Department of Mechanical Engineering

COURSE FILE

SUBJECT NAME : ENGINEERING MATERIALS &

METALLURGY

SUBJECT CODE : ME 2253

NAME OF COURSE INSTRUCTOR : Mr.M.DHINAKAR

DESIGNATION : ASSISTANT PROFESSOR

CLASS : II YEAR

BATCH : 2011-2015

SIGNATURE OF
COURSE INSTRUCTOR SIGNATURE OF HOD

SIGNATURE OF PRINCIPAL
ME 2253 ENGINEERING MATERIALS AND METALLURGY L T P C

(Common to Mechanical & Automobile) 3 0 0 3

OBJECTIVE

To impart knowledge on the structure, properties, treatment, testing and applications of

metals and non-metallic materials so as to identify and select suitable materials for

various engineering applications.

Review (Not for Exam):

Crystal structure BCC, FCC and HCP structure unit cell crystallographic planes

and directions, miller indices crystal imperfections, point, line, planar and volume

defects Grain size, ASTM grain size number.

UNIT I CONSTITUTION OF ALLOYS AND PHASE DIAGRAMS 9

Constitution of alloys Solid solutions, substitutional and interstitial phase diagrams,

Isomorphous, eutectoid, eutectic, peritectic, and peritectroid reactions, Iron Iron

carbide equilibrium diagram. Classification of steel and cast Iron, microstructure,

properties and applications.

UNIT II HEAT TREATMENT 9

Definition Full annealing, stress relief, recrystallisation and spheroidizing normalising,

hardening and tempering of steel. Isothermal transformation diagrams cooling curves

superimposed on I.T. diagram, CCR - Hardenability, Jominy end quench test

Austempering, martempering case hardening - carburising, nitriding, cyaniding,

carbonitriding, flame and induction hardening.

UNIT III MECHANICAL PROPERTIES AND TESTING 9

Mechanism of plastic deformation, slip and twinning Types of fracture Testing of

materials under tension, compression and shear loads Hardness tests (Brinell, Vickers

and Rockwell), Impact test - Izod and Charpy, Fatigue and creep tests, fracture.
UNIT IV FERROUS AND NON FERROUS METALS 9

Effect of alloying elements on steel (Mn, Si, Cr, Mo, V, Ti & W) - stainless and tool steels

HSLA - maraging steels Cast Irons - Grey, White malleable, spheroidal Graphite,

Alloy cast irons, Copper and Copper alloys - Brass, Bronze and Cupronickel Aluminum

and Al-Cu alloy precipitation hardening Bearing alloys.

UNIT V NON-METALLIC MATERIALS 9

Polymers types of polymer, commodity and engineering polymers Properties and

applications of PE, PP, PS, PVC, PMMA, PET, PC, PA, ABS, PI, PAI, PPO, PPS, PEEK,

PTFE Polymers Urea and Phenol Formaldehydes Engineering Ceramics

Introduction to Fibre reinforced plastics.

TOTAL : 45 PERIODS

TEXT BOOKS

1. Kenneth G.Budinski and Michael K.Budinski Engineering Materials Prentice-Hall of

India Private Limited, 4th Indian Reprint 2002.

REFERENCES

1. William D Callister Material Science and Engineering, John Wiley and Sons 2007.

2. Raghavan.V Materials Science and Engineering, Prentice Hall of India Pvt., Ltd.,

2007.

3. Sydney H.Avner Introduction to Physical Metallurgy McGraw Hill Book Company,

2007.

4. Dieter G. E., Mechanical Metallurgy, Mc Graw Hill Book Company, 1988.

5. O.P. Khanna , A text book of Materials Science and Metallurgy, Khanna Publishers,
REVIEW
Metallurgy

Field that investigates about Engineering Materials

The study of metals and their properties in bulk and at the atomic level

Studies the physical and chemical behavior of metallic elements, their intermetallic compounds,
and their mixtures, which are called alloys.

Material Science & Engineering

Materials science involves investigating the relationships that exist between the structures
and properties of materials.

Materials Engineering is, on the basis of the structureproperty correlations.

Structure

The structure of a material usually relates to the arrangement of its internal components.

On an atomic level, structure encompasses the organization of atoms or molecules relative to

one another.

The structure predetermined set of properties of a material

Large groups of atoms that are normally agglomerated together, is termed microscopic,

Property

All important properties of solid materials may be grouped into six different categories.

Mechanical, Electrical, Thermal, Magnetic, Optical, and Deteriorative.

Mechanical properties relate deformation to an applied load or force; examples include

elastic modulus and strength.

For Electrical properties, such as electrical conductivity and dielectric constant, the stimulus is
an electric field.

Thermal behavior of solids can be represented in terms of heat capacity and thermal
conductivity.

Magnetic properties demonstrate the response of a material to the application of a magnetic

field.
 For optical properties, the stimulus is electromagnetic or light radiation, index of refraction and
reflectivity are representative optical properties.

