CHAPTER ONE

1.1 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY

Bleaching is one of the key processes in fats and oil refining designed to remove not only the
pigments, but also a wide range of impurities. Most crude fats and oil contain impurities that have
removed for both commercial and health reasons. The bleaching of fats and oil is normally carried
out after either Alkaline refining, or degumming, and prepares the oil for its final deodorization
process. In the case of crude palm oil, bleaching is the initial stage of the whole refining process.
The prime focus in modern bleaching is now on the removal of wide range of different impurities of
which pigmentation is only one. Such impurities can virtually all be removed using new processes
in which combinations of different bleaching agents are used to bind specific impurities. These are
then removed when the bleaching agent is subsequently filtered out. Modern bleaching processes
use a substantial range of different bleaching agents, in order to remove a wide range of specific
impurities in addition to pigment. The agents normally used include ;

Natural bleaching earths (used with only implied-colour reducing effect but are particularly
useful for heating animal fats).
Acid activated bleaching earth (widely used for removing all kinds of impurities).
Activated carbon (used to remove polyaromatic hydrocarbons to ensure the removal of a
wide range of specific pollutants).
Synthetic amorphous silica compounds (used largely in wet bleaching, with a focus on
selectively removing phosphatides, trace metals and soap).

The bleaching of palm oil could be carried out either as Dry bleaching or Wet bleaching.
Dry bleaching is the method traditionally used for fats and oils. Although most common in Europe
and Asia it is a process that industry expert throughout the whole world are familiar with, and
provides a viable solutions in many processing situations. Before it is mixed with bleaching earth,
the oil is heated. If it requires it, a citric acid solution is mixed with the hot oil to bind trace metals,
and decompose any residual soaps. After this treatment, the oil is mixed with bleaching earth,
activated carbon, or the combination of both. This is done under vacuum to prevent oxidation, and
in the presence of sparge steam. Wet bleaching is a bleaching process in which water is added to
the oil while it is in contact with the bleaching agents in the reactor.
In this research study, bleaching by adsorption will be carried out, using Activated
charcoal (an Adsorbent), a kind of active carbon, to substitute the use of local clay and the
imported Fuller's earth in palm oil bleaching , which are rather expensive. The charcoal can be
produced from different sources, as from coal, wood, bone, coconut shell, etc.

1.2 THE STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

From refiners points of view, degumming and bleaching of palm oil process stage are
recognized as critical areas in the palm oil refinery. Separation of minor components at these stages
must be carefully monitored because any imperfections during these process will tremendously
affect the later stages of the refining process and finally affect the finished product. These stages
are considered critical as it is identified as the major contributors to the total operating cost of the
plant due to the cost of chemicals (phosphoric acid and bleaching earth ) that are being used in
these processes.

1.3 THE PURPOSE OF THE STUDY

The purpose of this research work is to verify the effectiveness of Activated Charcoal in the
bleaching of palm oil. It will also expose the improvement in the use of local raw material (Charcoal)
in a chemical process (bleaching ), in lien of the Fuller's imported earth or other absorbent which
are more expensive .

1.4 THE SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

The bleaching of palm oil is essential in the reduction of phosphorus, fatty acids and soaps
content of the palm oil for healthy consumption.

1.5 THE SCOPE OF THE STUDY

Basically, this study dwells on the colours reduction of palm oil using Activated charcoal as
an adsorbent (bleaching agent ). The major raw materials, palm oil and activated charcoal were
locally sourced, and information as regards the process were obtained from the literary and other
resourceful materials (text), that treats Adsorption as a chemical process.

CHAPTER TWO
2.1 LITERATURE REVIEW
The oil palm ( Elaeis guineesis ) is an ancient tropical plant from the West African tropical rainforest
region. It is being cultivated there as well as the tropics. Palm oil has been used as food and medicine
throughout the ages. The earliest archaeological evidence of palm oil use an earthenware jar containing
residue of palm oil in a 5, 000 year old Egyptian tomb. The Industrial Revolution in 19th century Europe
sparked the international trade in palm oil when in demand soared to its use as lubricant in steam engines
and other machinery and soap. The African oil palm is native to tropical Africa, from Sierra Leone in the
west, through the Democratic Republic of Congo in the East. It was domesticated in its native range
probably in Nigeria, and moved throughout tropical Africa by humans who practised shifting agriculture at
least 5,000 years ago.

