplain upstream, thus reducing both
the stage and discharge measured at St. Louis.
To illustrate, for the Mississippi River flood at St.

Louis, idealized cross sections of the River are
shown below for points a, b, and c in the diagram
above.
Lag Time
The time difference between when heavy

precipitation occurs and when peak
discharge occurs in the streams draining an
area is called lag time.
Lag time depends on such factors as the

amount of time over which the rain falls and
the amount of water that can infiltrate into
the soil.
If the amount of rain is high over a short time period, lag time is short. If the amount of rain is
high over a longer time period, lag time is longer. Lack of infiltration and interception reduce
lag time
Flash floods occur when the rate of infiltration is low and heavy rains occur over a short period
of time. Because they come with little warning, flash floods are the most dangerous to human
lives. Such floods stem from unusually intense rainfall or dam failures, strike with little
warning,an they are often deadly. (See the example of the Big Thompson Canyon flash flood
in your text, p.599).
Any time the surface materials of the Earth are covered with impermeable materials like
concrete, asphalt, or buildings, the infiltration of water into the soil is prevented. Urbanization
tends to reduce infiltration, and thus water must collect in storm sewers and eventually in the
main drainage systems. Thus, extensive urbanization also decreases the lag time and increases
the peak discharge even further. Urbanization can therefore lead to a higher incidence of flash
floods.
Flooding Risk
Discharge data collected over a long period of time on streams can be used to calculate flood
probability. The data are plotted on a graph of Peak Discharge for each year versus recurrence
interval. Note that the logarithm of the recurrence interval is used. As an example, such a
graph is shown for the Red River of the North at Fargo, North Dakota below.
From such a graph one can determine the stage or discharge for different recurrence intervals.
The 10 year flood is defined as the discharge that would have a 10% probability of occurring
every year. Similarly, the 100 year flood is the discharge that has a 1% chance of occurring
every year. Note that the 100 year flood does not necessarily occur only once every 100
years. For example, the graph for the Red River of the North, above, shows that 2 250 year
floods occurred in an 8 year period.
Flood Hazard Mapping
Food hazard mapping is used to determine the areas susceptible to flooding when discharge of
a stream exceeds the bank-full stage. Using historical data on river stages and discharge of
previous floods, along with topographic data, maps can be constructed to show areas expected
to be covered with floodwaters for various discharges or stages.
Flood Control
Response to flood hazards can be attempted in two main ways: An engineering approach, to
control flooding, and a regulatory approach designed to decrease vulnerability to flooding.
z Engineering Approaches
{ Channel modifications - By creating new channels for a stream, the cross-sectional

area can be enlarged, thus create a situation where a higher stage is necessary
before flooding. Channelization also increases water velocity, and thus reduces
drainage time.
{ Dams - Dams can be used to hold water back so that discharge downstream can be
regulated at a desired rate. Human constructed dams have spillways that can be
opened to reduce the level of water in the reservoir behind the dam. Thus, the
water level can be lowered prior to a heavy rain, and more water can be trapped in
the reservoir and released later at a controlled discharge.
{ Retention ponds - Retention ponds serve a similar purpose to dams. Water can be
trapped in a retention pond and then released at a controlled discharge to prevent
flooding downstream.
{ Levees, Dikes, and Floodwalls - These are structures built along side the channel
to increase the stage at which the stream floods.
{ Floodways - Floodways are areas that can be built to provide an outlet to a stream
and allow it flood into an area that has been designated as a floodway. Floodways
are areas where no construction is allowed, and where the land is used for
agricultural or recreational purposes when there is no threat of a flood, but which
provide an outlet for flood waters during periods of high discharge. The Bonnet
Carrie Spillway west of New Orleans is such a floodway. During low stages of the
Mississippi River the land between the River and Lake Pontchartrain is used for
recreational purposes - hunting, fishing, and dirt bike riding for example. During
high stages of the River when there is a potential for the River to rise to flood stage
in New Orleans, the spillway is opened so that water drains into Lake
Pontchartrain. This lowers the level of water in the Mississippi and reduces the
possibility of a levee break or water overtopping the levee.
z Regulatory Approaches
With a better understanding of the behavior of streams, the probability of flooding, and
areas likely to be flooded during high discharge, humans can undertake measures to
reduce vulnerability to flooding. Among the regulatory measures are:
{ Floodplain zoning - Laws can be passed that restrict construction and habitation of
floodplains. Instead floodplains can be zoned for agricultural use, recreation, or
other uses wherein lives and property are not endangered when (note that I did not
use the word if) flood waters re-occupy the floodplain.
{ Floodplain building codes - Structures that are allowed within the floodplain could
be restricted those that can withstand the high velocity of flood waters and are high
enough off the ground to reduce risk of contact with water.
{ Floodplain buyout programs - In areas that have been recently flooded, it may be
more cost effective for the government, which usually pays for flood damage
either through subsidized flood insurance or direct disaster relief, to buy the rights
to the land rather than pay the cost of reconstruction and then have to pay again the
next time the river floods.
{Mortgage limitations - Lending institutions could refuse to give loans to buy or

construct dwellings or businesses in flood prone areas.
Example of a Flood
During Hurricane Katrina in 2005, much of New Orleans flooded, mainly as a result of levee
and floodwall failures that occurred on human made drainage and navigation canals. In
lecture, this event will be discussed in some detail. For details on the geological aspects of the
flood events see the following web page and its included links -
www.tulane.edu/~sanelson/Katrina.
1. Define the following: (a) ephemeral stream, (b) stream gradient, (c) stream discharge, (d)
suspended load, (e) bed load (f) dissolved load (g) drainage basin, (h) drainage divide
2. What happens to a stream's discharge as one moves down stream? Explain why this
occurs.
3. List and give a brief description of the various types of drainage net works..
4. What conditions are necessary for stream to be meandering stream and a braided stream?
5. How do streams erode?
6. Define the following: (a) alluvial fan, (b) delta, (c) floodplain, (d) point bar, (e) stream
piracy, (f) floodstage, (g) hydrograph, (h) flash flood, (i) stream terrace.
7. What are the main causes of floods?
8. What is the probability that the 100 year flood will occur in any given year?
9. How does human development affect flood hazards?
10. What engineering approaches are available to reduce the risk of flooding?
11. Besides engineering solutions, what other steps can be taken to reduce vulnerability to
flooding?
Oceans & Coasts
Oceans and Coasts
The Oceans
z Cover about 71% of the surface of the Earth.
z The greatest ocean depth of 11,035 m occurs in the Mariana Trench
z Have an average depth of 3,800 m.
z Have a present volume of about 1.35 billion cubic kilometers, but the volume fluctuates
with the growth and melting of glacial ice.
z Help to regulate transfer of mass and energy between biosphere, lithosphere and
atmosphere.
z 40 to 50% of the world's population live within 100 km of a coast.
The Oceans exist because of differences in lithosphere as reflected by isostasy. Continental

lithosphere floats higher on the asthenosphere because the embedded continental crust has a
lower density. Oceanic lithosphere floats deeper in the asthenosphere because is it is denser.
The ocean basins collect water because they are lower.
The Ocean Floor
The ocean floor was very much unknown until the late 1800s when the first scientific
expeditions were undertaken. Our knowledge greatly expanded during and after World War
II. Bathymetry was mapped, and oceanic ridges and trenches were discovered, This was
accomplished through sonar soundings of ocean depth and submarine exploration of the deep
oceans. Later drilling of the sea floor for the collection of samples was undertaken. It was a
better understanding of the ocean floor which led to the theory of Plate Tectonics.
The most important bathymetric features of the sea floor are
z Continental Shelf, Slope, and Rise

z Abyssal Plains
z Oceanic ridges
z Oceanic Trenches
The bathymetry of the sea floor reflects tectonics. The Continental shelf is underlain by
thinning continental crust. The continental slope and rise are transitional between crustal types,
and the abyssal plain is underlain by mafic oceanic crust. Oceanic ridges are diverging plate
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Oceans & Coasts
boundaries where new oceanic lithosphere is formed and oceanic trenches are converging plate
boundaries where oceanic lithosphere is subducted.
Because oceanic lithosphere may get subducted, the age of the ocean basins is relatively young.
The oldest oceanic crust occurs farthest away from a ridge. In the Atlantic Ocean, the oldest
oceanic crust occurs next to the North American and African continents and is Jurassic in age
(see figure 4.6 in your text). In the Pacific Ocean, the oldest crust is also Jurassic in age, and
occurs off the coast of Japan.
Because the oceanic ridges are areas of young crust, there is very little sediment accumulation
on the ridges. Sediment thickness increases in both directions away of the ridge, and is thickest
where the oceanic crust is the oldest.
Sediment on the abyssal plain is mainly fined grained sediment (clay size) that was input into
the oceans by streams and winds from the continents. The accumulation of the remains of
silica secreting planktonic organisms like radiolaria and diatoms, has produced chert and the
accumulation of the remains of foraminifera has produced biogenic limestones.
Besides the oceanic ridges, oceanic islands and seamounts occur in the ocean basins. These are
mostly volcanic islands that were formed above hot spots. The volcanoes formed over the hot
spot and after the volcano goes extinct, it is eroded to sea level. Continued cooling and
subsidence submerges the island to form seamounts (also called guyots).
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Oceans & Coasts
Examples include: the

Hawaiian Islands and
the Emperor
Seamount chain and
others in both the
Atlantic and Pacific
Oceans.
Where the continents meet the oceans, the continental margins are characterized as being of
one of two types: Passive or Active.
Passive Continental Margins -
A passive continental margin
occurs in the interior of plate, far
away from any plate boundary.
Present examples of passive
continental margins are the
Atlantic coast of North and
South America, Europe, and
Africa. No current deformation
is taking place along these
margins because they are not
close to plate boundaries. The
passive continental margins
developed as a result of rifting
of a former larger continent.
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Oceans & Coasts
A passive continental margin is characterized by a broad continental shelf overlying thinning

continental lithosphere. The shelf is made of relatively shallow oceanic sediments that have
been shed by the continents.
Active Continental Margins-
Continental convergent
margins occur where the
margin of the continent
coincides with a convergent
plate boundary. Examples of a
current active continental
margins occur along the Pacific
coast of South America and in
the Cascade Mountains of the
western U.S.
An active continental margin is characterized by a narrow continental shelf, again composed of
sediments shed from the continents.
Submarine canyons crosscut the continental shelves. These are associated with large rivers
from the continents. Erosion carved the canyons during times when sea-level was lower than
at present. The submerged canyons funnel sediments to deeper water producing submarine
fans where the canyons empty onto the continental rise.
Ocean Water
Salinity, a measure of amount of dissolved ions in the oceans, ranges between 33 and 37 parts
per thousand.
z The dissolved ions have been concentrated in seawater as a result of chemical weathering
(Na, Ca, Mg, S, K, Br, and HCO3 ) and degassing of the mantle by volcanic activity (Cl
& S).
z Seawater would contain higher concentrations of dissolved ions if some were not
removed by chemical precipitation, plants and animals, and absorption onto clay
minerals.
z Salinity varies in the oceans (see figure 18.8 in your text) because surface waters
evaporate, rain and stream water is added, and ice forms or thaws.
{ Salinity is higher in mid-latitude oceans because evaporation exceeds precipitation
{ Salinity is higher in restricted areas of the oceans like the Mediterranean and Red
Seas (up to 41 parts per thousand).
{ Salinity is lower near the equator because precipitation is higher.
{ Salinity is low near the mouths of major rivers because of input of fresh water.
z The temperature of surface seawater varies with latitude, from near 0o C near the poles to
29oC near the equator. But restricted areas can have temperatures up to 37oC. (See
figure 18.8 in your text.)
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Oceans & Coasts
z Properties of seawater also vary with depth.