Classification of materials

Solid materials have been conveniently grouped into three basic classifications.

The Classification based primarily on chemical makeup and atomic structure.

Metals, Ceramics, and Polymers

Composites - combinations of two or more of the above three basic material classes.

Advanced materials : Used in high-technology application (semiconductors, biomaterials, smart

materials, and nano engineered materials)

Crysl Structures

A crystalline material is one in which the atoms are situated in a repeating or periodic array
over large atomic distances;

The properties of crystalline solids depend on the crystal structure of the material, the manner
in which atoms, ions, or molecules are spatially arranged.

There is an extremely large number of different crystal structures all having long range atomic
order.

Simplest repeating unit in a crystal is called a unit cell. Each unit cell is defined in terms
of lattice points .(the points in space about which the particles are free to vibrate in a crystal).

Basic Crystal Structure

Three relatively simple crystal structures are found for most of the common metals:

Face centered cubic - atoms located at each of the corners and the centers of all the cube
faces.

Body-centered cubic - a cubic unit cell with atoms located at all eight corners and a single
atom at the cube center.

Hexagonal close-packed - The top and bottom faces of the unit cell consist of six atoms that
form regular hexagons and surround a single atom in the center.

Imperfections in Solids (crystalline defect)

The properties of some materials are profoundly influenced by the presence of imperfections.
 It is important to have a knowledge about the types of imperfections that exist and the roles
they play in affecting the behavior of materials.

For ease of their characterization, defects are classified on the basis of their geometry.

a. Point defects (zero-dimensional)

b. Line defects (single dimensional)

c. Plane defects (two dimensional)

d. Volume defects (three dimensional)

 UNIT 1
Constituents of alloys & Phase Diagram
 PHASE DIAGRAMS

When we combine two elements.. what equilibrium state do we get?

THE SOLUBILITY LIMIT:

Max concentration for which only a solution occurs.

Ex: Phase Diagram:

Water-Sugar System
Question: What is the solubility limit at 20C?
Answer: : 65wt% sugar.
If Comp < 65wt% sugar: syrup
If Comp > 65wt% sugar: syrup + sugar coexist

Solubility limit increases with T:

e.g., if T = 100C, solubility limit = 80wt% sugar.
EFFECT OF T & COMPOSITION (Co):
Each point on this phase diagram represents equilibrium
Changing T can change # of phases: path A to B
Changing Co can change # of phases: path B to C
WATER-SALT PHASE DIAGRAM

COMPONENTS AND PHASES:

Components:
The elements or compounds which are mixed initially
(e.g., Al and Cu, or water and sugar)
Phases:
The physically and chemically distinct material regions
 that result (e.g., a and b, or syrup and sugar)

Fig: Aluminum-Copper Alloy

PHASE DIAGRAMS:
binary systems: just 2 components.
--independent variables: T and Co (P = 1 atm is always used)
 Phase Diagram for Cu-Ni system
Isomorphous system: i.e., complete solubility of one component in
another
types of phases:
Rule 1: If we know T and Co, then we know the # and types of phases
present.

Rule 2: If we know T and Co, then we know:

--the composition of each phase.
C0 = 35 wt% Ni
 At 1300 C:
Only liquid (L)
CL = C0 (= 35 wt% Ni)
At 1150 C:
Only solid (a)
Ca = C0 (= 35 wt% Ni)
At TB:
Both a and L
CL = Cliquidus (= 32 wt% Ni)
Ca = Csolidus (=43 wt% Ni)

Rule 3: If we know T and Co, then we know:

--the amount of each phase (given in wt%).
C0 = 35 wt% Ni
At 1300 C:
Only liquid (L)
WL = 100 wt%, Wa = 0 wt%
At 1150 C:
Only solid (a)
WL = 0 wt%, Wa = 100 wt%
At TB:
Both a and L
WL = S/(R+S) =
(43-35)/(43-32) = 73 wt%
Wa = R/(R+S) =
(35-32)/(43-32) = 27 wt%
THE LEVER RULE: A PROOF
Sum of weight fractions: W W 1
L

Conservation of mass (Ni): C W C W C

o L L

Combine above equations:

A geometric interpretation:

moment equilibrium:
WLR WS

1 W
solving gives Lever Rule
Allotropic changes of iron:
HYPOEUTECTIC & HYPEREUTECTIC
IRON-CARBON (Fe-C) PHASE DIAGRAM
Pure iron: 3 solid phases
BCC ferrite (a)
FCC Austenite (g)
BCC d
Beyond 6.7% C cementite (Fe3C)
Eutectic: 4.3% C
L g + Fe3C
(L solid + solid)
Eutectoid: 0.76% C
g a + Fe3C
(solid solid + solid)
Steel and Cast iron:

Fe-C PHASE DIAGRAM: EUTECTOID POINT:

HYPOEUTECTOID STEEL:
HYPEREUTECTOID STEEL:

Application:
Phase diagrams are useful tools to determine
--the number and types of phases,
--the wt% of each phase,
--and the composition of each phase
Microstructures Obtained In Fe-fe3c Phase Diagram:
1. Ferrite
2. Austenite
3. Pearlite
4. Cementite
5. Leduburite

FERRITE

It is a name given to the Alpha solid

solution
It is almost a pure iron phase
The name ferrite comes from Latin
word ferrum meaning Iron
It is interstitial solid solution of
small amount of carbon dissolved in
alpha (BCC) iron
The maximum solubility is 0.025% Carbon at 9230C
It is the softest structure that appears in the phase diagram
Alpha Ferrite
It is interstitial solid solution of carbon in alpha iron which is a
BCC structure.
It exist at room Temperature
It is soft and ductile phase which cannot be hardened even by heat
treatment
But it can be cold worked with out cracking
Delta Ferrite
It is interstitial solid solution of carbon in Delta iron which is a
BCC structure.
It exist at High Temperature
It is soft and ductile phase
AUSTENITE
It is the name given to
the gamma solid
solution
It is interstitial solid
solution of carbon in
gamma iron which is
FCC structure
The maximum
solubility of carbon in
gamma iron is 2% at 11470C
It is stable and only upto 7270C on cooling
 Austenite decomposes into Ferrite and Cementite
It is soft, ductile, malleable and non magnetic phase
PEARLITE:
It is a mixture of ferrite and Cementite
The ferrite and Cementite exist in the form of alternate lamellae
It exist in room temperature
It shows better strength and hardness
The black lines
indicates thin plates
of Cementite over
the white
background of
ferrite

CEMENTITE:
It is intermetallic compound of iron and carbon
It has fixed carbon percentage of 6.67% and its chemical formula
is Fe3C
It is hardest structure in the equillibrium diagram and brittle in
nature
It is also termed as Iron Carbide
 It has highest compressive strength

Leduburite:
It is the eutectic mixture of austenite and cementite.
It contains 4.3 % Carbon and represents the eutectic of cast iron.
Ledeburite exists when the carbon content is greater than 2 %,
which represents the dividing line on the equilibrium diagram
between steel and cast iron.
 UNIT-2
HEAT TREATMENT
Heat Treatment of Steels:

Coarse Grain structure Fine Grain Structure

Crack Propagation

Crack Propagation can be arrested at grain boundaries

Coarse grain structure will have low crack propagation strength i.e., failure

Fine grain structure will gave high strength in stopping crack movement i.e., more time to
get failure

Advantages of Heat Treatment:

Grain Refinement

Relief of internal stresses

Improve machinability

Harden or soften given metals

Improve ductility, Toughness, malleability

Increase wear and corrosion resistance

Homogenizes structure
Time-Temperature-Transformation (TTT)Curve
Heat-Treatment

Heat treatment is a method used to alter the physical, and sometimes chemical properties
of a material. The most common application is metallurgical

It involves the use of heating or chilling, normally to extreme temperatures, to achieve a

desired result such as hardening or softening of a material

It applies only to processes where the heating and cooling are done for the specific purpose
of altering properties intentionally

Annealing

It is a heat treatment wherein a material is altered, causing changes in its properties

such as strength and hardness

It the process of heating solid metal to high temperatures and cooling it slowly so
that its particles arrange into a defined lattice

Types of Annealing

1. Stress-Relief Annealing (or Stress-relieving)

2. Normalizing

3. Isothermal Annealing

4. Spheroidizing Annealing

1. Stress-Relief Annealing

It is an annealing process below the transformation temperature Ac1, with

subsequent slow cooling, the aim of which is to reduce the internal residual stresses
in a workpiece without intentionally changing its structure and mechanical
properties

For plain carbon and low-alloy steels the temperature to which the specimen is
heated is usually between 450 and 650C, whereas for hot-working tool steels and
high-speed steels it is between 600 and 750C
 This treatment will not cause any phase changes, but recrystallization may take
place.

2. Normalizing
A heat treatment process consisting of Austenitizing at temperatures of 3080C
above the AC3 transformation temperature followed by slow cooling (usually in air)
The aim of which is to obtain a fine-grained, uniformly distributed, ferrite pearlite
structure
Normalizing is applied mainly to unalloyed and low-alloy hypo eutectoid steels
For hypereutectoid steels the Austenitizing temperature is 3080C above the AC1 or
ACm transformation temperature

Normalizing refines the grain of a steel that has become coarse-grained as a result of
heating to a high temperature, e.g., for forging or welding
Grain refinement or homogenization of the structure by normalizing is usually
performed either to improve the mechanical properties of the workpiece or
(previous to hardening) to obtain better and more uniform results after hardening
Normalizing is also applied for better machinability of low-carbon steels
After hot rolling, the structure of steel is usually oriented in the rolling direction
To remove the oriented structure and obtain the same mechanical properties in all
directions, a normalizing annealing has to be performed
 Heat Treatment on phase diagram of steel