Oil palm can reach 60-80 ft. in height in nature, but is rarely more than 20 or 30 ft in cultivation.
Leaf in bases are persistent for years, and prominent leaf scars are arranged spirally on the trunk of mature
where bases are fallen. Leaves are up to 25 ft in length, with leaflets numbering 200 - 300 per leaf, about 3-
4 ft long and 1.5-2.0 wide with entire margins. Leaflets cover the distal 2/3 of the leaf, and the lower 1/3 is
spined with spines increasing in length acropetally. Oil palm are monoecious, producing male and female
infructescence in leaf axils. The infructescence of both sexes is a compound spadix with 100-200 branches,
initially enclosed in spathe or bract that splits two weeks prior to anthesis. Oil palms are primarily insect
pollinated by various insects : in Africa, weevils ( Elaeidobus spp ) , in Latin America, Mystrops contaricensis
Elaeidobus spp. The mesocarp and endocarp vary in thickness, and dura type having thick endocarps and
less mesocarp, and tenera type having the opposite. The exocarp colour is green changing to orange at
maturity virescens types, and orange with brown or black cheek colours in the nigrescens types. Fruits range
in size from <1to 2, and are obovoid in shape. The mesocarp from which palm oil is derived is fibrous
and oily, and the seeds are opaque white, encased in a brown endocarp: palm kernel oil is derived
from seed. The female infructescence contains 200-300 fruit, and fruit set is 50-70%. Fruit ripen at
about 5-6 months after pollination.

2.1.1 PALM OIL

Palm oil is extracted from the mesocarp of the fruit of the palm Elaeis guineensis. The mesocarp
comprises about 70 80% by weight of the fruit and about 45 -50% of this mesocarp isoil. The rest
of the fruit comprises the shell, kernel, moisture and other non-fatty fibres. The extracted oil is
known as crude palm oil (CPO). Palm oil like all natural fats and oils comprises mainly
triacylglycerols, mono and diacylglycerols. Other components are free fatty acids (FFA), moisture,
dirt and minor components of non-oil fatty matter referred to collectively as unsaponificable
matter. CPO produced in Malaysia in the average will contain about 3.5% FFA, 4.7% diacylglycerols,
0.2% monoacylglycerol, 0.25% moisture and impurities, 1% minor components and balance 90.35%
of triacylglycerols. Triacylglycerols (Triglycerides)Triacylglycerol is the basic unit of oils and fats that
determines their characteristics. The type of fatty acid, as well as the distribution across these
positions, determines the characteristics of the oils/fats.

Structure of the oil palm fruit

2.1.2 CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF PALM OIL

Carotenes

Red palm oil is rich Carotenes, such as alpha-carotene, beta-carotene and Lycopene which
give it a characteristics dark red color. However, palm oil that has been refined, bleached and
deodorized from crude palm oil does not contain Carotenes. The dark red-orange colour of oil palm
fruit is due to the high concentration of carotenoids and anthocynanins. Crude palm oil, extracted
commercially by sterilisation and press, contains500700 ppm of carotenoids, the variation being
due to process conditions, species of oil palm and level of oxidation. The major components are -
carotene and -carotene. -Carotene and -carotene are also demonstrated for their provitamin A
activity, with -carotene being the most potential provitamin carotenoids. Carotenoids have long
been known for their pro-vitamin A activity, as they can be transformed into vitamin A in vivo.
Vitamin A is necessary for vision, growth, cellular differentiation, morphogenesis, and several other
cellular and physiologic functions. Besides the role of providing a source of vitamin, carotenoids are
considered to have anti-carcinogenic properties Crude palm oil contains the highest concentration
of natural carotenoids, which proves it to be the most promising plants for carotenes sources in
nature. Physically refined oils show no trace of the carotenoids. These are either absorbed onto the
bleaching earths or destroyed during thermal treatment. Carotenes preferentially segregate into
the more unsaturated olein fraction, leaving little in the stearin fraction. This has important
consequences for the oxidative stability of these two fractions.
Composition of Carotenoids In palm oil

Carotenes Elaeis Oleifera

guineesis guineesis
Lycopene 1.30 0.07
-Carotene 35.06 40.38
-Carotene 56.02 54.08
Cis--Carotene 2.49 2.30
Phytoene 1.27 1.12
Cis--Carotene 0.68 0.48
-Carotene 0.33 0.08

Phospholipids (Gum)
Crude palm oil (CPO) contains polar lipids such as phospholipids and glycolipids with the
former receiving considerable attention because of the suspected deleterious effect of phosphorus
on oil quality. Inorganic phosphorus and phospholipids are two forms of phosphorus compounds in
CPO, with inorganic phosphorus being the most predominant. Phospholipids in palm oil are
relatively low (5130 ppm or 0.25 ppm as P) since only 4% of the phospholipids of the palm fruit
remains in the CPO during the wet milling process. Phosphatides, as the principal constituent of
gums in the crude oil, severely interfere with the efficiency of subsequent process steps if allowed
to remain. Phosphatides darkens the colour of an oil if they become broken down by heat; and can
lead to impaired flavour stability. The main responsibility for this last ill-effect, however, is linked
with traces of pro-oxidant iron liable to persist in refined oil along with the gummy material rather
than phosphatides themselves. Inorganic phosphate is observed to increase with the content of
free fatty acid and pro-oxidant metals, especially in poor quality oils. Residual phosphorus in
bleached and deodorized oil caused by poor processing or treatment also is known to correlate well
with the free fatty acid escalation during transport. Glycolipids, although present in larger amounts
than phospholipids, do not appear to contribute much to the quality of crude palm oil.