{ The density and salinity of seawater increase with depth.
{ Temperature decreases with depth.
Ocean Circulation
Oceanic circulation is three dimensional. Most visible to humans are the surface ocean currents
that are mainly driven by the wind. Vertical currents and deep ocean currents are driven by
upwelling and downwelling near the coasts and differences in density, temperature and salinity
between the surface waters and the deep ocean waters.
Surface Ocean currents are result of drift of the upper 50 to 100 m of the ocean due to drag by
wind. Thus, surface ocean currents generally follow the same patterns as atmospheric
circulation with the exception that atmospheric currents continue over the land surface while
ocean currents are deflected by the land. The surface currents have the following properties:
z Because of the Coriolis effect, circulation is clockwise in the northern hemisphere and
counterclockwise in the southern hemisphere.
z In each hemisphere cooler waters from higher latitudes circulate toward the equator
where they are warmed and circulate back toward the poles.
z As surface waters approach the coast, they have to push the water down in order to make
room for more water to come in. This results in downwelling currents.
z If surface waters move away from the coast, water from below rises to replace the water
removed, resulting in upwelling.
In addition to surface circulation, seawater also circulates vertically as a result of changes in

density controlled by changing salinity and temperature (see figures 18.11 in your text). Such
circulation, because it controlled by both temperature differences and differences in salinity of
the water, is called thermohaline circulation.
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Oceans & Coasts
Ocean Tides
Tides are due to the gravitational attraction of moon and to a lesser extent, the sun on the Earth.
Because the moon is closer to the Earth than the sun, it has a larger effect and causes the Earth
to bulge toward the moon. At the same time, a bulge occurs on the opposite side of the Earth
due to inertial forces (this is explained well in the book on pages 634-635, if you are
interested).
These bulges remain stationary while Earth rotates. The tidal bulges result in a rhythmic rise
and fall of ocean surface, which is not noticeable to someone on a boat at sea, but is magnified
along the coasts. Usually there are two high tides and two low tides each day, and thus a
variation in sea level as the tidal bulge passes through each point on the Earth's surface. Along
most coasts the range is about 2 m, but in narrow inlets tidal currents can be strong and fast and
cause variations in sea level up to 16 m.
Because the Sun also
exerts a gravitational
attraction on the Earth,
there are also monthly
tidal cycles that are
controlled by the
relative position of the
sun and moon. The
highest high tides
occur when the Sun
and the moon are on
the same side of the
Earth (new moon) or
on opposite sides of
the Earth (full moon).
These are called
Spring Tides.
The lowest high tides occur when the Sun and the moon are not opposed relative to the Earth
(quarter moons). These highest high tides become important to coastal areas during hurricane
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season and you always hear dire predications of what might happen if the storm surge created
by the hurricane arrives at the same time as the highest high tides.
Ocean Waves
Waves are generated by winds that blow over the surface of oceans. Wave height, length, and
period depend on wind speed, wind duration, and distance of travel (fetch).
In a wave, water travels in circular loops. But since the surface is the area affected, the diameter
of the loops decreases with depth. The Diameters of loops at the surface is equal to wave height
(h). (See animation at http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7yPTa8qi5X8)
Wavelength (L) = distance to complete one cycle
Wave Period (P) = time required to complete on cycle.
Wave Velocity (V) = wavelength/wave period (L/P).
z Wave Base
Motion of waves is only effective at moving water to depth equal to one half of the
Wavelength (L/2). Water deeper than L/2 does not move. Thus, waves cannot erode the
bottom or move sediment in water deeper than L/2. This depth is called wave base. In the
Pacific Ocean, wavelengths up to 600 m have been observed, thus water deeper than
300m will not feel passage of wave. But outer parts of continental shelves average 200 m
depth, so considerable erosion can take place out to the edge of the continental shelf with
such long wavelength waves.
When waves approach shore, the water depth decreases and the wave will start feeling
bottom. Because of friction, the wave velocity (= L/P) decreases, but its period (P)
remains the same Thus, the wavelength (L) will decrease. Furthermore, as the wave
"feels the bottom", the circular loops of water motion change to elliptical shapes, as loops
are deformed by the bottom. As the wavelength (L) shortens, the wave height (h)
increases. Eventually the steep front portion of wave cannot support the water as the rear
part moves over, and the wave breaks. This results in turbulent water of the surf, where
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Oceans & Coasts
incoming waves meet back flowing water.
Waves that crash onto the beach are called breakers. Wave energy is dissipated by
turbulence, which creates frothy white water in the surf zone. A surge of water (swash)
rushes up the beach face. Gravity pulls the backwash down the slope of the beach. (See
video at http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2_N7C9vdpV8)
Rip currents form where water is channeled back into the ocean.
z Wave Refraction
Waves generally do not approach shoreline parallel to shore. Instead some parts of waves
feel the bottom before other parts, resulting in wave refraction or bending.
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Oceans & Coasts
Wave energy can thus be

concentrated on headlands, to form
cliffs. Headlands erode faster than
bays because the wave energy gets
concentrated at headlands
Wave Erosion
Rigorous erosion of sea floor takes place in surf zone, i.e. between shoreline and breakers.
Waves break at depths between 1 and 1.5 times wave height. Thus for 6m tall waves, rigorous
erosion of sea floor can take place in up to 9 m of water.
Waves can also erode by abrasion and flinging rock particles against one another or against
rocks along the coastline.
Coastal Sediment Transport
Coastlines are zones along which water is continually making changes. Waves can both erode
rock & deposit sediment.
Because of the continuous nature of ocean currents & waves, energy is constantly being
expended along coastlines & they are thus dynamically changing systems, even over short
(human) time scales.
z Longshore currents - Since most waves arrive at the shoreline at an angle even after
refraction. Such waves have a velocity oriented in the direction perpendicular to the wave
crests (Vw), but this velocity can be resolved into a component perpendicular to the shore
(Vp) and a component parallel to the shore (VL). The component parallel to the shore can
move sediment and is called the longshore current.
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z Beach drift - is due to waves approaching at angles to beach, but retreating perpendicular
to the shore line. This results in the swash of the incoming wave moving the sand up the
beach in a direction perpendicular to the incoming wave crests and the backwash moving
the sand down the beach perpendicular to the shoreline. Thus, with successive waves, the
sand will move along a zigzag path along the beach.
z Offshore Transport and Sorting
Particles picked up by wave motion move down slope, but the deeper the water, the less
energy is involved in wave motion, so smaller and smaller particles are moved farther off
shore. This results in size sorting of sediment, with grain size decreasing away from
coast. (see video at http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2_N7C9vdpV8).
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Oceans & Coasts
Coastal Deposits and Landforms
Coastlines represent a balance between wave energy and sediment supply. If wave energy and
sediment supply are constant, then a steady state is reached. If any one of these factors change,
then shoreline will adjust. For example, winter storms may increase wave energy, if sediment
supply is constant, fine grained beach sand may be carried offshore resulting in pebble beaches
or cobble beaches. Due to input of sediment from rivers, marine deltas may form, due to beach
and longshore drift such features as spits, bay barriers, and tombolos may form.
Coast represents the boundary between sea and land. When waves hit the coast, they can erode
by breaking up rocks into finer particles and abrading other rocks by flinging rocks, sand and
water against them. Over time, the effects can be large. Sediment is moved and redeposited to
increase the size of continental shelves.
z Beaches occur where sand is deposited along the shoreline. A beach can be divided into a
foreshore zone, which is equivalent to the swash zone, and backshore zone, which is
commonly separated from the foreshore by a distinct ridge, called a berm. Behind the
backshore may be a zone of cliffs, marshes, or sand dunes.
Sandy beaches are the most common. The sand tends to be very well sorted and
well rounded. The sorting is a reflection of the wave energy reaching the beach -
the waves are energetic enough to carry away the finer grained sediment, but not
energetic enough to carry in the coarser grained sediment. Beach deposits usually
show cross-bedding.
Sediment compositions reflect the local geology. Quartz is the most common,
although calcite is common where the coastal rocks are made of limestone or
where there are offshore carbonate reefs. In other environments, only minerals that
are resistant to chemical weathering occur.
In temperate climates, energy reaching coast is seasonal. Winter storms bring high
energy wash sand offshore, forming a narrow gravel beach. In the summer, less
energy reaches the beach, sand returns, and creates a wider beach (See figure 18.20
in your text).
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Oceans & Coasts
z Rocky Coasts - Where wave action