3. Isothermal Annealing
Hypoeutectoid low-carbon steels as well as medium-carbon structural steels are
often isothermally annealed, for best machinability
An isothermally annealed structure should have the following characteristics:
1. High proportion of ferrite
2. Uniformly distributed pearlite grains
3. Fine lamellar pearlite grains

4. Process - Isothermal Annealing

Austenitizing followed by a fast cooling to the temperature range of pearlite

formation (usually about 650C.)
Holding at this temperature until the complete transformation of pearlite
and cooling to room temperature at an arbitrary cooling rate
 5. Spheroidizing Annealing

It is also called as Soft Annealing

Any process of heating and cooling steel that produces a rounded or globular form
of carbide
It is an annealing process at temperatures close below or close above the AC1
temperature, with subsequent slow cooling
The physical mechanism of soft annealing is based on the coagulation of cementite
particles within the ferrite matrix, for which the diffusion of carbon is decisive
Globular cementite within the ferritic matrix is the structure having the lowest
energy content of all structures in the ironcarbon system
The carbon diffusion depends on temperature and time

Spheroidizing Process
Prolonged heating at a temperature just below the lower critical temperature,
usually followed by relatively slow cooling
In the case of small objects of high C steels, the Spheroidizing result is achiev
ed more rapidly by prolonged heating to temperatures alternately within and
slightly below the critical temperature range
Tool steel is generally spheroidized by heating to a temperature of 749-804C and
higher for many alloy tool steels, holding at heat from 1 to 4 hours, and cooling
slowly in the furnace

CASE HARDENING

Case hardening or surface hardening is the process of hardening the surface of a

metal, often a low carbon steel, by infusing elements into the material's surface,
forming a thin layer of a harder alloy.

Case hardening is usually done after the part in question has been formed into its
final shape

Case-Hardening Processes

Flame/Induction Hardening

Carburizing

Nitriding

Cyaniding

Carbonitriding
Flame and induction hardening

Flame or induction hardening are processes in which the surface of the steel is
heated to high temperatures (by direct application of a flame, or by induction heating)
then cooled rapidly, generally using water

This creates a case of martensite on the surface.

A carbon content of 0.40.6 wt% C is needed for this type of hardening

Application Examples -> Lock shackle and Gears

Carburizing

Carburizing is a process used to case harden steel with a carbon content between 0.1
and 0.3 wt% C.

Steel is introduced to a carbon rich environment and elevated temperatures for a

certain amount of time, and then quenched so that the carbon is locked in the
structure

Example -> Heat a part with an acetylene torch set with a fuel-rich flame and
quench it in a carbon-rich fluid such as oil

Nitriding

Nitriding heats the steel part to 482621C in an atmosphere of NH3 gas and broken
NH3.

The time the part spends in this environment dictates the depth of the case.

The hardness is achieved by the formation of nitrides.

Nitride forming elements must be present in the workpiece for this method to work.

Advantage -> it causes little distortion, so the part can be case hardened after being
quenched, tempered and machined.
Cyaniding

Cyaniding is mainly used on low carbon steels.

The part is heated to 870-950C in a bath of sodium cyanide (NaCN)and then is

quenched and rinsed, in water or oil, to remove any residual cyanide.

The process produces a thin, hard shell (0.5-0.75mm) that is harder than the one
produced by carburizing, and can be completed in 20 to 30 minutes compared to
several hours.

It is typically used on small parts.

The major drawback of cyaniding is that cyanide salts are poisonous

Carbonitriding

Carbonitriding is similar to cyaniding except a gaseous atmosphere of ammonia and

hydrocarbons (e.g. CH4)is used instead of sodium cyanide.

If the part is to be quenched then the part is heated to 775885C; if not then the
part is heated to 649788C

PRECIPITATION HARDENING

Precipitation hardening (or age hardening), is a heat treatment technique used to

increase the yield strength of malleable materials

Malleable materials are those, which are capable of deforming under compressive
stress

It relies on changes in solid solubility with temperature to produce fine particles of

an impurity phase, which blocks the movement of dislocations in a crystal's lattice

Since dislocations are often the dominant carriers of plasticity, this serves to harden
the material

The impurities play the same role as the particle substances in particle-reinforced
composite materials.