2.1.3 Fatty Acid Composition Of Palm Oil

The palm oil and palm kernel oil are composed of fatty acids, esterified with glycerol just like any
ordinary fat. Both are high in saturated fatty acids, about 50% resp 80%. The oil palm gives its name
to the 16 carbon saturated fatty acid palmitic acid found in palm oil; monounsaturated oleic acid is
also a constituent of palm oil while palm kernel oil contains mainly lauric acid. Palm oil is the largest
natural source of tocotrienols, part of the vitamin E family. Palm oil is also high in vitamin K and
dietary magnesium. Napalm derives its name from naphthenic acid, palmitic acid and pyrotechnics
or simply from a recipe using naphtha and palm oil.
Fatty acids composition of palm oil

Fatty acid Crude Palm Oil

Palmitic acid 44.3%
(16:0)
Stearic acid 4.6%
(18:0)
Myristic acid 1.0%
(14:0)
Oleic acid 38.7%
(18:1)
Linoleic acid 10.5%
(18:2)

2.1.4 Palm Oil Triacylglycerols (TAGs)

Most of the fatty acids of palm oil are present as TAGs. The different placement of fatty acids and
fatty acid types on the glycerol molecule produces a number of different TAGs. There are 7 10% of
saturated TAGs, predominantly tripalmitin. The fully unsaturated TGs constitute 6 to 12%. As stated
earlier, the sn-2 position has a septicity for unsaturated fatty acids . Therefore, more than 85% of
the unsaturated fatty acids are located in the sn-2 position of the glycerol molecule. Analyses of
TAGs using capillary columns chemically bonded with methyl silicone phase and reversed phase
high-performance liquid chromatography have also been used to resolve the different
combinations of saturated and unsaturated triacylglycerols. The distribution of fatty acids in
positions 1,2 and 3 of the glycerol molecule was shown in Table 3. High temperature gas-liquid
chromatography is used to differentiate triacylglycerols according to the total carbon number of
their three fatty acid moieties.

2.1.5 Palm Olein

Palm oil, a semi-solid at ambient temperature (25-30 C), maybe fractionated into liquid fraction
(Olein) and a more solid (Stearin). The Olein contains high level of oleic (39-45%) and linoleic acid
(10-13%) compared to the oil. Palm Olein remains clear at ambient temperature of 25 C. Further
fractionation of the Olein produces a more unsaturated fractions often called super-olein or
double fractionated Olein. These have higher levels of oleic and linoleic acids ranging from 43-49%
and 10-15% respectively, resulting in iodine value of 60-67% and with lower cloud point of about 2-
5C. In contrast, Olein with Iodine value of less than 60 as cloud point of 6-10 C. As the Iodine value
increases, the cloud point decreases, though not linearly. A cloud point of below 0C can only be
obtained with an Olein of iodine value above 70. The palmitic content should be below 35%,
preferably below 31%, for palm Olein to remain clear at 10C. Fractions with iodine value above 70
and a cloud point of -4C are described as top Oleins. This Olein can satisfy the cold test in which the
oil must remain clear after 5.5h at 0C.

2.1.6 Palm Stearin

Palm Stearin, the harder fraction of palm oil, contains the more saturated fatty acids and
triacylglycerols (TAGs). The comprehensive survey of fractionated product of palm oil indicated a
wider compositional range for Stearin in contrast to Olein. The wide iodine value range (21-49) is
reflected in the slip melting points (44-56C). Palmitic acid content of the Stearin varies from 47-
74%, while oleic acid ranges from 15-37%. The authors found that the distribution was rather
skewed did not compute the mean values. A later survey showed palmitic acid content in the range
of 49-64%, and oleic acid 24-34%. Samples from the 1981 survey were from the dry, detergent and
solvent processes, while samples from the later survey were generally dry fractionated types. Due
to the higher cost operations, detergents and solvent fractionations are no longer popular
processes.

2.2.0 Palm Oil Processing Method

The basic unit operations associated with palm oil processing include fruit sterilization, fruit
loosening/stripping, digestion, oil extraction and clarication. The most common methods of palm
oil extraction are either thewetor thedryprocesses. In thewetprocess a liquid, usually water, is
used to extract the oil from the milled palm fruits. Hot water or steam is used to leach out the oil
from ruptured oily cells of the palm fruits. The hot water treatment also hydrolyse gums, resins and
any starch present as well as coagulates proteins. The gums and resins cause the oil to foam during
frying. The hydrolysed and coagulated products are removed during oil clarication. The extracted
oil is recovered after evaporating the moisture.
2.2.1 Traditional Palm Oil Extraction
The general traditional method of oil extraction consists of steeping the pounded fruit mash
in hot or cold water; removing fibre and nuts in small baskets and hand squeezing; filtering
out residual fibre from the oil/water emulsion in perforated metal colanders or baskets; boiling
and skimming palm oil from the oil/water mixture and drying the recovered oil. The village
traditional method of extracting palm oil involves washing pounded fruit mash in warm
water and hand squeezing to separate fibre and nuts from the oil/water mixture. A
colander, basket or a vessel with fine perforated holes in the bottom is used to filter out
fibre and nuts. The wet mixture is then put on the fire and brought to a vigorous boil.
After about one or two hours, depending on the volume of material being boiled, the
firewood is taken out and the boiled mixture is allowed to cool. On cooling to about the
body temperature (98.6 F), a calabash or shallow bowl is used to skim off the palm oil.
Large quantities of water is used in washing the pulp hence this procedure is called the wet
method.