has not had time to lower the
coastline to sea level, a rocky coast
may occur. Because of the
resistance to erosion, a wave cut
bench and wave cut cliff develops.
If subsequent uplift of the wave-cut
bench occurs, it may be preserved
above sea level as a marine
terrace.
The cliff may retreat by undercutting and resulting mass-wasting processes. In areas
where differential erosion takes place, the undercutting may initially produces sea caves.
If sea caves from opposite sides of a rocky headland meet, then a sea arch may form.
Eventual weakening of the sea arch may result in its collapse to form a sea stack.
Because cliffed shorelines are continually attacked by the erosive & undercutting
action of waves, they are susceptible to frequent mass-wasting processes which
make the tops of these cliffs unstable areas for construction.
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Oceans & Coasts
Depositional Features along coasts.
z Deltas -- Deltas form where sediment supply is greater than ability of waves to remove
sediment. An example is the Mississippi River Delta, which is composed of several lobes
that were deposited within the last several thousand years. Erosion of the older delta
lobes has taken place due to subsidence, sea level rise, and lack of new sediment being
supplied to the delta because of the human-made levee system.
z Spits - elongated deposits of sand or gravel that projects from the land into open water.
Spits usually form at the mouth of a bay due to long shore current and beach drift.
Generally they curve inward towards the bay due to refraction of the waves around the
mouth of the bay.
z Bay Mouth Bars - if a spit extends across a bay, it is called a bay mouth bar. Exchange
of water between the bay and the ocean is accomplished through the groundwater system.
z Tombolos - a spit that connects the mainland to an offshore island is called a tombolo.
z Barrier Islands - A barrier island is a long narrow ridge of sand just offshore running
parallel to the coast. Separating the island and coast is a narrow channel of water called a
lagoon. Most barrier islands were built during after the last glaciation as a result of sea
level rise. Barrier islands are constantly changing. They grow parallel to the coast by
beach drift and longshore drift, and they are eroded by storm surges that often cut them
into smaller islands.
z Reefs and Atolls - Reefs consist of colonies of organisms, like corals, which secrete
calcium carbonate. Since these organisms can only live in warm waters and need sunlight
to survive, reefs only form in shallow tropical seas. In the deeper oceans reefs can build
up on the margins of volcanic islands, but only do so after the volcanoes have become
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Oceans & Coasts
extinct. After the volcanism ceases, the volcanic island begins to erode and also begins to
subside, due to the weight of newly added material. As the island subsides, the reefs
continue to grow upward. Eventually, the original volcanic island subsides and is eroded
below sea level. But, the reefs trap sediment and a circular or annular island, called an
atoll, forms (see figures 18.25 in your text).
z Estuaries - River valleys flooded by marine water are estuaries. They are characterized
by mixing of fresh and salt water. Modern estuaries are related to glaciation. During
glacial periods, when sea level was lower, rivers carved canyons along the coasts. When
the glacial ice melted and returned water to the oceans, the resulting rise in sea-level
flooded these canyons.
z Tidal Flats - Form in intertidal zones lacking strong waves. They are common behind
barrier islands or in estuaries. The sediment consists of thinly laminated sand and mud
often showing ripple marks.
z Fjords - Flooded U-shaped valleys carved by glaciers. They form spectacular bedrock-
bounded troughs. Notable examples are found in Norway. British Columbia, and New
Zealand.
Coastal Variability
The shape of coast is controlled mainly by tectonic forces and climate, both of which act to
determine the elevation of the coast.
Plate tectonic setting governs the style of coastline. In general, along passive margins,broad
low lying coastal plains dominate. Along active margins, uplifted rocky coasts dominate.
Sea level changes can be local or global. Rise of fall of local sea level occurs as a result of
tectonic forces or isostatic forces. Global sea level changes, however, are referred to as
eustatic sea level changes. Eustatic sea level change is controlled by:
1. The changes in the volume of water in the oceans, which can occur as a result of
changing climate. During cold periods, called glacial periods, much water is tied up in
glacial ice on the continents and sea level falls. During warm periods, called interglacial
periods, the glacial ice melts and returns to the oceans, thus raising sea level. Warmer
climates also mean warmer water in the oceans. Since the volume of water is higher at
higher temperatures, this also contributes to a rise in sea level.
2. Changing the shape of the oceans can also result in eustatic sea level rise. This might
occur if volcanic output on the sea floor or at oceanic ridges increases substantially, thus
raising the floor of the oceans.
z Emergent coasts result from local tectonic or isostatic uplift or from a drop in eustatic
sea level. Emergent coasts are characterized by rocky coasts with sea cliffs and raised
wave cut benches (marine terraces). The west coast of the U.S. is a an emergent coast
and in this case is due to a recent episode of uplift of the land relative to the sea by
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Oceans & Coasts
tectonic forces. The coast of New England is also an emergent case, but in the case, the
rise of the land surface has been due to removal of glacial ice which had depressed the
land during the last glaciation. Upon removal of the ice by melting at the end of the last
glaciation, the land has been rising.
z Submergent coasts result from either subsidence along the coast due to tectonic forces or
eustatic sea level rise. These are characterized by gentle shorelines, flooded river valleys
(estuaries and fjords), and barrier islands. Much of the East Coast and Gulf Coast of the
U.S. has these characteristics which are attributed to the rise of eustatic sea level since
last glaciation.
Coastal Problems
z Sea Level Rise - Sea level is presently rising and the rate of sea level rise may increase
due to to melting of continental ice sheets like now cover Greenland and Antarctica.
Human habitation of low-lying coastlines may be in jeopardy in the near future.
z Storms - great storms such as hurricanes or other winter storms can cause erosion of the
coastline at much higher rate than normal. During such storms beaches can erode rapidly
and heavy wave action can cause rapid undercutting and mass-wasting events of cliffs
along the coast.
z Tsunami - a tsunami is a giant sea wave generated by an earthquake. Such waves travel
at speeds up to 950 km/hr, have wavelengths up to 200 m, and upon approaching a
shallow coastline, can have wave heights up to 30 m. Such waves have great potential to
wipe out cities located along coastlines.
z Landslides - on coasts with cliffs, the main erosive force of the waves is concentrated at
the base of the cliffs. As the waves undercut the cliffs, they may become unstable and
mass-wasting processes like landslides will result. Massive landslides can also generate
tsunami.
z Pollution - includes garbage, especially plastic containers, sewage, agricultural runoff

rich in nitrates, and oil spills, all of which affect the natural habitats that include the base
of the food chain, and aesthetics of the coast, and the protection from storms that the
coastal environment offers.
Protection from Shoreline Erosion
Sea cliffs, since they are susceptible to landslides due to undercutting, and barrier islands and
beaches, since they are made of unconsolidated sand and gravel, are difficult to protect from
the action of the waves. Human construction can attempt to prevent erosion, but human
engineering cannot always protect against abnormal conditions. Humans construct such things
as sea walls, breakwaters, and groins in an attempt to slow coastal erosion, but sometimes other
problems are caused by these engineering feats. For example, construction of groin (a wall built
perpendicular to the shoreline) can trap sand and prevent beach drift and longshore drift from
supplying sand to areas down current along the coastline. These down current areas may then
erode, causing other problems.
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Oceans & Coasts
1. Define the following: (a) continental shelf, (b) continental slope, (c) abyssal plain, (d)
passive continental margin, (e) active continental margin, (f) salinity, (g) wave base, (h)
wave refraction, (i) spit, (j) tombolo, (k) fjord, (l) atoll, (m) estuary.
2. What are the main factors responsible for oceanic circulation?
3. Explain how longshore current and beach drift operates along a coast.
4. What are the main characteristics of beaches in terms of sediment type, sediment
composition, and sedimentary structures? How does wave energy affect these?
5. Describe how the following features of rocky coasts form (a) wave cut benches, (b)
wave-cut cliffs, (c) marine terraces, (d) sea caves, (e) sea arches, (f) sea stacks.
6. Why are waves effective as erosional agents?
7. What can cause eustatic sea level changes?
8. What are emergent coasts and submergent coasts, what causes each to form, and what are
the characteristics of each?
9. Discuss the problems that affect coastal environments.
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Groundwater
Groundwater
Groundwater is water that exists in the pore spaces and fractures in rock and sediment beneath
the Earth's surface. It originates as rainfall or snow, and then moves through the soil into the
groundwater system, where it eventually makes its way back to surface streams, lakes, or
oceans.
z Groundwater makes up about 1% of the water on Earth (most water is in oceans).
z But, groundwater makes up about 35 times the amount of water in lakes and streams.
z Groundwater occurs everywhere beneath the Earth's surface, but is usually restricted to
depths less that about 750 meters.
z The volume of groundwater is a equivalent to a 55 meter thick layer spread out over the
entire surface of the Earth.
z It is an important resource for potable water, irrigation, and industry.
z Because it is largely hidden from view, it is often forgotten and subject to contamination
by careless humans.
z Groundwater is a primary agent of chemical weathering and is responsible for the

formation of caves and sinkholes.
The Groundwater System
Groundwater resides in the void spaces of rock, sediment, or soil, completely filling the voids.
The total volume of open space in which the groundwater can reside is porosity. Porosity
determines the amount of water that a rock or sediment can contain.
Porosity
In sediments or sedimentary rocks the porosity depends on grain size, the shapes of the grains,
and the degree of sorting, and the degree of cementation.
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Groundwater
z Well-rounded coarse-grained
sediments usually have higher
porosity than fine-grained
sediments, because the grains do
not fit together well.
z Poorly sorted sediments usually have lower porosity because

the fine-grained fragments tend to fill in the open space.
z Since cements tend to fill in the pore space,

highly cemented sedimentary rocks have lower
porosity.
z In igneous and metamorphic rocks porosity is

usually low because the minerals tend to be
intergrown, leaving little free space. Highly
fractured igneous and metamorphic rocks,
however, could have high porosity
Secondary porosity is porosity that developed after rock formation. Processes such as
fracturing, faulting, and dissolution can create secondary porosity.
Permeability is a measure of the degree to which the pore spaces are interconnected, and the
size of the interconnections. Low porosity usually results in low permeability, but high porosity
does not necessarily imply high permeability. It is possible to have a highly porous rock with
little or no interconnections between pores. A good example of a rock with high porosity and
low permeability is a vesicular volcanic rock, where the bubbles that once contained gas give
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Groundwater
the rock a high porosity, but since these holes are not connected to one another the rock has low
permeability.
A thin layer of water will always

be attracted to mineral grains due
to the unsatisfied ionic charge on
the surface. This is called the force
of molecular attraction. If the size
of interconnections is not as large
as the zone of molecular attraction,
the water can't move.
Thus, coarse-grained rocks are usually more permeable than fine-grained rocks, and sands are
more permeable than clays.
Aquifers
An aquifer is a large body of permeable material where groundwater is present and fills all
pore space. Good aquifers are those with high permeability such as poorly cemented sands,
gravels, or highly fractured rock. An aquitard is a body of material with very low
permeability. In general, tightly packed clays, well cemented sandstones, and igneous and
metamorphic rocks lacking fractures are good aquitards. Large aquifers can be excellent
sources of water for human usage such as the High Plains Aquifer (in sands and gravels) or the
Floridian Aquifer (in porous limestones) as outlined in your text.
Aquifers can be of two types:
z Unconfined Aquifers - the most common type of aquifer, where the water table is
exposed to the Earth's atmosphere through the zone of aeration. .
z Confined Aquifers - these are less common, but occur when an aquifer is confined
between layers of impermeable strata (aquitards).
The Water Table
Rain that falls on the
surface seeps down
through the soil and
into a zone called the
zone of aeration or
unsaturated zone
(also called the
vadose zone), where
most of the pore
spaces are filled with
air. As it penetrates
deeper it eventually
enters a zone where
all pore spaces and
fractures are filled
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Groundwater
with water.
This zone is called the saturated zone or phreatic zone . The surface below which all openings
in the rock are filled with water (the top of the saturated zone) is called the water table.
The water table occurs everywhere beneath the Earth's surface. In desert regions it is always
present, but rarely intersects the surface.
In more humid regions

it reaches the surface at
streams and lakes, and
generally tends to
follow surface
topography. The depth
to the water table may
change, however, as the
amount of water
flowing into and out of
the saturated zone
changes.
During dry seasons, the depth to the water table increases. During wet seasons, the depth to the
water table decreases.
Discontinuous aquitards and
aquifers may exist in the subsurface.
These arrest downward infiltration
to the water table and form what are
called perched water tables. They
overlie unsaturated material and
may be confused with the main
water table. Because they are
smaller, they are more easily
dewatered or contaminated.
Movement of Groundwater
Groundwater is in constant motion, although the rate at which it moves is generally slower than
it would move in a stream because it must pass through the intricate passageways between free
space in the rock. First the groundwater moves downward due to the pull of gravity. But it can
also move upward because it will flow from higher pressure areas to lower pressure areas, as
can be seen by a simple experiment illustrated below. Imagine that we have a "U"-shaped tube
filled with water. If we put pressure on one side of the tube, the water level on the other side
rises, thus the water moves from high pressure zones to low pressure zones.
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The same thing happens beneath the surface of

the Earth, where pressure is higher beneath the
hills and lower beneath the valleys
The Earth's surface can be divided into areas

where some of the water falling on the surface
seeps into the saturated zone and other areas
where water flows out of the saturated zone
onto the surface. Areas where water enters the
saturated zone are called recharge areas,
because the saturated zone is recharged with
groundwater beneath these areas. Areas where
groundwater reaches the surface (lakes,
streams, swamps, & springs) are called
discharge areas, because the water is
discharged from the saturated zone. Generally,
recharge areas are greater than discharge
areas.
Groundwater movement is slow relative to that in surface streams. This is because it must
percolate through pore openings and is further slowed by friction and electrostatic forces.
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Groundwater
For comparison, typical rates of flow are as follows:
Ocean currents - 3 km /hour