Alloys must be kept at elevated temperature for hours to allow precipitation to take
place. This time delay is called aging Two different heat treatments involving
precipitates can change the strength of a material:

solution heat treating

 precipitation heat treating

Solution treatment involves formation of a single-phase solid solution via quenching

and leaves a material softer

Precipitation treating involves the addition of impurity particles to increase a

material's strength

Effect of Aging Time on Precipitates

Quenching

To harden by quenching, a metal must be heated into the austenitic crystal phase
and then quickly cooled

Cooling may be done with forced air, oil, polymer dissolved in water, or brine

Upon being rapidly cooled, a portion of austenite (dependent on alloy composition)

will transform to martensite
The Jominy End-Quench Test
 Tempering

Untempered martensite, while very hard, is too brittle to be useful for most
applications.
In tempering, it is required that quenched parts be tempered (heat treated at a low
temperature, often 150C) to impart some toughness.
Higher tempering temperatures (may be up to 700C, depending on alloy and
application) are sometimes used to impart further ductility, although some yield
strength is lost
Unit 3 Material Testing
Stress-Strain Test

Tensile Test
Important Mechanical Properties from a Tensile Test
Young's Modulus: This is the slope of the linear portion of the stress-strain curve, it
is usually specific to each material; a constant, known value.

Yield Strength: This is the value of stress at the yield point, calculated by plotting
young's modulus at a specified percent of offset (usually offset = 0.2%).

Ultimate Tensile Strength: This is the highest value of stress on the stress-strain
curve.

Percent Elongation: This is the change in gauge length divided by the original gauge
length.

Elastic Deformation

bonds
stretch

return to
initial

F
Plastic Deformation (Metals)

linear linear
elastic elastic

plastic

Typical stress-strain behavior for a metal showing elastic and plastic deformations, the
proportional limit P and the yield strength y, as determined using the 0.002 strain offset
method (where there is noticeable plastic deformation). P is the gradual elastic to plastic
transition.

Plastic Deformation (permanent)

From an atomic perspective, plastic deformation corresponds to the

breaking of bonds with original atom neighbors and then reforming
bonds with new neighbors.
 After removal of the stress, the large number of atoms that have
relocated, do not return to original position.

Yield strength is a measure of resistance to plastic deformation.

Hardness of Materials
Hardness test - Measures the resistance of a material to penetration by a sharp
object.

Macrohardness - Overall bulk hardness of materials measured using loads >2 N.

Microhardness Hardness of materials typically measured using loads less than 2 N

using such test as Knoop (HK).

Nano-hardness - Hardness of materials measured at 110 nm length scale using

extremely small (~100 N) forces.

Hardness
Hardness is a measure of a materials resistance to localized plastic deformation (a
small dent or scratch).

Quantitative hardness techniques have been developed where a small indenter is

forced into the surface of a material.

The depth or size of the indentation is measured, and corresponds to a hardness

number.

The softer the material, the larger and deeper the indentation (and lower hardness
number).
Unit 4: NON METALLIC MATERIALS
Types of Materials
Polymers

Plastics

Elastomers

Ceramics

Composites

Polymer based composites

Ceramic based Composites

Polymers
Substances containing a large number of structural units joined by the same type of linkage.

These substances often form into a chain-like structure.

Polymers in the natural world have been around since the beginning of time.

Starch, cellulose, and rubber - possess polymeric properties.

Man-made polymers studied since 1832.

Today, the polymer industry has grown to be larger than the aluminum, copper and steel
industries combined.

Polymers in Nature
Everything we see in nature-
What do all these have in common?
They contain polymers!
You can find different plants, animals, and natural objects that make or contain
polymers.
You can build a miniature world of your own
Applications

Industry

Automobile parts, windshields for fighter planes, pipes, tanks, packing materials,
insulation, wood substitutes, adhesives, matrix for composites, and elastomers

Agriculture and Agribusiness

Polymeric materials -in and on soil to improve aeration, provide mulch, and promote plant
growth and health.

Medicine

Many biomaterials, - heart valve replacements and blood vessels, are made of polymers like
Dacron, Teflon and polyurethane.

Consumer Science

Plastic containers of all shapes and sizes are light weight and economically less expensive
than the more traditional containers.

clothing, floor coverings, garbage disposal bags, and packaging.

Sports

Playground equipment, various balls, golf clubs, swimming pools, and protective helmets

Polymerization Reactions

The chemical reaction in which high molecular mass molecules are formed from monomers is
known as POLYMERIZATION

Two basic types of polymerization:

1.chain-reaction (or addition) polymerization.

2.step-reaction (or condensation) polymerization

1. Chain-Reaction (addition) Polymerization
Three step process involving two chemical entities.

The first, known simply as a monomer, can be regarded as one link in a polymer chain. It
initially exists as simple units. In nearly all cases, the monomers have at least one carbon-
carbon double bond.
1 Initiation
2. Propagation
3. Termination
Ethylene is one example of a monomer used to make a common polymer

Step 1: Initiation

The first step, initiation, occurs when the free-radical catalyst reacts with a double
bonded carbon monomer, beginning the polymer chain. The double carbon bond
breaks apart, the monomer bonds to the free radical, and the free electron is
transferred to the outside carbon atom in this reaction.

Step 2: Propagation

Propagation, is a repetitive operation in which the physical chain of the polymer is

formed. The double bond of successive monomers is opened up when the monomer is
reacted to the reactive polymer chain. The free electron is successively passed down the
line of the chain to the outside carbon atom.