2.2.2 Modern Palm Oil Extraction

The process of producing crude palm oil requires a large set of equipment, which can range
from crude, manual mechanisms to advanced automated machinery. Regardless of the types
of machines used to produce crude palm oil, there are still a set of basic steps needed to
produce palm oil.
Harvesting
Palm oil is extracted from oil palm fruits. The fruit bunch is cut when it is ripe, the harvested fruit
bunches are sent to the processing plants by trucks for the extraction of Palm Oil.

Fruit Reception
The arriving fruit usually in trucks is dumped into a FFB (Fresh Fruit Bunch) hopper. It is then
transferred to fruit cages. The cages are then moved into a steriliser.
Sterilization
The steriliser is similar in function to that of a pressure cooker. The fruits are heated with steam at
a pressure of 45 psig for about one hour. This cooking process softens the fruits, enables the
separation of the fruit from bunches and stops the enzymes that cause the increase of FFA (Free
fatty acids) in the fruits.
Threshing

In the next stage the fruit cages are tipped and conveyed to a threshing machine. This machine a
rotary drum of about 2meters in diameter. The drum rotates and bunches get lifted up and
dropped when they reach the top of the drum. This action helps the detachment of fruits from the
bunches and the separated fruit lets fall through the slots of the drum to a conveyor below.

Pressing
The fruits are conveyed to a digester which mashes up the fruitlets so that when the mash is
pressed in a screw press the oil is extracted efficiently. The output from the screw press is crude
palm oil and press cake. The extracted oil is mixed with fruit particles, water, sand and dirt. The
press cake consists of palm fibre and nuts.The press cake is the transferred to the depricarper for
further processing. The crude oil is first screened with a vibrating screen to remove the course
fibres and other dirt and it is then pumped to the clarification station for further processing.
Clarification Station
The oil is pumped to a heated vertical tank where the separation of oil from the sludge (mixture of
water and dirt) takes place by gravity. The oil is skimmed from the top and the remaining dirt
removed in a purifier. The heated clean oils the passed to a vacuum chamber for the removal of the
remaining moisture. The oil is the pumped to storage tanks for sale as crude palm oil.
Press Cake Processing
The press cake is conveyed in a conveyor that assists the break up the cake to a depericarper. The
depericarper is a square box that with a strong suction. The air removes the fibres and transports
them to a cyclone. The fibre from the cyclone is sent to the boiler for burning as fuel for the
generation of steam. The nuts being heavier drop to the bottom of the depericarper and are
cleaned in a rotary drum and transported to a silo for intermediate storage.
Nut Processing

The nuts from the nut silo are first cracked in a nut cracker. The cracked mixture which consists of
kernels and shell is the processed to separate the shells and kernels. This is done in air columns and
by a water bath in a hydro-cyclone. The shell is sent to the boiler house to be used as fuel. The
kernels are dried in a silo and then packed in bags for sale. Other factories extract oil from the
kernel.
Power Generation
can be generated from the waste products of the palm fruits. The diesel generators are only
required for start up and shut done of processing in a well operated palm oil mill.The fibre from the
fruits after pressing and shell from cracked nuts are sent to the boiler for burning as fuel. The steam
generated by the boiler is used to drive a steam turbine which is coupled to an alternator to
generate electricity.
Water Treatment
In the palm oil mill process water is required for the steam generation, oil clarification, cleaning and
domestic requirements. The quantity of water required is determined by the processing capacity of
the mill, for example a 30 tons per hour mill will require 30 cubic meters of water per hour. Most
palm oil mills are located in plantations that are far away from towns. This requires most palm oil
mills to treat their water requirements. The treatment plants purify the water for process use and
then further treat it for use in the boilers.
Effluent Treatment
The palm oil process uses water to separate the oil from sludge and solids in a tank. After the
removal of oil, the waste water (effluent) is discharged from the mill. This effluent contains
particles of vegetable matter and needs to be treated before discharge to the environment. The
effluent needs to be treated because the vegetable matter in the liquid will decompose and during
the decomposition process, the vegetable matter will use oxygen in the water. Therefore before
the discharge of the effluent to a water course we let the decomposing process take place by
keeping the effluent in ponds and let bacteria decompose the vegetable matter in the waste water.
This then is a simple explanation of the palm oil process.
2.2.3 Preservation Of Palm Oil
The general principles of preservation of palm oil include :