Steep river channel - 30 km /hour
Groundwater - 0.00002 km /hour
Groundwater flow occurs on a variety of scales. Local Shallow flow occurs over short times
and distances, whereas, deep long distance flow occurs over time scales of centuries.
The rate at which
groundwater moves
through the
saturated zone
depends on the
permeability of the
rock and the
hydraulic head. The
hydraulic head is
defined as the
difference in
elevation between
two points on the
water table.
The hydraulic gradient is the hydraulic head divided by the distance between two points on the
water table.
The velocity, V, is of groundwater flow is given by:
V = K(h2- h1)/L
where K is the hydraulic conductivity, which is a measure of the permeability of the material
through which the water is following.
If we multiply this expression by the area, A, through which the water is moving, then we get
the discharge, Q.
Q = AK(h2 - h1)/L
which is Darcy's Law. It simply states that discharge is proportional to the hydraulic gradient
times the permeability. Discharge is higher if the hydraulic gradient is high and/or of the
permeability is high.
Note that like stream discharge, Q has units of volume per time (i.e. cubic meters per second).
Springs
A spring is an area on the surface of the Earth where the water table intersects the surface and
water flows out of the ground. Some springs occur when an aquitard intersects an aquifer at the
surface of the Earth . Such juxtaposition between permeable and impermeable rock can occur
along geological contacts and fault zones (see figure 19.14 in your text for other examples),
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Groundwater
Hot Springs and Geysers
Hot springs are groundwater discharges of water with temperatures that range from 30 to 104
C. The waters are usually rich in dissolved minerals that often precipitate around the springs.
They develop in two settings: (1) where deep groundwater surfaces along faults or fractures,
and (2) in geothermal regions where groundwater is heated by shallow magma or hot rock. Hot
springs are distinctive geological features. If the surface through volcanic ash they become a
viscous slurry called mudpots. If they precipitate dissolved minerals on cooling, they can form
deposits like travertine made of calcite.
Hot springs can also produce a wide range of colors due to thermal sensitive bacteria that
metabolize sulfur minerals.
Geysers form when hot water erupts to the surface. They are caused by boiling of the water at
depth which causes vapor bubbles to rise and reduce the pressure. This results in rapid boiling
which sends the water to the surface as a geyser. The cycle then repeats after the empty
chamber is refilled with water and is heated to the boiling temperature.
See http://mysite.du.edu/~jcalvert/geol/geyser.htm
Hot springs and geysers are common in active volcanic regions, notably Yellowstone Park in
Wyoming.
Wells
A well is human-made hole that is dug or drilled deep enough to intersect the water table. Wells
are usually used as a source for groundwater. If the well is dug beneath the water table, water
will fill the open space to the level of the water table, and can be drawn out by a bucket or by
pumping. Fracture systems and perched water bodies can often make it difficult to locate the
best site for a well.
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A special kind of confined aquifer is an artesian system, shown below. In an artesian system,
the aquifer is confined between aquitards and is included so that the pressure inside the aquifer
can push the water from a well or spring upward to nearly the same level as the top of the water
table. Artesian systems are desirable because they result in free flowing artesian springs and
artesian wells.
Changes in the Groundwater System
When discharge of groundwater exceeds recharge of the system, several adverse effects can
occur. Most common is lowering of the water table, resulting in springs drying up and wells
having to be dug to deeper levels. If water is pumped out of an aquifer, pore pressure can be
reduced in the aquifer that could result in compaction of the now dry aquifer and result in land
subsidence. In some cases withdrawal of groundwater exceeds recharge by natural processes,
and thus groundwater should be considered a non-renewable natural resource.
Water Quality and Groundwater Contamination
Water quality refers to such things as the temperature of the water, the amount of dissolved
solids, and lack of toxic and biological pollutants. Water that contains a high amount of
dissolved material through the action of chemical weathering can have a bitter taste, and is
commonly referred to as hard water. Hot water can occur if water comes from a deep source or
encounters a cooling magma body on its traverse through the groundwater system. Such hot
water may desirable for bath houses or geothermal energy, but is not usually desirable for
human consumption or agricultural purposes. Most pollution of groundwater is the result of
biological activity, much of it human. Among the sources of contamination are:
z Sewers and septic tanks
z Waste dumps (both industrial and residential)
z Gasoline Tanks (like occur beneath all service stations)
z Biological waste products - Biological contaminants can be removed from the

groundwater by natural processes if the aquifer has interconnections between pores that
are smaller than the microbes. For example a sandy aquifer may act as a filter for
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biological contaminants.
z Agricultural pollutants such as fertilizers and pesticides.
z Salt water contamination - results from excessive discharge of fresh groundwater in

coastal areas.
Groundwater contamination can result from a point source where the contaminant plume
emanates from 1 spot. Concentrations of the contaminant are highest near the source and
decrease away from the source. Or, from a widespread source where the pollution is
introduced over a wide area and diffused throughout the groundwater over a broad region.
Nonpoint source contaminants are difficult to identify and address.
Groundwater contaminant plumes change over time. They grow in length with groundwater
flow. They grow in width by diffusion and dispersion.
Large plumes pollute large areas and affect many people.
Remediation of Groundwater Contamination Problems
In order to begin remediation , contaminant characterization is first done. Monitoring wells are
installed to assess flow behavior. This allows for chemical testing to quantify the amount of
and character of the contaminants. Strategies are then designed to reduce health risks.
Remediation is usually quite expensive. Most strategies include removing the source of the
contaminant, then pumping the groundwater out and treating it. Sometimes heat is pumped in
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to volatilize the groundwater or steam is pumped in to clean out the containments. Newly
developed techniques uses bacteria to clean the groundwater in a process called
bioremediation.
Prevention of Groundwater Contamination
Contamination is best prevented by managing land uses. Landfills now require lining the
bottom of the landfill with impermeable clay and plastic liners. Underground storage tanks
require double-lining to prevent leakage.
Still the best practice is to require that contaminants not be allowed into the groundwater
system.
Geologic Activity of Groundwater
z Dissolution - Recall that water is the main agent of chemical weathering. Groundwater is
an active weathering agent and can leach ions from rock, and, in the case of carbonate
rocks like limestone, can completely dissolve the rock.
z Chemical Cementation and Replacement - Water is also the main agent acting during
diagenesis. It carries in dissolved ions which can precipitate to form chemical cements
that hold sedimentary rocks together. Groundwater can also replace other molecules in
matter on a molecule by molecule basis, often preserving the original structure such as in
fossilization or petrified wood.
z Caves and Caverns - If

large areas of limestone
underground are dissolved
by the action of
groundwater these cavities
can become caves or
caverns (caves with many
interconnected chambers)
once the water table is
lowered. Once a cave forms, it is open to the atmosphere and water percolating in can
precipitate new material such as the common cave decorations like stalactites (hang from
the ceiling), stalagmites (grow from the floor upward), and dripstones, and flowstones.
z Sinkholes - If the roof of a
cave or cavern collapses, this
results in a sinkhole.
Sinkholes, likes caves, are
common in areas underlain by
limestones. For example, in
Florida, which is underlain by
limestones, a new sinkhole
forms about once each year,
gobbling up cars and houses in
process.
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z Karst Landscapes - In an area where the main type of weathering is dissolution (like in
limestone terrains), the formation of caves and sinkholes, and their collapse and
coalescence may result in a highly irregular topography called karst landscapes (see
1. Define the following: (a) porosity, (b) permeability, (c) hydraulic head, (d) hydraulic
gradient, (d) confined aquifer, (f) unconfined aquifer, (g) perched water body, (h)
sinkhole, (i) stalactite, (j) stalagmite.
2. Give several examples of rocks or sediments that would make a good aquifer and those
that would make a good aquitard.
3. What factors increase the flow rate (discharge) of groundwater?
4. What can cause the water table to rise or fall?
5. Define and explain artesian wells and artesian springs.
6. What causes hot springs and geysers? Why are some hot springs very colorful?
7. How can groundwater become contaminated?
8. What can be done to prevent the contamination of groundwater?
9. What features of the groundwater system help to remove biological (microbial)

contamination?
10. How are caves and caverns formed?
11. What is a karst landscape and how does a karst landscape develop?
Page 11 of 11 4/9/2012
Deserts Page 1 of 9
Deserts
Deserts
Deserts are areas where rainfall is less than 250 mm (10 in.)/year, or where evaporation
exceeds precipitation. Thus, deserts are areas that we think of as arid. They may be hot or
cold. They are characterized by specialized ecosystems and low human populations. Because
of their dryness, unique geologic processes operate in deserts.
Origin of Deserts
Deserts originate by several different mechanisms that result in five types of deserts.
1. Subtropical deserts
2. Rain shadow deserts
3. Coastal deserts
4. Continental interior deserts
5. Polar deserts.
Subtropical Deserts - the general atmospheric circulation brings dry, subtropical air into mid-
latitudes. Examples: Sahara of Northern Africa, Kalahari of Southern Africa, and the Great
Australian Desert.
http://www.tulane.edu/~sanelson/eens1110/deserts.htm 4/16/2012
Deserts Page 2 of 9
Rainshadow Deserts - Areas where mountainous regions cause air to rise and condense,
dropping its moisture as it passes over the mountains. Examples: Deserts east of the Sierra
Nevada Mountains, California & Nevada, East of the Cascades of Oregon and Washington, and
East of the Andes Mountains in South America.
Coastal Deserts - Areas where cold upwelling seawater cools the air and decreases its ability to
hold moisture. Examples : Atacama Desert of coastal Peru, Namib Desert of coastal South
Africa.
Continental Interior Deserts - Areas in the continental interiors, far from source of moisture
where hot summers and cold winters prevail. Example: Gobi, Mongolia
Polar Deserts - Cold polar regions where cold dry air prevails and moisture available remains
frozen throughout the entire year. Examples: Northern Greenland, and ice-free areas of
Antarctica.
We will concentrate on the first four types of deserts, the one's which occur in hot arid climates.
Surface Processes in Deserts
The same geologic processes operate in deserts as in other more humid climates. The difference
is the intensity to which the processes act.
Weathering and Mass Movements

z Deserts have little soil because moisture is so low and the rate of chemical weathering is
slow. Recall that chemical weathering is responsible for the formation of soils Bedrock
commonly occurs at the surface. Exposed rock surfaces develop desert varnish a dark
reddish brown surface coating of of iron and manganese oxides. This forms very slowly
by bacterial activity, dust, and water.
z Little plant life develops because of lack of soils and water. Plants tend to hold soil and
fine-grained rock fragments in place so without plants, erosional processes can remove
the thin desert soils.
z Desert soils are usually colored like the bedrock nearby. Trace elements in the soils
bring out wide color variations.
z The desert surface is dominated by mechanical weathering processes. Rock fragments

tend to be angular, rather than rounded.
If we compare the surface features of deserts with those in humid regions, we find that:
{ deserts are dominated by rock falls, rock slides, and the accumulation of coarse
grained material, and generally have steeper slopes.
{ humid regions have soil and fine-grained regolith covering slopes, with creep
being the dominant mass movement process, resulting in curved gentle slopes.
z Cliffs of solid rock are common in desert regions. If the rock making up the cliff has
numerous vertical joints and they are underlain by more easily eroded rocks like shales,
erosion and mechanical weathering will eventually cause rock falls. This results in cliff
Deserts Page 3 of 9
retreat.
If the cliff forming rocks have horizontal bedding planes, continued cliff retreat and
stream erosion eventually form flat-tipped hills called mesas (mesa is Spanish for table)
with areas of several square kilometers. Small flat topped hills that become isolated from
the mesas are called buttes, like are seen in Monument Valley, Arizona. Smaller
examples, where the height of the feature exceeds their top surface are called chimneys,
like are seen in Bryce Canyon, Utah.
If the cliff forming rocks have bedding planes that dip, then an asymmetrical ridge, called
a cuesta will form. The steep cliff forms on one side and a gentle slope parallel to the
bedding planes forms on the other side. This gentle slope is referred to as dip slope,
because it is has the same angle as the dip of the bedding planes. (See figure 21.20a in
your text).
Streams and Fluvial Landforms
Surface waters are rare in deserts. Streams that do flow usually originate at higher elevations
and supply enough water for the stream to pass through the desert region without evaporating.
Streams in deserts tend to be ephemeral, that is they flow only during rains. For this reason,
flash floods and braided stream channels are common. Because flash floods can have
considerable discharge, rapid erosion can occur during these rare events. (Note that excellent
photos of these features can be found in your textbook and will be shown in lecture).
z Alluvial Fans and Bajadas - An alluvial fan forms where a mountain stream enters a
broad flat valley and deposits sediment as its velocity decreases on entering the flatter
valley. When a linear mountain range has several closely spaced valleys, the alluvial fans
may coalesce to form a gentle undulated slope on the sides of the bounding lowlands.
Such coalesced alluvial fans are known as Bajadas.
z Pediments - A pediment is broad bedrock surface with a gentle slope away from
highlands. With distance away from the highlands the pediment passes beneath a thin
cover of alluvial sediment derived from erosion of the pediment. The highlands remain as
residual hills as the pediment matures.
z Playa Lakes - Standing bodies of water like lakes are rare in desert regions because
rainfall and input from streams occurs only intermittently. Lakes that do form during the
rare periods of rainfall, quickly evaporate, leaving a dry lake bed behind. Playa Lakes
(also called dry lakes) are formed in basins of internal drainage. The lake beds often
consist of salts (evaporites) that were carried in by streams and precipitated during
evaporation. These precipitated salts give the dry lake bed a white color resembling a
beach (playa means beach in Spanish).
Wind Erosion and Deposition
Wind is common in arid desert regions because:
1. Air near the surface is heated and rises, cooler air comes in to replace hot rising air and
this movement of air results in winds.
Deserts Page 4 of 9
2. Arid regions have little or no soil moisture to hold rock and mineral fragments.
Wind has the ability to transport, erode, and deposit sediment.
Sediment Transportation by Wind -

