2015.133973.engineering Mechanics Statics and Dynamics Text

ENGINEERING
PRENTia-HALL OF INDIA (PRIVATE) LIMITED

NEW DELHI
1963
IRVING H. SHAMES
Professor and Chairman, Department of Engineering Science
Pratt Institute
MECHANICS
Statics and D y n a m I c s
0
This book a vector treatment of mechanics. I

is
have endeavored to vTite a fundamental and rigorous text

designed to give the student a background that will enable
him to deal with. the novel and challenging situations con-
fronting present-day engineers. At the same time, I have
tried to present material that will help the student develop
a reasonable facility for discharging the more routine but
ever-present problems in mechanics, and, by including in
this first course certain introductory and common material
for other ensuing courses in mechanics, I have attempted
to present a broader perspective of the usual undergradu-
ate aspects of the subject.
The student is not expected to know vector algebra or
vector calculus. Elements of these topics are included as
part of the text. This material should cause no net loss
of time for the student, for once he has mastered these
operations he -will be able to move much faster. And, as
a side benefit, the mathematics department will gain stu-
dents who have a grasp of this area of mathematics that
comes only from constantly using it to represent physical
situations. The student, then, has more time for other
important work ^to everyones profit.
The usual divisions of statics, kinematics, and dynamics
have been preserved in this book. I am convinced, after
teaching mechanics a number of years, that in approach-
ing resultants and equilibrium equations in statics we need
not start with simple systems (such as conctifrent and co-
planar systems) and go on to increasingly more general
cases. Instead, once the vector operations and certain
vector quantities have been carefully defined and once the
V
Vi PREFACE
equivalence of force systema has been understood, the general case should
be presented immediately and certain charactenstics of the more special
cases deduced from this Such an approach ennches the deductive powers
of the student, sinceeach problem he undertaUes must be classified and
studied m
terms of the general lau^ and not simply on the basis of what
chapter or section he happens to be reading When forced to operate m
this manner I believe the student tends to retain greater proficiency in
dealing mth problems after he completes the course This text,
statics
therefore stresses analysis of 5ituations from a broad viewpoint rather than
speed in routine problem solving by simpler specialized formulations
No graphical methods hav e been included, because I feel that once the
student comprehends the analytical methods he can, if he desires pick up
the graphical procedures himself I might add, parenthetically, that graph-
ical techniques seem to be the first skills lost after the course is completed,
regardless of the amount of drill
The concept a result of transformation relations is
of the tensor being
introduced gently m Chapter 8, where properties of surfaces are discussed,
and then immediately m Chapter 9 the stress tensor is presented and re
lated to the properties of surfaces These studies will help prepare the
student for the more mature handling of the inertia tensor needed m
dynamics
The study of statics ends with the introduction of variational principles
m mechanics, the method of virtual work and the principle of stationary
potential energy are set forth as alternative techniques of solving certain
classes of problems This presentation is rigorous enough to serve ns a
possible foundation for more advanced studies of mechanics
A rather extensive treatment of the kinematics of particles and rigid
bodies for single and multiple references is presented I have found that
after the student has constantly used vector methods in statics he is gener-
ally very effective in employing them in kinematics
We begin the study of the djnamics of particles by analyzing the recti-
linear motion of a body under the action of a variety of forces The motion
of several bodies (which are connected in various ways) under rectilinear
translation is then examined, and this investigation leads us to the concepts
of natural modes of motion, resonances, etc The central force problem is

taken up, leading to Kepler's laws, and is followed by a discussion of space
mechanics, where we consider problems involving earth satellites and space
vehicles Next a study a nmde motion of a particle Applica-
of the general
tions are made and of charged particles moving
to the ballistics of shells
through electric and magnetic fields Employing the mass center we make
simple conclusions al>out the motion of any system of particles for a general
motion Energy methods, linear momentum, and moment of momentum
are then developed for a particle and a system of particles Turning to
PREFACE vli
rigid bodies, introduce the inertia tensor so we can effectively develop

we
the Euler equations of motion. Here the student attacks usual and not so
usual problems from the general equations, and is again forced to classify,
simplify, and analyze from the general to the particular. Energy methods
are presented for rigid bodies. Euler angles are dehned, and the motion of
a rapidly rotating body about a fixed point is examined. This study leads
us to the gyroscopic equations. The motion of a deformable medium is
presented next. The concept of the control volume paralleling the idea of
the free-body diagram is carefully set forth. Momentum and continuity
equations are formulated in a general way, and applications to rockets,
jets, nozzles, etc., are made from this study.
Clearly, this text encompasses more than can be thoroughly covered by

the average sophomore in six hours, but the instructor may readily tailor
the material to fit his time schedule and the caliber of his students. Many
students probably with some encouragement, read some or all of the
will,
material not covered directly in class. In fact, the extent to wliich this addi-
tional work is done may be an indication of the success of the course.
I wish to thank my colleagues of the Department of Engineering Science
at Pratt Institute for their assistance in this undertaking. In particular,
Dr. A. Finkelstein has read the entire manuscript with care and has
made numerous N. Perron6 and Dr. R. P. Shaw
helpful suggestions. Dr.
have taught from the early notes of this book, and Dr. E. Liban and
Mr. F. Cozzarelli have criticized portions of the manuscript. Dr. R. Cook,
Dean of Engineering, and all my fellow chairmen at Pratt Institute have
extended me their confidence and support throughout the development of
the book and the accompanying course. Professor S. Rehyle of Stevens
Institute of Technology was the principal reviewer; for his aid I feel most
fortunate. Dr. C. K. Chu of New York University and Dr. Warren Wilson
of Harvey Mudd College read and advised on parts of the manuscript.
I also wish to thank the members of Pratts first class (1960) in engineer-
ing science, who have pioneered the new program:
Michael S. Batch Dim N. Lee Robert J. Ravera

David R. Barbour Carl J. Meshenberg Richard D. Rea
Michael H. Bulkin Harry L. Hong Moo Robert J. Whitcscll
Richard J. Grassi Rinaldo Frisco Don Ngew Wong
Stephen J. Kramer
They have been a continual source of amazement and gratification to their

teachers and no small help to me. Finally, I must note my indebtedness
of
to Miss Betty Capria, who typed the several
versions of the manuscript.
IRVING H. SHAMES
Contents
Fundamentals of Mecfiantcs, i
1 \ Inlroduetum, 1 12 Bane I}tmens\on$ and Vmls i>f Mechames, 13

Stemdary Dimennanal Quanlitm S 14 Law oj Dimensional Homogeneity,
6 15 Dimensional Relation between Force and Mass, 7 16 Units of Mass,
8 1 1 /deataatton/Mtcfc<m* JO 1 8 Vectors and ScabrQtiantinrt, If
1 9 Ejualily and S^walenee of Veetors, Ji 1 10 Lavs of Meehenuss, 18
1 11 Summary t8
Elements of Vector Algebra, ss
2 X IntToduetum, St 2 2 Magnitude and ^/utttphnzfion a Vector by a

Seatar, St 2 3 ,4dittin end Sublraclvn of Vectors, 24 2 4 /teso{u(i<m of
Vectors Seolor Components, SC 2 5 l/mt Vectors, S3 2 6 Scolar or Dot
Product of Two Vectors, 30 2 7 Cross Froducl of Two Vectors, SS 28 A
Sole on Vector Sotation, 34 2 9 Nummary, SS
Important Vector Quantities, so
3 1 PosfftoM Vector, SO 3 2 Îfoment of a Force about a Point, 40 3 3 Sfo~

ment of \Foret about an ^lu, 4S 3 4 The Couple and Couple-Moment, 4S
3 5 The ^pU-Mcmenl as a Free Vector, 48 3 6 The Addition and Sub-
traelion of\CoitpUs, 49 3 7 A ATote on flie Scotar Components of o Couple-
Moment, 5i 3 fl Summary, fJ
v}]l
CONTENTS ix
Equivalent Force Systems, 55

4.1
Inlroduclion, 56. 4.2 Translation of a Force to a Parallel Position, 56.

4.3 The Wrench, 69. 4.4 Resultant of a Force System, 64. 4.5 Resultants of
Special Force Systems, 66. 4.6 Distributed Force Systems, 70. 4.7 Sum-
mary, 74.
5.1
Equations of Equilibrium, so
5
Free-Body Diagram, 80. 5.2 Free Bodies Involving Interior Sections, SS.
5.3 Equations of Equilibrium, 86. 5.4 Special Cases of Equilibrium, 89.
5.5 Problems of Equilibrium, 91. 5.6 Some Simple Conclusions from Equilib-
rium, 100. 5.7 Static Indeterminacy, 105. 5.8 Complete Constraint of a
Rigid Body, 106. 5.9 Summary, 110.
6.1
Introduction to Structural Mechanics, 1I8
6
Part A. TRUSSES, 118
The Structural Model, 118. 6.2 Statically Determinate Trusses, 119. 6.3
The Simple Truss, 120. 6.4 Solution of Simple Trusses, 122.
Part
7.1 B. BEAMS, 129
6.5 Analysis of Beams, 129. 6.6 Shear Bending-Moment Diagrams, 133.
6.7 Relations between Distributed Loads, Shear, and Bending Moments, 137.
Part C. CHAINS AND CABLES, I44
6.8 Introduction, 144- 6,9 Coplanar Cables, I44. 6.10 Summary, I49.
Frictional Forces, I66
Introduction, 156. 7.2 Laws of Coulomb Friction, 157. 7.3 Problems

Involving Dry Friction, 181. 7.4 Special Applications, 168. 7.5 Rolling
Friction, 174- 7.6 Summary, 175.
COKTENTS
Properties of Surfaces^ ISA

8.1
Inlrodueiton, i84 First Moment oj an Area and the Centroid, 183

8.3 Seeond Moments and the Product of Inertia of a Plane Area, 1S7 8.4
Transfer TheoretM, tSS 8.5 Com^lalions InioUmg Moments and Products
of Inertia, SOO 8.6 Rtlolioiw btlmen Moments and Products of Inertia, 105
8.7 Polar Moment of Inertia, 1$5 8 8 Pnncipal Axes, 195 8.9 SuwmoTi?,
197.
Introduction to Continuum Mechanics, sos
pjrt A. BASIC DEFINITIONS, S02

9 \ Introductory Concepts tOS 9.8 Slreis A'otohun, f04 9.3 A
Fete General Remarks, SOS
r<t 8. STRCSS RCkATtONS, 07

9 ( Stress at a Point, S07 9,5 Some Important Properlxes of (ke Stress
Tensor, SIO
rrt C. HTDBOSTATICS AND AEROSTATICS, 8/4
9.6 Introductory Comments, Sl^
tohon in oR /ncoinj>re*M6fe
9.7 The Gradient,
2/7 9.9 Generot Procetfure for n
Sloltc Fiuti/,
m 9.8 Presure Vaf
S/o/ic Compejtl*i Fluid, 2/9 9 10 Examples of Pressure Vanations for

Static Compressiblt Fluids. SSl 9 n
Effect of Surface Force an a Fluid Con-
fined So As To Remain Static, S2t 9.12 Hydrostatic Forces or Sutimerjed
Snf/of<s, S2S 9.13 Ruot/ORcy, SS8,
Firt D. VISCOUS FRICTION, 80

9.1 4 I'jjfouj Fnrtum, S30
Introduction to Variational Mechanics, S4S
10.1 Introduction, 545.
Fart A. METHOD OF VIRTVAt WORK, 244

10.2 PnncipU of VjtImoI for a ParticU. 244 10 3 Principle of Virtual
II orl for a Riptd Pody, S4O 10 4 Principle of Virtual IVorK for a Syslem of
Ideally Connected Rigid Bodies, S48 10.5 Degrees of Freedom, 49 10.6
Problems Kith Ideal ConstramU,
Vtrluat Work, 55
m 10.7 Extensions of the Pnnnplt of
CONTENTS xi
Part B. METHOD OF MINIMUM POTENTIAL ENERGY, 258
10.8 Conservative Systems, 258. 10.9 Condition of Equilibrium, for a Con-

servative System, 260. 10.10 Stability, 263.
Elements of Kinematics, 273
11
11.1 Introduction, 273.
Part A. ELEMENTS OF VECTOR CALCULUS, 274
11.2 Differentiation of a Vector with Respect to Time, 274- 11.3 Integration
of a Vector with Respect to Time, 277.
Part B. DERIVATIVES OF VECTORS FIXED IN RIGID BODIES, 279

11.4 Concepts of Translation and Rotation of Rigid Bodies, 279. 11.5 Dif-
ferentiation of a Vector Fixed in Either a Translating or Rotating Rigid Body,
281. 11.6 A Vector Fixed in a Rigid Body of General Motion, 287. 11.7 Mo-
tion of a Particle in a Rigid Body, 288.
Part C. GENERAL EVALUATION OF DERIVATIVES, 297

11.8 Introductory Remarlcs, 297. 11.9 Velocity and Acceleration in Terms of
the Angular Motion and Elongation of the Position Vector, 297. 11.10 Velocity
and Acceleration in Terms of Path Variables, 300. 11.11 Cylindrical Coordi-
nates, S04.
Part D. THE RELATIONSHIP OF MOTIONS FOR DIFFERENT REFERENCES, 312

11.12 The Relationship between Derivatives of a Vector for Different References,
312. 11.13 The Relationship between Velocities of a Particle for Different
References, 315. 11.14 The Acceleration of a Particle for Different References,
319.
Part E. SOLUTION OF FORCES ON A PARTICLE HAVING

A KNOWN MOTION, 330
11.15 Analysis of the Problem, 330. 11.16 The Coriolis Force, 332. 11.17
Summary, 337.
Intesration of Newton s Law for Rectilinear Translation, S40

12
Part A. SINGLE PARTICLE, S4 O
12.1 Introduction, 340. 12.2 Force Is Constant, S4I. 12.3 Force Is a Fxinc-
lion of Time, S42. 12.4 Linear Restoring Force, 343.
12.5 Linear Restoring
Force and a Force Varying Sinusoidally with Time, 349. 12.6 Linear
Restoring
Force with Viscous Damping, 354. 12.7 Linear Restoring Force,
Viscous
Damping with a Sinusoidal Disturbance, 357. 12.8 Summary
of Part A, 358.
xh CONTENTS
12
Part B MOTION OP CEVCRAt. INTCRACTING PARTICLCS, SS9
9 InlToducioTy Aof, SSO 12 10 D AlOTfcfrt** VnnctpU, SÔ 12 ll Os-
allatory Systems mtk Mvltt-Degreet cf Freedi>m, Sff3
Part C CLCCTRfC CIRCUIT ANALOOUE FOR A MECHANICAL SYSTEM, SGG
1212 Infrod-actory Commtnti, S&6 12 15 Elff/nrolowt Methamcal Courtier-
parts, S67
13
Central-Force Motion, srr
Part A. CENERAL THEORY, 377

I Introduelion 377 13 2 GettfralCentra! Force Malt/ftt 578 13 3 r7rnt>-
tlalunrtl C^nlml Farce ilfolwn 3S( 13 i Oentral Tva-Hody Prolletn, SS3
part B SPACE MECHANICS. SS4

13 $ farih SalelUles Ltiunched Parallel to the Earth's Surface, 334 13 6
14
SalelUtes Lautteheii vtth an Intltal Radsal Vekaly Component, SSO 13 7 Re-
w
2 Introduetum ta PaHulJcS fl/ Shells, 400

Parts MOTION OF CHARGED PARTICLCS, 407
14 3 Opentng Remarks, 407 114 Eleeinc and Magnetic ôrcM, 40S 115
M otion of Charged PoThdes 41I
Parte A SYSTEM OF PARTICLES. 417

14 6 TAe ffencral 3fclwtio/tt5yslem of Porftek*, 417 117 Summary, 419
Energy Methods, 4%9
Part A ANALYSIS FOR A SINGLE PARTICLE, iS8

IS 1 Introducltan, 4$3 15.2 Cowen<u Syslem, 4^9 15.3 Cansmalvsnof
iWfeAomeal Energy, ^31 15 4 AllemaleFormoflVoTk Energy Equation, 434
CONTENTS xHi
Part B.
15.5 SYSTEMS OF PARTICLES, 435
Work-Energy Equations, 435. 15.6 Kinetic Energy Expression Based on
Center of Mass, 438. 15.7 Work-Kinetic Energy Expressions Based on
Center
of Mass, 440.
Methods of Momentum, 447

16.1
16
Part A. LINEAR MOMENTUM, 447
16.5 Introduction, 447. 16.2 Linear M omentum of a System of Particles, 443.
16.3 Conservation of Linear Momentum-Impact, 451. 16.4 A Note on Energy

Loss, 458.
Part B. MOMENT OF MOMENTUM, 460

Moment of Mfymentum Equation for a Single Particle, 430. 16.6 Moment
of Momentum Equation for a System of Particles, 431. 16.7 Summary, 437.
17.1
The Inertia Tensor, 475
17
Introduction, 475. 17.2 Formal Definition of Inertia Quantities, 476.
17.3 Transformation Properties of the Inertia Terms, 477. 17.4 Tensor Nota-
tion for Transfonnalions, 481. 17.5 The Inertia Ellipsoid and Principal Mo-
ments of Inertia, 483, 17.6 Compulation of Principal Moments of Inertia,
486. 17.7 Translation of Coordinate Axes, 487. 17.8 The Relation of Mass
18.1
Inertia Terms to Area Inertia Terms, 489. 17.9 Summary, 490.
18.6
Eulers Equations of Motion, 496
18
Introduction, 496. 18.2 Development of Eulers Equations for the Center
of Mass, 497. 18.3 Eulers Equations for Points Other Than the Mass Center,
501. 18.4 Application of Eulers Equations, 502. 18.5 Balancing, 61.9.
Simplifications of Eider's Equations, 623. 18.7 D Alemberts Principle
for Rigid Bodies, 631. 18.8 Summary, 635.
xW CON I ENTS
Energy Considerations for Rigid Bodies, S4S
19 1 Krnelic Energn t>J o Rigul Body, S4^ 19 2 Jitneltc Energy of a Body in

Pure Rotation, S48 19 3 Energy Formulations for Conservative Systems, 649
19 4 lyorl Energy ffrialton*, 664
Motion of d Body about a Fixed Point, 664
201 /fllro^turtioM,564 20 2 Euler Angles, S85 20 3 Physical Inlerprela-

lion of Ike Euler Anês, 567 20 4 Euler s Equations, 66S
Port A TORQUe-FRCe MOTION. 569
20 5 Torque-Free 3/efitfn of a Body of Revolution 569
Psrt B THE SPINNING TOP. 576
20 6 Symmefnc Spinning Top under (he Aetion qf Cronty, 67$ 20 7 An
Ezominaijon of Expected Nvtolum Velocity, 679 20 8 The Precesaum and
Spin of the Top, 6Sg 20 9 Approximate Anolysxa of a "Dropped ' FosI Top,
S34 20 10 Cote of Constant Torques, 5SS 20 11 The Gyro-Compass, 589
Momentum Equations for Deformable Media, 597
21 1 Introduction, 69721 2 The leloaty Field, S9S 21 3 TivoVieicpoints

00 21 4 ,4ftfahon of * Flow Forlicte, 0i 21 5 Basic Lam for Con-
tinuousMedia 609 21 6 Systems and Control Volumes, 603 21 7 One-and
Two-DimenwonotFlCTW 04 21 8 Conhnwly Fyuahon, 605 21 9 A/twen-
lum Equations for a Control Volume 608 21 10 Analysis of Problems, 61S
21 11 Afominl of Momentum far a Confrot Volume, 613 21 12 Summary,
624
Appendix, 63$
Answers to Problems, 640

engineering mechanics
Statics and D y n a m I c s
Fundamentals
of Mechanics
1 .1 INTRODUCTION
Mechanics is the physical science concerned with

the dynamical behavior (as opposed to chemical and ther-
mal behavior) of bodies that are acted on by mechanical
disturbances. Since such behavior is involved in virtually
all the situations that confront an engineer, mechanics
lies at the core of much engineering analysis. In fact, no
physical science plays a greater role in engineering than
2 FUNDAMENTALS OF MECHANICS 512
does mechanjcs, and it is the oldest of all the physical sciences The nntings
of Archimedes covering buoyancy and the lc%er
vvete iccorded before
200 D c Our modern knoviledge of gravity and motion v.as established

bj Isaac Newton (1642-1727), whose laws founded Newtonian mechanics,
the subject matter of this text
In 1905, Cinstem placed limitations on Newtons formulations with lus
theory of relativity and thus set the stage for the development of rela-
tivistic mechanics The newer theories, however, give results which depart
from those of Newton's formulations only when the speed of a body ap-
proaches the speed of light (186000 miles/scc) Although these speeds are
encountered in the large-scale phenomena of dynamical astronomy and
the small-scale phenomena involving sub atomic particles, it is nevertheless
true that m
the great bulk of engineering problems Newtonian mechanics
still applies
*1
2 BASIC DIMENSIONS AND UNITS OF MECHANICS
In mechanics, we wish to examine quantitatively certain aspects

of the mechanical actions of bodies and then to communicate our findings
clearly To do this, we must establish abstractions to describe those
manifestations of the body that we are interested in These artificial con-
cepts are called dunenswris The dimensions that we first pick, which are
independent of all other dimensions, are termed primary or fcasic dmicn-
stons^ and the ones that are then developed in terms of the basic dimensions
we call secondary dmensions Of the many possible sets of basic dimensions
that we could uxe in our study of mechanics, we will, at present, confine
ourselves to one of the two most convenient ones This set includes the
dimensions of length, time, and mass Hie other convenient set will be
examined later
Length a concept for describing size quantilatuely In order to determine
the size of an object w emust place a second object of know n size next to it
Thus, ill pictures of machinery, a man often appears standing disinterest-
edly beside the apparatus Without him we would be unable to gauge the
size of the unfamiliar machine Although the man has served as some sort
of standard measure, we ran, of course, only get an approximate idea of
the machine s size Mens heights vary, and, what is even worse, the shape
of a man is too complicated to be of much help in acquiring a precise
Tneasurement of the machine ^Yhat we need, obviously, is an object that
13 con'^tant in shape and simple enough m form to enable us to use mathe-
matical formulations in measuring a bodys size A straight line scratched

on a raetal bar that is kept at uniform thermal and physical conditions
(as, for example, the meter bar keptatS^vrra, France) serves as this simple,
'nvariant standard We can now readily calculate and communicate the
1.2 FUNDAMENTALS OF MECHANICS 3
length* along a certain direction of an object by counting the

number of
standards and fractions thereof that can be marked off along this direction.
Other aspects of size, such as volume and area, can then be formulated in
terms of the standard by the methods of plane, spherical, and solid geom-
etry. Each such accepted standard is called a imit of the dimension
length.
Many types of units are actually employed around the world, but we shall
use the system in which the foot is the unit of measure for length. At the
end of this chapter, a summary of common systems of units is presented.
Timea concept for ordering the flow of events. In observing the picture
of the machine with the man standing close by, we can sometimes tell
approximately when the picture was taken by the style of clothes the man
is wearing.But how do we determine this? We may say to ourselves:
When I was in high school, people wore the type of straw hat that the
fellow in the picture is wearing. In other words, the when is tied to
certain events that are experienced by the observer. For a more accurate
description of when, we must find an action which appears to be com-
pletely repeatable. Then we can order the events under study by counting
the number of these repeatable actions and fractions thereof that occur
while the events transpire. The rotation of the earth serves as a good
measure of time, but we need smaller units in most of our work in engi-
neering and thus generally tie events to the second, which is an action
repeatable 86,400 times a day.
Mass a properly of matter. The student ordinarily has no trouble under-
standing the concepts of length and time because he is constantly aware
of the size of things through his
senses of sight and touch, and is
always conscious of time by ob-

serving the flow of events in his
daily life. The concept
of mass,
however, not as easily grasped
is
since it does not impinge as di-

rectly on our daily experience.
hlass is a property of matter
that can be determined from two Body A Body B
different actions of bodies. To Figure 1.1
study the first action, suppose
we consider two hard bodies of
entirely different composition, size, shape,
color, etc. If we attach the
bodies to identical springs, as shown in Fig.
1.1, each spring will
extend some distance as a result of the attraction
of gravity for the bodies,
By grinding o ff some of the material on the body
that causes the greater
* The
word length here is simply the laymans connotation
of a certain aspect of
size and not the more
general definition.
A FUNDAMENTALS OF MECHANICS 12
extension, we can make the deBections that are induced on both spnngs
equal Even if we raise the spnngs to a new height above the earths sur-
face, thus lessening the deformation of the springs, the extensions induced
by the pull of gravity will be the same for both bodies And since they are,
we can conclude that the bodies have an equivalent innate property This
property of each body that manifests itself in the amount of gravitational
attraction we call mass