This reaction is continuous because the energy in the chemical system is lowered as the
chain grows.

Thermodynamically speaking, the sum of the energies of the polymer is less than the
sum of the energies of the individual monomers.
Simply put, the single bounds in the polymeric chain are more stable than the double
bonds of the monomer

Step 3: Termination

Termination occurs when another free radical (R-O.), left over from the original
splitting of the organic peroxide, meets the end of the growing chain.

This free-radical terminates the chain by linking with the last CH2. component of the
polymer chain.

This reaction produces a complete polymer chain. Termination can also occur when
two unfinished chains bond together.

2. Step-Reaction (condensation)Polymerization

Another common type of polymerization.

This method produces polymers of lower molecular weight than chain reactions and
requires higher temperatures to occur.

Unlike addition polymerization, step-wise reactions involve two different types of di-
functional monomers or end groups that react with one another, forming a chain.

Condensation polymerization also produces a small molecular by-product (water, HCl,

etc.).

Eg:Formation of Nylon 66, a common polymeric clothing material, involving one each
of two monomers, hexamethylene diamine and adipic acid, reacting to form a dimer of
Nylon 66.

The polymer could grow in either direction by bonding to another molecule of

hexamethylene diamine or adipic acid, or to another dimer.
As the chain grows, the short chain molecules are called oligomers. This reaction
process theoretically can continue until no further monomers and reactive end groups
are available.

The process is relatively slow and can take up to several hours or days. This process
breeds linear chains that are strung out without any cross-linking or branching, unless
a tri-functional monomer is added.

Polymer Chemical Structure

The monomers in a polymer can be arranged in a number of different ways.

Both addition and condensation polymers can be linear, branched, or cross-linked.

Linear polymers are made up of one long continuous chain, without any excess
appendages or attachments. Branched polymers have a chain structure that consists of
one main chain of molecules with smaller molecular chains branching from it. A
branched chain-structure tends to lower the degree of crystallinity and density of a
polymer. Cross-linking in polymers occurs when primary valence bonds are formed
between separate polymer chain molecules.

Chains with only one type of monomer are known as homopolymers. If two or more
different type monomers are involved, the resulting copolymer can have several
configurations or arrangements of the monomers along the chain.

Thermoplastics

Generally carbon containing polymers synthesized by addition or condensation

polymerization.

This process forms strong covalent bonds within the chains and weaker secondary Van
der Waals bonds between the chains.

Usually, these secondary forces can be easily overcome by thermal energy, making
thermoplastics moldable at high temperatures.

Thermoplastics will also retain their newly reformed shape after cooling.

Applications of thermoplastics include: parts for common household appliances,

bottles, cable insulators, tape, blender and mixer bowls, medical syringes, mugs,
textiles, packaging, and insulation
Thermosets

Have the same Van der Waals bonds that thermoplastics do.

Also have a stronger linkage to other chains.

Strong covalent bonds chemically hold different chains together in a thermoset

material.

The chains directly bonded to each other or bonded through other molecules. This
"cross-linking" between the chains allows the material to resist softening upon heating.

Thermosets must be machined into a new shape if they are to be reused or they can
serve as powdered fillers.

Difficult to reform, but have many distinct advantages in engineering design

applications including:

High thermal stability and insulating properties.

High rigidity and dimensional stability.

Resistance to creep and deformation under load.

Light-weight.

Applications for thermosets include epoxies (glues), automobile body parts, adhesives
for plywood and particle board, and as a matrix for composites in boat hulls and tanks.
Composite material

(or composites for short) are engineered materials made from two or more
constituent materials with significantly different physical or chemical properties
and which remain separate and distinct within the finished structure.
Two types of constituent materials:

- MATRIX and REINFORCEMENT TYPES

The matrix material surrounds and supports the reinforcement materials by

maintaining their relative positions. The reinforcements impart special physical
(mechanical and electrical) properties to enhance the matrix properties.
Material properties A COMBINATION OF THE TWO Two Natural composites:
BONE and WOOD

COMPOSITES
Large Dispersion Continuous Discontinuous laminates Sandwich
Particle Strengthened (Aligned) (short) panels
Aligned Randomly Oriented

Modern composites
The most advanced examples are used on spacecraft in demanding environments.
The most visible applications:

roadways in the form of either steel and portland cement concrete, Mastic asphalt
and asphalt concrete.
The principle factors:
1. The natures of the chosen matrix and reinforcement materials.
2. Quantity of material to be produced. Large quantities to justify high capital
expenditures for rapid and automated manufacturing technology.
Small production quantities with lower capital expenditures but higher labour costs
at a correspondingly slower rate.

Mechanics
A polymer matrix material called a resin or resin solution.
There are many different polymers available depending upon the starting raw
ingredients. Broad categories, each with numerous variations. The most common
categories are known as polyester, vinyl ester, epoxy, phenolic, polyimide,
polyamide, and others.

The reinforcement materials: fibers & ground minerals.