Wind transports sediment near the surface
by saltation. Just as in the bed load of
streams, saltation refers to short jumps of
grains dislodged from the surface and
jumping a short distance. As the grains fall
back to the surface they may dislodge other
grains that then get carried by wind until
they collide with ground to dislodge other
particles. Smaller particles can become
suspended in the wind and may travel for
longer distances.
Sand Ripples - Occur as a result of larger grains accumulating as smaller grains are transported
away. Ripples form in lines perpendicular to wind direction. These are similar to, but much
smaller than dunes.
Wind blown dust - Sand sized particles generally do not travel very far in the wind, but smaller
sized fragments can be suspended in the wind for much larger distances.
Wind Erosion - Wind can be effective agent of erosion anywhere that it is strong enough to
act. Wind can erode by deflation and abrasion.
z Deflation is the lowering of the land surface due to removal of fine-grained particles by
the wind. Deflation concentrates the coarser grained particles at the surface, eventually
resulting in a surface composed only of the coarser grained fragments that cannot be
transported by the wind. Such a surface is called desert pavement.
Deserts Page 5 of 9
z Ventifacts are any bedrock

surface or stone that has been
abraded or shaped by wind-blown
sediment in a process similar to
sand blasting.
z Yardangs are streamlined wind-

eroded ridges commonly found in
deserts.
Wind Deposits
Wind can deposit sediment when its velocity decreases to the point where the particles can no
longer be transported. This can happen when topographic barriers slow the wind velocity on
both the upwind and downwind side of the barrier. As the air moves over the top of the barrier,
streamlines converge and the velocity increases.
After passing over the

barrier, the streamlines
diverge and the
velocity decreases. As
the velocity decreases,
some of the sediment
in suspension can no
longer be held in
suspension, and thus
drops out to form a
deposit.
Topographic barriers can be such things as rocks, vegetation, and human made structures that
protrude above the land surface.
Sand Dunes - Sand dunes form when there is (1) a ready supply of sand, (2) a steady wind, and
(3) some kind of obstacle such as vegetation, rocks, or fences, to trap some of the sand. Sand
dunes form when moving air slows down on the downwind side of an obstacle. The sand grains
drop out and form a mound that becomes a dune.
z Sand dunes are asymmetrical mounds with a gentle slope in the upwind direction and
steep slope called a slip face on the downwind side. Dunes migrate by erosion of sand by
wind (saltation) on the gentle upwind slope, and deposition and sliding on the slip face,
and thus are cross-bedded deposits.
Deserts Page 6 of 9
Such cross-bedded deposits are often preserved in sandstones, such as the Navajo
Sandstone in Zion National Park, Utah (see figure 21.22d in your text).
z Dunes may cover large areas and reach heights up to 500m.
z Types of sand dunes
Barchan Dunes - are crescent-shaped dunes with the points of the crescents pointing in
the downwind direction, and a curved slip face on the downwind side of the dune. They
form in areas where there is a hard ground surface, a moderate supply of sand, and a
constant wind direction.
Transverse Dunes - are large fields of dunes that resemble sand ripples on a large
scale. They consist of ridges of sand with a steep face in the downwind side, and
form in areas where there is abundant supply of sand and a constant wind
direction. Barchan dunes merge into transverse dunes if the supply of sand
increases.
Deserts Page 7 of 9
Longitudinal Dunes (also called Sief Dunes) - are long straight dunes that form in areas
with a limited sand supply and converging wind directions.
Parabolic (also called blowout) Dunes - are "U" shaped dunes with an open end
facing upwind. They are usually stabilized by vegetation, and occur where there is
abundant vegetation, a constant wind direction, and an abundant sand supply.
They are common in coastal areas.
Star Dunes - are dunes with several arms and variable slip face directions that
form in areas where there is abundant sand and variable wind directions.
Deserts Page 8 of 9
z Wind Blown Dust - Dust consists of silt and clay sized particles that are often packed
together with smooth surface. Such packed dust is difficult to remove by wind erosion
alone, unless the surface is very dry or is disturbed. When dust it is disturbed, dust storms
may develop, and dust may be transported by the wind over large distances. Most soil
contains some silt and clay particles deposited by the wind.
A large deposits of wind deposited dust is called loess. Much loess was derived from
debris left by glacial erosion and winds blowing across desert region s..
z Dust in Ocean Sediments. - Dust can be transported by the wind and by onto the surface
of the oceans. Much of this wind blown dust originates in deserts. As a result, much of
the fine grained continent-derived sediment that reaches the abyssal plains of the oceans
was originally transported by winds.
Desertification
Desertification occurs as a result of climatic changes, such as changing positions of the

continents, changes in ocean and air circulation patterns. The latter can be driven by changes in
global temperature that occur naturally or as the result of human activities. Human impacts,
such as overgrazing, overpopulation, draining of land, and lowering of the groundwater table,
can also contribute to desertification. As vegetation dies out, the soil is more easily eroded and
may be lost so that other vegetation becomes destabilized. Since soil can hold moisture, if the
soil erodes, the area may become arid, and the desert expands.
Short term desertification took place on the great plains of the U.S. beginning in 1933 and
lasting for several years. It was initiated by drought conditions that resulted from unusual
weather patterns, but was exacerbated by overpopulation and plowing of the soil which
removed grasses that would normally hold the soil in place. When the soil dried out, winds
whipping across the area generated giant dust storms form which the period got its name - the
Great Dust Bowl. It resulted in famine and economic hardship for residents of the area, most of
whom migrated out of the area. Although the area has recovered, this episode of history shows
how even short term changes in weather patterns and human interference with the land can lead
to drastic consequences.
Long term desertification is also taking place in other parts of the world. In particular, south of
the Sahara desert in Africa, the Sahel, is a semi-arid grass land that has been subject to
overpopulation, overuse of water resources, extensive agriculture, and overgrazing during the
Deserts Page 9 of 9
past 60 years. The result has been desertification and resulting mass starvation of the human
occupants of the land.
1. What is a desert and what are the 5 types of deserts that occur on Earth?
2. What are the following desert landforms (a) mesa, (b) butte, (c) chimney, (d) cuesta, (e)
alluvial fans, (f) bajadas, (g) inselbergs.
3. Define the following (a) desert varnish, (b) deflation (c) desert pavement, (d) playa lake,
(e) ventifact, (f) yardang, (g) loess
4. How do mass movement processes differ in deserts and more humid areas and what
result do these differences have on the landscape of the areas?
5. What the 5 types of sand dunes and what are the conditions necessary to form each?
6. Explain how sand dunes can migrate across the surface.
7. What natural and anthropogenic (human induced) factors can result in desertification.
Glaciers and Glaciation Page 1 of 9
Glaciers and Glaciation
Glaciers constitute much of the Earth that makes up the cryosphere, the part of the Earth that
remains below the freezing point of water. Most glacial ice today is found in the polar regions,
above the Arctic and Antarctic Circles. While glaciers are of relatively minor importance today,
covering only about 10% of the surface, evidence exists that the Earth's climate has undergone
fluctuations in the past, and that the amount of the Earth's surface covered by glaciers has been
as much as 30% in the past. In fact, much of the topography in the northern part of North
America, as well as in the high mountain regions of the west, owe their form to erosional and
depositional processes of glaciers. The latest glaciation ended only 10,000 years ago. The
Earth has experienced numerous glaciations, the most recent during the Pleistocene Epoch
between 1.8 million years ago and 11,000 years ago. Other episodes occurred in the Permian,
Ordovician, and Late Precambrian.
Definition of a glacier
A glacier is a permanent (on a human time scale, because nothing on the Earth is really
permanent) body of ice, consisting largely of recrystallized snow, that shows evidence of
downslope or outward movement due to the pull of gravity.
Types of Glaciers
(note: images of these features are shown in your textbook and will be shown in class.)
Mountain Glaciers - Relatively small glaciers which occur at higher elevations in

mountainous regions.
z Smallest of these occupy hollows or bowl-shaped depressions on sides of mountains