The equivalence of these same bodies can be indicated yet a second m
action Ifwe move both bodies an equal distance downward, by stretching
each spring and then release them at the same time they w lU begin to
move m an identical manner (except for small variations due to differences
in wind and local deformations of the bodies) We have imposed,
friction
in effect, the same mechanical disturbance on each body and we have
elicited the same dynamical response Hence, despite many obvious differ-
ences the two bodies again show an equivalence The property of mass,
then, charactmzes a body both xn the actions of yravilational attraction and tn
the response to a mechanical disturbance
To communicate this property quantitatively, we may choose some con-
venient body and compare other ^dies to it in the two above-mentioned
actions For example, we can find the mass of a body by comparing the
extension of a spring it causes with that of a given body at the same loca-
tion on the earth The two units commonly used m American engineering
practice to measure mass arc the sltiji, which is defined in terms of the
dynamical response of a standard body to a mechanical disturbance, and
the pound mass, w Inch is defined in terms of the attraction of gravity for
a standard body at a standard location TJiey will be further discussed in
a subsequent section
We have now established three basic independent dimensions to desenbe
certain physical phenomena It is convenient to identify these dimensions
in the following manner
length (L)
time (0
mass (Af)
These formal expressions of identification for basic dimensions and the

more complicated groupings to be presented in the next section for sec-
ondary dimensions are called "dimensional representalion'i
Often there are occasions when we want to change units during compu-
tations For instance, we may wish to change feet into inches or centi
meters In such a case, we must replace the unit in question by a physically
cquualent number of new units Thus, a foot is replaced by 12 inches or
30 5 centimeters A table of equivaleDces m basic dimensions is given at
:
Such relations between units will be

the end of the chapter (Table B).
expressed in this way
1 ft s 12 in. = 30.5 cm
These are not to be taken as algebraic relations but simply as indications
of physical equivalences. Here is another way of
expressing the above
relations:
/12in.\ . / 30.5 cm \ _
\TW)==^ V 1ft y-"
The unity on the right side of these relations indicates that the numerator
and denominator on the left side are physically equivalent and thus have
a 1 to 1 relation. This notation will prove convenient when we consider
the change of units for secondary dimensions in the next section.
1 .3 SECONDARY DIMENSIONAL QUANTITIES
When physical manifestations are described in terms of basic

dimensions by the use of suitable definitions (for instance, velocity is
defined* as a distance divided by a time interval), such quantities are
called secondary dimensioiial quanlitics. In the next section, we will see
that these quantities may also be established as a consequence of natural
laws. The dimensional representation of secondary quantities is given in
terms of the basic dimensions that enter into the formulation of the con-
cept. For example, the dimensional representation of velocity is:
velocity = (L)/ (0
The units for a secondary quantity are then given in terms of the units of
the constituent basic dimensions. Thus:
velocity units = (ft)/(sec)
To change the units of one system into another usually involves a change
in the scale of
measure of the dependent quantities involved in the prob-
lem. Thus, one scale unit of velocity in the English system is one foot per
second, while in the metric system it is one centimeter per second. How
may these scale units be correctly related for complicated secondary
quantities? In our simple case, how many centimeters per second are
equivalent to one foot per second? The formal expressions of dimensional
representation may be put to good use for such an evaluation. The pro-
cedure is this : express the dependent quantity dimensionally; substitute
A more precise definition will be made in the chapters on dynamics.
6 FUNDAMENTALS OF MECHANICS 5l4
existing units for the basic dimensions, change these units to the equiv-
a\ent numbers of units in the new system using Table B on p 19 The
result IS an equation giving the number of -scale units of the dependent
quantity in the new sjstem of units which is equivalent to one scale unit
of the quantity m the old system Performing these operations for velocity,
we n ould thus have
1 ft/sec = 30 5 cm/sec
which means that 30 5 scale units of velocity in the metric system are
equivalent to one scale unit in the English system
Another way of changing units when secondary dimensions are present
is to make use of the formalism illustrated in relations 1 1 To change a
unit m an expression, multiply this unit by a ratio physically equivalent
to unity as we discu'sed earlier, so that the old unit is cancelled out leav-
ing the desired unit with the proper numerical coefficients In the example
of velocity used above, we may replace feet by centimeters in the follow-
ing manner
1 ft _ 1 4 (30 5 cm/1 ft)
^
~
SO 5 cm
sec sec sec
It should be when we multiply by such ratios to accomplish, a

clear that
change of units as shown above, we do not alter the actual physical quan-
tity represented by the expression The student is strongly urged to employ
this technique m bis work, for the use of less formal methods is generally
an invitation to error
T 4 OF OIMtNSIONAL HOMOOCNttTY
Now that we can describe certain aspects of nature in a quanti-

tativemanner through basic and secondary dimensions, we may by careful
observation and experimentation learn to relate certain of the quantities
in the form of equations In this regard there is an important law which
imposes a restnction on the formulation of such equations This law states
that analytically denied equations representing a physical phenomenon must
le laZtd for all systems of units Hius the equation for the period of a pen-
dulum, 2 =s must be valid for all systems of units because natural
phenomena proceed with no regard for man made units Since equations
representing such actions must be true r^rdless of the system of units
employed, the fundamental equations of physics are dimensionally homo-
geneous Hence, all equations den\ed analytically from these fundamental
laws must also be dimensionally homogeneous
What restnction does this condition place on an equation? To answer
this, let us examine the following arbitrary equation
a: = iydg) +k
For this equation to be dimensionally liomogeneous, the numerical equality
between both sides of the equation must be maintained for all systems of
units. To accomplish this, the change in the scale of measure of each group
of terms must be the same for all systems of units. That is, if the numerical
measure of one group such as ydg is doubled for a new system of units, so
must that of the quantities x and k. For this to occur under all systems of
units, it is necessary that every grouping in the equation have the same dimen-
sional representation.
As a further illustration, consider the dimensional representation of an
equation that is not dimensionally homogeneous;
(L) = (ty + it)
When we change units from the English to the metric system, the units of
feet give way to units of centimeters, but there is no change in the unit of
time, and it becomes clear that the numerical value of the left side of the
equation changes while that of the right side does not. The equation, then,
becomes invalid in the new system
and hence is not derived from
of units
the basic laws of physics. Throughout this book we shall invariably be
concerned with dimensionally homogeneous equations.
1 .5 DIMENSIONAL RELATION BETWEEN FORCE AND MASS
We shall now employ the law of dimensional homogeneity to

establish a new secondary dimension. A superficial use of Newtons law
will be employed for this purpose. In a later section, this law will be pre-
sented in greater detail, but it will suffice at this time to state that the
acceleration of a particle is inversely proportional to its mass for a given
disturbance. Mathematically, this becomes:
a oc l/jii 1.2
where cc is the proportionality symbol. Inserting the constant of propor-

tionality, F, vfe have on rearranging the equation:
F = ma 1.3
The mechanical disturbance, represented by F and called force, must have

the following dimensional representation according to the law of
dimen-
sional homogeneity:
(F) = (M) 1.4
The type of disturbance for which relation 1.2 is valid is usually the
action
of one body on another by direct contact.
However, other actions such as
8 FUNDAMENTALS Of MECHANICS 516
magnetic electrostatic and gravitational actions of one body on another

also create mechanical effects that are \alid in Newton s equation
TV e could have initiated the study of mechanics by considering force as
a basic dimension the manifestation of which can be measured by the

elongation of some standard spring at a prescribed temperature Expen
meat v.ould then indicate that for a given body the acceleration is directly
proportional to the applied force Mathematically

Faa F = ma
from which ne see that the proportionality constant now represents the
property of mass Here mass is a secondary quantity whose dimensional
representation is determined from Newton s law
(Jl/) = (f)|g 15
As was mentioned earlier ne thus have a choice between the MLt or

the FU system of basic units Physicists prefer the former while engineers
usually prefer the latter
1 6 UNITS of MAM
As v.e ha\e already seen the concept of mass arose from two types
of actions
namely, those of motion and gravitational attraction In en
gineenng practice units of mass are based on both actions and this some
times leads to confuion Let us consider the FU system of basic dimensions
for the follow mg discussion The unit of force may be taken to be the pound
which is defined as a force that extends a standard spring a certain distance
Using Newtons law we define the slug as the amount of mass that a
1 pound force will cause to accelerate at the rate of 1 foot per second per
second
On the other hand another unit of mass that independent of the slug
is
can be stipulated if we use the gravitational effect as a criterion Here the

pound mass (Ibm) is defined as the amount of matter that is drawn by
graMtj toward the earth by a force of I pound (Ibf) at a specified position
on the earth s surface We ha\e formulated two units of mass by two dif
ferent actions and to relate these units we must subject them to the same
action Thus wc can take the pound mass ami see what fraction or multiple
of accelerate I ft per sei^ under the action of 1 pound of force This
it will
fraction or multiple will then repre*>ent the number of units of pound mass
that are equunlcnt to 1 lug It turns out that this coefficient is
po where
po has the \alue corresponding to the acceleration of graiity at a position
on the earths surface where the pound mass was standardized To three
significant figures the value of gg is 32 2 We may then make the statement
of equivalence that
1 slug = 32.2 pounds mass
Let W
represent mass in units of pound mass. To use this unit in
Newtons law it is necessary to divide by go to form units of mass that
have been derived from Newtons law. Thus, F = (TF/f7o)a. Having
properly introduced into Newton's law the pound-mass unit from the
viewpoint of physical equivalence, let us now consider the dimensional
homogeneity of the resulting equation. The right side of the above equa-
tion must have the dimensional representation of F and, since the unit
here for F is the pound force, the right side must then have this unit.
Examination of the units on the right side of the equation then indicates
that the units of go must be:
= Ohm) (ft)
1.6
(lbf)(sec)'
Thus, for use in Newtons law, m in slugs is related to W in pounds mass

by the following equation:
/IN =
m (slugs) (pounds mass) 1.7
9a
where go is a constant 32.2 having the units as given in 1.6.
How does weight fit Weight

defined as the force of
into this picture? is
gravity on a body. Its value will depend on the position of the body relative
to the earths surface, as was indicated in the discussion of mass. At a
location on the earths surface where the pound mass is standardized, a
mass of 1 pound (Ibm) has the weight of 1 pound (Ibf), but with increasing
altitude the weight will become smaller than 1 pound (Ibf). The mass,
however, remains at all times a 1-pound mass (Ibm). If the altitude is not
exceedingly large, the measure of weight, in Ibf, will practically equal the
measure of mass, in Ibm. Therefore, it is unfortunately the practice in
engineering erroneously to think of weight at positions other than on the
earths surface as the measure of mass, and consequently to use the symbol
W to represent either Ibm or Ibf. In this age of rockets and missiles, it
behooves us to be careful about the proper usage of units of mass and
weight throughout the entire text.
Ifwe know the weight of a body at some point, we can determine its mass
in slugs very easily, provided we know the acceleration of gravity,
g, at
that point. Thus, according to Newtons law:
W (Ibf) = m (slugs) X g (ft/sec^)
m (slugs) ==
W (Ibf)
1.8
g (ft/sec^)
Note that the units are properly related in light of the definition of the
slug made earlier.
Tins last formulation must not be confused -ftith Eq 1 7 The former

relates two units of ma'^, namely the pound mass and the slug, \\ hile the
latter relates a unit of mass and a unit of force
1 7 IDCAUZATIONS OF MECHANICS
As no have pointed out basic and secondary dimensions may be

related in equations to represent lome ph>sical action that we are interested
in For such equations to be susceptible to mathematical manipulations,
hov.e%er, and even (or an action to be expressible m an equation using the
known laws of phjsics, we must invanably replace the actual physical
action, and the participating bodies, with hypothetical, highly simplified
substitutes We must be sure, of course, that the results of our substitutes
have some reasonable correlation with reality All analytical physical
sciences must resort to this technique, and, consequently, their computa-
tions are not cut and dried but involve a considerable amount of imagina-
tion, ingenuity, and insight into physical behavior We shall at this time
set forth the most fundamental ideahiations of mechanics and a bit of
the philosophy tnvoh ed in scientific analj sis
The conttnuum Even the simplification of matter into molecules, atoms,
electrons etc is too complex a picture for many problems of engmeenng
mechanics In most problems, we are interested only in the average meas-
urable manifestations of thee elementary bodies Pressure, density, and
temperature are actually the gross effects of the actions of the many mole-
cules and atoms, and they can be conveniently assumed to arise from a
hypothetically continuous distribution of matter, which we shall call the
continuuvi., instead of from a conglomeration of discrete bodies ithout
such an artifice, we would have to consider the action of each of these
elementary bodies a virtual impossibility for most problems
The ngtd body In many cases involving the action on a body by a
force, we simplify the continuum concept even further The most elemental
case IS that of a rigid body, which is a continuum that undergoes theoreti
cally no deformation vybateaer ActmJJj' every body mirst deform to a
certain amount, but in many cases the deformationis too small to affect
the desired analysis It is then preferable to consider the body as rigid and
proceed with the simplified computations For example, assume we are to
determine the forces transmitted by a beam to the earth as the result of
some load P (Pig 12) If P is reasonably small, the beam will undergo
little and we can carry out a straightforward simple analysis as

deflection
if the body were indeed rigid. If we were to attempt a more accurate

analysis
even though a slight increase in accuracy- is not required we
would then need to know the exact position that the load assumes relative
to the earth oflcr the beam has ceased to deform, as shown in an exag-
gerated manner in Fig. 1.3. To do this accurately is a hopelcs-sly difficult
task, especially when we consider that the .support must also give in a
certain way. Although the alternative to a rigid-body^ analysis here leads
us to a virtually impossible calculation, situations do arise in which more
realistic models must be employed to yield the required accuracy. The
guiding principle is to make such simplifications as are consistent with the
required accuracy of the results.
We must generally abandon the rigid-body model when the applied loads
cause the body to deform to such an extent that the final orientation of
these applied loads Is not known with sufficient accuracy for the problem
at hand. However, if we know the final position of the loads or can estimate
them, we can sometimes utilize the rigid-body model if we take the de-
formed shape as the shape of the rigid body. Clearly the supports in Fig.
1.3 have no wayof knowing whether the body has been deformed to its
final by the loads or whether as a rigid body it always had that
geometry
shape. "We shall have
occasion to employ the rigid-body model for such
situations in the study of chains and
cables in a later chapter.
The particle. The particle is defined as an object that has no size but
that has a mass.
Perhaps this doesnt sound like a very helpful definition
for engineers to employ, but it is actually one of the most useful in me-
chanics, In computing the trajectory of a planet, for example, it is the
loass of
and not its size that is significant. Hence, we can con-
the planet
sider planets as particles for such computations. On the other hand, take
a figure skater
spinning on the ice, whose revolutions are controlled so
eautifully by the orientation of the body. In this motion, the size and
istribution of the body are significant, and since a particle, by definition,
can have no distribution, it is patently clear that a particle cannot represent
0 skater
in this case. If, however, the skater should be billed as the
ball on skates and be shot out of a large gun, then it
on be possible to
considerhim as a single particle in ascertaining his
'ajectory, since
his bodily gyrations that were significant while he was
)
12 FUNDAMENTALS OF MECHANICS {18
spinning on the ice would have little effect on the arc traversed by the
mam portion of hia body
Point force A finite force exerted on one body by another must cause a
finite amount and alwajs creates a finite area of con-
of local deformation
tact between the bodies through which the force is transmitted However,
Binee we have formulated the concept of the rigid body, we should also be
able to imagine that a finite force is transmitted through an infinitesimal
area or point This simplification of a force distribution is called a point
force In the manj cases where the actual area of contact in a problem is
very small but not know n exactly, the use of the concept of the point
is
force results in little sacrifice m

accuracy In. Figs 1 2 and 1 3 we actually
employed the graphical reprcscnlalion of the point force
Many other simplifications pervade mechanics The perfectly elastic
body, the frictionless fluid, etc will become quite familiar to you as you
study various phases of mechanics
1 8 VECTORS AND SCAUIR QUANTITIES
We have now proposed sets of basic dimensions and secondary

dimensions to describe certain aspects of nature, but more than just di-
mensional identification and the number of units are often needed to
convey adequately the desired information For instance, to specify fully
the velocity of a particle we must give
a The magnitude of the secondary dimensions, by stating the number of

scale units (feet per second or centimeters per hour, etc
b The dtrecUon of the motion relative to some convenient reference
We have thus far considered only part a To represent b we use an arrow
to indicate direction and relate its length to the magnitude of the quantity
involved You will note that we
have already used such arrows m
Figs 1 2 and 1 3
Certain quantities having mag-
nitude and direction combine
their effects in a special way
T^hus, the combined effect of two
forces acting on a particle, as
Figure 1 4 shown m Fig 1 4, corresponds to
a single force which maybe shown
by experiment to be equal to
the diagonal of a parallelogram formed by the graphical representation
of the forces That is, the quantities add according to the parallelo-
gram law All quantities that have magnitude and direction and that
1.8
FUNDAMENTALS OF MECHANICS 13
add according to the parallelogram law are called vector quantities. Other
quantities that have only magnitude, such as temperature and work, are
called scalar quantities. A vector quantity will be denoted with a bold-
face letter, which in the case of force becomes F.
The reader may ask: dont all quantities having magnitude and direction
combine according to the parallelogram law and therefore become vector
quantities? No, not all of them do. One very important example will
be pointed out after we consider Fig. 1.4. In the construction of the
parallelogram it matters not which force is laid out first. In other words,
Fi combined with F2 gives the same result as Fz combined with Fi.
In short, the combination is commtdative. If a combination is not commu-
tative, then it cannot in general be represented by a parallelogram opera-
tion and is thus not a vector. With this in mind, consider the angle of
rotation of a body about some axis. We can associate a magnitude (degrees
or radians) and a direction (the axis and a stipulation of clockwise or
counterclockwise) Avith this quantity. HoAvever, the angle of rotation can-
not be considered a vector because in general tAVo rotations about different
axes cannot be replaced by a single rotation consistent Avith the parallelo-
gram laAV. The demonstrate that the com-
easiest Avay to shoAV this is to
bination of rotations is not commutative. In Fig. 1.5a a book
is to be given
tAvo rotations
a 90 rotation counterclockwise about the x axis and a 90
clockwise rotation about the z axis looking in toAvard the origin. In Fig.
1.5c the sequence of combination is reversed from that in Fig. 1.5b and
Figure 1.5
U FUNPAMEN7ALS OF MECHANICS 19
alters the final onentatjon of the book Anguhr rotation,

> ou can see lio^\ it
therefore, is not a \cctor quantity, since the parallelogram laiv js not \ahd
for such a combination
1 9 EQUALITY AND EQUIVALENCE OF VECTORS
We 'hall old many pitfalls lo the study of mechanics if n e clearly

make a distinction befnecn the equality and the equivalence of vectors
Tuo lectors are equal if (hey hate the same dimensions, magnitude, and
direction In Fig 1 6 the three velocitj vectors have equal length, arc
identically inclined toward
the reference xys, and have
z the same sense Although they
arc different lines of action
they are nevertheless equal
according to the defimtion
Tua lectors are equiialenl in
a tcTloin capacity xf each prth

duces the same effect xn this
capacity If the criterion in
the above diagram is change
Figure 16 of elevation or total distance
traveled, all three vectors give
the same result They are, m
addition to being equal, al'o equivalent for these capacities If the
absolute height above the xy plane is the question in pomt, these
vectors Will not be equivalent despite their cquaUty Thus, it must bo
cmpliaeized that eûaf rectors need not afirays he esuiiiafent, it depends en-
tirely on the sitwolion at hand Furthermore, vectors that are not equal may
still be equivalent in some capacity Thus, in the beam in Fig 1 7 forces
F and F, are unequal since Iheir magnitudes are 10 lb and 20 lb rc'pec-

I
tncly However, it is clear from elementary phjsics that their moments

about the base of the beam are equal and so the forces have the same
twisting action at the fixed end of the beam In that capacity, the forces
are equivalent. If, however, are interested in the deflection of the free
we
end of the beam resulting from each force, there is no longer an equivalence
between the forces, since each will give a different deflection.
To sum two vectors is determined by the vectors
up, the equality of
themselves, and the equivalence between two vectors is determined by the
situation at hand.*
In problems of mechanics, we can profitably delineate three classes of
situations concerning equivalence of vectors:
a. Situations in which vectors may be -positioned anywhere in space without

loss or change of meaning provided magnitude and direction are kept
intact. Under such circumstances the vectors are called /ree vectors.'\
For example, the velocity vectors in Fig. 1.6 are free vectors as far
as total distance traveled is concerned.
b. Situations in which vectors may be moved along a direction colinear with
the vector itself without loss or change of meaning provided magnitude
and Under such circumstances the vectors
direction are kept intact.
are called transmissible vectors. For example, in towing the object in
Fig. 1.8, we may apply the force anywhere along the rope AB ox may
F
C
Figure 1.8
push at point C. The resulting motion is the same in all cases, so the
force a transmissible vector for this purpose,
is
c. Situations in which the vectors must he equal and must be applied at

definite points. The point may be represented as the tail or head of
the arrow in the graphical representation. For this case no other
position of application leads to equivalence.
Under such circumstances
the vector is bound vector. For example, if we are interested
called a
in the deformation induced by forces in the body in Fig. 1
.8, we must
be more selective in our actions than we were when all we wanted to
know was the motion of the body. Clearly force F will cause a differ-
ent deformation when applied at point C than it will when applied at
point A. The force is thus a bound vector for this problem.
We shall be concerned throughout this text with considerations of equality
and equivalence.
A basic equivalence, however, that

is always valid in mechanics exists between the
sum ot
concurrent vectors and the system of component vectors.
T In Chapter 3 another basic equivalence will
be set forth when it is shown that the
moment of a couple is always a free vector.
1 10 LAWS OF MECHANICS
The entire structure of mechanics rests on relatively few basic