destruction of enzymes (a complex organic substance which in solution produces

fermentation and chemical changes in other substances apparently without undergoing any
 change itself) in the raw material and contaminating micro-organisms by heat (sterilization)
during processing;
elimination of as much water as possible from the oil to prevent microbial growth (bacterial
activity, or disease-causing germs) during storage. The oil therefore has a long shelf life due
to its low moisture content
Proper packaging and storage of the extracted oil to slow down chemical deterioration
(rancidity).
2.2.4 Palm Kernel Recovery
The residue from the press consists of a mixture of fibre and palm nuts. The nuts are separated
from the fibre by hand in the small-scale operations. The sorted fibre is covered and allowed to
heat, using its own internal exothermic reactions, for about two or three days. The fibre is then
pressed in spindle presses to recover a second grade (technical) oil that is used normally in
soap-making. The nuts are usually dried and sold to other operators who process them into
palm kernel oil. The sorting operation is usually reserved for the youth and elders in the village
in a deliberate effort to help them earn some income. Large-scale mills use the recovered fibre
and nutshells to fire the steam boilers. The super-heated steam is then used to drive turbines to
generate electricity for the mill. For this reason it makes economic sense to recover the fibre
and to shell the palm nuts. In the large-scale kernel recovery process, the nuts contained in the
press cake are separated from the fibre in a depericarper. They are then dried and cracked in
centrifugal crackers to release the kernels. The kernels are normally separated from the shells
using a combination of winnowing and hydro-cyclones. The kernels are then dried in silos to a
moisture content of about 7 percent before packing.
2.3.0 Uses Of Palm Oil
Palm oil is one of the major oil in the world oils and fats trade. Almost 90% of this oil is use as
edible products in many applications, such as cooking or frying oil, margarines, shortening,
Vanaspatis, specialty fats and spray dried products. A large variety of possible product
formulations can be made by either palm oil alone or in combination with palm kernel
oil/fractions or with other vegetable oils. Palm oil is used to produce both methyl ester and
hydro deoxygenated biodiesel. Palm oil is also applied to wounds for its supposed antimicrobial
effects.
2.3.1 Food Uses Of Palm Oil
Cooking/Frying Oil

Palm Olein is much used as cooking oil, domestically and in industrial outlets. Palm oil and its
fractions are accepted as frying oil for food products such as Snack chicks, Crackers, Cookies,
Pastries, doughnuts, fries and instant noodles. Frying, being thermal process, results in rapid
deterioration of oil. The oxidative stability of palm oil, Olein and Stearin is a major advantage of the
oils. Palm Olein has the longest induction period 44h at 100C. Blending less stable vegetable oil
improves their stability.
Margarines
Margarine is a flavoured product containing 80% fat , blended with water, and containing vitamins
and other ingredients. The properties of margarine depend on the characteristics of the oil forming
the major ingredients of the product. Palm oils and its fractions are suitable for margarine
production. It is possible to incorporate them into margarine formulation as shown by Teah and co-
workers (1994), Noor Lida and co-workers (1997) and Nor Aini and Mohd Suria (2000). Palm oil is
suited for industrial margarines, having 23% solid at 20 C. Palm, palm Stearin and also the
hydrogenated products tends to be stable, providing the right crystal polymorph for a smooth
texture for margarine. This interesting feature of the fat is utilized in the production of margarine
using liquid oils. Thus, it is useful to add small amount of palm products, especially hard palm
Stearin , to margarines and shortening formulations.
Shortenings

Shortening was the term used to describe functions performed by naturally occurring solid fats,
such as lard and butter in baked foods. Palm oil, a semi solid fat, is Highly suited to this purpose,
and its tendency to form ' crystals is Zn advantage as such crystals provide better aeration in
butters than forms. Unlike margarines, shortenings are entirely oils and fats (100%) though some
may have small amounts of emulsifiers added. Softer shortenings are made from palm oil,
hydrogenated palm oil, palm Stearin, anhydrous milk fat, and butter fat and low melting milkfat
fractions.
2.3.2 Non Food Uses Of Palm Oil
Palm Oil as Biodiesel

Palm oil is used to produce both methyl ester and hydro deoxygenated. Palm oil methyl ester is
created through a process called transesterification. Palm oil biodiesel is often blended with other
fuels to create palm oil biodiesel blends. Hydro deoxygenated biodiesel is produced by direct
hydrogen lysis of the fat into alkanes and propane. The world's largest palm oil biodiesel plant is the
Finnish-operated Neste Oil biodiesel plant in Singapore, which opened in 2011 and produces hydro
deoxygenated NEXBTL biodiesel. The organic waste matter that is produced when processing oil
palm, including oil palm shells and oil palm fruit bunches, can also be used to produce energy. This
waste material can be converted into pellets that can be used as a biofuel. Additionally, palm oil
that has been used to fry foods can be converted into methyl esters for biodiesel. The used cooking
oil is chemically treated to create a biodiesel similar to petroleum diesel.
2.4.0 Palm Oil Bleaching Processes
Bleaching also reduces the number of substances that can affect the taste and smell of the fats and
oils. There are three methods of bleaching namely ;