(cirque glaciers).
z As cirque glaciers grow larger they may spread into valleys and flow down the valleys as
valley glaciers. Paths these valley glaciers take are controlled by existing topography.
z If a valley glacier extends down to sea level, it may carve a narrow valley into the
coastline. These are called fjord glaciers, and the narrow valleys they carve and later
become filled with seawater after the ice has melted are fjords.
z If a valley glacier extends down a valley and then covers a gentle slope beyond the
mountain range, it is called a piedmont glacier.
z If all of the valleys in a mountain range become filled with glaciers, and the glaciers
cover then entire mountain range, they are called ice caps.
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Ice Sheets (Continental glaciers) - are the largest types of glaciers on Earth. They cover large
areas of the land surface, including mountain areas. Modern ice sheets cover Greenland and
Antarctica. These two ice sheets comprise about 95% of all glacial ice currently on Earth. They
have an estimated volume of about 24 million km3. If melted, they contain enough water to
raise sea level about 66m (216 ft.). This would cause serious problems for coastal cities (L.A.,
NY, Washington DC, New Orleans, Miami, SF etc). The Greenland ice sheet is in some places
over 3000 m (9800 ft) thick and the weight of ice has depressed much of the crust of Greenland
below sea level. Antarctica is covered by two large ice sheets that meet in the central part along
the Transantarctic Mountains. These are the only truly polar ice sheet on earth (North Pole lies
in an ocean covered by thin layer of ice).
Ice Shelves - Ice shelves are sheets of ice floating on water and attached to land. They usually
occupy coastal embayments, may extend hundreds of km from land and reach thicknesses of
1000 m.
Glaciers can also be classified by their internal temperature.
z Temperate glaciers - Ice in a temperate glacier is at a temperature near its melting point.
z Polar glaciers - Ice in a polar glacier always maintains a temperature well below its
melting point.
The Formation of Glacial Ice
Three conditions are necessary to form a glacier: (1) Cold local climate (polar latitudes or high
elevation). (2) snow must be abundant; more snow must fall than melts, and (3) snow must not
be removed by avalanches or wind.
Glaciers can only form at latitudes or elevations above the snowline, which is the elevation
above which snow can form and remain present year round. The snowline, at present, lies at sea
level in polar latitudes and rises up to 6000 m in tropical areas. Glaciers form in these areas if
the snow becomes compacted, forcing out the air between the snowflakes. As compaction
occurs, the weight of the overlying snow causes the snow to recrystallize and increase its grain-
size, until it increases its density and becomes a solid block of ice. A glacier is actually a
metamorphic rock.
Changes in Glacier Size
A glacier can change its size by Accumulation, which occurs by addition of snowfall,
compaction and recrystallization, and Ablation, the loss of mass resulting from melting, usually
at lower altitude, where temperatures may rise above freezing point in summer. Thus,
depending on the balance between accumulation and ablation during a full season, the glacier
can advance or retreat (see figure 22.9 in your text book).
Movement of Glaciers
Glaciers move to lower elevations under the force of gravity by two different processes:
z Internal Flow - called creep, results from deformation of the ice crystal structure - the
crystals slide over each other like deck of cards. This type of movement is the only type
that occurs in polar glaciers, but it also occurs in temperate glaciers.
z Basal sliding - meltwater at base of glacier reduces friction by lubricating the surface and
allowing the glacier to slide across its bed. Polar glaciers are usually frozen to their bed
and are thus too cold for this mechanism to occur.
The upper portions of glaciers are brittle, when the lower portion deforms by internal flow, the
upper portions may fracture to form large cracks called crevasses. Crevasses occur where the
lower portion of a glacier flows over sudden change in topography (see figure 22.6 in your
text).
The velocity of glacial ice changes throughout the glacier. The velocity is low next to the base
of the glacier and where it is contact with valley walls. The velocity increases toward the center
and upper parts of the glacier (see figure 22.8 in your text).
Glaciation
Glaciation: is the modification of the land surface by the action of glaciers. Glaciations have
occurred so recently in N. America and Europe, that weathering, mass wasting, and stream
erosion have not had time to alter the landscape. Thus, evidence of glacial erosion and
deposition are still present. Since glaciers move, they can pick up and transport rocks and thus
erode. Since they transport material and can melt, they can also deposit material. Glaciated
landscapes are the result of both glacial erosion and glacial deposition.
Glacial Erosion - Glaciers erode in several ways.:

z Abrasion Rock fragments carried by the glacier scrape against rock causing abrasion,
like sandpaper.
z Plucking Ice breaks off and removes bedrock fragments
z Ice melts by pressure against the up-ice side of an obstruction. Entering cracks in
bedrock, this water re-freezes to the ice. Glacial movement plucks away bedrock chunks
(see figure 22.13 and 22.14 in your text).
Small scale erosional features (note: most of this material will be presented as slides in class)
z Glacial striations - long parallel scratches and grooves that are produced at the bottom of
temperate glaciers by rocks embedded in the ice scraping against the rock underlying the
glacier (see figure 22.12 in your text).
z Glacial polish - rock that has a smooth surface produced as a result of fined grained
material embedded in the glacier acting like sandpaper on the underlying surface (see
Landforms produced by mountain glaciers (see figure 22.15 in your text)

z Cirques - bowl shaped depressions that occur at the heads of mountain glaciers that result
form a combination of frost wedging, glacial plucking, and abrasion. Sometimes small
lakes, called tarns occur in the bottom of cirque.
z Glacial Valleys - Valleys that once contained glacial ice become eroded into a "U" shape
in cross section. Stream erosion, on the other hand, produces valleys that are "V" shaped
in cross section.
z Artes - If two adjacent valleys are filled with glacial ice, the ridges between the valleys
can be carved into a sharp knife-edge ridge, called an arte.
z Horns - Where three or more cirques are carved out of a mountain, they can produce a
sharp peak called a horn.
z Hanging Valleys - When a glacier occupying a smaller tributary valley meets the larger
valley, the tributary glacier usually does not have the ability to erode its base to the floor
of the main valley. Thus, when the glacial ice melts the floor of the tributary valley hangs
above the floor of the main valley and is called a hanging valley. Waterfalls generally
occur where the hanging valley meets the main valley.
z Fjords - Fjords are narrow inlets along the seacoast that were once occupied by a valley
glacier, called a fjord glacier.
Landforms produced by Ice Caps and Ice Sheets
z Abrasional features - The same small-scale abrasional features such as striations and
glacial polish can occur beneath ice caps and ice sheets, particularly in temperate
environments.
z Streamlined forms - The land surface beneath a moving continental ice sheet can be
molded into smooth elongated forms called drumlins (see figure 22.20 in your text).
Other elongated hills carved into bedrock by plucking and abrasion are called roche
mountomes (see figures 22.14 in your text).
Glacial Deposition and Deposits
Since glaciers are solid they can transport all sizes of sediment, from huge house-sized boulders
to fine-grained clay sized material. The glacier can carry this material on its surface or
embedded within it. Thus, sediment transportation in a glacier is very much different than that
in a stream. Thus, sediments deposited directly from melting of a glacial can range from very
poorly sorted to better sorted, depending on how much water transport takes place after the ice
melts. All sediment deposited as a result of glacial erosion is called Glacial Drift.
Ice Laid Deposits

z Till - nonsorted glacial drift deposited directly from ice. Till consists of a random
mixture of different sized fragments of angular rocks in a matrix of fine grained, sand- to
clay-sized fragments that were produced by abrasion within the glacier. This fine-grained
material is often called rock flour because it is really ground up rock. A till that has
undergone diagenesis and has turned into a rock is called a tillite.
z Erratics - a glacially deposited rock or fragment that now rests on a surface made of
different rock. Erratics are often found many kilometers from their source, and by
mapping the distribution pattern of erratics geologists can often determine the flow
directions of the ice that carried them to their present locations.
z Moraines - are deposits of till that have a form different from the underlying bedrock.
Depending on where it formed in relation to the glacier moraines can be:
{ Ground Moraines - these are deposited beneath the glacier and result in a
hummocky topography with lots of enclosed small basins.
{ End Moraines and Terminal Moraines are deposited at the low elevation end of a
glacier as the ice retreats due to ablation (melting) (see illustration on page 764-65
in your text). It is notable that Long Island, NY and part of Cape Cod, MA are
terminal moraines from the last glaciation (see figure 22.19 in your text)..
{ Lateral Moraines are deposits of till that were deposited along the sides of
mountain glaciers.
{ Medial Moraines - When two valley glaciers meet to form a larger glacier, the
rock debris along the sides of both glaciers merge to form a medial moraine (see
figures 22.17). These black streaks in an active glacier, as well as the deposits left
behind after the ice melts are called medial moraines.
z Glacial Marine drift - Glaciers that reach the oceans or even lakes, may calve off into
large icebergs which then float on the water surface until they melt. Upon melting, the
rock debris that they contain becomes immediately deposited on the sea floor or lake bed
as an unsorted chaotic deposit. Sometimes single large rock fragments fall out on the
floor of the water body, and these are called dropstones.
Stratified Drift - Glacial drift can be picked up and moved by meltwater streams which can then
deposit that material as stratified drift.
z Outwash Plains - Streams running off the end of a melting glacier are usually choked
with sediment and form braided streams, which deposit poorly sorted stratified sediment
in an outwash plain. These deposits are often referred to as outwash.
z Kettle Lakes (called kettle holes in your text) - If depressions form underneath a glacier
and remain after the glacier is melted then water filling these depressions become small
lakes where fine-grained sediment is deposited. The state of Minnesota is called the land
of ten thousand lakes, most of which are kettle lakes.
z Kames and Kame Terraces - Streams and lakes forming on top of or on the sides of
stagnant ice may deposit stratified sediment on top of the glacier. When the glacier melts
these deposits are set down on the ground surface and become kames.
z Eskers - Eskers are long sinuous ridges of sediment deposited by streams than ran under
or within a glacier. The sediment deposited by these streams becomes an esker after the
ice has melted (see figure 22.21 in your text).
z Meltwater Lakes - Depressions created by glacial erosion and deposition collect water
released by melting glaciers. Sediment that collects in the bottom on the lakes is often
finely layered with coarser grained layers forming during times of warmer temperatures
and fine grained layers formed during cold times when no new sediment is entering the
lake. Such finely layered strata are termed varves.
Other Consequences of Glaciation
Ice Loading and Glacial Rebound
The weight of glacial ice sheets depress the lithosphere into the mantle causing the crust to
subside. After the ice melts, the depressed lithosphere rebounds. The rebound process is still
taking place today (see figures 22.22 in your text).
Sea Level Changes
z During glacial periods much sea water was tied up in glaciers so sea level was lower.
z during interglacial periods sea level was higher due to melting of the ice.
Ice Dams, Drainage Reversals, and Lakes
When glacial ice forms, it can block existing drainages causing the formation of new lakes and
forcing streams to find new pathways that develop into new drainage networks. Once the ice
melts, the new drainage network become well established and the old drainage networks are
often abandoned.
Such a change in drainage networks took place as a result of the last ice age in North America
(see figure 22.24 in your text book). Prior to glaciation, streams in the northern U.S. and
Canada drained to the northeast into what is now Hudson Bay and only the southern part of the
U.S. drained into the Mississippi River system. Because the glacial ice retreated toward the
north, the Mississippi drainage system became the major drainage system for much of the U.S.
During the Pleistocene Epoch, large lakes formed both as result of ice dams and melting of
glaciers. Examples include the Great Lakes of the northern U.S., and a now much reduced
lake, Lake Agassiz the formed from northern Minnesota, into the Canadian provinces of
Manitoba, Saskatchewan and Ontario. As ice melted, lakes were also formed in the western
U.S. at large distances from the glacial source. For example in the Basin and Range Province,
basins were filled with large lakes formed by internal drainage. One of these lakes. Lake
Bonneville, covered much of western Utah, eventually draining and evaporating leaving the
remnant called the Great Salt Lake.
Glacial Ages
The last glaciation ended about 11,000 years ago. But the period between 11,000 years ago and
2 million years ago (the Pleistocene epoch) was a time of many glacial and interglacial ages.
Based on evidence from glacial deposits and glacial erosion features geologists have been able
to document at least 4 glaciations during the Pleistocene, two of which are poorly documented.
But recent studies of deep-sea sediments and dating of these deposits suggest that there were at
least 30 glaciations that occurred during the Pleistocene. This evidence comes from studies of
fossils found in deep-sea sediment cores, and what they tell us about ocean surface
temperatures in the past. The results come from studies of the isotopes of oxygen.
z Oxygen has two major isotopes, 18O, which is considered heavy, and 16O, which is
considered light. Both of these isotopes are stable and non-radiogenic, so their ratio is
constant through time.
z Because 16O is lighter, it is preferentially evaporated with sea water from the oceans, and
thus gets concentrated in the water that eventually falls on the continents as rain or snow.
Because of this, 18O gets concentrated in ocean water.
z During constant climatic conditions the 16O lost to evaporation returns to the oceans by
rain and streams, so that the ratio of 18O to 16O (18O / 16O) is constant.
z But, during a glaciation, some of the 16O gets tied up in glacial ice and does not return to
the oceans. Thus during glaciations the 18O / 16O ratio of sea water increases.
z During an interglaciation, on the other hand, the 16O that was tied up in glacial ice
returns to the oceans causing a decrease in the 18O / 16O ratio of seawater.
Thus, we expect that during glaciations the 18O / 16O

ratio in seawater will be high, and during interglaciations
the 18O / 16O ratio in seawater will be low.
Since organisms that live in the oceans extract Oxygen

from seawater to form their carbonate (CO3-2) shells,
measuring the 18O / 16O ratio in the shells of dead
organisms gives a record of past ocean temperatures. The
record for the past two million years is shown here and in
figure 22.30 in your text. The data suggests about 30
glaciations separated by interglaciations during the past 2
million years.
During the last 1 million years it appears that each glacial - interglacial cycle has lasted about
100,000 years, but earlier cycles were about 40,000 years long.
Other periods of glaciation are known from the geologic record, mainly from preserved glacial
striations and tillites (consolidated till). The earliest recognized glaciation occurred about 2.3
billion years ago, but at least 50 other glaciations are recognized to have occurred during the
Paleozoic era.
Causes of Glacial Ages
In order to understand what causes these cycles of glacial - interglacial episodes we need a
much better understanding of what causes global climate changes. Because human history is so
short compared to the time scales on which global climate change occurs, we do not completely
understand the causes. However, we can suggest a few reasons why climates fluctuate.
z Long term variations in climate (tens of millions of years) on a single continent are likely
caused by drifting continents. If a continent drifts toward the equator, the climate will
become warmer. If the continent drifts toward the poles, glaciations can occur on that
continent.
z Short-term variations in climate are likely controlled by the amount of solar radiation
reaching the Earth. Among these are astronomical factors and atmospheric factors.
{ Astronomical Factors -
Variation in the eccentricity of the Earth's orbit around the sun has periods of
about 400,000 years and 100,000 years.
Variation in the tilt of the Earth's axis has a period of about 41,000 years.
Variation in the way the Earth wobbles on its axis, called precession, has a
period of about 23,000 years.
The combined effects of these astronomical variations results in periodicities