Ians Nevertheless for the student to comprehend these laws sufficiently to
undertake no\e! and varied problems much study will be required We
shall now discuss briefly the following laws that are considered to be fhe
foundation of mechanics
a Newton's first and second Ians of motion

b Newton s third Ian
c The gravitational Ian of attraction
d The parallelogram law
a Newtons first and second laws of rnoltort These Ians were first staled
by Newton m these words
Every body continues tn a stale of rest or motion tn a straight
hne unless it is compelled to change that stale by forces tmpoBcd on
The change oj motion ts proportional to the natural Jorce impressed and

M made tn a direction of ike straight line in which theforu w impressed
Notice that the words rest "uniform motion," and "change of motion"
appear m
the above statements For such information to be meaningful ite
must have some frame of reference relative to vshicli these states of motion
can be described We may then ask relative ton hat reference space does m
eveiy body remain at "rest or move uniformly along a straight line m the '
absence of any forces?* Or, m

the case of a force acting on the body, relative
to nhat reference m space is the "change in motion proportional to the
force Eaperimeiit indicates that the feed stars act as a reference for
which the first and second laws of New ton are highly accurate Later we
will see that any other system that moves uniformly and without rotation
relative to the fixed stars may be used as a reference with equal accuracy
All such references are called inertial references The earths surface is
usually employed as a reference m
engineering work Because of the rota
tion of the earth and the variations tn its motion around the sun, it is not
strictly speaking an inertial reference However, the departure is so small
for most situations (an exception is the motion of long range rockets and
missiles) that the error incurred is very slight We shall therefore usually
consider the earth s surface as an inertial reference, but will keep in mind
the somevshat approximate nature of this step
As a result of the preceding discussion, we may define equilibrium as
that state of a body tn which it ts at rest ormoving uniformly along a straight
fine relaliie to an inertial reference The converse of Newtons first low then
Some authors (for example Bomtnerf^ Afechonres Academic Press) consider the
first law as the definition of a reference tn apace for which the second law is then valid
stipulates that there must be no force (or the equivalent action of no force)
acting on the body. Many situations fall into this catagory. The study of
bodies in equilibrium is called statics and it will be what concerns us in
this text.
In addition to the reference limitations explained above, a serious limi-
tation was brought to light at the turn of this century. The pioneering work
of Einstein revealed that the laws of Newton become increasingly more
approximate as the speed of a body increases. Near the speed of light they
are untenable. In the vast majority of engineering computations, the speed
of a body is so small compared to the speed of light that these departures
from Newtonian mechanics, called relativistic effects, may be entirely dis-
regarded with little sacrifice in accuracy. In considering the motion of high-
energy elementary particles occuring in nuclear phenomena, however, we
cannot ignore relativistic effects.
Finally, when we get down to very small distances, such as those between
the protons and neutrons in a nucleus, we find that Newtonian mechanics
cannot explain many observed phenonema. In this case we must resort to
quantum mechanics and let Newtons laws give way to the Schrddinger
equation as the key equation.
b. Newtons third law. Newton stated in his third law:
To every action there is always opposed an equal reaction, or the mutual

actions of two bodies upon each other are always equal and directed to
contrary points.
This is illustrated graphically in Fig. 1.9 where the action and reaction
between two bodies arise from direct contact. Other important actions in
-F4
Figure 1.9
which Newtons third law holds are gravitational attractions (to be dis-
cussed next) and electrostatic forces between charged particles. It should
be pointed out that there are actions that do not follow this law, notably
the electromagnetic forces between charged moving bodies.*
* Electromagnetic
forces between chaiged moving particles aie equal and opposite
but are not coliiiear and hence are not directed
to contraiy points.
18 FUNDAMENTALS OF MECHANICS 51 11
c Law of graviiaitonal ntiraciwn It has already been pointed out in

Section 1 6 (mass units) that there is an attraction between the earth and
bodies on its surface such as A and B in Fig 1 9 This attraction is mutual
and New ton s third law applies There is also an attraction between the
two bodies themselves, but this force is ettremely small However, the
mechanism for the mutual attraction between the earth and each body is
the same as that for the mutual attraction between the bodies These
forces of attraction may be given by the law of gravtlattonal aitraclion,
which states that two particles util be altraded toward each other along tketr
connecting line with o force whose magnitude ts directly proportional to the
product of the masses and inxersely proparttonal to the distance squared 6e-
Iween the particles Avoiding vector notation for now, we may thus say
where K is called the universal gravitational constant of proportionality

In the actions miolving the earth and the bodies discussed abo%e, wo may
consider each bod> as a particle, with its entire mass concentrated at its
center of graiity * Hence, if we know the various constants in the above
formula we can compute the weight of a given miss at different altitudes
above the earth
d The parallelogram law Stevinius (1548-1620) was the first to demon-
strate that forces could be combined by representing them bj arrows to
some suitable scale and then forming a parallelogram in which the diagonal
represents the sum of the two forces As we pointed out, all vectors must
combine in this manner
1 11 SUMMARY
In this chapter, we have introduced the basic dimensions by which

we may de<'cribe in a quantitative manner certain aspects of nature These
basic and secondary dimensions may be related by dimensionally homo-
geneous equations ivhich with suitable idealizations, may represent certain
meclianical actions in nature The basic laws of mechanics were thus in-
troduced Since the equations of these laws relate vector quantities, we
will introduce a useful and highly descriptive set of vector operations m
the next chapter in order to learn to handle these laws effectively and to
gam more insight into mechanics in general These operations are generally
called vector algebra
To be studied m detail lu Chapter 4

TABLE A. Common Systems of Units
C.G.S. M.K.S.
Mass Gram Mass Kilogram
Length Centimeter Length Meter
Time Second Time Second
Force Dyne Force Newton
English American praclice
Mass Pound Mass Mass Slug or Pound Mass

Length Foot Length Foot
Time Second Time Second
Force Poundal Force Pound Force
TABLE B. Equivalence Relations between Units
1 in. s 2.54 cm 1 slug = 32.2 Ibm

1 ft s 30.5 cm 1 gram s 2.205 X 10" Ibm
1 ft s 0.305 meters 1 gram s 0.685 X 10"* slugs
5280 ft s 1 mile
1 Ibf s 445,000 dynes

1 Ibf s 32.2 poundals
1 Ibf a 16 ounces
1 Newton s 10^ dynes
PROBLEMS
1. (a) E.xpress density dimensionally.
(b) How many scale units of density in the metric system of centimeters,
grams, and seconds are equivalent to a scale unit in the American
system
using (1) slugs, feet, and seconds? (2) Ibm, ft, sec?
2. The escape velocities for the earth and the moon are known to be 11.2 km/sec
and 2.4 km/sec, respectivelj'. Determine these escape velocities in units of
miles/hour.
3. The Newton viscosity law says that the frictional resistance, t, in
a fluid, given
as force per unit area, is proportional to the distance rate of
change of velocity
proportionality constant, m, is called the coefficient of viscosity,
(a). What
dimensions must it have? (b) What is the relation between
the scale
units for fi in the English system (slug, ft,
sec) and in the metric system
(gm, cm, sec)?
4. The resistance of a body moving through a fluid, such as a rocket moving
tnrougn air, is sometimes expressed by the following equation:
F = iCnpm
20 FUNDAMENTALS OF MECHANICS
v.here F is the resistance

Vn IS the coefficient of i1tr
p IS the density of the fluid
V 13 the velocity of the object relative to the undisturbed fluid
A is the cross-scctional area of the body at right angles to the motion
What are the dimensions of the coefficient of drag Coi

5. The following equation la valid for certain pipe-flow analyses
where Ap is the drop in pressure along a pipe

p the density of the fluid
V 13 the average v elocitj of flow
D IS the inside diameter of the pipe

h IS the length over which the pressure drop is measured
p IS the \ i6co!ity of the fluid
The right side of the equation is to be interpreted as some function / of the

variables pVD/u and L/D Sliow that such an equation is dimensionally
homogeneous for any function /
6. TVhat are the dimensions of A in Newtons law of gravitational attraction?
7. In using the MLl system, suppose you have selected a unit of mass (for ex-
10. ample the pound mnss) Show how you could formulate two units of force
independently How would jou then ascertain tlie physical equivalence be-
tween the force units?
8. Suppose you desired to use velocity, tune, and force as a basic s><item of
dimensions What would the dimensional representation be for secondary
quantities like length, mass, and acceleration?
9. Engineers on the Continent use kilograms as a measure of mass However,
they also consider kilograms as a measure of force What do you think a kilo-
gram of force means, and what reservations would you caution in its use?
Consider the earths atmosphere When and why would you feel obliged to
drop the concept of the continuum?
U. A rocket shot from the earth, with a high rateof epm to maintain its stability
is
(hke a football) A relay must close during part of the flight in a certain time
This means that an clement of the relay must be given a certain acceleration a,
relatiie to the rocket Can we use Newton's law in the form F = ma, to de-
termine the required force? If not, why not, and what must vve do?
12 hat is the diHerence betn een r^tivistic restnclions and quantum restrictions
on Newtons law?
13. A moves near a fixed star Show that the motion of the planet is in-
planet
dependent of its mass
14 (a) If you were to kick a cannon ball on the earth and then the same ball on
the moon, would it hurt more on the earth, on the moon, or both the eame?
(b) If you were to drop the cannon ball onto your toe from a certain height
would It hurt more if you did this on the earth or on the moon?
15 Compute the product of the universal constant K and the mass of the earth
Assume that the earth has a radius of 4000 miles and that at the surface the
acceleration of gravity b 32 2 ft/re^
FUNDAMENTALS OF MECHANICS 21
16. The weight of the first Vanguard satellite on the earth was said to be 3j lb.
At the extreme position in its orbit, it was approximately 2500 miles from the
earths surface. What is the weight of the satellite there?
17. In the previous problem, what is the acceleration of gravity to the earth of the
Vanguard satellite at its extreme position?
18. The diameter of the moon is 2160 miles. The acceleration of gravity at the
surface is 5.32 ft/sec*. What is the ratio of the masses of the earth and moon?
19. During the flight of the Russian Lunik rocket past the moon, the center of the
earth was approximately 219,000 miles from the center of the moon. At what
distance from the earths center would Lunik have zero weight?
Elements
of Vector Algebra
2.1 INTRODUCTION
In previous chapter we saw that a scalar

tlie
quantity U adequately given by a magnitude, while a

vector quantity requires the additional specification of a
direction. The basic algebraic operations for the handling
of scalar quantities are those familiar ones studied in
gmde you wonder even that you
school, so familiar that
had to be "introduced" to them. In the liandhng of vector

22 ELEMENTS OF VECTOR ALGEBRA 23
quantities, these methods may become cumbersome since the directional

aspects must be taken into account. Therefore, an algebra has evolved
which clearly and concisely allows for certain very useful manipulations
of vectors. It is not merely for elegance or sophistication that we employ
vector algebra, for we can achieve greater insight into the subject matter
particularly into
dynamics by employing the more powerful and descrip-
tive methods introduced in this chapter. These will at first appear rather
arbitrary and artificial to the reader, but you must remember that many
years ago, perhaps when you were six or seven years of age, addition and
subtraction were rather puzzling and later, when you were eight or nine,
multiplication and division were by no means perfectly natural. Constant
use of vector algebra in mechanics and in other disciplines will bring a
comfortable familiarity in a surprisingly short time.
Just as we shall go from a scalar algebra to a vector algebra in this
chapter, so shall we go from a scalar calculus to a vector calculus later in
the chapters on dynamics.
2.2 MAGNITUDE AND MULTIPLICATION OF A VECTOR BY A SCALAR
The magnitude of a quantity, in strict mathematical parlance, is

always a positive number of units whose value corresponds to the numerical
measure of the quantity. Thus the magnitude of a quantity of measure
50 units is -}-50 units. The mathematical symbol for indicating the mag-
nitude of a quantity is a set of vertical lines enclosing the quantit3^ Hence,
the above verbal statement can be given mathematically as:
|
50 unitsj = -hSO units
magnitude of a vector quantity is a positive number of units
Similarly, the
corresponding to the length of the vector in those units. Using our vector
symbols we can represent this as:
magnitude of vector A = \A\
Thus 1^1 is a scalar quantity. We may now discuss the multiplication of a

vector by a scalar.
The definition of the product of A by scalar m, written simply as mA, is
given in the following manner:
mA is a vector having the same direction as A and a magnitude equal

to the ordinary scalar product between the magnitudes of and A. m
If m is negative, it means simply that the vector mA has
a direction
directly opposite to that of A.
The vector - A may be considered as the product of the scalar - 1 and the
vector A. Thus from the above statement we see that
A differs from A
in that it has an opposite sense. Furthermore, these operations have nothing
to do with the hnc of action of a vector, so and A A

may ha\ e diderent
lines of action This mil he the case of the couple to be studied the next m
chapter
2 3 APDITION ANO SUBTRACTION OF VECTORS
In adding a number of vectow ae may repeatedly employ the par

allclognm construction We can do this graphically by scaling the lengths
of the arroNss according to the magnitudes of the vector quantities they
represent The length of the final arrow can then be interpreted in terms
of its length by employing the chosen scale factor As an example, consider
the coplanar vectors A B, Cshonn in Fig 2 1 The addition of the vectors
A, B and C has been accomplished in two ways In Fig 2 I (left) we first
add B and C and then add the resulting vector with A This combination
can be represented by the notation ^ -b (B -f C) In Fig 2 1 (right) we
combine A and B and then the resulting vector with C The representation
of this combination is given as (>4 + B) + C Note that the final vector
IS identical for both procedures Thus
^+ (B + C) = (4 + B) + C 21
When the quantities involved in an algebraic operation can be grouped
V, ithout restriction, the operation is said to be associotive Thus, the addi
tion of vectors is both commutative, as explained earlier, and associative

To determine a summation of let us say, two vectors without recourse
to graphics we need only make a simple sketch of the vectors approxi
mately to scale By using familiar trigonometric relations we can then get
a direct evaluation of the result
Example Ad<l the forces sctiog on. a particle situated at the origin of a
two-dimension gnd system One foit% has a magnitude of 10 pounds
acting m
the positive x direction while the other has a magnitude of
6 pounds acting at an angle of 135" m
a sense directed anav from the
2.3 ELEMENTS OF VECTOR ALGEBRA 25
cosines for
origin. get the sum (shown as F), we maj use the law of
To
sketched parallelogram. Thus;
one of the triangular portions of the
(Fl = [10^+ 5* - 2(10)(5) cos (45)]''^

\F\ = (100 + 25 - 70.7)' = = 7.37 lb
The direction of the vector may be described by giving the angle and the
sense. This is done by employing the law of sines.
5 7.37
^
sin a sin 45
(5)(0.707)
sin a ~ 0.480
7.37
a = 28.6
We may also add vectors by laying off the vectors head to tail. In this
way the shaded triangular portion of the parallelogram in Fig. 2.2 may be
Figure 2.2
formed by connecting the tail of the 5-lb vector with the head of the 10-lb
vector. In this operation the vectors can then be considered free vectors. If
many forces are involved, a polygon be formed, and the sum of the
rvill
vectors is the final closing side of the polygon (Fig. ^.3).

The process of subtraction is defined in the follouung manner: to subtract
vector B from vector A we reverse the direction of B (i.e., multiply by 1)
and then add this new vector to A (Fig. 2.4).
Figure 2.3
36 ELEMENTS OF VECTOR ALGEBRA SS4
Figure 2 4
2 4 RCSQI.UT(QN OF VECTORS SCALAR COMPONENTS
The reverse action of addition is called resoluUon Thus for a given

\eetor C, wc may find a pair of \cclors m any t\so stipulated directions
coplanar ^\^th C such that the livo component % ectors sum to the original
\cctor This can again be accomplished by graphical construction or by
using simple helpful sketches and then employing trigonometric relations
An example of a resolution is shown m
Fig 25 The tno \ectors Ci and
Cj formed in this nay are called component \.ecloT$
Figure 2 5
It IS also readily possible to find three components not in the same plane
as C by the preceding argument Consider the specification of three
oHhogonal directions for the resolution of C
as is shown in Fig 2 6 The
resolution may be accomplished in two steps Roolve Calong the z direc-
tion and along the intersection of the zy plane and the plane formed by
Figure 2 6
C and the z axis. This gives vectors 3 and Q. Now resolve C along the Q
X and y directions forming the other two component vectors and Q. It Q
is clear that the vectors Ci, C2 and add up to the
,
vectorGC and are hence
called the orthogonal component vectors.*

The direction of a vector C relative
an orthogonal reference is given
to
by the cosines of the angles formed by the vector and the coordinate axes.
These are called direction cosines and are denoted as;
cos (C,x) = cos a Î
cos (C,y) = cos p =m 2.2
cos (C,z) = cos 7 =n

where a, 3 ,
/
and 7 are associated with the x, y, and z axes respectively. Now
let us consider the right triangle, whose sides are C and the component
vector, C3 shown shaded in Fig. 2.6, It then becomes clear from trigono-
,
metric considerations of the right triangle that:
IGl = |C|cos7 = lC|n 2.3
If we had decided to resolve C first in the y direction instead of the z

direction, we would geometry which would then
have produced a similar
involve the quantities Q, C, and m. The same is true for the x direction.
We can then express C in terms of its orthogonal components in the follow-
ing manner, using the Pythagorean theorem:
|C| = [(|C1Z)2 + (tCM* + (lCln)=*]>/2 2.4
From the above equation we can now define the orthogonal scalar compo-
nents of the vector C as:
Cx = \C\l G= \C\m G= \C\n 2.5
Note that Ci, G, and G

may be negative depending on the direction
cosines. Finally must he pointed out that although Cx, Cy, and Cz are asso-
it
ciated with certain axes and hence certain directions, they have been developed
as scalars and must be handled as scalars. Thus an equation such as
lOF = Vx cos jS is not correct because the left side is a vector and the right
side is a scalar, a fact that should be carefully noted and spur you to observe
care in your notation.
Sometimes only one of the vector components described above is desired.
Then just one direction is prescribed, as is shown in Fig. 2.7. Thus the
magnitude of the vector component C is C| cos S. It is obvious that the |
triangle formed by the vector and its projection is a right triangle. In

establishing C we speak, therefore, of dropping a perpendicular from C
to n.
Although the vector may be resolved along three skew directions (non-orthogonal),
it IS the orthogonal directions that will be of greatest interest to us here.
28 ELEMENTS OF VECTOR ALGEBRA |2 5
As a final consideration let us e\amine vectors A and B which along

with direction n form a plane as is shown in Fig 2 8 The sum
of the
vectors A and B is found by the parallelogram law to be C We shall show

now that the projection of C along n is the same os the sum of the pro-
jections of Its components A and B That is
i4, +
On the diagram then the following relation must be verified
oc cd + ()
But flc o6 + fcc (b)
Also it IS clear that od s 6c (e)
By substituting (b) and (c) into (a) we reduce (a) to an identity which
shows that the projection of the sum of two vectors is the same as the sum
of the projections of the two vectors
2 5 UNIT VECTORS
In describing vectOTS it is sometimes convenient to e:g)ress them

as the product of a scalar times a vector To do this we use the umt vecfor,
which has a magnitude of unity and a certain prescribed direction It has
no dimensions To develop such a unit vector in the direction of the vector
C, we may formulate the unit vector a so that
a (unit vector m direction C) 1C|

26
Clearly this development fulfills the requirements that have been set forth
for this vector We
can then express the vector C
in the following form
C= iqo 27
: :
25
Figure 2.9
The unit vector, once established, does not have per se an inherent line of
action. This will be determined entirely by its use. In the above equation,
the unit vector a is colinear with the vector C. However, we can represent
the vector D, shown in the preceding diagram to be parallel to C, by using
the unit vector as follows:
D = \D\a 2.7(a)
In this operation the unit vector a has a line of action colinear with the
vector D. Occasionally it is useful to label a unit vector that has the line
of action of a certain vector in a com-
putation with the lower case letter of
z
the capital letter associated with the
vector. Thus in Eqs. 2.7 and 2.7(a)
we might have employed in the place
of a the letters c and d respectively.
Unit vectors that are of particular

use are those directed along the co-
ordinate axes of an orthogonal refer-
ence, where i, j, and k correspond to
the X, y, and z directions as shown in
Fig. 2.10.
Since the sum of a set of concurrent vectors is equivalent in all situations

to the original system, we can always replace the vector C by its scalar
components in the following manner:
c= c.i + cj -1- afc 2.8
In the last chapter we saw that vectors that are equal have the same
magnitude and direction. Hence if A = we can say B
Axi -]- Ajij -f- Azk = Bxi + Byj Btk 2.9
It is tiien clear
that A^ =
B*, Ay =
By, and Az = B in order to insure
the equality of the
three sets of equi-directional vectors of the equation.
Hence, ourfirst vector equation, A = B, has resulted in three scalar equa-
bons that are equivalent
to the vector statemept of equality. Thus in
Newtons law we would have
r => fflo (a)
as the \ectQr equation, and

Fj =* mox F, = mog Ft = 'tna, (b) 2 lo
as the corresponding scalar relations
2 6 SCALAR OR DOT PRODUCT OF TWO VECTORS
In elementary physics work was defined as the product of the

force component in the direction of a displacement times the disphcement
In effect two vectors force and displace-
ment, are employed to give a scalar, -work
In other physical problems vectors are
associated m this same manner so as to
result m a scalar quantity A vector operation
that represents such operations concisely is
the scalar product (or dot product), which for

the vectors A and B in Fig 2 11 is defined
Figure 3 11 as
A BB M|{Bi cos a 3 U
where is the smaller angle between the two vectors This is tantamount
to first projecting \ ector A
onto the line of action of B (or vice versa) and
then multiplying the magnitudes of the projected component and tho
other vector Note that the dot product may involve vectors of different
dimensional representation and may be positive or negative depending on
whether the smaller included angle is less or greater than 90
The work concept may now be given as
W F ds
where ds is a displacement on the path along which the body is moved