i. Dry Bleaching
ii. Wet Bleaching
iii. The Two Stage-Bleaching

2.4.1 Dry Bleaching

Dry bleaching is the method traditionally used for fats and oils. Although most common in Europe
and Asia, it is a process that industry experts throughout the world are familiar with, and provides a
viable solution in many processing situations. Before it is mixed with bleaching earth, the oil is
heated. If the process requires it, a citric acid solution is mixed with the hot oil to bind trace metals
and decompose any residual soaps. After this treatment, the oil is mixed with bleaching earth,
activated carbon or a mixture of these two. This is done under vacuum to prevent oxidation, and in
the presence of sparging steam. After bleaching, the bleaching agent is normally removed using
pressure leaf filters. Naturally, the filter cake that accumulates here still contains oil. Much of this
can be recovered by steam-blowing the contents of these filters. Filtered oil collects in the buffer
tank, which operates under the same vacuum as the bleaching reactor. From there, oil goes via one
of the polishing filters to the next process step, or to storage.

2.4.2 Wet Bleaching

Wet bleaching is a bleaching process in which water is added to the oil while it is in contact with the
bleaching agent in the bleaching reactor. The presence of small amounts of water results in more
efficient use of the relatively expensive bleaching earth. This greater efficiency results in lower
earth consumption as well as reductions of total oil losses. The water present during wet bleaching
is introduced in the form of a citric acid solution, or by taking wet oil from the separation line.
Adjustment is carried out by careful control of the operating vacuum in the bleaching reactor to
determine how much of the water subsequently evaporates. Even tiny amounts of water anything
in excess of 0.5% remaining in the mixture after this will cause filtration problems later on. The oil
therefore has to be dried before filtration. In terms of the equipment used, the basic difference
between wet and dry bleaching installations is therefore whether or not a dryer is located between
the bleaching reactor and the filtration system.
2.4.3 The Two-Stage Bleaching

The two-stage bleaching process is essentially a combination of wet and dry bleaching, combined
with highly efficient two-step filtration. The main idea behind two-stage bleaching is to ensure that
the dosing and filtration of the necessary adsorbents takes place between each stage of treating
the oil. This means hat the adsorption process can be made significantly more efficient. This is
because adsorption takes place on a continuous basis until there is equilibrium between the
concentration of pigments and other impurities on the surface of the adsorbent and the
concentration remaining in the oil. As soon as this equilibrium is reached, the adsorbent is filtered
out of the oil. At the second stage fresh adsorbent is then added to the treated oil until anew state
of equilibrium is reached. This oil then passes through a second filtration stage. Two-stage
bleaching is particularly relevant if you wish to use synthetic amorphous silica compounds as an
adsorbent. These are particularly effective for removing phosphatides, trace metals, gums and
soaps. Using synthetic silica also makes it possible to cut back considerably on wastewater effluent
from refining edible oils. The best performance using synthetic silica compounds normally requires
the presence of small amounts of water. This means that it is possible to extend a wet bleaching
plant by adding a synthetic silica dosing system upstream.
2.5.0 Refining Methods Of Palm Oil
Refining process is a necessary step for the production of edible oils and fats products. The
objective of this process is to remove the impurities and other components, which will affect the
quality of finished product. The qualities of the finished product that need to be monitored are
flavour, shelf-life stability and colour of the products. The objectionable substance or impurities in
palm oil maybe biogenic, that is, synthesised by plant themselves but they can be impurities taken
up by the plants from their environment. The impurities maybe acquired during upstream of
bleaching process which are extraction, storage or transportation of the crude palm oil from mill to
the refinery. It is important to have proper refining process in order to produce high quality of
finished products with specified quality range and meet users requirements. There are 2 basic
types of refining technology available for palm oil:
i. Chemical refining
ii. Physical refining
2.5.1 Chemical Refining
Chemical refining or also known as alkali refining is a conventional method used to refine the crude
palm oil (CPO). Its normally involves 3 stages of refining processes namely;
Degumming And Neutralization

In this process stage, the phosphatide portion of oil is either removed or conditioned during this
stage by addition of some additives/agents under specific condition. The most common additives
for this purpose are phosphoric acid and citric acid. A specified quantity of any one or mix of such
additives/agents is mixed in the oil charge for a specific period and process parameters. This causes
a separation of phosphatides from oil and they are removed after certain settling time. Sometimes
these separated gums are not directly removed but with soap stock formed during neutralisation.
The oil mass is then neutralised with alkali for removal for free fatty acid in the form of soap stock.
This soap stock is removed from oil mass by gravity separation method. For removal of alkali
traces, oil is washed with hot water. The chemical reaction involved in this operation is as follows:
R-COOH + NaOH R-COONa + H2O
Bleaching And Filtration
The neutralised washed oil is then taken to the second step in refining, which is bleaching. In this
operation, the oil is taken into cylindrical vessel with agitator called `Bleacher' and kept under
vacuum and heated up to 90 C with steam. The moisture from oil is thus evaporated and oil
becomes dry. The dried oil is treated with bleaching earth (fuller's earth) and carbon. These
bleaching agents will adsorb most of the residual colour of the remaining oil after neutralisation.
The mixture of oil and bleaching agent is filtered through a standard plate and frame press for
separation. The clear oil obtained is bleached oil and is very much lighter in colour than the
neutralised oil. The oil charge is dehydrated under vacuum to avoid any further deterioration due
to oxygen. In this operation, the coloured pigments in oil are adsorbed by certain bleaching agents
under specific conditions.