(called Milankovitch Cycles) similar to those observed for glacial -
interglacial cycles (see figure 22.46 in your test book)
{ Atmospheric Factors- the composition of the Earth's atmosphere can be gleaned

from air bubbles trapped in ice in the polar ice sheets. Studying drill core samples
of such glacial ice and their contained air bubbles reveals the following:
During past glaciations, the amount of CO2 and methane, both greenhouse
gasses that tend to cause global warming, were lower than during interglacial
episodes.
During past glaciations, the amount of dust in the atmosphere was higher
than during interglacial periods, thus more heat was likely reflected from the
Earth's atmosphere back into space.
The problem in unraveling what this means comes from not being able to
understand if low greenhouse gas concentration and high dust content in the
atmosphere caused the ice ages or if these conditions were caused by the ice
ages.
{ Changes in Oceanic Circulation - small changes in ocean circulation can amplify

small changes in temperature variation produced by astronomical factors.
{ Other factors
The energy output from the sun may fluctuate.
Large explosive volcanic eruptions can add significant quantities of dust to

the atmosphere reflecting solar radiation and resulting in global cooling.
Impacts of large asteroids with the Earth can cause extensive amounts of
dust and soot to be placed in the atmosphere. Dust and soot would block
incoming solar radiation and cause a cooling effect for as long as the dust
remains in the atmosphere.
1. Describe the different types of mountain glaciers.
2. How does glacial ice cause erosion?
3. Describe the erosional features produced by glaciers.
4. What are the characteristics of sediment deposited directly from glaciers? Describe the
various types of ice laid deposits.
5. How does glaciation modify the landscape in terms of drainage networks and lakes?
6. During the Pleistocene Epoch, how many glacial/interglacial episodes are suspected and
what is the evidence for this?
7. What factors can cause long term and short term variations in climate that may be
responsible for the glacial/interglacial cycles.
8. Why is Minnesota called the Land of Ten Thousand Lakes?
Global Change Page 1 of 11
Our Changing Planet
We started this course by stating that the Earth is a complex system. Changes that take place in
one part of the system have effects on other parts. The tectonic system is driven by the heat in
the Earth. This drives the rock cycle, which is also affected by the atmosphere and biosphere.
The atmosphere is in chemical equilibrium with the oceans and exchanges matter with the
biosphere. All process act on a variety of time scales from hundreds of millions of years to
microseconds. We as human beings are only now realizing that, as part of the biosphere, we
have an effect on the Earth. What the effect is, we are only now beginning to understand. Here
we try to put this in perspective.
One of the reasons life exists on Earth is that the surface has a controlled temperature in the
range between the freezing and boiling points of water. The Earth is the only planet in the solar
system where this is true. Part of the reason for this results from the distance from the Sun. But,
the reason that temperature remains fixed is controlled by the atmosphere.
Solar Radiation and the Atmosphere
Radiation reaching the Earth from the Sun is electromagnetic radiation. Electromagnetic
radiation can be divided into different regions depending on wavelength. Note that visible light
is the part of the electromagnetic spectrum to which human eyes are sensitive. The lowest
wavelengths of the spectrum have the highest energy. Infrared & microwaves carry
considerable amounts of heat energy.
Earth receives all wavelengths of solar radiation. But certain gases and other contaminants in
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the atmosphere have different effects on different wavelengths of radiation.
Dry air is composed of about 78% Nitrogen, 21% oxygen, and 1% Argon. It also contains
water, 4% at saturation, but saturation depends on temperature. In addition trace gases have an
effect. Among the trace gases are:
Ozone (O3)
Ozone is produced in the upper atmosphere (30 - 35 km above surface) by incoming ultraviolet
radiation. Ultraviolet radiation causes O2 to go to O + O. Some of the O then recombines with
O2 to make O3. This ozone then absorbs more ultraviolet radiation and breaks down to O2 + O.
This O can then can recombine with O2 to make more Ozone. The process is self regulating
and results in less ultraviolet radiation reaching the Earth's surface.
Ultraviolet radiation is harmful to organisms because it is high energy radiation that

damages cells. In humans, excessive exposure to ultraviolet light causes sunburns and
skin cancer.
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) are produced to make refrigerants and styrofoam.
Chlorine from these human made products enters the atmosphere and catalyzes the
breakdown of ozone.
It is estimated that for every Cl molecule in atmosphere, 100,000 ozone molecules

can be destroyed.
It has been observed that the protecting ozone layer in the upper atmosphere has
deteriorated over the last 50 years, a result thought to be produced by human
introduction of CFCs into the atmosphere.
Fortunately, we have seen some progress in solving this problem. In 1990 an

international treaty, the Montreal Protocol, agreed to reduce CFCs and other sources
of Chlorine released into the atmosphere with the goal of restoring the ozone layer to
its pre 1960 values by 2050. So far the results have been encouraging as the pattern
of ozone depletion seems to have bottomed out.
z Greenhouse Gases
Energy coming from the Sun is carried by electromagnetic radiation. Some of this
radiation is reflected back into space by clouds and dust in the atmosphere. The rest
reaches the surface of the Earth, where again it is reflected by water and ice or absorbed
by the atmosphere. Greenhouse gases in the atmosphere absorb some of the longer
wavelength (infrared) radiation and keep some of it in the atmosphere. This keeps the
atmospheric temperature relatively stable so long as the concentration of greenhouse
gases remains relatively stable, and thus, the greenhouse gases are necessary for life to
exist on Earth.
The most important green house gases are H2O (water vapor), CO2 (Carbon Dioxide),
CH4 (methane), and Ozone. H2O is the most abundant greenhouse gas, but its
concentration in the atmosphere varies with temperature. Venus, which has mostly CO2
in its atmosphere, has temperature of about 500oC (also partly due to nearness to Sun).
Carbon Dioxide in the Atmosphere
The Carbon Cycle
We must look at how carbon moves through the environment. Carbon is stored in four main
reservoirs.
1. In the atmosphere as CO2 gas. From here it exchanges with seawater or water in the
atmosphere to return to the oceans, or exchanges with the biosphere by photosynthesis,
where it is extracted from the atmosphere by plants. CO2 returns to the atmosphere by
respiration from living organisms, from decay of dead organisms, from weathering of
rocks, from leakage of petroleum reservoirs, and from burning of fossil fuels by humans.
2. In the hydrosphere (oceans and surface waters) as dissolved CO2. From here it
precipitates to form chemical sedimentary rocks, or is taken up by organisms to enter the

biosphere. CO2 returns to the hydrosphere by dissolution of carbonate minerals in rocks
and shells, by respiration of living organisms, by reaction with the atmosphere, and by
input from streams and groundwater.
3. In the biosphere where it occurs as organic compounds in organisms. CO2 enters the
biosphere mainly through photosynthesis. From organisms it can return to the
atmosphere by respiration and by decay when organisms die, or it can become buried in
the Earth.
4. In the Earth's lithosphere as carbonate minerals, graphite, coal, petroleum. This is by far
the largest reservoir. From here it can return to the atmosphere by weathering, volcanic
eruptions, hot springs, or by human extraction and burning to produce energy.
Cycling between the atmosphere and the biosphere occurs about every 4.5 years. Cycling
between the other reservoirs occurs on an average of millions of years.
For example, carbon stored in the Earth in sedimentary rocks or as fossil fuels only re-enters
the atmosphere naturally when weathering and erosion expose these materials to the Earth's
surface or volcanoes erupt. When humans extract and burn fossil fuels the process occurs much
more rapidly than it would occur by natural processes. With an increased rate of cycling
between the Earth and the atmosphere, extraction from the atmosphere by increased interaction
with the oceans, or by increased extraction by organisms must occur to balance the input. If this
does not occur, it may result in increasing concentrations of CO2 in the atmosphere and result
in global warming.
z Volcanic Effects
Volcanoes produce several things that result in changing atmosphere and atmospheric
temperatures.
1. CO2 produced by volcanoes adds to the greenhouse gases and may result in
warming of the atmosphere.
2. Sulfur gases produced by volcanoes reflect low wavelength radiation back into
space, and thus result in cooling of the atmosphere.
3. Dust particles injected into the atmosphere by volcanoes reflect low wavelength
radiation back into space, and thus can result in cooling of the atmosphere.
4. Chlorine gases produced by volcanoes can contribute to ozone depletion in the

upper atmosphere.
The Mt. Pinatubo eruption in 1991 and El Chichn eruption in 1981 released large
quantities of dust and sulfur gases - resulted in short term cooling of atmosphere.
Volcanism in the middle Cretaceous produced large quantities of basalt on the seafloor
and released large amounts of CO2. The middle Cretaceous was much warmer than
present, resulting in much higher sea level.
Paleoclimatology
Before we can assess the human impact on global climates, we need to first look at how
climates have varied in the past. The study of such past climate change is called
paleoclimatology. Such study involves the study of earth history using stratigraphic methods
to look for indicators of ancient climates. It also involves the study of how sea level has
changed through time, again using clues left in the rock record and how ocean temperatures
have changed in the past using stable isotope ratios observed in fossils. Because air can get
trapped in glacial ice, drilling through the ice to find air bubbles trapped in the ice can be used
to obtain samples of ancient atmospheres.
Combining this with radiometric age dates allows us to determine how concentration of CO2
and methane in the atmosphere has changed over time, as well as how dust concentrations in
the atmosphere have varied. Paleoclimatology also involves using the data to construct
computer models in attempt to understand the causes of past climate change and project how
climates might change in the future.
From our study of glaciations we know that climate can change as result of natural processes,
both becoming warmer and colder than present. Although these climatic fluctuations appear to
be caused by Malinkovich cycles, it is interesting to note that during glaciations in the past the
concentrations of greenhouse gasses in the atmosphere were lower, atmospheric dust was
higher, and the Earth's albedo was higher, all of these factors could have contributed to cooler
climates. Similarly, during past interglacial episodes, the atmosphere contained less dust,
higher concentrations of greenhouse gases, and the Earth had a lower albedo, all of which
contribute to warmer climates. The questions that remain to be answered are:
z Are there higher concentrations of greenhouse gases and lower dust concentrations in the
atmosphere due to the warmer temperatures or did they cause the warmer temperatures?
z Are these differences simply due to Malinkovich cycles, or is there some other natural
self regulating process that allows for cycles?
z How do human affect these cycles?
Geologists have been able to reconstruct CO2 concentrations in the atmosphere for the past 100
million years, and average atmospheric temperature based on a wide variety of geologic and
geochemical evidence. From this reconstruction, it appears that temperature was much higher
than present during the Mid-Cretaceous, during the Eocene, and during the Pliocene. We will
next look at what might have caused these periods of global warming.
Mid-Cretaceous
During this period we note the

following observations:
z The rate of production of

new oceanic crust between
120 and 90 million years
ago (mid Cretaceous) was
nearly twice the rate prior
to and after that time.
z Large volcanic plateaus were emplaced in the ocean basins. The total volume of these
eruptions of basalt are unknown, as some may have been subducted, but many are greater
than 10 million km3. (The Ontong Java plateau of the southwestern Pacific alone has a
volume of ~ 55 million km3.
z The time interval during which these volcanic plateaus were emplaced correlate with:
{ A long interval of normal magnetic polarity.
{ A peak in oceanic paleotemperatures.