Let us next consider the scalar product of mA and nD If we carry it
out according to our definitions
(jnA) (nB) *= jm/fjlnBl cos {mA,nD)

(jnn)JvlllBj cos {A,B) = (mn)(/4 B) 3 13
Hence, the scalar coefTicients ui the dot product of two vectors multiply
in the ordinary way, while only the vectors themselves undergo the vec-
torial operationas we have defined it
From the definition, it is clear that the dot product is eommutahic, since
the number cos [A,B) is ipdcpcndcnt of the order of multiplication
of Its terms Thus
A B^D A
2 U
:
Let us now consider A - (B + C). By definition, we may project the

vector (B C) onto the direction of A and then multiply the magnitudes.
+
However, the projection of the sum of two vectors is the same as the sum
of the projections of the vectors, which means that:
A (B + C) =A B ^
+A C 2.15
An operation on a sum of quantities which is the same as the sum of the

operations on the quantities is called a distributive operation. Thus the dot
product is distributive.
The between unit vectors will now be carried out. The
scalar product
product i j is 0, a is 90, which makes cos a = 0. On the
since the angle
other hand, t i = 1. We can thus conclude that the dot product of equal

orthogonal unit vectors is unity and that of unequal orthogonal unit vectors
is zero.
a vector is multiplied by itself to produce a dot product,

If it forms the
square of a number in the following manner:
A- A^ \A\\A\ = A"- 2.16
Conversely the square of a number may be considered to be the dot product

of two equal vectors having a magnitude equal to the number.
Ifwe express the vectors A and B in Cartesian components when taking
the dot product, we get;
A B = {AA + Ayj + AJc) {BA +

.
. B,j + B.k)
= AxBx + AyBy AxBz 2.17
Thus, we see that a scalar product of two vectors is the sum of the ordinary
products of the respective components.
The dot product may be of immediate use in expressing the component
of a vector along a given direction as discussed in Section 2.4. If you refer
back to Fig. 2.7, -you will recall that the component of C along the direc-
tion n is given as:
C = jC| cos 5
Now let us consider a unit vector n along the direction of the line n. If
we carry out the dot product of C and n according to our fundamental
definition, the result is:
C n
[C|jre| cos 5
But since |n| is unity, when we compare the preceding equations it is

apparent that
Cn = C n '
2.18
Similarly it is clear that the following useful relations are valid;
Cx = c i Cy=C-j C; = Ck 2.19
3S ELEMENTS OF VECTOR ALGEBRA IR7
Finally, if no express the unit vector r tvith direction cosines I, m, and n

in terms of the orthogonal scalar components, by following the preceding
equations we can say
f = (f !)! + (? 3)j-^{rk)k
But r and r K are equal to the direction cosines
i, r j, I, m, and n
respectnely so the abo\e equation becomes
r h + mj + nk 2 20
S 7 CROSS rROOUCT OF TWO VECTORS
There are other interactions between the vector quantities that

represent phj steal phenomena which result in vector quantities One such
interaction is the moment of a
force * To set up a convenient

operation for these situations the
vector cross product has been es-
tablished For the two vectors

(having possibly different dimen
sions)shown in Fig 212 as A
and B, the operation is defined
as
X B - C 2 21
where C has a magnitude that is
given as
|C| i4||B| sm ft 2 22
and a direction normal to the plane of AD The sense, furthermore, corre-

sponds to the direction of advance for a nght-hand screw rotated about C

as an axis in a direction from A to B that js from the first stated vector
to the second stated vector through the smaller angle between them In
this case, the screw would advance upward m rotating from A to B,
whether the procedure is viewed from above or below the plane AB The
reader can easily verify this for himself The description of vector C is
now completed, since the magnitude and direction are fully established
The line of action of C is not determined by the cross product, for it de-
pends on the situation
As in the prcMous case, the coefficients of the vectors multiply by the
ordinary method Tins ma> be deduced from the nature of the definition
Iloneier, the commufatue lai\ breaks down for this product Wc can
verify, by carefully considering the dcnttition of the cross product, that
[A X B) {B X A) 2^
To be 5n Cl p1er 3
:
distributive law is still valid

As an exercise, you can demonstrate that the
for this new operation. Thus:
Ax{B + C) = (An B) + {Ax C) 2.24
Next, consider the cross product of unit vectors. Here the product of
equal vectors is zero because a and, consequently, sin a are zero. The
prod-
to
uct of i X j is unity in magnitude and must have a direction parallel
Left-hand triad
Figure 2.13
the z axis. If the z axis has been erected in a sense consistent with the
right-hand screw rule when rotating from the z to the y direction, the
reference is called a right-hand triad, and we
can write
iXj = k
If a left-hand triad is used, the result is a fe for
the above cross product. (See Fig. 2.13.)
In this text, we will use a right-hand triad
as a reference. For ease in evaluating unit cross
products for such references, a simple permuta-
tion scheme is helpful. In Fig. 2.14 the unit
vectors i, j, and k are indicated on a circle in a
clockwise sequence. Any cross product of a pair Figure 2.14
of unit vectors results in a positive third unit
vector if going from the first vector to the
second vector involves a clockwise motion on this circle. Otherwise the
vector is negative. Thus:
k Xj = i k X i = j etc.
Next, it will be useful to carry out the cross product in terms of Cartesian
components. Using the results of the preceding discussions, we get;
Ax B = (Ati + Ayj 4* A,k) X (B,t + Bj 4- B,k)

= - A,By)i 4- {A,B, - A,B,)j 4* {AxB^ - AyBt)k 2 23
Another method of carrying out this long computation is to evaluate

the following determinant
/I. A A,
B, B, B, 2 26
I
j k
This IS readily done by repeating the first two rows below the determinant
and then forming ordinary sealai products along diagonals
In carrying out these multiplications, we must multiply terms along the

dashed directions by 1 It must be cautioned that this method of evalu
atmg a determinant is correct only for 3 X 3 determinants
28 a note on vector notation
When c-xpressing equations, wc must at all times clearly denote

scalar and vector quantities and handle them accordingly \Vhcn we are
simply identifying quantities m a discussion or in a diagram, however,
instead of using the vector representation, F, we can use just F, which, of
wc must handle as a scalar quantity More pre-
course, in a vector equation
cisely F be understood to represent in an equation the scalar compo
will
nent of the vector F taken in the direction of F and will have the same
magnitude ns the v ector F
Uîng/as the unit vector in the direction of F,
we would then say
F F/ = F[cos (F,a:)* -f cos(ry)j 4- cos (Fz)?.]
Figure 2 15
1
g2.9
ELEMENTS OF VECTOR ALGEBRA 35
the force Fi, which is shown in

As an example, we might want to employ
the coplanar diagram of Fig. 2.15 at
a known_ inclination and acting at
equation would
point The correct representation of this force in a vector
a.
then have to be Fi (cos a i + sin aj).
2.9 SUMMARY
notations that are
In this chapter we have created symbols and
with vectors. Also, various vector operations have been set
associated
in nature mathematically.
forth that enable us to represent certain actions
quan-
With this background, we shall now be able to study certain vector
tities that are of essential importance in
mechanics, and some of these
vectors will be formulated in terms of the operations
contained in this
chapter.
PROBLEMS
1. Add a 20-lb force pointing in the positive x direction to a 50-lb force at an
angle of 45 to the x axis in the first quadrant and directed away from the origin.
2. Subtract the 20-lb force in the above problem from the 60-lb force.
3. Add the vectors shown in Fig. 2.16 in the xy plane. Do this first analytically
and then do it graphically using the force polygon.
4. In Fig. 2.17, forces A (given as a horizontal 10-lb force) and B (vertical) add up
to a force C that has a magnitude of 20 lb. What is the magnitude of force B and
the direction of force C? (For the simplest results, use the force polygon, which
for this case is a light triangle, and peiform analytical computations).
5. If the difference between forces B and A in Fig. 2.17 is a force D having a
magnitude of 25 Ib, what is the magnitude of B and the direction of D?
6. Resolve the 20-lb force in problem 1 into two component forces inclined at 45
above and below the x axis.
36 ELEMENTS OF VECTOR ALGEBRA
7. Resolve the 1000-lb force into a set of component vectors along the directions
shown (in solid lines)
8 What IS the orthogonal component of the 1000 lb force in the above diagram in
the direction (dotted hue) inclined at 60* from the force?
9 The orthogonal components of a force are
z component 10 lb m positive z direction

y component 20 lb in positive y direction
g component 30 lb in negative e direction
(a) What IS the magnitude of tl e force itself?

(b) What are the direction cosines of the force?
10 By squaring terms inEq 2 5 and adding show that
P + m + n - 1
11 A force vector of magnitude 100 lb baa a bne of action with direction cosines
f = 07, m = 02 some reference zyg If the vector points in a
relative to
direction away from
the origin what is the vector representation terms of m
orthogonal components? (Use the positive value for n this problem ) m
12 What 13 the sum of the following set of three vectors?
= 6i -blOy 16k
B = 2t-3j
C IS a vector in the xy plane at an inclination of 45 to the positive z axis
and directed away from the ongm It has a magnitude of 25 lb
13 Subtract vector C from the sum of vectors A and JJ in the above problem
14 Show that
cos B} = U + mm' -f
where / tn n and I', m', n' are direction cosines of A and B respectively
with respect to the given xyz reference
15 "What IS the component of the force vector in problem 11 along a direction
having the direction cosines f = -0 3 m
= 0 1 n = 0 95 for the xyz reference
in problem 117
ELEMENTS OF VECTOR ALGEBRA 37
16. Given the vectors:
.4 = 1Gi + 3j B = 10fe-6i C= 4j
Compute: (a) C(/l C) + B

(b) -C + [B-i-A)]C
17. What the dot product of the force vector (lOi
is + 6j 3fc) pounds and the
displacement vector (6i 2j) ft?
18. A constant force given as 2i + 3fe moves a particle along a straight line from
position a: =
10, ?/ 20, 3 0 to position i = 3, y = 0, z = 10. If the co-
= =
ordinates of the xyz reference are given in feet units, how much work does
the force do?
19. Explain why the following operations are meaningless:
(a) (A B) C
(b) (A- B)XC
20. Shown in Fig. 2.19 is a rectangular parallelopiped. (a) Find the dot product of
the vectors represented by the diagonals from A to F and from to G. \\Tiat D
is the angle between them? (b) Find the dot product of the diagonals from G
to C and from G to D. What is the angle between them?
Figure 2.19
21. If A = lOi + 67 3fe and B = 6 i, find A X B and B X A. What is the

magnitude of the resulting vector? What are its direction cosines relative to
the xyz reference in which A and B are expressed?
22. (a) Compute the product (A X B) ' C in terms of orthogonal components,
(b) Compute {C X A) - B and compare with the result in (a).
23. We can always find a reference so that the components of any three vectors
A, B, and C can be expressed as:
A = All -f Ayj -h AJi B Bxi -1- Byj C= Cii
Explain how you can select such a reference.

24. Using vector components in the preceding problem, show that
for any three
vectors A, B, and C we can say:
Ax {B X Q = B{A -
Q - C{A B)
38 ELEMENTS OF VECTOR ALGEBRA
2o Compute the determinant

A. A, A.
B, B, B
6, C, C.
where each row represents the scalar components of ^ B and C Compare

with problem 22(a)
26 Show that the magnitude of X B is equal to the area of the parallelogram
formed when ne take A and D as ti\o adjacent sides
27 (a) If ^ B ^ B does B necessarily equal B ? Expla n
(h) liA X B = A X B does B necessanly equal B Explain
28 Prove Eq 2 24 in the text
Important
Vector Quantities
3.1 POSITION VECTOR
In this chapter we shall discuss a number of

One such vector, the unit vector,
useful vector quantities.
has already been presented because we needed it to facil-
itate our computations. Another elemental vector is the
position vector.
The position vector r of point P is the directed line
segment between some reference point, which is taken as
39
40 IMPORTANT VECTOR QUANTITIES $32
the origin of a coordinate ^stcm, and point P (Fig 3 1) The magnitude

of the position vector is the distance between the points The scalar com-
Fjgure 3 1
ponents of a position vector are simply the coordinates of the point P To

express r m
Cartesian components, we then have
r = x + t/j + 31
3 2 MOMENT OF A FORCE AOOUT A FOINT
In physics you niU recall, the moment of a force about a point 0

IS a vector M
whose magnitude equals the product of the force magnitude
times the perpendicular distance d from the point to the bne of action of
the force And the direction of
this vector is perpendicular to
the plane of point and force
With a sense determined from
the familiar right-hand screw
rule In Fig 3 2 the Une of ac-
tion M
is taken through point
0 If the force, F, is decom-

posed into two components
(Fig 3 3) such that all three
vectors and the point 0 are
coplanar, going back, to our
Figure 3 2 physicswe know that the
moment of the force is the
sum of the moments of the
components 1 his principle is known as VanyaonîlicoreTn In this simple
summation of moments, we must observe the signs established by the
aforementioned right hand screw rule Hence, in the coplanar arrange
ment shown m
Fig 3 3, where Fx and F, are components of F,
Variguons theorem states that
3.2 IMPORTANT VECTOR QUANTITIES 41
lF|d = \Fi\di + lF,lrf2
In general, the moment of a force about a point is equal to the vector sum
of the moments of any set of component forces about the point.
Since it is usually advan-

tageous to employ a more
powerful vector approach for
the determination of the
moment of a force about a
point, we can consider the
distance d to be the position
vector from point 0 to any
point P along the line of
action of the force F (Fig.
3.4), and the moment of the

force about 0 is then defined
as: Figure .3.3
M= r X F 3.2
This statement is entirely consistent with the more elementary defini-

tion presented at the outset, and we can prove it by decomposing the force
F into components at P in directions parallel to the reference shown at 0.
Identical unit vectors have been shown at both points in Fig. 3.4 since
ey serve merely
to convey the information of direction and may be con-
si ered free vectors.
Because the cross product is distributive, we may
of the components in the following manner (the
property of the cross product will thus satisfy Varignons
the^^
42 IMPORTANT VECTOR QUANTITIES
moment due to F* (zi 4- ty + zk) X (F,i) Ftyk + Fj:j

magnitude of above * {Fly* + F^y* +
moment due to Fy = (xi + yj + zk) x (Fyj) =* Fyxk FyZi
magnitude o'- abo^ e - (/> + /T2=) = ^(1* + z*y'*
moment due to F, *= (li + 15/ + zk) x F,fc = ~~F^j 4- F^yi
magnitude of above {Fix* 4- = F,(x* + y*y*
With the aid of the diagram in Fig 3 5 let us perform the same compu-
tation following the elementary definition of moment Note that the per-
Fignre 3 5
pendicular distances to the lines of action of all force components have

been shown as dotted hues They form the diagonals of the sides of the
rectangular parallelepiped drawn for convenience
It is then clear that*
magnitude of the moment for F, = {F,)(od) (F,)(y* 4* 2*)"*
magnitude of the moment for Fy ~ iF,)[of) (Fy)(x* 4- (B)
magnitude of the moment forF, = (F,)(o&) = (F,)(r* 4*
Note that the magnitudes of the moments stemming from the respective
force components in Eqs (A) and (B) are equal Thus the magnitudes of
the total moment are identical for both methods of computation Further-
more, both elementary and vector dehnitions give the same direction
Thus the former stipulates perpendiculantv of M
to the plane of 0 and F,
while the latter stipulates perpendiculanty to the plane of r and F Clearly
these are identical planes Finally, both ha\e senses consistent with the
right-hand screw rule Thus the elementary definition and the cross product
give the same result
Tlie rectangular components of M may be ascertained by carrying out
Eq 32 m terms of Cartesian components Hence
M, - F.y - Fyz (a)
My = Frf - (b)
^f. =F^~ F,v (c)

a ^
3.3 IMPORTANT VECTOR QUANTITIES 43
Note that this formulation conveniently involves the quantities usually

specified in a problem, i.e., coordi-
nates of P
and components of F.
As a be shown
final note, it will
that the force F, in forming the

moment vector, can be considered
as a transmissible vector, as has
already been intimated at the out-
set of the discussion. Thus, in Fig.
3.6 are shown two arbitrary points,
Pi and Po, along the line of action
of F. To show that F is transmissi-
ble in this operation, we must dem-
onstrate that for any two such
points:
ri X F ro X F (a)
or; (n - r,) x F= 0* (b) 3.4
Since the vector (ri r 2 ) is a vector that lies along the line of action of
the vector F, we may say:
(r, - rs) = CF
where C is a scalar quantity of such dimensions and magnitude as to make
the above equation valid. Solving for n in the above relation, we get;
r'l = r2 + CF
Substituting into Eq. 3.4a, we have:
(r2 + CF) X F= r2 X F
Since CF x F is zero, we see that the above equation becomes an identity,
which proves that the original statement, Eq. 3.4a, is correct. This in turn
means that F is transmissible in taking a moment.
3.3 moment of a force about an axis
To compute the moment of a force about an axis BB (Fig. 3.7),

we pass any plane A perpendicular
to the axis so as to cut the line of action
of the force at
some point P. The force F is then broken up into compo-
nents Fb and F that are normal and tangent to the plane A respectively. ,
0 moment of F about BB
then defined as the moment of the
the line is
component F about the trace point a
iscussed at th e
of the axis BB a coplanar problem
beginning of the previous section. Thus, according to the
The vector 0 used here simply
indicates a vector of zeio magnitude.
44 IMPORTANT VECTOR QUANTITIES 133
Fiture 37
definition the component Fb which is paraliel to the axis BB contributes

no moment about the axis and we may say
moment about the axis BB =* (FjCcos a:)(d)
Although this quantity is associated with a particular axis that has a

distinct duection we will consider it as a scalar The situationis the same
as it 18 with the scalar components V, F* etc which are associated

with certain directions but are nevertheless handled as scalars in equations
By means of a simple situation we can easily show why wo set forth the
above definition Suppose a disc mounted on a shaft that js free to rotate
is
in n set of bearings as shown in Fig 38 and a force F inclined to the
Figure 3 E
plane A of the di&c acts on the disc We decompose the force into compo
nents parallel to the axis of the âft and tangent to the plane A that is
into forces Fa and Fa respectively We know from experience that Fa does
not cause the disc to rotate however we know from physics that it is tlie
product of Fa and the perpendicular distance d from the centerline of the
shaft to the line of action of Fa that is related to the rotational motion of
the system But according to our definition this is nothing more than the
moment of force F about the axis of the shaft Later, m
more general
3.3 IMPORTANT VECTOR OUANTITIES 45
dj'namical problems, it will be shown that the moments of forces about a

point as well as an axis the dynamical relations.
will enter into
What is the relation between a moment about a point and a moment

about a line? To answer this most simply, consider BB in Fig. 3.7 to be
an X axis, as shown in Fig. 3.9, and formulate the moment of F about thi.s
I axis in the following manner. Select any point 0 along the x axis as the
origin ofacoordinate system and decompose F into orthogonal components
parallel to the reference. The component Fx normal to plane A (now a
plane parallel to the yz plane) contributes no moment about the x axis and
so need not be drawn. Therefore,
we need to be concerned only with the
components Fy and Ft, i.e., the components of Fa in plane A. Note that
the coordinates
y and z of point P do not depend on the chosen position 0
along the x axis. Since
only these coordinates will enter our discussion, the
precise position of
0 along the x axis, i.e., the value of x, is of no interest
now. Taking moments
about point a, we then have, in terms of these com-
ponents:
moment about x axis = FtV FyZ 3.3

You will
moments of the force F about
note that this result, which takes
ex axis in terms of Cartesian components, is the component along the
s direction of
M
about point 0 (Eq. 3.3a), which may be anywhere along
the X axis.
That is;
moment about x axis = Mx M i 3.6

We ma,y generalize the
preceding remarks to any axis n (to which we assign
e unit
vector n) in the following manner;
moment about n axis = M M n 3.7
^ ôuient of force F about any point along the axis n. This
em^r
u ion slipulates in
words that the moment of a force about a line is the
scalar component zn the direction of the line of the moment vector taken about
any point along the line
we specify the moments of a force about three orthogonal concurrent
If
axes we then single out one possible point in space for 0 which is, of course
the common point of the axes These three quantities then become the
orthogonal scalar components of the moment of F about this point, and
we can say
M = (moment about the x axis)*
+ (moment about the y ftXJ3)j 3 8
4- (moment about the z a\ts)K hfti + 4* hftk
From this relation we can conclude that the orthogonal components of the
moment of a farce about a point are the moments of this force about the orthog-
onal axes that hate the point as an origin
You may now aak what are the physical differences m applications of
moments about an axis and moments about a point The simplest example
IS in the dynamics of rigid bodies If an object is constrained so it can only
spin on an axis, as in Fig 3 8, the rotary motion wll depend on the moment
of the forces about t!\e axis of rotation as related by a sealar equation The
less familiar concept of moment about a point is illustrated in the motion
of bodies such as missiles and rockets that have no constraints In these
cases the motion of the body is related by a vector equation to the moment
of forces acting on the body about the center of mass *
3 4 THE COUPLE AHO COUFLE MOMEKT

A special
arrangement of forces that is of great importance is the
couple The couple is formed by any two equal parallelforces that hoic opposite
Figure 3 10
senses (Fig 3 10), and on a ngid body it has only one effect, namely, a
"twisting
action Single forces and other non couple combinations of
The center of tnasa will be defined completely later
For the present you need only
consider it as a special point m
a body which in auniform gravitational field corresponds
to the center of gravity
as the "twist
of tlietwo force vectors, and from now on we shall use the
latter criterion for determining the direction of rotation to be used with
the right hand screw rule
Now that the duection and sense of Af have been established for the
couple, for a complete description we need only compute the magnitude
Points A and S may be chosen anj where along the lines of action of the
forces without changing the resulting moment, since the forces are trans-
missible for this computation Therefore to compute the magnitude of the
couple vector it mil be simplest to choose positions A and B so that e is
perpendicular to the hues of action of the forces (e is then denoted os cx)
From the definition of the cross product we can then say
|A/| = Kliri an 90 = Iex|lF| = |FlJ 3 11
where the more familur notation, d, has been used in place of |c^^[ as the
perpendicular distance between the lines of action of the forces
To summarize the preceding discuesions, we may say that the moment
of a couple is a vector whose direction is normal to the plane of the couple
and whose sense is determined in accordance with the right hand screw
rule, using the "twist of the forces to give the proper rotation The mag
nitude of the couple moment equals the product of the force magnitudes
comprising the couple times the perpendicular distance between the forces
3 5 THC COUPLE MOMENT AS A FREE VECTOR
Had we chosen any other position in space as the origin and bad
we computed the moment of the couple about it, we would have formed the
very same moment vector To understand this, note that although the
3 is
position vectors to points A and B will change for a new origin, the differ-
ence between these vectors (which has been termed e) does not change, as
can readily be observed in Fig. 3.13. Since = e X F, we can conclude M
that the couple has the same moment about every point in space. The partic-
ular line of action of the vectpr representation of the couple-moment that
is illustrated in Fig. 3.12 is then of little significance. In short, the couple-
moment is a free vector. Thatwe may move this vector anywhere in space
is,
without changing its meaning, providedwe keep the direction, magnitude,

and sense intact. Consequently, for the purpose of taking moments we may
move the couple itself anyAvhere in
its own or parallel plane, provided
the direction of twist is not altered.*