Fibers transformed into a textile material such as a felt, fabric, knit or stitched
construction.

Advanced composite materials: a category comprising carbon fiber reinforcement

and epoxy or polyimide matrix materials.

These are the aerospace grade composites and typically involve laminate molding
at high temperature and pressure to achieve high reinforcement volume fractions.
These advanced composite materials feature high stiffness and/or strength to weight
ratios

One component - a strong fibre such as fiberglass, quartz, kevlar, Dyneema or

carbon fiber that gives the material its tensile strength
another component (called a matrix)- a resin such as polyester, or epoxy that binds
the fibres together, transferring load from broken fibers to unbroken ones and
between fibers that are not oriented along lines of tension.
The matrix chosen - flexible, prevents the fibers from buckling in compression.
 Some composites use an aggregate instead of, or in addition to, fibers.

Composite materials - divided into two main categories:

1.Short fiber reinforced materials
2. continuous fiber reinforced materials
Continuous reinforced materials will often constitute a layered or laminated
structure.
Shocks, impact, loadings or repeated cyclic stresses can cause the laminate to
separate at the interface between two layers, a condition known as delamination.
Individual fibers can separate from the matrix e.g. fiber pull-out.

Examples
Fiber Reinforced Polymers or FRPs:
Classified by type of fiber:
Wood (cellulose fibers in a lignin and hemicellulose matrix)
Carbon-fiber reinforced plastic or CFRP
Glass-fiber reinforced plastic or GFRP
Classified by matrix:
Thermoplastic Composites
short fiber thermoplastics
long fiber thermoplastics or long fiber reinforced thermoplastics
glass mat thermoplastics
continuous fiber reinforced thermoplastics
Thermoset Composites
Reinforced carbon-carbon (carbon fiber in a graphite matrix)

Metal matrix composites or MMC:

White cast iron
Hardmetal (carbide in metal matrix)
Metal-intermetallic laminate
Ceramic matrix composites:
Bone (hydroxyapatite reinforced with collagen fibers)
Cermet (ceramic and metal)
Concrete
Organic matrix/ceramic aggregate composites
Asphalt concrete
Mastic asphalt
Mastic roller hybrid
Dental composite
Syntactic foam
CERAMIC MATERIALS
GLASSES

CLAY PRODUCTS

REFRACTORIES ABRASIVES CEMENTS ADVANCED CERAMICS

GLASSES

GLASS- CERAMICS STRUCTURAL CLAY PRODUCTS

WHITE WARES

FIRE CLAY SILICA SPECIAL BASIC

CLASSIFICATION ON THE BASIS OF APPLICATIONS

CERAMICS

COMPOUNDS BETWEEN METALLIC & NONMETALLIC ELEMENTS

MOSTLY OXIDES, NITRIDES & CARBIDES

OF CLAY MINERALS, CEMENT, GLASS

INSULATIVE TO THE PASSAGE OF ELECTRICITY& HEAT

MORE RESISTANT TO HIGH TEMPERATURES & HARSH ENVIRONMENTS

HARD, BRITTLE

Properties of Ceramics explained by their structures

Noncrystallinity of inorganic glass materials imparts optical transparency

Hydroplasticity of clays due to interactions between water molecules & clay structure.

Some ceramics have permanent magnetic & ferroelectric behaviours.

ATOMIC BONDING- MAINLY IONIC

- structures can be considered as composed of electrically charged ions (instead of atoms)

Metallic Ions- Cations are +vely charged as they give up their valence electrons to the
nonmetallic ions- Anions.

Relative sizes- rC & rA- of the cations and anions, and the magnitude of the electrical charge
on each influence the crystal structure.

(rC/rA < unity)

APPLICATIONS

Glasses & Glass ceramics

Non crystalline silicates with oxides of CaO, Na2O, K2O, Al2O3 as containers, lenses, fibre
glass etc.

Non crystalline to crystalline by proper high temperature heat treatment. This process is
called devitrification.

Product a polycrystalline material called a Glass-Ceramic.

Clay products

Inexpensive raw material. Easily formed, shaped with water content, mechanical
properties improved by firing.

Refractory ceramics

Several classes- fireclay, high alumina clay, silica, periclase, periclase-chrome ore. All with
oxides of al, Si, Mg, Fe, Ca, and some with Cr,Ti too

Advanced ceramics.

Used in optical fiber systems, as ball bearings, in MEMS, also using the piezoelectric
behaviour.
UNIT 5 FERROUS & NON FERROUS METALS
Effect of Alloy elements

Characteristics of alloying elements

Manganese (Mn) improves hardenability, ductility and wear resistance. Mn eliminates

formation of harmful iron sulfides, increasing strength at high temperatures.

Nickel (Ni) increases strength, impact strength and toughness, impart corrosion
resistance in combination with other elements.

Chromium (Cr) improves hardenability, strength and wear resistance, sharply

increases corrosion resistance at high concentrations (> 12%).