{ Deposition of oxygen depleted sediments like black shales.
{ A peak in sea level stands, which became 100 to 200 m higher than present.
This information can be interpreted in the following manner:
{ Magnetic polarity remained constant because a superplume originated at outer

core/mantle boundary taking with it a large amount of heat. This resulted in
increasing the Temperature gradient in the core and thus resulted in vigorous
convection in the core, which then became resistant to magnetic polarity changes.
(Convection currents in the core are what are thought to cause the Earth's magnetic
field. If the rate of convection is high, then it is more difficult to change the
polarity of the magnetic field).
{ CO2 released from the magmas erupted on the ocean floor by these plumes
resulted in a super green house effect, causing mid Cretaceous climates to increase
to 10 to 12o C above current average global temperatures.
{ Increased ocean temperatures resulted in an increase in productivity of marine life

which resulted in the formation of increased formation of petroleum.
{ Increased global temperatures resulted in sluggish circulation of ocean water which

resulted in oxygen depleted waters and the deposition of Carbon-rich black shales.
These shales were preserved because shallow seas flooded the continents.
{ The large volume of basalts erupted on the ocean floor displaced sea water
resulting higher stands of the sea.
This example serves to show how events deep within the Earth, (events taking place at
the core - mantle boundary) could have a drastic effect on conditions at the Earth's
surface.
Eocene Global Warming
During Eocene we note the following:
z Fossils of alligators are found on Elsmere Island at 78o North Latitude
z Tropical vegetation and tropical marine organism fossils occur up to 45 to 55o North and
South Latitude, about 15o higher than today.
z Estimates of atmospheric CO2 concentrations show values between 2 and 6 times current
values.
The increased CO2 concentrations have been attributed to a large scale metamorphic event that
occurred as a result of the continent-continent collision that began to uplift the Himalayas, and
other metamorphic events that occurred in the Mediterranean region and the Circum-Pacific
region during the Eocene. Such metamorphic events, particularly in the upper parts of the
metamorphic areas where greenschist metamorphism would occur, would release large
amounts of CO2 into the atmosphere.
This example shows how the rock cycle itself, aided by tectonic processes could affect
atmospheric conditions.
Humans and Climate Change
The CO2 concentration in the atmosphere has been increasing since the mid 1800s. The
increase correlates well with burning of fossil fuels. Thus, humans appear to have an effect.
Methane concentration in the atmosphere has also been increasing. Naturally this occurs due to
decay of organic matter, the digestive processes of organisms, and leaks from petroleum
reservoirs. Humans have contributed through domestication of animals, increased production of
rice, and leaks from gas pipelines and gasoline.
Global Warming
Average global temperatures vary with time as a result of many processes interacting with each
other. These interactions and the resulting variation in temperature can occur on a variety of
time scales ranging from yearly cycles to those with times measured in millions of years. Such
variation in global temperatures is difficult to understand because of the complexity of the
interactions and because accurate records of global temperature do not go back more than 100
years. But, even if we look at the record for the past 100 years, we see that overall, there is an
increase in average global temperatures, with minor setbacks that may have been controlled by
random events such as volcanic eruptions or El Nio events (See figure 23.24b in your text).
Records for the past 100 years indicate that average global temperatures have increased by
about 0.7oC. While this may not seem like much, the difference in global temperature between
the coldest period of the last glaciation and the present was only about 5oC.
In order to predict future temperature changes we first need to understand what has caused past
temperature changes. Computer models, called Global Circulation Models have been
constructed to attempt this. Although there is still some uncertainty, most of these models agree
that if the greenhouse gases continue to accumulate in the atmosphere until they have doubled
over their pre-1860 values, the average global temperature increase will be between 1 and 5oC
by the year 2050. This is not a uniform temperature increase. Most models show that the effect
will be greatest at high latitudes (near the poles) where yearly temperatures could be as much as
16oC warmer than present.
Effects of Global Warming
z Global Precipitation changes - A warmer atmosphere will lead to increased evaporation

from surface waters and result in higher amounts of precipitation. The equatorial regions
will be wetter than present, while the interior portions of continents will become warmer
and drier than present.
z Changes in vegetation patterns - because rainfall will distributed differently, vegetation

will have to adjust to the new conditions. Mid latitude regions are likely to be more
drought prone, while higher latitude regions will be somewhat wetter and warmer than
normal, resulting in a shift in agricultural patterns.
z Increased storminess - A warmer, wetter atmosphere will favor tropical storm

development. Hurricanes will be stronger and more frequent.
z Changes in Ice patterns. - Due to higher temperatures, ice in mountain glaciers will melt.
This is now being observed. But, because more water will be evaporated from the
oceans, more precipitation will reach the polar ice sheets causing them to grow.
z Reduction of sea ice - Sea ice will be greatly reduced to the increased temperatures at the
high latitudes, particularly in the northern hemisphere where there is more abundant sea
ice. This is now being observed.
Ice has a high albedo (reflectivity), and thus reduction of ice will reduce the albedo of the
Earth and less solar radiation will be reflected back into space, thus enhancing the
warming effect.
z Thawing of frozen ground - Currently much of the ground at high latitudes remains
frozen all year. Increased temperatures will cause much of this ground to thaw. Organic
compounds and gas hydrates in the frozen ground will be subject to decay, releasing
more methane into the atmosphere and enhancing the greenhouse effect. Ecosystems and
human structures currently built on frozen ground will have to adjust.
z Rise of sea level - Warming the oceans results in expansion of water and thus increases
the volume of water in the oceans. Along with melting of mountain glaciers and
reduction in sea ice, this will cause sea level to rise and flood coastal zones, where much
of the world's population currently resides.
z Changes in the hydrologic cycle - With new patterns of precipitation changes in stream
flow and groundwater level will be expected.
z Decomposition of organic matter in soil - With increasing temperatures of the

atmosphere the rate of decay of organic material in soils will be greatly accelerated. This
will result in release of CO2 and methane into the atmosphere and enhance the
greenhouse effect.
z Breakdown of gas hydrates - This is basically solid water with gas molecules like
methane locked into the crystal structure. They occur in oceanic sediments and beneath
frozen ground at the high latitudes. Warming of the oceans or warming of the soil at
high attitudes could cause melting of the gas hydrates which would release methane into
the atmosphere. Since methane is a greenhouse gas, this would cause further global
warming.
Hopefully this will give you an idea about how human beings can effect the way the Earth
works, and also give you an idea about the complexity of the interactions between various parts
of the Earth and processes that occur throughout the Earth.
Unfortunately, the complexity of the processes are not completely understood. This has major
political implications. For example, scientists are uncertain about the reliability of models that
attempt to predict future conditions. This uncertainty is taken by some political factions as a
denial that an event like global warming will take place.
Most scientists, however, agree that global warming is taking place and that human input of
carbon dioxide into the atmosphere is most likely responsible. Politicians want, or expect you
to want, exact answers with no uncertainty. That is not the way science works.
The real question, however, is whether or not we should be preparing for such events to avoid
disaster if the warming trend continues, or, since we can't be absolutely certain, just wait until
the disaster has occurred and we can do nothing about it.
1. What causes the breakdown of ozone in the upper atmosphere, what effect does ozone
depletion have on life, and what has been done to decrease further depletion of ozone?
2. What effect do greenhouses gasses have on solar radiation?
3. What are the greenhouse gasses and which of these is the most abundant?
4. Why is the carbon dioxide concentration in the atmosphere of particular concern in terms
of global warming?
5. During the Pleistocene, how did the concentrations of carbon dioxide, methane, and dust
vary with temperature?
6. Why were mid-Cretaceous and Eocene climates so warm?
7. What is the evidence that global warming has taken place since the mid 1800s and that
humans are responsible for the warming?
8. What are the main changes to be expected from global warming?

S.nelson Physical Geology

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Introduction

EENS 1110 Physical Geology

Tulane University Prof. Stephen A. Nelson

Introduction and Origin of the Earth

This page last updated on 10-Jan-2012

Geology, What is it?

{ Thus, mankind has been witness to only 0.043% of Earth history.

Why Study the Earth?

z Geologic Hazards -- Earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, hurricanes, landslides, could

z Curiosity-- We have a better understanding of things happening around us. Science in

How did the Earth originate?

z .Planetesimals accumulate into a larger mass. An irregularly-shaped proto-Earth

differentiates into a nickel-iron core, and a stony (silicate) mantle.

The Earth -- What is it?

Density, (mass/volume), Temperature, and Pressure increase with depth.

Internal Structure of the Earth:

1. Layers of different chemical composition

2. Layers of differing physical properties.

{ Crust - variable thickness and composition

Continental 10 - 70 km thick - "granitic" (made mostly of Oxygen and Silicon) in

Oceanic 2 - 10 km thick - "basaltic" (less Silicon than in continental crust, more

Layers of Differing Physical Properties

{ Lithosphere - about 100 km thick (deeper beneath continents)

{ Outer Core - 2250 km thick, Fe and Ni, liquid

{ Inner core - 1230 km radius, Fe and Ni, solid

Composition of the Earth

How do we study the Earth?

8. What is the principle of Uniformitarianism?

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EENS 1110 Physical Geology

Tulane University Prof. Stephen A. Nelson

Continental Drift, Sea Floor Spreading and Plate Tectonics

This page last updated on 16-Jan-2012

z Late 19th Century Theories

z Wegner's Theory of Continental Drift

The Earth's Magnetic Field and Paleomagnetism

The Earth has a magnetic

In the 1950s it was

At temperatures above the Curie Temperature, permanent magnetization of materials is not

Initial studies of the

z Oceanic Trenches - deep trenches along the margins of continents, particularly

Vine, Matthews, and Morely put this

fractures it produces earthquakes that get progressively deeper.

By combining the sea floor

Plates are composed of

Types of Plate Boundaries

z Divergent Plate Boundaries

{ These are oceanic ridges where

z Convergent Plate Boundaries

{ If the subduction occurs beneath

{ If the subduction occurs beneath

z Transform Plate Boundaries

{ Where lithospheric plates slide past one another in a horizontal manner, a

{ Most transform faults occur where

Because the Pacific Plate is one of

Many other hot spots are known,

Hot Spots and Absolute Plate Velocities

Continental Rifting - A new divergent plate

An example of an where rifting may be

z Continental Collisions - When two

Questions on this material that could be asked on an exam

7. What are the possible causes of plate tectonics.

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