In any of these possible planes, we
can also change the magnitude of
the forces of the couple to other
equal values, provided the distance
d is simultaneously changed so
that the product |F|d remains the
same. Since none of these steps
changes the direction, magnitude,
or sense of the couple-moment, all
of them are permissible.
As was pointed out earlier, the
major effect of a couple is its twisting action, which is represented quan-
titatively by the moment of the couple. Since this is so often its sole
effect, it is only natural to represent the couple
by specifications of its
moment; its magnitude, then, becomes IF|d and its direction that of its
moment. This is the same as identifying a man by his job, i.e., as a teacher,
plumber, etc. Thus in Fig. 3.14, C is used to represent the indicated couple.
3.6 THE ADDITiOH AND SUBTRACTION OF COUPLES
The addition and subtraction of couples actually means the addi-

tionand subtraction of the moments of the couples, for the reasons given
above. Since
couple-moments are free vectors, we can always arrange to
ave a concurrent
system of vectors, which we learned to add in a previous
c apter.
We shall nevertheless take the opportunity to illustrate many of
e earlier
remarks about couples by adding the two couples shown on the
ace of the
cube in Fig. 3.15. Notice that the moment representation of
a couples has
been drawn. Since these vectors are free, they may be
ôved to a co nvenient
position and then added. The total couple-moment
This will not

happen if we do not flip the^ couple over.
100 lb ft
25 lb ft
Figure 3 16
then becomes 103 2 lb ft at an angle of 76^ nith the honzontal This means
that the couple that creates this twisting action is m a plane at right angles
to this direction njth a clockuise direction as observed from below
may be shown to be %a!td by the following more elemen-
This addition
tary procedure The couples of the cube ore moi ed in their respective planes
to the positions shown m Fig 3 17, which does not alter the moment of
the arrangement of forces as pointed out m
the preMous paragraphs If
the couple on plane B is adjusted to have a force magnitude of 20 lb and if
the separating distance isdecreased to ft, the couple magnitude is not
changed (Fig 3 18) We thus form a system of forces in which two of the
members are equal, opposite, and cohnear and since these two forces can-
not contribute moment they may be deleted, leaving a single couple on
a plane inclined to the original planes (Fig. 3.19). The distance between
the remaining forces is V25 + 25/16 = 5.16 ft, and so the magnitude of
Coplanar representation of couples
Figtire 3.20
the couple-moment may then be computed to be 103.2 Ib-ft. The direction

of the normal to the plane of the couple is readily evaluated as 76 with
the horizontal, making it identical to our preceding results. Thus we see that
the previous representation of the couple in terms of its moment is a con-
venient one for adding the couples.
In coplanar problems, a notation that is in common use to represent the
couple shown ^
is in Fig. 3.20.
B-h pb-p
t
^
*><
3.7 A NOTE ON THE SCALAR COMPONENTS

OF A COUPLE-MOMENT ^ ^
TL O 2.
In a previous section, we learned that the moment of a force about
a point was a vector quantity whose scalar component along a given line
of action through the point was interpreted to be the moment of the force
Figure 3.21
about that line. Since the couple-moment is developed from moments of

forces, the same conclusion may be reached for the scalar components of
this vector. To the discussion, a couple-moment is shown in
illustrate
Fig. 3.21 along with an arbitrary direction n. We may then say that
K liJEHilU BOOK BANK

Cn = C n ^vhcre js a scalar representing the moment of the couple
about the line nn Since Cis a free vector the moment about all parallel
lines of a gnen set are equal
3 8 SUMMARY
In this cliaptcr ue have considered several important vector quan
titles and their properties In particular it was pointed out that in rigid
bodj considerations v.e could take certain liberties with a couple without
invalidating the results We are now ready to pursue m greater detail this
important subject of equivalence of force systems for rigid body considera
tions
PROBLEMS
1 What 13 the position vector r from the ongin (00 0) to the point (3 4 5)
What are its magnitude and direction cosines
2 WTiat 13 the displacement vector from position (013 7) to position (10 ~3 4)
3 A force F lOi + 6^ 6fe acts at position (I0;3 4) relative to a coordinate
sjstem W hat u the tnoment of the force about the origin
4 What 13 the moment of the force m problem 3 about the point (6 4 3)?
5 In problem 3 nhat is the moment of the force about each axis of the coordinate
system? Also what is the moment of the force about the line going through
the origin and having direction cosinesl - OSm-OSn* 0 707 Finally
what IS the moment of this force about a line parallel to the preceding one and
going through the point (3 2 5)?
6 Two forces Fi and F* have magnitudes of 10 ib and 20 lb respectively Fi has
a set of direction cosines I 05 mÔTOTjn 05 Fj has a set of direc-
tion cosines 10 mÔOn=:08 IfFi acts at point (3 2 2) and Ft acts at
(1 0 3) what is the sum of these moments about the ongin
7 A force F acts at position(3 2 0) It is in the xy plane and is inclined at 30 from

the * axis with a sense directed away from the ongin ^Vhat is the moment of
this force about an axis going through the points (6 2 S) and (0 2 3)7
8 WTiatis the moment of a 10 Ib force directed along the diagonal of a cube about
the comers of the cube? The side of the cube is a ft
9 Find the moment of the 50*!b force about the support at A
Figure ^ 22
IMPORTANT VECTOR OUANTITIES 53
10. The from water and gravity are shown on the dam.
total equivalent forces
(We soon be able to compute such equivalents.) Compute the moment
shall
of these forces about the toe of the dam in the right-hand corner.
Figure 3.23
11. Find the moment of the forces shown about the centerline of the sten nullev
at 0 in Fig. 3.24.
^ ^
support the member ED and the 1000-lb

tKp f
^ f
supports the member. Calling
LI
three fnf T
^^L="bles Fen and F,n as shown, compute moments of
forces about the point E.
thf
at position (3,0,2). At point .(0,2,

Lai hnf o'" -3) an
~-î acts. What is the couple-moment? What
ê
thp direction
fi- are
cosines of the normal to the plane
moment of the couple about the a:
of the couple? What
pofwnatisthe is the
axis?
perpendicular distance between the forces?
di'skn^jT ?n If this
LuUhp?-Tiu*' ^26)- What is the moment of this counle

54 IMPORTANT VECTOR QUANTITIES
16 Lqual acd opposite forces are directed along diagonals on the faces of a cube
asshown mFig 3 27 \Vhat the couple-moment >f o 3 m
and F 10 lb?
What lathe moment of thia couple about a diagonal from A to D?
17 Add the couple 28 Ib-ft in the x direction and the couple 21 lb ftmthe y direc
tion giving the coagnitude and directioa of the total couple If ue wish equal
and opposite forces of 8 lb how much must they be separated to form the
computed couple?
18
19 Add the couples acting along diagonals of the rectangular parallelopiped as
shown
10 lb
Figure 3^ lO*
Find the moment about point A of the indicated Bjstem of forces

Equivalent
Force Systems
4.1 INTRODUCTION
In the first chapter we defined equivalent vectors

as those that have the same capacity in some given situa-
tion. We will now investigate an important class of situ-
ations, namely, those in which a xigid-body model can be
employed, and we will be concerned with the question of
what are the equivalence requirements for force systems
acting on a rigid body.
55
56 EQUIVALENT FORCE SVSTEMS 542
The effect that forces have on a ngid body js only manifested in the
motion (or lack of motion) of the body induced by the forces Two force
systems then, are equivalent if they are capable of initiating the same
motion m the rigid body The necessary and sufficient conditions required
to give the force systems this equal capaaty are
a Each force system must exert an equal "push" or "pull on the body
in any direction For ebneurrent force systems, tins requirement is

satisfied if the addition of the force systems, as it nas done in earher
exercises results in equal vectors
b Each force system must exert an equal "twist about any point in
space This means that the moment vectors of the force systems for
any chosen point must be equal
Although these conditions will most likely be mtuitively acceptable to the
reader, we prove these statements in the chapiters on dynamics,
shall later
starting with Newtons second law In ascertaining equivalence relations
between force systems at this time, we can submit them to our two tests
as a criterion
As a beginning here, we shall reiterate several basic force eguivslences
for rigid bodies that are now relevant and that will serve a? a foundation
for more complex considerations You diould subject them to the tests
listed above
1 The sum of a set of concurrent forces is a single force that is equiv-
alent to the original system Conversely, a single force is equivalent
to any set of its components that is concurrent to it
2 A force may be moved along its line of action, i e ,

forces are trans-
missible vectors
3 In the previous chapter we learned that the only effect that a couple
develops on a rigid body is embodied m
the couple moment Since
this 13 always a free vector, for our present purposes the couple may
be altered in any way as long as the couple-moment is not changed
In succeeding sections vi e shall present other equivalence relations lor

rigid bodiesand then examine perfectly general force systems with a view
to replacing them with more convenient and simpler equivalent force
systems These simpler replacements are often called resultants of the more
general systems
4 2 TRANSLATION OF A FORCE TO A FARALLCL POSITION
In Fig 4 I let us consider the possibility of moving a force F to a

a so as to maintain rigid body equivalence If we
parallel position at point
add equal and opposite forces at portion o that ha\ e a magnitude and
direction corresponding to that of F, a system of three forces results that
4.2 EQUIVALENT FORCE SYSTEMS 57
Figure 4.1
is clearly equivalent to the single

force F. Note that the original force F
and an added force in the opposite sense form a couple (the pair is
identi-
fied by a wavy connecting line). As usual we represent the couple by its
moment, as is shown in Fig. 4.2, where the plane of the newly formed
Figure 4.2
couple noted as M. The magnitude of the couple is |F|d where d

is
is the
perpendicular distance between point a
and the original line of action of
e force. The couple-moment may be moved to any parallel position,
including the origin,
as is indicated in Fig. 4.2.
Thus we see that a force may
fee moved to any parallel posi-
hon, provided a
couple of the
correct orientation
and size
simultaneously developed.
here are, then,
an infinite
number of arrangements pos-
si e to get the
equivalent
effects of a force on a rigid
body.
The reverse procedure
may
58 EQUIVALHNT FORCE SYSTEMS 42
also be instituted m reducing a force and a couple in the same plane to a
single equivalent force This is illustrated m Fig 4 3 where a couple com*

posed of forces B and ~~D and a force A are shown in plane N
The
moment representation of the couple is also included Equal and opposite
A and A may be added to the system at position e
forces order to m
form another couple with a magnitude equal to iBldi and with
a direction of twast opposite to the original couple The couple moments
then cancel each other out and we have, m
effect, only the single force
shown in Fig 4 4
Figure 4 4
A
con\ enient v- ay of moving a force to a new position will now be dem-
onstrated Let us move force F, as shown in Fig 4 6, to point a, where a
Figure t 5
reference is shown We now break up Finto components parallel to the

reference and mo%e each component so it acts through a The component
F, maythen be translated toward the reference at point c Equal and op-
posite forces are added at position b to form a couple whose moment
representation will point in the t direction The magnitude of this moment
13FyX The force at b may next be moved to position a, resulting this
lime m
a couple whoe moment is m
the minus x direction with a magni-
tude of Since the couples are free, it is con\cnient to place them at
another reference The results of moving F are shown m
Fig 4 6 If this
43 EQUIVALENT FORCE SYSTEMS 59
Figure 4.6
procedure is carried out for Ft and Ft, a single force can be found at point
a by adding the components appearing there, and a single couple-moment
can be found by adding the orthogonal couple-moments formed during
the various movements of the component forces.
An even simpler and more desirable approach is to make use of the cross
product. Thus if we consider the moment about point a of the couple that
is formed by moving F to a (refer back to Fig. 4.1), we see that it is the
same as the moment of the original force F about point a. This must be
so since the added force of the couple goes through a and contributes no
moment. And since the moment of a couple about any point in space fully
establishes the couple, we can use the moment of F about a to determine
the couple formed in positioning the line of action of F through a.
4 3 THE WRENCH
In the last section, it was shown that a force and a couple in the
same plane could be replaced by a single equivalent force. In that case
the moment representation
of the couple was at right angles to the plane.
Let us consider what can be done when the couple and the force are not
coplanar (Pig. 4 7
),.
The moment representation

of the couple C may be decomposed into
components C, and Cu, which
are normal and tangential, respectively,
Figure 4 R
to the plane M containing the force F The component C, may be eliminated

by moving force F to a parallel position in the planeM, as was explained
earlierThe result la show n in Fig 4 9 Now Cu can be resolved into a
component Cf parallel to the
force and a component C per-
pendicular to the force (Fig
4 10) By moving F to a new
parallel position m a plane per-
pendicular to M, shown m Fig
4 10 as N, it IS possible to in-
troduce a couple whose moment
Figure 4 9 representation is equal end op-
posite to Cn, thus cancelling it
(Fig 4 11) There is no way to

eliminate the couple Cj since
any new positioning of Fm a
parallel position will establish a
couple whose moment represen-
tation will be at right angles to
C/ ond will consequently pre-
Figure 4 io clude the possibility of a can-
cellation The combination of
F and Cf shown m
Fig 4 11
IS called a wrench, and ts Ike simplest equivalent form into which all force
systems can be degenerated IVhen the moment representation of the
couple and the force are in the same direction, the wrench is positive, if
not, the wrench is negative
Figure 4 11
.
Example 1: A positive wrench in Fig. 4.12 acts at a position r = 6i +

3j + 2k. The force part of the wrench is F
lOi + 3k. If the mag-
nitude of the couple-moment of the wrenchis 50 Ib-ft, what is the moment

of thewrench about the origin? about the x axis?
The moment of the force about the origin is given as:
Mp = (6 + 3j + 2k) X (lOi -t- 4j - 3k)
Mf = (-9 - 8)t (20 -M8)i -f- -f (24 - 30)fe
Mr = -17t -f 3SJ - 6fe

The moment of the couple may
be determined by first finding the direc-
wrench and then expressing the
tion cosines of the line of action of the
moment representation of the couple in Cartesian component. Thus:
^ "
ViOM^^Ts* 11-2
= = 0.357
" -
ill
Hence:
C= (50)(0.893)i -f- (50) (0.357); - (50)(0.268)/c
C= 44.6i -1- 17.85; - 13.4fe
Combining the two moment vectors Mp and C, we get the moment of the
wrench about the origin:
= 27.6 -1- 55.9; - 19.4/c Ib-ft
The moment about the x axis is then 27.6 Ib-ft.
Example 2: Replace the force and the couple-moment by a wrench. Give

the line of action of the wrench.
62 EOUtVALENT FORCE SYSTEMS 5 0
Figure 4 13
We first decompose the couple^momcnt into components tangent and

normal to the force F To do this we shall first find the umt vector /
colmear with the force, for which we ahaU need the direction cosines of F.
Thus
i0810 m0480 n 0324
We may then say

/- 08101 + 0486^ + 0 ^ 24 *.
The component C along the direelion of F can now be computed

of
C/ C /= 6 + 3i-6fc) (0810i + 0 486i+0324M

t i
C/ 4 37 lb ft
Calling the vector represcntatioo of this component Cy, we have
Cu = C// 4 37(0 810{ + 0 48(y + 0 334ft)

= 3 54i + 2 12y + 1 42ft
To determine the vector component normal to F, which we shall call C^.,
we note that
C Cj. + Cj
Know ing C and Cj wc can directly compute Ci
(6i + 3y -6ft) (3 541+2 127 + 142ft) +
Hence Cj. = 240f +O 887 - 7 42ft

The vectors Cy and Cj. wiU be used hereafter in place of C, as is shown in
Fig 4 14
We have only to get nd of Cj^ to end up
with the desired wrench This
may readily be done since and Fare at right angles to each other and
we need only shift F to a new hne of action to form a couple equal and
opposite to Cj, Suppose we des^nate zS s as a point space through m
Figure 4.14
which F must be made to pass to accomplish this task. In moving F to

this point, we willform a couple that will be given by:
1,5,1 = ? XF
Now r is measured from the point x,y,z to some point along the line of
action of F. We choose the origin, and we then have for r:
r = (p i)i + (0 y)j + (0 z)k
To find the coordinates x,y,z we state:
r XF= ~
Substituting the scalar components of the above vectors, we therefore
have:
-(2i + yj + Zk) X (lOi + &j + 47f) = -2.4Gi - 0.88j + 7A2k

Carrying out the cross products and c.xpressing the scalar equations of
the result, we get:
6f + Ay = 2.46 (a)
-f 4x - lOz = -0.88 (b)
-f-Gx lOy = -7.42 (c)
In trying to solve these equations, you will find that they are not inde-
pendent. This means that there is no unique solution for x,y,z. Actually
the three equations can be degenerated to two independent equations,
each of which represents a plane. The simultaneous solution of these
equations then Avill denote a straight line in space, i.e., the intersection
of the two planes. Thus x,y,z can be anywhere along this line. The line
has the same direction of the force and again shows the transmissibility
Suppose we specify that
principle of forces for rigid-body considerations.
y = 0. We can then find x and z from the equations. The point then
solved represents the intersection of the line of action of in its new F
position with the xz plane. Hence:
-6z = 2.46 z = -0.41
' +6x = 7.42 X = 1.24

This has been shown in Fig. 4.15. '
64 EQUIVALENT FORCE SYSTEMS |44
Figure 4 IS
4 4 RESULTANT Or A fORCC SYSTEM
defined at the begtnning of the chapter, a resultant of a force

As
system a simpler equivalent force system In many computations it is
is
desirable first to establish the resultant before entering into the mam com-
putationa
For a general arrangement of forces, no matter how complex, we may
always move all forces and couple moments to proceed through a single
point The result is then a system of concurrent forces at the point and a
system of concurrent couple-moments These may be combined into a
single force and couple (Fig 4 16) This arrangement may be further sim-
plified to a urench as explained earlier
Figure 4 16
Thus any farce system can be refiaeed by an equivalent system no more

complex then a vrrench In special cases, which we will examine shortly, we
may have simpler equivalents such as a single force or a single couple
Finally, for equilibrium, the equivalent wrench will be a zero vector a fact
that will be proved m
dynamics
In general we will not reduce a resultant system all the way to a wrench
but will stop at a single fored and couple The methods of finding such a re-
:
sultant of forces involve nothing new. In moving to a new point, you will
lecall,there no
is change in the force itself other than a shift of line of
action; thus any component of the resultant force, such as the x compo-
nent, can simply be taken as the sum of the respective x components of all
the forces in the system. We may then say for the resultant force
F. - [E (F.).]i + [E + [E 4.1
The couple-moment accompan 3ring Fr for a chosen point a may then be

given as:
Cr = [ci X Fi -{- Ta X Fa -{- r X Fn] -{- [Ci -f . . . .Cm] 4.2
where the first bracketed quantities result from moving the non-couple
forces to a and the second are simply the sum of the given couples. The
position vectors are from a to arbitrary points along the line of action of
the forces. In more compact form the above equation becomes;
n m
Cr r, X F, -k
^2^
t=l <=!
The following example illustrates the procedure.
Example; Shown in Fig. 4.17 are two forces and a couple, the couple
being positioned in plane zy. We
shall find the resultant of the system at
the origin 0.
At 0 we will have a set of two concurrent forces, which may be added

to give Fr:
Fn = (10 -f 6)i -f (3 + 3)i -k (6 - 2)k
Fn = 16i + QJ -k 4fc
The couple-moment at this point is the vector sum of the moment vectors
developed by moving the two forces plus the couple in the zy plane. Thus:
Me Fj-f- TaX P2 30t

Now r X r, = (lOt + 6j + 3.) X (iQt + Tj + G^.)

21 - 30/ - m
r, X F, - {10. + ij) X (6. + - 2A) - -6. + 20j + 12/
Hence Ck *= ~15i 10/ 8k

The resultant js shown in Fir 4 18
Figure 4 18
4 5 RCSULTANTS OF SFCCIAL FORCE SYSTEMS
shall now consider special but important force systems in

order to establish the tj pe of resultants possible Examples will ervo to
illustrate the method of procedure
Cose A Coplanar Force Systems In Fig 4 JO is hown o system of forces

and couples m plane M By moving the forces to a common point o in
Figure 4 19
plane M we will form onij couples in the plane The force portion of the
equivalent sjstem at any such point will be given as
The couple moment portion of the equivalent system may be given as
Cr = (Fidi + Fida + )fc + (Ci + Ci )k 45

where di are perpendicular distances from point a to the lines of
d? etc
action of the non couple forces and Ci C* etc are the values of the couples
in the plane
If Fji ye 0that IS if 0 and/or ^Fy ye Q -we can move the force
to a new position so that the couple is cancelled m the manner described
Since x and y directions are arbitrary, except for the condition that
earlier.
they be in the plane of the forces, we can make the following conclusion.
If the force components in any direction of the plane add to other than zero, we
may replace the entire coplanar system by a single force.
What happens if = 0 and = 0? Without a force at point o, we
can no longer eliminate a couple in plane M. Thus our second conclusion is
that if and are zero, the resultant must be a couple or be zero.
In the coplanar case, therefore, the simplest equivalent force system

must be a single force or a single couple, or the zero vector. The following
example illustrates the method of ascertaining such a resultant directly
without the intermediate steps followed in this discussion.
Example: Consider a coplanar force system shown in Fig. 4.20. The

simplest resultant be found. Since
is to and "^Fy are not zero, we
know that we can replace the system by a single force, which is:
Ffi = 6i + 13i
We now need to find the line of action in the plane that will make this
single force equivalent to the given system. To be equivalent for rigid-
Figure 4.20
body mechanics, this force must have the same twisting action about any
point or axis in space as that of the given system. Thus, assuming that
the resultant goes through some position r = xi
yj, we may say; +
(8i -f 2j) X (6i + 3y) + + Sy) X
(5j (10/) - 30fe
= (xi + yj) X (6i + 13/)
Carrying out the cross product, we get:
24fe - 12fe + 50fc - 30fc = 13xfe - 6yfe
We can then say:

32 = 13x - 6y
The resulîs a ^traight-line relation between the possible
resultant co-
ordmates x and y, and thus the force may be positioned
anywhere along
this line. Actually this line
has a direction coincident with the force Fr
and demonstrates the transmissibility principle for
rigid-body mechanics.
Xhis may be seen by marking off the
intercepts of the line on the xy axes.
5 35
a
.. *
2 46
Figure 4^1 y
Direction coBinea i and m can be found by taking the cosines of a and (3
respectively Thus
cos a I *= D 419
C03 ^ = m* 0 908
The farce Fit has the same direction cosines
I ja = 0 41Q
(36+169)' (205)'^*
"iTs-OMS
Case B Parallel Force Systems tn Space Now consider the system of
parallel forces in Fig 4 22 where the e direction has been selected to corre-
spond with that of the forces Since we can move the forces so that they
all pass through the origin of the xyz axes, the force portion of the equiva-
lent system is / n \
The couple moment portion of the equivalent system is found by applying

Eq 4 2 to this case
c + yu) X FA] *7
-
g t(i.i
+p + (e.)j]
where reprcsetila the non couple force magnitudes Carrying out the
cross product, we get
c - i; t(F,). - (Fj,)/] + i: [(c,),i (c,)j] 48

From this we see that the couple-moment must always be in the xy plane
perpendicular to the direction of the forces.
i.e., then have at the We
origin a single force and a single couple-moment at right angles to each
other. It has already been shown that we can move again to another point
if Fb ^ 0, and eliminate the couple. If the summation of forces should
happen to be zero, the equivalent system must be a couple or be zero.