Deodorization
The oil after bleaching is practically pure, but contains minute quantities of original odoriferous
matter and also the chemicals used during neutralisation process. This bleached oil are then sent to
a cylindrical vessel called `Deodoriser'. The Deodoriser is kept under very high vacuum and the
bleached oil is then heated at high temperature 200 C with high-pressure steam and open steam
is passed through the oil. The volatile materials are evaporated off with some carrier (commonly
direct steam). This oil is then cooled and clarified through a Filter Press to get sparkling oil. The
purpose of deodorisation is to make oil blend and tasteless. In this process, the peroxide value of oil
is brought down as minimum as possible.
2.5.2 Physical Refining
Physical refining is a modern alternative for processing crude palm oil where the removal of free
fatty acid is by distillation at higher temperature and low vacuum. This replaces chemical reaction
mode using an alkali (caustic soda) in chemical refining. Physical refining is also known as
deacidification (deodorisation) by steam distillation in which free fatty acids and other volatile
components are distilled off from the oil using effective stripping agent which is usually steam
under suitable processing conditions. Physical refining consists of pre-treatment stage (degumming
and bleaching) and deodorization stage.

Degumming
The main objective of this degumming is to remove the unwanted gums, which will interfere the
stability of the oil products in later stage. The objective is achieved by treating the crude palm oil
(CPO) with the specified quantity of food grade acid normally phosphoric or citric acid of certain
concentration. The main component contained in the gums, which has to be removed, is
phosphatide. It is vital to remove the phosphatides content in the crude oil because the presence
of this component will impart undesirable flavour and color, and shorten the shelf life of oil. The
phosphatides emulsifying action is the main culprit that causes the oxidative instability of the
crude palm oil (CPO). In this unit operation, the incoming crude palm oil is first heated up to a
temperature of about 90 C 110 C before it is treated with phosphoric acid. The dosage of
phosphoric acid normally used is within the range of 0.05 0.1 % of oil weight with acid
concentration approximately about 80 - 85 %. It is meant to decompose the non-hydratable
phosphatides as well as to coagulate the phosphatides making them insoluble and thus easily
removed during bleaching.
Bleaching
During bleaching process in palm oil refinery, degummed oil is treated with bleaching earth and
heated up to a temperature of about 100 C before entering the vacuum bleacher. The dosage of
acid activated clay used is typically within the range of 0.5 2.0 % by weight of oil and the contact
time with continuous agitation is about 30 minutes. During this stage, trace metal complexes such
as iron and copper, pigments, phosphatides and oxidation products are removed by adsorptive
effect of the bleaching earth. Any residual of phosphoric acid are removed during this stage too.
The bleached oil is then filtered on industrial filters such as plate and frame filter press or vertical
leaf pressure filter.
Deodorization
The filtered deodorized bleached palm oil (DBPO) is then channelled into the deodorizer for the
deacidification and deodorisation treatment. This process utilises a combination of high
temperature heating approximately about 240 260 C, under vacuum (2 - 4 mmHg) and direct
steam injection of about 2.5 - 4.0 % by weight of oil. During this deodorization process, free fatty
acid (FFA) in the form of palm fatty acid distillate (PFAD) is removed as refining waste, at the
upper section of deodorizer. Apart from FFA, carotenoids pigments, primary and secondary
oxidation products are also being removed as it may contribute to off-flavours. The deodorised oil
is then cooled before it is filtered by means of a polishing filter and sent to storage tanks.
2.6.0 Factors Affecting Degumming and Bleaching Of Crude Palm Oil
There are several factors affecting the refining process of crude palm oil, the factors that are
mentioned here are particularly focussed on the upstream operation of the refining process, which
are degumming and bleaching. The factors are, quality of CPO, bleaching time, operating
temperature, operating pressure, phosphoric acid dosage and bleaching earth dosage.
2.6.1 Quality of Crude Palm Oil
The quality of the crude palm oil is of utmost importance to the refiners as it relates directly to
the processing cost and the products shelf life. This is because refiners are requested to meet
stringent specifications. Refiners want a crude palm oil (CPO), which can be easily processed to a
bland and light coloured oil with good oxidative and colour stability. All requirements should
preferably be obtained at the minimum refining cost, in other words, low oil losses with minimal
use of bleaching aids.

2.6.2 Bleaching Time

Bleaching time/period is one of the variables that can be controlled although it is often restricted
by the production rate constraints. Based on Howes et al. works, it can be clearly seen that colour
and FFA content continue to fall with increasing bleaching earth, but the peroxide value are
minimizes after 30 minutes. The continuing fall of colour is attributed to the heat bleaching
effect.