Tungsten (W) increases hardness particularly at elevated temperatures due to stable

carbides, refines grain size.

Vanadium (V) increases strength, hardness, creep resistance and impact resistance due
to formation of hard vanadium carbides, limits grain size.

Molybdenum (Mo) increases hardenability and strength particularly at high

temperatures and under dynamic conditions.

Silicon (Si) improves strength, elasticity, acid resistance and promotes large grain sizes,
which cause increasing magnetic permeability.

Titanium (Ti) improves strength and corrosion resistance, limits austenite grain size.

Cobalt (Co) improves strength at high temperatures and magnetic permeability.

Zirconium (Zr) increases strength and limits grain sizes.

Boron (B) highly effective hardenability agent, improves deformability and

machinability.

Copper (Cu) improves corrosion resistance.

Aluminum (Al) deoxidizer, limits austenite grains growth.

 Stainless Steel
Cr-11% at least.

Stainless steel

Martensitic Steels

Austenitic Steels

Ferritic Steels

Martensitic stainless steel

It posses high content of carbon when compared with other stainless steel

o C- 0.15% to 1.2%

o Cr-11.5% to 18%

o Si-1.0%

o Mn-1.0

They are magnetic

They are machinable

Can be heat treatable and cold worked

Austenitic Steels

It posses austenitic microstructure at room temperature

Contains high content of Nickel due to that it allows to stay at austenitic structure at
room temperature

It is non Magnetic

Cr-16.0% to 26%

Ni-3.5% to 22%

Mn-2% to 10%

Si-1 to 2%

It is not heat treatable but cold workable due to contents of Cr and Ni in high range
 Ferritic Steels

It posses alpha Ferritic (BCC) at room temperature

They are magnetic

Not Heat treatable but cold workable

Cr-11% to 27%

Si-1%

Mn-1% to 1.5%

Ni-0.5% to 0.75%

Tool steels

Water Hardening Tool Oil Hardening Tool Steels Medium Alloy Air High Carbon High
Steels Hardening Steels Chromium Steels
(O-Series)
(W series) (A-series) (D-series)

Essentially these are carbon 0.90 to 1.45 % Carbon with 5 to 10 % alloying elements All D-series contain 12%
steels with 0.60 to 1.10 % Mn, Si, W, Mo, Cr. (Mn, Si, W, Mo, Cr, V, Ni) Cr and over 1.5 % C.
carbon. to improve the
They contain graphite in the hardenability, wear Air or oil quench.
Lowest cost tool steels. hardened structure along resistance, toughness.
with martensite. (Graphite Low distortion, high
Soft core(for toughness) acts as a lubricator and also abrasion resistance.
with hard shallow layer (for makes machining easier.
wear resistance).
Tungsten forms tungsten
Use of w-series steels is carbide which improves the
declining. abrasion resistance and
edge retention in cutting
devices.
High Speed Steel

C-0.7%

W 18% W =Tungsten

Cr 4% Cr=Chromium

V-1% V= Vanadium

Non ferrous alloys

Aluminum Alloys

Copper alloys

Nickel alloys

Magnesium alloys

Precipitation hardening

Bearing materials

Bearing materials
Properties:

High friction resistance

High compressive strength

High toughness

High corrosion resistance

Be able to bear shock and vibrations

Types of bearing based material:

Tin or Lead based alloys

Aluminium based alloys

Silver based alloys

Copper based alloys

Tin or lead based alloys
Composition: for Lead based alloys

Pb-75%, antimony-15%, bismath-10%

Lead based alloys are softer and brittle than tin based alloys

Lead based alloys are cheaper than tin based alloys

Lead based alloys are suitable for light and medium loads

Composition: for Tin based alloys

Antimony-88%, Bismath-8%, Cu-4%

Tin based alloys have a low coefficient of friction as compared lead

alloys

Preferred in high load and high speed

White metals are tin base or lead base bearing alloys and are usually
referred to as Babbitt.

Cadmium based alloys

Composition: Cd-94.75%, Ni-3%, Al-0 to 1%, Cu-1.5%, Zn- 0.75%

These alloys are costlier due to presence of Cd

These alloys provides greater compressive strength than Tin based alloys

Properties:

Low friction coefficient

High fatigue strength

Low wear

High load carrying capacity

Poor corrosion resistance

Aluminium based alloys
Composition: Al-91.5%, Sn-6.5%, Cu-1%, Ni-1%

Used in linings on a steel base

Used in bearings in diesel engines and tractors

Properties:

Excellent corrosion resistance

Good thermal conductivity

High coefficient of expansion

Copper based alloys

Composition: Cu-80%, Sn-10%, Pb-10%

Bronze is one of the oldest known bearing material

It is easily worked

Good corrosion resistance

Lead is soft material and gets uniformly distributed in the hard matrix of Copper

These bearings are manufactured using powder metallurgy process

Applicable in Automotive and Aerospace