Thus the simplest resultant s^^stem of a parallel force system is either a
force or a couple; in the case of equilibrium, the resultant is a zero vector.
The following example will illustrate how we can directly ascertain the
simplest resultant.
Example 1: Find the resultant of the parallel force system in Fig. 4.23.
Since the sum of the forces is 30 lb in the negative z direction, a position
can be found in which a single force is equivalent to the original system.
Figure 4.23
Assume that this resultant force proceeds through the point x,y. We may
equate the moment of the resultant force about the x and y axes with the
corresponding moments of the original system and thus form the scalar
equations that yield the proper value of x and y. Equating moments
about the x axis, we get;
(30)(2) - (20)(2) - (40)(10) = -30y

.-. 380/30 = li = 12.7 ft
Equating moments about the y axis, we have;

- (30) (2) + (20) (4) -h (40) (4) = 30x
180/30 =5= 6 ft
You can also show that the same result can be reached for x,y by equating
moments of the resultant force about the origin with the sum of the
moments of the original system about the origin.
Example 2: Consider the three dimensional parallel force system in Fig.

4.24. What is the resultant?
Here we have a case where the sum of the forces equals zero. The re-
sultant,if not zero, must be a single couple. To get the scalar
components
of the couple-moment, we take moments about the x and
y axes. Thus:
70 EQUIVALENT FORCE SYSTEMS I 46
Figure 4 2t X
Cy = +(10)(2) ~ (40)(3) + (30)(4) = +20 lb Jt
C. = -(I0)(4) + (40)(2) - (30)(2) = -201b-ffc
The coupIe-moment> then u

Cn = 20t + 20^ lb ft
4 6 OISTRIBUTCO FORCE SYSTEMS
Our discussions up to now liave been restricted to discrete vectors,

m particular to the point force Scalars and vectors may also be continu-
ously distributed throughout a certain finite volume so that at each position
in space there maybe a definite scalar or vector quantity Such distribu-
tions are called scalar and vector fields respectively A simple example of a
scalar field is the temperature distribution, expressed as T(j,y ,,0 where
the variable i indicates that the field may be changing with time Thus if a
position 2-0, t/o, Zi and a time tg are specified, ne can determine the tempera-
ture at this position and time if we know the temperature distribution
function A vector field is sometimes expressed m the form F{x,y,t,i)
In place of the vector field, it is more convenient at times to employ
three scalar fields that represent the orthogonal scalar components of a
vector field at all points Thus for a force field ne can say
force component in z direction =* g{x,y,t,()
force component m v brecUon

force component in z direction =
where and K represent functions of the coordinates and time If we
g, h,
substitute coordinates of a special position and the time into these func-
tions, ne get the force components F,, F,, and F, for that position and time
The force field and its component scalar fields are then related m this way
F(x,y,z,t) glp:,y,z,0i +- + l{x,y,s,t)k
More often the notation for the above equation is written as
T[x,y,2,i) F,(z,y.z, 0 i + F,{x,y^,l)j + Ft{x,y,z,t)h 49

:
4.6 EQUIVALENT FORCE SYSTEMS 7^
An example of a force the gravitational field about the earth, and

field is
also the electrostatic field about electric charges. Vector fields are not re-
stricted to forces but include such other quantities as velocity fields, heat
flow fields, etc.
Most force fields such as gravity do not act on the boundary of a body
in the way point forces did in the previous examples, but exert influence
directly on the elements of mass distributed throughout the body. Such
force systems are termed body force distributions, and at any point they are
usually given in terms of per unit of mass element that they directly in-
fluence. Thus if B(x,y,z,t) is a body force distribution, the force on an
element d7n would be B(x,y,z,t)dm.
Force distributions over a surface are called surface force distributions and
are given in terms of per unit area of the surface directly influenced. A
simple example is the force distribution on the surface of a body submerged
in a fluid. In the case of a static fluid or of a frictionless fluid, as we will
learn in Chapter 9, the force from the fluid on an area element is always
normal to the area element and directed in toward the body. The force per
unit area stemming from such fluid action is called pressure and is denoted
as p.As will be pointed out in a later chapter, pressure is a scalar quantity.
The direction of the force resulting from a pressure on a surface is given
by the orientation of the surface, and, therefore, an area element can be
considered as a vector. The an
direction of the vector representation of
area elementis normal to the area element and is usually directed outward
from the enclosed body (Fig. 4.25). The infinitesimal force on the area
element is then given as
df ~ pdA
Still a more specialized, but nevertheless common, force distribution is
that of a continuous load on a beam. This situation is often a parallel
loading distribution that is symmetrical about the

center plane of a beam,
as illustrated in Fig.
4.26. We
can therefore replace it by an equivalent
coplanar distribution that acts at the center plane. The
loading is given in
7J EQUIVALENT FORCE SYSTEMS J46
tcnns of per unit Jcngtli, and is denoted ns , the rale t>/ Uxxding. The force
on an element of the beam, then, is tnrfx.
The conclusions about resultants Uiat were reached earlier for general,
parallel, and coplanar pQint*force 8}stems are also valid for distributed-
force system*. This statement is true because each system <an be considered
as an inhmlc number of infimtesirruvl point forces of the type dc%*cIoped ta
the previous paragraph* We
rhall illustrate Ihi* fact in the following
examples.
Case A. Parallel Jiody Feree System Center cj Craitty. Consider a rigid
body whose density (mass/utiit volume) is given ns p(x,yx) as shown in
riSUM 4.17
Fig 4 27, It is acted on by gr3Vit>% which, for a small body, may be con-
sidered to result in a distributed paralle! forte s>'stem.
Since we have here a parallel S3'5tem of forces in space with the same
sense, we know tluit a single force along o certain line of action will be
equivalent to the distribution. Tlie body force J?(r,y,*) given per unit mass
IS (fflA', as seen from liq. 1.8. The inlimle*imal force on & differential
mass element dm, then, is jfp rfr)k where diis the volume of the element.
We find the resultant force on the sj'stcm by repbeing the summation in

Eq. 4.0 with an integration, Tlius;
Fit " * yk yMk
where with j as a constant the second integral becomes simply the entire
mass of the body ilf.
Next we must find the line of action of this single equivalent forte. IjcI
us denote the intercept of this line of action with the xy pbne f,J. Tlie
resultant at this position must have the same moments as the distribution
about both the x and y axes. We can solve for these coordinates in the
following manner:
FsS ^
-'ll
j xpdp Fk5 ''Q
j ypdv
Hence we have:
zpdv I yp dv
M M
Thus we have established the resultant. If the body is re-oriented in space
and the last calculations are repeated to locate the line of action of the
resultant, we will have two lines of action for the resultant that can be
shown to intersect at a point which is called the center of gravity. For any
orientation of the body, the line of action of the resultant can be shown to
proceed through this point, and so w'e say that the force of gravity acts
effectively at the center of gravity; in other words, all the weight of the
body can be assumed to be concentrated at the center of gravity, in rigid-
body mechanics.
Case B. Force Distribution over a Surface and Center of Pressure. Let us

now consider a normal pressure distribution over a plane surface A in the
xy plane in Fig. 4.28. The vertical ordinate is taken as a pressure ordinate.
Figure 4.28
BO that over the area A we have a pressure distribution p{x,y) represented

by the pressure surface. Since in this case there is a parallel force system,
we know that the resultant is a single force, which is given as
Fn= j pdA = (/ 4.10
The position x,y can be computed by equating the moments of the result-
ant force about the x
and y axes with the corresponding moments of the
distribution;
px dA
p dA
pydA
p dA
Since we know that p is a function of x end y over the surface we can carry
out the above integrations either analytically or numencallj The point
thus solved is called the center of pressure
In later chapters we shall consider curved surfaces with normal pressure
distributions and shall also consider the distributed frictional effects over
surfaces In thee cases the resultant is not necessarily a single force as it
was in the above nmphfcd case that has served pnmanly as an introduc
tion
Case C Coplanar Parallel Force Distribution As we pointed out earlier

this type of loading may be considered for beam problems involving mate-
rial that 13 loaded symmetrically over the mid plane of the beam it is
represented by a rate of loading curve ic(x) as shown in Fig 4 26 This

copbnar parallel force distribution may be replaced by a single force
given as
Fk ^ ^ j ic(i) dx k
We find the position of Fr by equating moments about a convenient point
of the beam usually one of the ends Thus
j xw(x) dx
j v(x) dx
4 7 SUMMARY
We now have the tools that enable us to replace for purposes of

ngid body mechanics any gjslcm of forces bj a resultant consisting of a
force and a couple and these tools will prove very helpful our computa m
tions More important at this time however is the fact that in considering
conditions of equilibrium for ng d bodies we need onl> concern ourselves
with this simple type of equivalent system to reach conclusions valid for
any lorce sy^cm no ma'tter'Jiow complex Trom flus viewpoint we hall
develop the fundamental equations of statics m
the following chapter and
then employ them for solving a large vanety of problems
EQUIVALENT FORCE SYSTEMS 75
2. Consider the problem of a couple C and a force F that are given below.
C= lOfe Ib-ft F= (7 + 12j) lb
The force acts through the origin. To what point must we move F so that we
can reduce this to an equivalent system of one force and no couple?
3. A force F= lOi 3j 2k goes through a point whose position vector is
+
r = 6i 2j. Find an equivalent system such that the force goes through
position r = 2i + 3k.
4. Replace the system of forces acting on the cube by an equivalent system where
the force goes through point A.
5.
Figure 4.29
Three forces and two couples are given as follows:
Fi = 4i + 3/ + Ok and acts through (1,0,1)
F2 = +
5i 5j + 5k and acts through (1,1,1)
Fs = Oi + + 4fe and acts through

2J (0,1,2)
Cl = 6i + 6i + 6fe
C = 3i + Oj - 3k
2
Replace them with one force and couple acting through the origin.
A wrench acts from point (1,1,1). It has a direction along the y axis and has a
force equal to:
F= 50j lb
and a couple-moment equal to

500/ Ib-ft.
moment of the force about the origin?
(b) What is the
moment of the couple about the origin?
total moment about the origin?
(AS
(a) What is the
total moment about the x axis?
76 EQUIVALENT FORCE SYSTEMS
7. Given the following force and couple-moment
f I0 - Cj + 4fc C = 2i + lo;
If the force goes through the postltoa (34 G), replace the ej stern by a wrench
8 Replace the folloningej stem of forces b> a resultant Bjslem at the ongm
/*{ > 5k and acta through (1,1,0)
Ft ^3iL and acts through (4,2 0)
Fi = and acts through (2 3 0)
9. (a) What IS the resultant of the (orcea q Fig 4 30 at the origin?

(b) What IS the resultant of the forces at the point (0 10,5)7
(c) TVhat IS the simplest resultant force sy'stem?
10 Given the following forces going through the origin
Fi 10< + 20/ F, 12i - Sj
and the couple C ISA
Find the resultant State its line of action

IL A parallel system of forces is such that a
20-lb force acts at position z 10, p 3
30 lb force acts at position x ^ 5, y <= 3

60-lb force acts at position z 2 p S
(a) If all forces point in the negative z direction, give the resultant force and its
line of action
(b) If the 50-Ib force points tn the plus x direction, what is the resultant?
12 Fjndtheresultantof theforcesabownactingonthecantileverbeammFjg 431
13. Find the resultant of the forces shown acting on the pulley in Fig. 4.32,
14. What is the resultant of the three forces and couple shown acting on the shaft
and disc? Disc radius is 5 ft.
15.
Figure 4.33
Where should a 100-lb force in a downward direction be placed for the resultant
of all shown forces to be at position 5,5?
Resultant
Figure 4.34
16. Find the resultant of the forces shown acting on the beam in Fig. 4.35,
78 EQUIVALENT FORCE SYSTEMS
Figure 4 35
17 Replace the system of forces by a resultant at j4 Also replace the sj stem by

the simplest resultant staling at what position the force cuts the plane A of the
gear
Figure 4 36
18 A force field IS gnen as

f{x !/ * 0 = OO-C + 5)i + (I6i* + 2s)j + 15h
What 13 the force at position (3 G7) WTiat is the difference between the force
at this position and that at the ongin?
4 37 Figure 4 38
19. A magnetic field is developed such that the body force on the rectangular
parallelepiped of metal in Fig. 4.37 is given as:
F= (O.Olz + i)k ounces/lbm
wt. of the metal

If the specific is 450 Ib/ft, what is the resultant body force
from such a field?
20. In the above problem, the specific wt. varies according to the relation
(450 + 2x) Ib/ft"'. Find the resultant body force first from the magnetic field
and then from the gravitational field.
21. A triangular plate of thickness I and height a and length b is shown in Fig. 4.38.
What is the center of gravity of this plate?
22. Find the resultant of a normal pressure distribution over the rectangular area
with sides a and b.
23.
Figure 4.39
We have a parabolic load on the beam as shown below. Find the resultant for
this distributed load and concentrated load. Give the line of action.
X
Figure 4.40
Replace the continuous load by the simplest equivalent system.

(b) Ifwe require the resultant force to go through the right end of the beam,
what is the equivalent system?
Figure 4.41
Equations
of Equilibrium
5 1 FACE VODV DIAGRAM
You wiH recall from Section 1 10 that a body m

equilibrium is one that is stationary or that moves uni
formly relative to an inertial reference In this chapter,
we shall consider such bodies for which the ngid body
model IS valid For these bodies there are certain simple
relations that relate all the surface and body forces, or
their equivalents, that act on the body, and with these
80
5.1 EQUATIONS OF EQUILIBRIUM 81
equations we can sometimes ascertain the value of a certain number of

unknown forces. For instance, in the beam shown in Fig. 5.1 we know the
loads Fi and Fz and also the w'eight of the beam, and we want to determine
the forces transmitted to the earth so we can design a foundation to support
the structure properly.Knowing that the beam is in equilibrium and that
the beam will not appreciably affect the forces trans-
the small deflection of
mitted to the earth, we can write rigid-body equations of equilibrium in-
volving the unknown and known forces and thus arrive at the desired
information.
Since these equations actually stem from the dynamical considerations
01 a body, we must be sure to include all the forces (or their equivalents)
acting on this body, because they all affect the motion of a body and must
be accounted for. To help indentify all the forces and so insure the correct
use of the equations of statics, we isolate the body in a simple diagram and
show all the forces from the surroundmgs which act on the body. Such a
diagram is called a free-body diagram. When we isolate the beam in our
problem from its surroundings, we get Fig. 5.2. On the left end, there is an
Figure 5.2
Unknown force from the ground that has a magnitude denoted as

and
direction denoted as 6
with a line of action going through a known point
^ The right side involves

a force in the vertical direction with an unknown
Magnitude denoted as
Ri. The direction is vertical because the beam is on
ers to allow for
thermal expansion, and the ground, therefore, exerts a
agligibly small horizontal force on the beam. Once all the forces acting
82 EQUATIONS OF EQUILIBRIUM 151
on the beam have been identified including three unknown quantities

Rj and 5 we can by using three equations of equilibrium solve for all
unknowns
Tigure 5 3
Consider now the two spheres shown m

Fig 6 3 m
a condition of equi
hbnum with surfaces smooth and hard enough to permit us to neglect
friction completely The contact forces thus must be m
a direction normal
to the surface of contact Tho free bodies of the spheres are shown m
Fig 5 4 Notice that T, i-, the force from splicre D on spl ere A while tho
reaction shown as Ft is the force from sphere A on splvcrc B
kou might be tempted to consider a portion of tho rout uncr as a free
bod> m
the manner si own in Fig 55 but c^cn if this dngram did clearly
depict a bodj (which it docs not) it would not <|uahfy as a free body ^mce
all the forces acting on the

body have not been shown.
In industrial problems,
bodies are often in contact in
a number of standard ways.
In Fig. 5.6 you will find the
types of forces transmitted
from body M to body N for
body connections that are
often found in practice. These
are not free-body diagrams,
since all the forceson any
body have not been shown.
5 2 FREE BODIES INVOLVING

INTERIOR SECTIONS
Let us consider a
body in equilibrium as
rigid
shown in Fig. 5.7. Clearly,

every portion of this body
must also be in equilibrium.
If We consider the body as two
sections A and B we can pre-
sent either part in a free-body
diagram. To do this, we must
include on the portion chosen
to be the free body the forces from the other part that arise
at the common
section (Fig. 5.8). The surface
between both sections may be any curved
surface, and over it
there will
be a continuous force distribution. In the
pneral case, we know that such
a distribution can be replaced by a single
orce and a couple,
and this has been done in the free-body diagram of
parts A and B in Fig.
5.8.
Thi'^ technique ofexposing for analysis tlie interior of a body is most

'
useful We can solve the cqui\ iJent system for the section, which is guen
by by using equations of equilibrium By employing
the force and couple,
other laws, Hooke's law, for example, we can, as m the case of strength of
maternU, often determine the distribution of force
As an example, consider a rectangular beam with one end embedded m
a massive wall and loaded along the center plane (Fig 59) A free body
1 Fi
I
F2
Figure S 9 1 V11
of the portion of the beam extending from the wall is shown in Fig 5 10
Because of the geometric symmetry about the center plane, and the fact
that the loads are m this plane, the exposed forces in the section can be
considered coplanar Hence this distribution can be replaced by a force
and a couple in the center plane Although a position can be found that
Figure 5 10 W
w ould enable us to eliminate the couple, it is desirable in structural prob

lems to work with an equivalent system that has the force positioned at
a convenient and physically meaningful place, such as the center of the
beam cross section and thus to have a couple In the next section we will
see how f and C may be ascertained
Example As a further illustration of a free-body diagram ivc shall noff

consider the assembly shown Ml Fig 511 which consists of members con
nected frictionlcss pins Tlie force sj'stems acting on the n<!5embb and
its parts will be taken ostoplanar IVcshallnow express several free-body
diagrams of the assembly and its parts
a Free-body Diagram of the Entire AasemUj The magnitude and di
rection of the force at A from, tiie wall onto the assembly is not known
except that we know they arc m the plane of the system Therefore, two
Figure 5.11
components are shown at this point (Fig. 5.12). There are then three un-
known scalar quantities, Ay, Ax, and Cy for the free body.
Ax
Figure 5.12
6. Free-body Diagram of Ike Component Parts. When two members are
pinned together, such as members DE

and AB or DEand BC, we usually
one of the bodies, but when more than two
consider the pin to be part of
members are connected at a pin, such as members AB, BC, and cable BF
at B, we can isolate the pin and consider that all members act on the
pin rather than directly on each other, as is illustrated in Fig. 5.13.
1000 lb
Figure 5,13
B6 EQUATIONS OF EQUILIBRIUM !S3
Notice that the forces which form pivrs of reactions have been associated
with dotted enclosures
Do not be concerned about the proper sense of an unknown force com
ponent that you enter on the free body diagram for j ou may choose either
a positiie or negatne sense for these components When the \alue of the*^
quantities are ascertained bj methods of statics the proper sense for each
component can be establish^ but hating chosenasenseforacomponent
you must be sure that the reaction to this component has the opposite
sense
c Free-bodj Diatom of Portvoa of the Astetnblj to the Right of If Jf
In makini, a free body of the portion to the Tight of section 7f M ucm<t
Figure S 14
remember to put m the weight of the portions of the members remaining

after the cut has been made Notice that there are seven unknown scalar
Figure 5 15
quantities for this free body diagram They are C, Ci Cs Fi, Fu and
Fig It is apparent from this problem that the number of unknowns i anes
widely for the various free bodies that may bo drawn in the system Tor
this reason you must rfioose the free-body diagram that is suitable for
your needs with some discretion in order to solve effectively for the desired
unknowns
5 3 EQUATIONS or EQUILIBRIUM
For every free body diagram it is possible to replace the system of

forces and couples acting on the body by a single force and a single couple
acting on the body. The have the same magnitude and direction,
force will
no matter what point a is chosen to move, by methods discussed earlier, the

entire system. However, the couple will depend on the chosen point. It
will be proven in dynamics that the necessary and sufficient conditions for a
rigid body to be in equilibrium are that the resultant force Fr and the resultant
couple Cr for any point be zero vectors. That is:
F/s= 0 (a)
Cb = 0 (b) 5.1
These may be considered the fundamental equations of statics. You will

remember from Section 4.4 that the resultant Fr is the sum of the forces
moved to the common point and the couple Cr is equal to the sum of the
moments of all the original forces taken about this point. Hence the above
equation can be WTitten as:
(a)
(b) 5.2
where the r.s are position vectors from the common point to the lines of
action of the respective forces. From this form of the equations of statics,
we can conclude that for equilibrium to exist the vector sum of the forces
and the moment of the system of forces and couples about any point in space
must each be a zero vector.
Now that we have summed forces and have taken moments about a
point a, \ve walldemonstrate that we cannot find another independent
equation by taking moments about a different point h. For the body in
Fig. 5.16 shown in
equilibrium, we have initially the following equations:
Fj + Fa + Fa + F4 = 0 5.3
ri X Fi + rj X Fz + ra X Fa + r4 X F = 4 0 5.4
figure 5.16
8B EQUATIONS OF EQUILIBRIUM 553
The new point 6 is separated from a by the position vector d The position
vectors from h to the lines of action of the forces can be given in terms of
d and the position v ectors emplo>cd m Eq 5 4, and can be expressed m the
following manner
(ri) = (d d- ri)
(rOi - (d + n) etc
Tlie moment equation for point 5 then may be given as
(ri 4- d) X + (ri + d) X Fj + (fi -J- d) X Fj + (r^ + d) X Fi = 0

55
Using the distnbutative rule for cross products, we can restate this equa-
tion as
(ri X Fi -b rj X Fi + ri X Fj 4- r, X Ft)
4-dx(F, -bF2 4-F, 4-F4) =0 56