2.6.3 Bleaching Temperature

Bleaching temperature is one of the factors that affecting the performance of bleaching and
degumming processes of crude palm oil. Bleaching temperature is discovered to be affecting the
colour of oil, the FFA content of the oil and the Peroxide Value and Anisidine value of the oil. It can
be noted that the bleached oil colour tends to continuously fall as the temperature is increased, but
the deodorized oil colour reaches a minimum when the bleaching temperature is about 100 C. It is
also deduced that, the fall in bleached colour with increasing temperature is due to the heat
bleaching effect.
2.6.4 Activated Carbon Dosage
Activated carbon and bleaching earth dosages are also some of the factors that can influence the
efficiencies of degumming and bleaching processes. The dosing rate of powdered activated carbon
for decolourization is 5-10% in mixture with bleaching earth, the dosage adsorbent mixture is
usually 0.5-1.5% (5-15kg/ton). Filtration of the adsorbent mixture is usually done with pressure
leaf filters, membrane presses or pulse tube filters in special cases where a minimum of filter aid
is to be used. This factor is one of the easiest variables to modify. It is claimed that at high bleaching
earth dosage, the bleached oil colour reduction is mainly due to the carotene adsorption which
could be remove more cost-effectively during deodorization stage. The optimum earth dosage will
depend on the quantity and the nature of impurities in the crude palm oil.

2.7.0 Adsorbents
An important step in the refining process involves the use of an adsorbent material to remove
contaminants from the oil. The adsorbent is dosed into the oil as a free-flowing powder. The
mixture is then agitated at the required temperature for a period of time necessary to allow the
contaminants to be adsorbed by the surface of the adsorbent particles. Once the contaminants are
bound to the surface of the adsorbent particles, the mixture is filtered to remove the spent
adsorbent. Traditionally, the step of adsorbent treatment in edible oil processing is referred to as
Bleaching and involves treatment of the oil with a clay-based adsorbent called bleaching earth or
bleaching clay[1-3]. As the name suggests, the primary purpose of the bleaching step is to remove
color bodies from the oil, for example chlorophyll and carotene. However, the bleaching step is
responsible for removal of a number of other contaminants including trace levels of phospholipids,
metals and oxidation products, together with soaps which are generated upstream in the refining
process. Major types of adsorbents in use are: activated alumina, silica gel, activated carbon,
molecular sieve carbon, molecular sieve zeolites and polymeric adsorbents.
2.7.1 Activated Carbon
The use of Powdered Activated Carbon (PAC),for edible oil refining is always in conjunction
with bleaching earth. Powdered activated carbon (PAC) dosing can be done at the same time
as bleaching earth to the bleacher. For relative small scale operations, ready-for-use
bleaching earth/activated carbon mixtures are offered by established bleaching earth
manufacturers (e.g. under brand name TONSIL). Performance improvements may occur when
dosing of PAC with some delay after bleaching earth, respectively using a two stage
bleaching process with the majority of the carbon in the second stage. A two stage
bleaching process may be required when the spent bleaching earth and spent carbon have to
follow separate disposal ways.
.
The Purpose Of Activated Carbon

The traditional use of activated carbon in edible oil refining processes is decolourisation of
vegetable oils to support the decolorizing effect of bleaching earth. The significance of
activated carbon for this purpose has been reduced substantially with the quality
improvement of available activated bleaching earth types being capable to do most of the
bleaching alone. However in case of very high concentrations of persistent pigments such as
chlorophylls, xanthophylls and carotene, activated carbon can be used to improve the
bleaching effect or support the thermal decomposition of pigments such as carotene in the
deodorization process step. The majority of the present light polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon
(PAH) (up to 4-rings) in contaminated oils is usually volatile enough to be stripped off during
the deodorization process step along with other volatile compounds. However the balance of
persistent light polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) compounds together with the remaining
heavy PAH compounds (5-rings and higher) must be removed by adsorption of activated
carbon during the bleaching process step in order to comply with agreed quality standards for
refined edible oils.

2.7.2 Silica Hydrogel

Synthetic amorphous silica hydrogel is ideally suited for use as an adsorbent in refining edible oils,
offering a number of environmental and cost benefits[5,6]. The high moisture content trapped
within the silica structure creates the ideal environment to attract polar impurities from the oil.
Contaminants such as soaps, phospholipids and trace metals are drawn into the pores of the silica
and adsorbed onto the silica surface which is populated with a high concentration of hydroxyl
groups. The network of pores within the silica particles offers a high internal surface area to absorb
the polar contaminants. Each tiny particle, typically 15 microns in size, is like a small sponge with a
high adsorption capacity.

2.7.3 Activated Alumina

Activated alumina: Is a high-surface-area, highly porous form of aluminium oxide. It can adsorb
gases and liquids without changing its form. It works as a desiccant through adsorption. As air
passes through the alumina, the water in the air sticks it and becomes trapped and air that passes
through an activated alumina filter is dried out. Even if immersed in a liquid, activated alumina
won't fall apart or soften. You can restore the original adsorption efficiency of activated alumina by
heating it to any temperature from 350 to 600F (177 to 316C). When the desiccant is heated as
described above, the water stored in it is released. This means that filters with AA can be reused
over and over again.