Since the second quantity in parentheses is already zero in Eq 5 3, the rc
mammg portion degenerates to Eq 5 4, and thus we have not introduced a
new equation Therefore, there are only two independent vector equations
of equilibrium forany single free body
We will to you to show, m considering equilibrium for the body
leave it
cvamincd in the preceding paragraph, that (he pair of Eqs 5 4 and 5 5 arc
gcncral]> equivalent to the pair of Eqs 53 and 54 This means that wo
can usuiUy use moments about two points as the basic equations of equi-
hbnum and thus do not have to sum the forces and then take moments
Using the vector Eqs 5 2, wc can now express the scalar equations of
equilibrium Since, as you will recall, the scalar component of the moment
of a force about a point is the moment of the force about an axis through
the point, we maj state these equations in the following manner
XlCfJi-o (.) -0 W)
x;(f.)i =o w Ew, = 0 (t)
where (V,)f, (Mg) ,

and arc moments of n force or a couple about the
rcpcctivc X, y, and z axes through the point From this set of equations, it
IS clear that no more than six unknown scalar quintifics in the general
case can be solved b> methods of bI dies for a ingle free body
It is quite a simple matter for us to express any mtmlicr of scalar equa-
tions of equilibrium by selecting a number of references that hav c difTcrent
directions, m which wc can sum forces, and different axes, about which wo
: :
can take moments. However, in choosing six independent equations, we

will find that the remaining equations will be dependent on these six, i.e.,
these equations will be sums, differences, etc. of the independent set and
so will be of no use in solving for desired unknowns.
5.4 SPECIAL CASES OF EQUILIBRIUM
We shall now number of important special cases of

consider a
equilibrium primarily to ascertain the number of scalar equations of equi-
librium that are necessary and sufficient for equilibrium. With this infor-
mation, we will then know the number of unknown scalar quantities for
any free body that can be solved by methods of statics. If there are more
such unknowns than there are available equations, no amount of algebraic
perseverance will lead to the solution of the unknowns for the chosen
free body.
Tlie type of resultant for each special system of forces is most useful in
determining the number of scalar equations available in a given problem.
The procedure is to classify the force system, establish what resultant
equivalent force system is associated with the classification, and then con-
sider the number of scalar equations necessary to guarantee this resultant
to be zero. The following cases exemplify this procedure.
Case A. Concurrent System of Forces. In this case, since the resultant is
a single force at the point of concurrency, it is only necessary for equilib-
rium that this force be zero. We
can insure this condition if the orthogonal
components of this force are separately equal to zero. Thus we have three
equations of equilibrium of the form
=0 2 =0 2 F* = 0 5.8
As was pointed out in the general vector discussion, there are other ways
of insuring a zero
resultant.
For instance, the fact that
the moment of this force sys-
tem about some axis a is zero
Kay mean the following things
a. The resultant force is
zero.
h. The resultant force has
a line of action through
the axis.
c. The resultant has a line Figure 5.1T
of action parallel to the
axis.
another non-parallel axis

/3 is chosen, and the moment about this axis is
a so zero,
it means that either;
)
90 EQUATIONS OF EQUILIBRIUM
a The resultant force is zero or

b The resultant force has a hne of action througli both axes
The condition c cannot be extended to the second axis, since a force cannot
be parallel to tuo non parallel axes simultaneously
A third axis y is choKin so that the hne of action of the resultant force
neither intersects all throe axes nor intersects any two axes while being
parallel to the third If in addition to being zero for axes a and 0 the
moment of the force system is zero about the axis y, then
The resultant force is zero
Thus we haxe another way to guarantee equilibrium for a concurrent

force sj stem
S il/. = 0 2 =0 2 il/, = 0 5 9
where axes a 0 and y have the rcstnctions we have already mentioned

We can show other sets of equations for expre'sing the condition of
equilibrium Tor instance
1 1! the summation of forces in the y direction is zero i e , 2 = 0,

and
2 If the moments are zero about two non parallel axes d and c not in
the plane parallel to xz that contains the concurrency point of the
system of forces i e ,
S jifj 0 and 2 M 4 ** 0,
then the body on xxhich the system of forces acts is m equilibrium (We
urge you to reason this out y ourself
The draun is rtof there are three independent
esscnlial concluston lo be
equations oj cqmlibrium for a concurrent force system In employing scalar
equations of equilibrium directly, we need not be too concerned about the
direction of summations or about which axis we choose for moments If
we employ axes that violate the stated restrictions we will get equations
that are not independent, and we must then continue to choose other axes
until throe independent equations are hnally formed
Case B Coplanar Force System In this case, the system may be degen-
emted into a resultant of a single force or a single couple Thus for equi-
librium we must first have
2 r, *= 0 2 r, 0 5 to
To insure that there is no resultant couple, we take moments about an

axis a inilined to the plane If m addition to Eqs 5 10
2Jf. =0 511
equilibrium must exist for the system of forces and conclude that there we
are three scalar equations of equil^rtum for a coplanar force system Other
combinations such as two moments and a single summatiou, may be
employed to give the three necessary, independent scalar equations of

equilibrium, as was discussed in the previous case.
Case C. Parallel Forces in Space. In the case of parallel forces in space,

we already know that the resultant could be either a single force or a
couple. If the z direction corresponds to the direction of the forces, to insure
that there be no resultant force it is necessary that:
S F. = 0 5.12
And to guarantee that there be no couple, it is nccessarj'- that:
2 = 0 2 il/ = 0 5.13
where the x and y axes may be chosen in any plane perpendicular to the
direction of the forces.
Thus three independent scalar equations are available for equilibrium of
parallel forces in space. If the forces are parallel and coplanar, only one
moment equation is needed in the preceding development. Hence there
are two scalar equations of equilibrium for parallel forces in a plane.
5.5 PROBLEMS OF EQUILIBRIUM
We shall now examine problems of equilibrium in which the rigid-

body assumption is To solve such problems, we usually must ascer-
valid.
tain the value of certain unknown forces, and to involve these unknown
forces in equations, we must draw a free-body diagram of the entire system

or a portion of it to expose them for analysis. As we have seen, for any free
body there are a limited number of independent scalar equations, so that
at times we must employ several free-body diagrams for portions of the
system to produce enough equations to solve all the unknowns.
For any free body we may proceed by expressing two basic vector equa-
tions of statics. After carrying out vector operations such as cross products,
we form the scalar equations which are
additions, etc. in the equations,
then solved simultaneously to give scalar quantities associated with the
unknown forces. Wecan also express the scalar equations immediately by
using the alternate scalar equilibrium relations we formulated above. In
the first case, we start
with vector equations and arrive
more compact at
the expanded scalar equations by the formal procedures of vector algebra,
whereas in the latter case we evaluate the expanded scalar equations by
carrying out arithmetic
operations on the free-body diagram as xve write
the eciuations. Which procedure is more desirable? It all depends on the
problem and the investigators skill in vector manipulation. It is true
that
ruost statics
problems submit easily to a direct scalar approach, but the
uiore challenging
problems of dynamics definitely favor an initial vector
fipproach. In this text we shall employ both procedures as the occasion
92 EQUATIONS OF EQUILIBRIUM S55
warrants Admittedly ^^c shall at times use the vector approach where it
may be somewhat clumsy (because it is too powerful for the job) so that
we shall attain a working familiarity with the \cctor computations neccs-
"virj for dynamics
In statics problems, we must occasionally assign a sense to a component
of an unknown xector or couple m
order to write the equations If on sol\-
ing the equations,we obtain a iiegati\c sjgn for this component, it means
that wc have guessed the wrong sense and must reverse it in the statements
of the solution We shall now solve and discuss a number of problems of
equilibrium
Example 1. A 500 lb weight is suspended by flexible cables as is shown

in Fig 5 18 Determine the tension in the cables
Figure 5 18
A suitable free body that exposes the desired unknon-n quantities is the
nog C, which may be consider^ as a particle for this computation because
of its comparatively small sue (Fig 5 19) The force system acting on a
particle must alwaj's be a concurrent system Here we have the additional

fact that it 13 coplanar as well, and therefore we may solve for the two
unknowns We shall proceed dir^ly to the scalar equations of equilibrium

Thus:
=0
500 Ten sin 60 Tac sin 30 = 0 (a)
SF. = 0
Tac cos 30 = Tea cos 60 (b)
By solving these equations simultaneously, we get the desired results:
Tcb = 433 lb Tac = 250 lb
Another way of arriving at this answer is to consider the force polygon

for the sj'stem of forces that was discussed in Section 2.3. Because the
forces are in equilibrium, the polygon must close, i.e., the head of the final
force must coincide with the tail of the initial force. In this case we have a
right triangle, as is shown in Fig. 5.20, drawn approximately to scale.
From trigonometric considerations of this right triangle, we can state;
Tbc = 500 cos 30 = 433 lb
Tac = 500 sin 30 = 250 lb
The force polygon may be used to good advantage when three concurrent
forces are in equilibrium and two of the forces are oriented at right angles
to each other.
Let us now initiate the computations for the unknown tensions directly
from the basic equations of statics. First we must express all forces in
vector notation:
Tcb = Tcb (0.500.+ 0.866j)
Tac = Tac (-0.866. + O.SOOy)
We get the following equation when the vector sum of the forces is equal
to zero:
Tcb (0.500i + 0.866j) + Tac (-0.866i + 0.500/) - 500/ = 0

Choosing point C, the point of concurrency, we see clearly that the sum
moments of the forces about this point are zero, so the second basic
equation of equilibrium is intrinsically satisfied. We now regroup the
above equation in the following manner:
(O.SOOTcb - 0.866T.,c). + (0.866rcB + O.SOOTac - 500)/ = 0

To satisfy this equation, each of the quantities in parentheses must be zero.
This gives the scalar equations (a) and (b) stated earlier from \Vhich the
scalar quantities Tcb and
Tac can be solved.
Example 2: A
crane weighing 3000 Ib supports a 10,000-lb load as is
shown in Fig. 5.21.
Determine the supporting forces at A, which is a
pinned connection, and at B, which is a type of roller.
A free-body diagram of the main structure exposes the desired unknowns
U'lg. 5.22), Note that
since the system of forces maj' be taken as coplanar,
we may solve for all the unknown quantities from this single
free-body
diagram. Equating the sum
of the force vectors to zero, we get:
Figure S 21
A,i + 3000/ - 10,000^ = 0 (a)
Taking momenta about point A, ne have
[-(5)(3000) - (I5)(10,000) + (5)(S)]k * 0 (b)
Tliese equations j icid the follow ing scalar equations
A. + BsO ^- 130000 5i?- 165000 *0
Figure 5 22
These arc casilj solved to give
B*= 33000lb A. -33,000 Ib 4, = 13, 000 lb
Note tlat a negative sign is present for At This indicates that the
wrong sense was chosen for this comiioiieiit ut tlic outset of the computd
tions, so we must reverse the sense of it
\lc have now solved the forces from the wall onto the structure The
forces from the structun. onto the wall are the reactions to these forces
Example J* A derrick w shown in Hg 5 23 supporting a 1000 lb load

The main beam has a sxket connection into the ground at d and is held
b> gu> wires Tvcglccttbcweiglit of the members and wires and asccrtiin
the tensions in all the guj wires ac, be and ec
If we select ns a free l^lj botli members and the interconnecting gui
wire ce, we will esposc two of tlw desired unknowns (Iig 521) Note
that this IS a general thrcedimcnsiuiial force system with only five un*
knowns Although all these unknowns can Is. sohid bv statical consider-
ations of this free bodj, jou will notice tint if wc take moments about
point d we will involve in a vector equation onlj the desirvvt unknowns
Figure 5.23
Tic and Tac, 'so all unknown forces need not be computed for this free-
body diagram. It is well worth your time to look for such short cuts in
situations such as these.
Figure 5.24'
To determine the unknown tension Tee, 've must employ another free-
body diagram. Either the vertical or horizontal member will expose this
unknown in a manner susceptible to solution. The latter has been selected
and is shown in Fig. 5.25. Note that ue have here a coplanar force system
Figure 5.25 Free-body diagram 2

96 EQUATIONS OF EQUILIBRIUM 55S
with three unlcnowns Again jou can see that by taking moments about
pomt/ e will tnvohe onij the desired unknown
Before proceeding with these equations we must first aseertam the
direction cosines for the forces T*. and Tt, Since these forces are colmcir
with the cables ac and be respectively the most direct solution will come
through a consideration of these cabks To aid in establishing these
direction cosines, a reference has been get up at point c as is shown in
Figure 5 26
Fig S26 Using simple trigonometry, we can determine the distances od

and ae The direction cosines for the wire oe may now be computed as
8
I 0 433
V333
->I0
m -0648
V333
-13
-0712
V533
We may then express the tensile force \cctorially as
Tt = T.{0 438i - 0 543/ - 0 7f2fc)

For the tension Ti, only a change in the sign of the direction cosine 1
will take place in the alMvc relation That is
Tw = rfc{-0438i -0548; -0 712h)

Beturning to free-body diagram 1 in Fig 5 24 and taking moments
about the socket point d, we tia\e
13k. X 7V(0 43Sf - 0 618/ - 0 712k)

+ 13fc X r.(-0438J - 0 548/ - 0712k)
+ 10/ X (-1000)fc - 0
Note that the simplest positron xector from d out to the hue of action of
-
EQUATIONS OF EQUILIBRIUM 97
the 1000-lb force has

been taken i.c., along the y direction. Evaluating
the cross products in tlie above equation, we get:
[7.i2(roc + n.) - io,ooo]f -i- [5.69(r,.e - n.)]i = o
The corresponding scalar equations are:
5.69(rc - Tu) = 0
7.12(r -f- Ttc) - 10,000 = 0
The solution to these equations is:
To. = Tie = 702 lb
Turning finally to the free-body diagram 2 in Fig. 5.25, we see that in

summing moments about / the horizontal component of the tension T..
has a zero moment arm. Thus:
[(10) (0.707) (10)(1000)]f = 0
Hence: T.. = 1414 lb
Example 4: Determine the forces required to support the uniform beam

in Fig. 5.27 shown loaded with a couple, a point force, and a parabolic
distribution of load. The weight of the beam is given as 100 lb.
Figure 5.27
Assume that a coplanar force distribution acts on the beam. The free-
body diagram is in Fig. 5.28; Since there are only three unknown quanti-
ties, we may handle the problem
by statical consideration of this free body.
The equation for the rate of loading curve must be w = ox* -1- ,b, where
J
50C)lb
400 Ib/ft
Rix .
_j
1
^
-J i 1
I ô-''îobib
1001b I
Figure 5.28 Rjy R2

98 EQUATIONS OF EQUILIBRIUM ISS
a and b are to be detcmined from the loading data and the choice of
reference Uithaiiijtefcrcnceatthck.ftend nsshown ac then have the
conditions
1 when 1 = 0 lo = 0
2 when i = 20 to 400
To satisfy these conditions it means that 6 w zero and a is unity, the

rate of loading is thus given as
10 = 1*
In problem we shall work directly with the scalar equations By

this
we ee that in summing forces in the r direction the component
inspection
By summing moments about the left and nght ends of the
(^j), IS zero
beam we can then solve the remaining unknowns directly
2 ftf, = 0
-500 - (10)(100) - (15K600) - l> 4t + 20R, - 0
Integrating and cancelling terms we get
-9000 -jj +20f?, =0
By inserting linuts and solving we get one of the unknowns
It, = 2450 lb
Next
2 AT = 0
-20(S,), - 500 + (10)(100) + (5)(600) + (.20 - z)i>* = 0
Solving for then we have

(ff,), = 817 Ib
As s check on these computations we may sum forces in the vertical

direction The result should be close to zero
2F = 0
(Ri), + R. - 100 - 500 - i> ii = 0
3267 - COO -I = 0
2067 - 2667 - 0
Whenever it is possible to dieck a solution no should aiail ourschcs of
the opportunity
Example 5 Determine the vertical force F that must be applied to the

windlass in Fig 5 29 to maintain the 100-Ib weight Also estimate the
supporting forces from the ground The handle DC on which the force is
applied is in the indicated xz plane. The windlass shaft is supported by two
narrow bearings which transmit the loads to the ground.

To expose the desired unknowns, we shall make a free-body diagram
of the windlass wthout the bearings. To render the problem amenable
to purely statical analysis we must make a number of simplifying as-
sumptions. First, we shall neglect friction completely in the bearings. In
a properly lubricated system, these forces will be comparatively small.
Next, we will assume that the bearings are so narrow that without friction
the force distribution from the bearing to the shaft can be considered a
coplanar distribution and thus replaceable by a single force normal to the
centerline of the shaft. Little error will be incurred if this force is assumed
to have a line of action through the shaft centerline. The resulting free-
body diagram is shown in Fig. 5.30.
Figure 5.30
100 EQUATIONS OF EQUILIBRIUM $56
Note that we have a general fwcc sjstem in space with five unknowns
Since the sum of the force componente in the z direction is already taken
to be zero if we do not include unknowns in this direction at the bearings
we will have available five equations of statics Thus we are just able to
handle this problem It may be clear now whj it was so important to
simplify the problem at the outset
Summing the forces we get
(A.i + - 100/ -Fj + (Ji.t + S,j} = 0 Ca)
Taking moments about the point B we ha%e

-5fe X (4,1 + AJ) + (-3k - JO
X (-IOO7 ) + (2k + 0 X (-F^) = 0 (b>
If we carry out the cross products and rearrange (b) we get
(54, + 2F - 300)i - (5A.)y + (ija - F)k 0
We have then the following scalar equations from (a) and (b)
A. + Bx 0 (c)
^+B-F-J00-0 d)
-5;1, - 2F + 500 - 0 (e)
Uz - 0 (f)
+i|a -F- 0 (g)
We see that A, and F are determined from equating (f) and (g) as 0 and
16 67 Ib respectively Equation (c) then indicates that Bz is zero
can now be determined from (c) as 53^ lb Finally B* is evaluated from
(d) as 63^ lb
5 6 SOME CIMVLC CONCLUSIONS fROM EOUIUBRIUM
We shall now consider two simple cases of equilibrium that occur

quite often and from which
Simple, useful conclusions may
readily be drawn
Case A
Body in Equilibrium vnlh
Two Forces Consider a ngid body
with points a and b in which two
forces are acting If the body is
in equilibrium, the first basic
equation of statics 51(a) stipu-
Figure 5 31 lates that Fi = Fi, that is the
forces must be equal and oppo-
site The second fundamental
equation of statics, 5 1(b), requires Uiat the forces be cohnear so as not to
form a non-zero couple. Since points a and b are given as points of appli-
cation for the two forces, as shown in Fig. 5.31, it is clear that the common
line of action for the forces must coincide with the line segment ah.
We often have to deal with pin-

connected members with
structural
loads applied at the pins, as shown in
Fig. 5.32. If wo neglect friction at the
pins and also the weight of the mem-
bers, we can conclude that only two
forces act on each member. These
forces, then, must be equal and oppo-
site and must have a line of action colin-

ear with the centerline of the member.
The member above is a compression
member, the one below a tensile mem-
ber. We shall investigate simple struc-
tures involving such members in the
next chapter.
Case B. Equilibriwn of Three Forces. Let us now consider a body on

which three forces are acting. We will demonstrate that these forces must be
cophnar and that their lines of action must either be parallel or be concurrent.
First we assume that two of the forces have lines of action that in-
will
tersect and thus form a plane. Equilibrium demands that the sum of the
forces in a direction
normal to this plane be zero. This can only mean that
the third force
must be coplanar with the first two forces. The fact that
0 moments of the
forces about the point of intersection must be zero
êans in turn that the third force has a line of
action proceeding through
IS point.
Thus the forces satisfy our requirements for a trio of forces
'll
equilibrium.
102 EQUATIONS OF EQUILIBRIUM {56
Non consider the case where no two forces intersect (Fig 5 34) Take
moments of forces Fi and Fi about point a on the line of action of force Fj
Since the moment \ectors must be
equal and opposite for equilibrium
tile plane of Fi and a and the plane
of Fjand a are the same Thus F

Fj, and a are coplaiiar Since ne
get the same results if v.e choi^ o
anj where along Fs all three forces
must be coplanar and since they
do not intersect anywhere the
forces must also be parallel
These two cases cover all pos Figure S 3t
sihilities so we can conclude that
our opening statement about a

body acted upon bj three forces has been prerved This fact will be quite
helpful m such problems as that in the follow mg example
Example I A ladder rests up against a smooth wall and its bottom is

supported by a rouRh surface (Fig 6 35) What are the forces on the
wall and the ground?
+
In this problem there are three forces acting, as is shown in the free-
body diagram of the ladder (Fig. 5.36). Two of the forces, and 50 lb,
intersect at a so that must have a line of action that also goes through a.
The direction of Fg may be ascertained by considering the shaded triangle
in Fig. 5.36. Using vector notation, then, we get:
~
2.5 8.66 ."
F, f
_9.01 9.01
Equilibrium demands that:
Fg + Fy, 50i = 0
Hence:
F(0.277i + 0.961i) - - 50j = 0
The scalar equations are:
F(0.961) - 50 = 0 A Fg = 52.0 lb
FgiO.277) - = 0 Fy, = 14.40 lb
Example 2: We shall now simply set up a somewhat complex problem

without going through the arithmetic of getting numerical answers.
Shown in Fig. 5.37a is a structure supporting a 1000-pound weight.
Assume that the geometry is known. Neglect the weight of the members.
Set up a complete system of independent equations leading to the
solution of the supporting forces at A and at G and of the forces at
F, D, and B. Note that BC is a 2-force member.
The procedure is to set up successive free-body diagrams that will even-
tually result in as many independent equations as there are
unknowns in
the equations. Naturally the fewer free-body diagrams
and equations
needed to solve for the desired unknowns, the better.
Total scalar equations

available
Total unknowns
0,)
Figure 5 STb
Total scalar equations

available > 6
Total unknowns 8
U, A, G, B ). D, F, f.)
Figure 5 37c
Total scalar equations 8

Total unknowns *8
Figure S STd
We 7101B /laie a comjÛ set and con solve for the desired unknowns
5 7 STATIC INDCTERMIHACV
Examine the simple beam in Fig 5 38 which has known external

loads and weight If the deformation of the beam is small and the final
positions of the external loads differ only slightly from their initial positions,
we can assume the beam to be rigid and solve for the supporting forces
Figure 5.38 f
and since we have three equations of equilibrium

available.
Suppose now another .support is applied to the beam, as indicated in
Fig.
6.39. The beam can still be considered a rigid body, since the
applied loads
will shift even less because of
deformation. Therefore, the
equivalent force coming from
the ground to counteract
the
applied loads and weight of the
beam must be the same in
both situations. In
the first
case, in w'hich
the two sup-
porting points were
given,
/-
however, a unique value
b;
for '

1
the forcesA, Bj, and gave A' tW Ib:
us the required
resistance. In
other words, we
were able to Figure 5.39
solve these
forces by statics
a one without
further consid-
second case, statics will give the same equivalent
sunn7- for the
forces, but now there ate an infinite number of possible
bin com-
support points that will give us the correct
enn!
demanded by equilibrium of rigid bodies. To decide
the on
supporting forces requires additional compu-
tation^Tui?"û^"x?^"
deformation properties of the beam were
tant un t
unimpor-
become the all-important criterion in ap-
portioninv tl
These problems are termed statically
ixdctcmifiote
statics
determinate type in which
and krilidb lir
for a b ^^^teresting to note that
given jstem of
loads and masses two models
the rigid-body

model and models taught in other courses involving elastic behavior

may be employed to achieve a desired end. In simmnry, uc can stale that
tn staltcalUj tnrfclcnninn/c prnfe/m* tee oturI satisfy both the equations of
equilibrium for rigid bodies and the equations that stem from deformation con-
siderations
5 8 COMPLETE CONSTRAINT OF A RlCtO BODY
We shall now consider the forces that act to maintain a body in a

fixed position relative to some second bod 5 '
usually the earth These
forces are called consfrotninp forces, while all other forces which do not
serve to constrain a body in
space arc called external loads.
In Fig o 40, the constraining
forces on the cantilever beam
are components V and U and
the couple M
F and the w eight
;
IK are external loads

It 13 convenient to replace
the constraining forces by a
set of simple linkages which
can deliver equivalent action
in supporting the body. For
Figure 5,40 our cantilever, it is clear that
the three linkages shown in
rig 5 41 are required If the
direction of the linkage is knowm after loading (that is, if we can assume
a rigid body), then each linkage represeutsoneunknovm force component
and thus the number of linkages required for a given constraint under these
conditions will give us the number of unknowns These linkages arc there-
;
Figure 5 41
fore useful in ascertaining whether constraining forces may be solved by

statics.Figure 542, for instance, shows two beams in (a) a pictorial
representation, (b) a free-body diagram, and (c) a linkage diagram Since
these are coplanar systems, three equations of equilibrium are available.
Figure 5.42
You Avill note, however, that more than three linkages are necessary to
simulate the supports and that, therefore, the constraints are statically
indeterminate.
With the aid of linkage diagrams, we will now explore the question of
what is required to constrain a body in space in both the general three-
dimensional case and the special two-dimensional case. A few more com-
ments will then be made concerning statically indeterminate constraints.
Case A. Complete Constraint in Space. In Fig. 5.43 is a rectangular
parallelopiped that forms the boundary of a rigid body, and we wish
completely to constrain this body in space. In diagram (b), five linkages

are sliown, but the body can still rotate about axis AB. To prevent this
and thus constrain
the body, we may add a sixth link to any of an infinite
number of positions. For simplicity, we choose the lower left
corner of the
parallelopiped as shown in Fig. 5.44. Note there are now
six linkages. As
ê might expect, the
least number of force components needed to keep
108 EOUAllONS Of EQU1UBWUM 158
the body in complete constraint equals the number of scalar equations of

equilibrium
c cannot conclude that any
arrangement of six linkages or their
equivalents will perform the desired
task For instance in Fig 5 45 a
couple of cases are shown m
which
constraint has not been achieved even
though SIX linkages arc used In case
(a) the body will clearly rotate about
the axis /12? if nn external load such
as gravity develops a moment about
this axis inie the restraining mo-
ments an all zero From this we can
make the following conclusion
1 A body will not be constrained in space if the equivalent linkages

have hues of action which intersect a straight line
Case (b) requiresa more extended analysis \otice that all six restraining
linkages (solid lines) are mutually parallel As a consequence the restrain
mg forces for this geometry must also be parallel From this arrangement
we see that an external load perpendicular to the In kages cannot be resisted

until thebody moves and inclines the linkages nt an angle to produce re-
straining forcecomponents in the direction of loading A similar situation
can be reached if Images oft and f arc changed to new onentalioi s show n
as dashed lines in which the 1 nkages are perpendicular to a common
direction Here the body must move a small distance along this direction
to allow the linkages to develop restraining forces to loads in this direction.

These cases are termed partial coiistraints, and we can now set forth two
more criteria, in addition to the one stated earlier, for determining when
a body is not completely constrained:
2 If the linkages are all parallel, the body is only partially constrained.
3. If the linkages are perpendicular to a common direction, the body is
only partially constrained.*
If a body is completely constrained with the equivalent restraining ele-

ments of six linkages, we can solve for the restraining forces by simple
Such supports, then, are statically determinate.
statics alone.
Can we solve for the forces in the six supporting linkages in a partially
constrained case by methods of statics? The answer is no, since the final
inclinations of the constraining linkages, already pointed out as vital in-
formation, are not known; actually
there are more than unknowns.
just six
Thus, in order to give a complete
description of the supporting forces, we
have to satisfy equations of equilibrium
and, in addition, take into account the
deformation of the linkages and of the
body.
Case B. Complete Constraint in a Plane.

We turn now to the case of a body that
is completely constrained in a plane.
We have already worked problems in Figure 5.46
which a beam is constrained by a pin
connection and a set of rollers. The
equivalent linkage S 'stem is three bars, as is shown in Fig. 5.46. The
3
number of linkages equal the number of scalar equations of equilibrium.
As in the general case, there are restrictions on the way in which linkages
can be arranged to produce complete constraint. The two cases in which
complete constraint cannot be achieved are shown in Fig. 5.47. The ex-
planation for case (a) follows that of the general case for parallel linkages.
The explanation for case (b) follows that of the general case of
linkages
intersecting a common line. That is, if an external moment
is developed
about point
a, the intersection point, the constraining forces, when in the
position
shown, cannot counteract the applied moment. The body will
ôve and deform so that the restraining forces will develop
an arm
Case (2) is a special case of (3) but has been listed separately.
about point o and thus be able to restrain the action Clearly this is a case
of partial constraint
5 9 SUMMARY
We can now draw a free-body diagram that exposes a system of

forces which, for equilibnum, must satisfy certain equations By noting
the type of resultant for the system, uc may readily deduce how many
unknown quantities can be solved for the free body We thus have the
direct means of sob ing statically determinate problems and we also have
available some of the necessary conditions that must be satisfied in stat
ically indeterminate problems although further considerations beyond the
scope of this course are necessary for the solution of these latter kind
In the next cliapter, we shall consider certain types of bodies that are
of great engincenng interest The problems will be statically determinate
and will mvoKe nothing that is fundamentally new T\e devote o separate
chapter to these problems because they contain sign conventions and
techniques that are important and complex enough to warrant such slud>
We therefore proceed to on introduction of statically determinate struc-
tural mechanics
PROBLEMS
In the follotving problems assume pins and sockets to be fnctionlc^ Neglect
weight of members unless otherwise stated
1. Draw complete free-bodj diagrams for the member AB and for cylinder D in
Fig 54S Neglect friction at the contact surfaces of the cjlinder Tlicwciglta
of theejUnder and the member we denoted as Uând Was re8pecti\cly
2. Draw a free-body diagram of the beam AB and the pulley D in Fig. 5.49. The
n eight of the pulley is IFc and the weight of the beam is W ab-
3. Draw a free-body diagram for each member of the system shown. Neglect
weights of the members. Replace distributed load by resultant.
4.
Figure
5. 5.50
Make a free-body diagram of the portion of the beam, which is exposed from the
nail. Replace all distributions by simpler equivalent force systems. Neglect
n eight of the beam.
1 Tw = 21fa/ft

Figure 5.51 1
i^ 10 >-
Draw CD
free-body diagrams of bars and AB in Fig. 5.52. Take the weight of
the members as Wcd and Wab respectively.
IIS EQUATIONS OF EQUtUBRJUM
Figure S 52
7
Draw the free-body diagram of the component parts Neglect weights of all
members
Figure S S3
In Fig 5 64 fad the supporting forces at /I and 5 on tl c beam whose weight

js500 lb Is the location of the couple of s gmfjcance for this calculation? W\y
Figure 5 Figure 5 55
8 Asoerta n tlie resultant force aj-ifem liemg transmitted through ll e cross section
of the btam at A in Fig 555 iTie beam uctgha 200 Ib Could jou make such a
calculation if this beam were also supportcct at B as in problem 4 Why?
9 A e> hnder liai ing a diameter of 4 ft an 1 a we ght of 200 Jb is supported I \ leam
ASoflcngth rOftand neight50Iliin>Tg 560 If thesurfaces of contact of tl t
cylinder arc fnctionlcss determine the supporting force components m the *
and V ducctions at A
10. D
In Fig. 5.57, the pulley at weighs 500 lb. Neglecting the weights of the bars,
find the force transmitted from one bar to the other at C.
11. In problem 5 find the relation between T and W for the beam to stay in a
horizontal position.
12. Solve for the supporting forces at A and C in Fig. 5.58. AB weighs 100 lb, and
BC weighs 150 lb.
13.
In Fig. 5.59, if point 0 is at the center of the upper face of the block weighing
1000 lb, find the tension in the cords AE, ED, and EF.
lk If the block in the pievious problem is supported by vertical cords at A, F,
and D, what will be the tension in the cords?
15. In Fig.
5.60, what change in elevation for the lOO-lb weight will a couple of
300 Ib-ft support if we neglect friction in the bearings at A and B? Also
deter-
mine the supporting force components at the bearings.
1t4 EQUATIONS Of EQUILIBRIUM
Figure 5 60 F igure 5 6X
16. Dcterniine the forte components at G in Hg

S 61
17. A beam weighing 400 Ib la held by a socket joint at A and by two cables CD
and / F Find the tension m the cables They arc attached at opposite ends of
the beam as show n
riRure S 63 ngure 5 6t
19. The pavement exerts a force of 1000 lb on the tire as shown in Fig. 5.64. The
tire,brakes, etc. weigh 100 lb; the center of gravity is taken at the center plane
of the tire. Determine the force from the spring and the compression in CD.
20. Find the supporting forces at A and B.
21.
Figure 5.65
Set up (see Example 2, Section 5.6) the following problem for the supporting
forces.
100 lb
Figure 5.66
22 . Find the supporting forces on the beam EF and the supporting forces at A, B,
C and D,
Figure 5.67
23. Find the supporting forces at

the socket connections A, D, and C in Fig. 5.68.
)
116 EQUATIONS OF EQUIUBRIUM
2{ What force Fi will be developed by the SOO-lb load as showa m

Fig 5 69^
Neglect fnebon The design is 8>mmetncal (In Chapter 10 we shall be able to
do this problem in one etraightfonvard equation by a new method of approach
25 Find the forces on the block of ice from the hooks at A and F m Fig 5 70
Figure 5 70 Figure 5 71
26. Find the forces transmitted to the bearings shown at A and B in Fig 571 As-
sume they are thm The forces on the discs are from belts The weight of the
puUey is 30 lb and thatofthesinalIeTone201b The shaft weight is 50 lb
larger
27. A bar can rotate in plane A about an axis of rotation normal to the plane at 0
(Fig 5 72) A weight II is held by a cord which is attached to the bar over a
pulley that can rotate as the bar rotates Find the relation betw een the couple
C and 4> for equilibrium
i:oiiAiioi'J!i or roiiii-KifilUM 117
211, frldUon, Hiid tlio imiild (I nf liiw' AH for f'qnllllirliim hi M|r, fi/A'h
2O1 In K!|^, (jol dnnlnn ilitt forw /* i'('(|iilnil fo l(t'(i|t Un ilonr of nit nh'tilitiio
^ o|inn !i()" whtlo In flluliU 'I'tm fom< /* lit oKin'Itnl In n (llrnnllon noriniil in (ho
fiiMitliiKo, 'I'hiirn In n nnl- piviiniiro Ini'roitHM on |,ht< oiilHhln mirfiim! of llt/ln.A
!l
Alim (Idlnridhifi llic ni(|ipoi'rh)K foroftt nt llic lihn'i'n.
fhh A uniform hitr of InnKUi / niid woluhf II' in ('omicnldd in llio ('round hy n iionknf
nnd mtfti on n Homlmylliitlnr from wiiloli )|. In noli nllom'd (,o nllp down ly n
widl (if H (li'ijr, p, ,'/()), If wo (lonnldor Mm w/dl nnd nylliidor fo Im frlnMoidcnn,
dniormlno tint nujiporMiiii; fonmn nf A In (.crmn of Mm inirnnmforn of Mm nrohlnm,
f'l, Tim nniform hill' i,f JiO i'(>flfn on n nniooMi li/dfoijilntro wIMi /i
[)r((|)((tin ///'A
th/(i), 'f'lmro In
n nonkof ('ommnMoii nf. d, nnd Mm Ino punlmn n(/(dn(tf n,
If If. Inm n lonuMi I - 10 ff, ntid a woliiht. H' - 10 Ih, find
w.l.lonlr.f!H wnll (if, n,
Oni nii|.|mrM,^
fornon nf, d nnd f(, T'akd h - 4 ff. and d 7 ft,
'
'
' M''**'di*'*
*'*'**' '^***"* In piohinin 10 nonmn to ront on n rook and that
wio |(nfm (loMon" onunoH tho framn to rmnnln liorir.ontid and A II Mi lotaMi 20",
ôminiM? Mm omniirofjfilvi} foroo.on rnnnilmr 01),
Introduction
to Structure! Mechanics
Part A TRUSSES
6 1 THE STRUCTURAt. MODEL
A lru88 IS a system of umfonn members (which

are oelded nveted, or pinned together) that is constructed
to support either stationary or moving loads In order to
design the sizes and shapes of these component members
for a given we hiust be able to compute the forces
task,
bemg transmitted by each member The purpose of this
chapter is to propi^ methods of ascertaining these forces
118
6.2 INTRODUCTION TO STRUCTURAL MECHANICS 119
for certain classifications of trusses which we often find in practice.

To simplify computations we shall idealize the truss. In the general
three-dimensional truss (called a space truss), we will imagine that the
members of the truss are interconnected by smooth ball-and-socket joints,
while in the coplanar truss (called a plane iriiss) the members will be con-
sidered to be connected by smooth pins. These models will give good
results, even when some other mode of connection is present, if the center-
lines of the structural members that are actually connected are approxi-
mately concurrent at the connecting points. The pins and ball joints are
considered to be at these points of concurrency.
We will further assume that the external loads on the truss are delivered
first to the pins and ball joints. This means that if we neglect gravity, each
member is effectively subjected only to a single force at each end. Conse-
quently, the forces from a pin or ball joint to each member must be colinear
with the member, making each a simple tension or compression member.
6.2 STATICALLY DETERMINATE TRUSSES
An idealized truss as described in the previous section is termed

just-rigid if the removal of any of its members destroys its rigidity. If
remo\dng a member does not destroy rigidit}', the structure is said to be
over-rigid. We shall be concerned with just-rigid trusses in this chapter.*
There is a relation between the number of joints and members that
must be satisfied for just-rigid trusses. Think of the truss as constraining
j ball-socket joints in space. Each joint requires three linkages for con-
straint (-when we employ the notions of Chapter 5), so W'e require for the
truss 3j linkages for a just-rigid construction. We learned in Chapter 5
that six linkages are required to constraina rigid body in space. Since the
supports arc present, this leaves
3j 6 linkages
as the just-rigid require-
'
ment of the truss itself, and since each member in the idealized truss is
equivalent to a linkage, we see that the necessary requirement for the
just-ngid condition of a truss is that the number of members m be given as:
771 3j 6 6.1
Just as in the case
of constraint of a rigid body, this is not a sufficient con-
ition, for the
members may be arranged so as not to contribute to the
rigidity ofthe structure.
In the special case
of a plane truss, wm require 2j linkages for a just-rigid
condition, and, with
three equivalent supporting linkages from the ground,
IS means
that the neces.sary number of members m is:
m= 2j 3 6.2
structures are studied ifi courses of strength of materials and structural

statically indeterminate and deformation must be taken into
Figure 6 I
Again thia is not sufficient for a just rigid plane truss Note that both the
plane trusses in Fig 6 1 left and right satisfy the above requirement, but
that only the truss m Fig 6 1 Oeft) is rigid The truss m Fig 6 2 also satisfies
Cq 6 2 but It IS clear that pm
C IS only partially constrained
according to the explanation in
Chapters ê nould not con
sider this truss as just rigid
Since you can usually tell quite
readily by inspection whether
the truss is just ngid once the
necessary conditions have been
satisfied ne shall not attempt
any forma! sufficiency consid
Figure 6 2 crations
Can ne soUe the forces in
the members of a just-ngid
trusa^ Consider again the ball and socket joints of the general space
truss For each joint there are three equations of equilibrium and so
for the entire truss of equations of equilibrium that
j joint's there are
may be used to solve for si\ supporting forces and 3^ 0 members
Thus from Eq 6 I and the ensuing discussion it is apparent that the
just-ngid truss is statically determinate tVe ndJ now examine a special
type of just-ngid truss called the simple truss
6 3 THE SIMPLE TRUSS
The mo'it elemental rigid Uu'ss is one nith three members con
nected to form a triangle Other space tru<5<5es may be b iilt up by adding
for each nen jo nt three ne\^ members as is shown in Fig G 3 Trus'ses
constructed m manner are called simple trusses We mav easily show
this
that this structure satisfies the just rigid requirement thus each new
joint beyoid the base triangle ABC requires three members Hovmcr
the joints A, B, and C have only three members instead of the nine that
would be the case if they were additional joints. Therefore, from 3j we
would have to subtract 6 to get the proper number of members, and>we
see that we arrive at Eq. 6.1. A plane simple truss is constructed from the
base triangle by adding for every new joint two new members, as is showm
in the Fig. 6.4.
We shall now discuss gen-

erally the solution of simple
trusses, and in Section 6.4 we
shall go into more details.
Assume that the supporting
forces have been ascertained
and that the simple truss is
just-rigid i.e., does not have
partially constrained ball joints
as joint C of the plane simple
truss did in Fig. In examining the ball joints of simple space
6.2.
trusses, we can
see that in the general three-dimensional case a ball joint
with only three unknown forces acting on it from the members can always
be found. (It will be the last joint formed.) Each unknown force from a
member onto must have a direction colinear with that member
this joint
and hence has a knowm direction. There are, then, only three unknown
scalars, and they may be solved by statics alone. We can then find another
joint with only three unknowns and so carry on the computations until
the entire structure has been evaluated.* For the plane simple truss, we
may proceed with two unknowns at each pin and thus evaluate these
forces by statics.
* 7 . , ,
ii* a jast-rigid
. truss that is not a simple tiuss, there may not be a "staiting joint,
">lh the result that all
equations for all joints must be solved simultaneously, or, in
a more effective
way, we choose an unknown force of a member at a convenient joint
solution of all members from joint to joint in terms of this unknown,
At
unknown may be evaluated and when we return to the equations
for th e other joints, allother unknowns can be evaluated. You will have an opportunity
compute such a problem as an exercise.
m INTRODUCTION TO STRUCTURAL MECHANICS 564
64 SOLUTION or sikifle trusses
The first operation in asccrtamiog the forces in the members of a

simple tru&s is to compute the constraining forces "W e do this by consider
ing the tru'is as a free body and then employing the equations of equilib-
rium The analytical investigation of tlie truss itself may next be earned
out by one of tuo methods as will be demonstrated in the following
examples The difTerence between the methods lies in the choice of the
free bodies to be analyzed Tlie first method uses the h>pothetical pms or
ball joints as free bodies and is called the method of joints This method
has already been di cussed briefly in the previous section In the second
method called the inetAod o/ sections portions of the entire truss are cut
out and examined as free bodies
On the following page*! nre examples that illustrate both these methods
of approach In the case of the method of joints you will note that the
procedure is c(f cUecUug
In structural work of tins kind we may either neglect the weight of the
members or if somewhat greater accuracy >3 desired it is common practice
to take onc-half the weight of each member as an external load applied
at the pins at the ends of (he member
Fmall) It must be pointed out that graphical methods are also used for
handling plane simple trussThe mam virtue of such procedures is that
they provide independent checks on analytical computations For further
information we suggest you consult other texts on the subject
Examplel ShonoinFig 65 is a simple plane truss Two IDOO-lb loads

are show n acting on pins C and E We are to determine the force trans-
B D
Figure 6 5 lOOOib lOOOtb
nutted by each member and toaaiertam whether it is a tension or a com

pression member Neglect Uie weight of the members
T1 e firet step m a structuntl analysis is usually to ascertain the support-
ing fortes from the ground usmg the truss as a free body In this simple
loading we see by inspection that there are 1000-lb vertical loads at each
support W
e shall begin then by studying pm A
Pin A The forces on pm A
are the known 1000-lb supportmg force
and two unknown forces from the members AB and AC. The direction of
these forces is known from the geometry of the truss, but the magnitude
and sense must be determined. To help in interpreting the results, put
the forces in the same position as the corresponding bars in the space
diagram (Fig. 6.6). That is, avoid the force diagram in Fig. 6.7, which is
equivalent to the one in Fig. 6.6 but which may lead to errors in interpre-
tation. There are two unknowns for the eoncurrent coplanar force system
in Fig. 6.6 and thus if we use the scalar equations of equilibrium we may
evaluate AB and AC:
- 0.707AB -h 1000 = 0
AB = 1414 lb
SF, = 0
AC - 0.707 AB = 0
AC = 1000 lb
Observing pin A in Fig. 6.6, we sec that a force of 1414 lb is being exerted
on the pin from member AB in such a manner as to push the pin. Thus
member AB is a compression member since such a deformation is needed
in the beam to deliver this action. Since member AC is "pulling on the
pm A with a force of 1000 lb, it is a tension member. We can now appreci-
ate why the first diagram fs to be preferred. As a help in keeping the
nature of these members clear, we can use the diagrammatic aid in Fig. 6.8
when the computations for pin A are made and fully diagnosed.
B D
Figure 6.8
INTRODUCTION TO STRUCTURAL MECHANICS 564
If uc next PtiTTi n(* pm C it becomw clear that Binco there arc three
unknowns invoJverf for this pin we cfinnot eoUe by equilibrium However
p n B can be handled and onoj BC w known p n 6
can b< examined Thus
Pin B In Fiji (> fi
;p, = 0
0414X0 707)+ PC 0
PC - -loonib
ZP.-O
0414X0707) + Pf?0
BD - -1000 lb
Here nc haic incurred t vo minus quantities indicating that ne hate

made an incorrect choice of direction The correct free body of pm B is
then given in Fig 6 10 Note that the same orientation relative to the
space diagram has been maintained The member BB
is a comprc3ion
member nhde BC is a tens on member
We can proceed m this manner from joint to joint At the last joint a
check la possible since all the forces wiU have been computed for this p n
The final solution is shown in Fg 611
B 1000 D
Figure 6 II 1000 1000 1000 1000
rample 2 If the force transmitted by a single member is desired we

can employ a more suitable free body for using the equations of equi
librium Suppose we wah to know ttie force in member CE only To avoid
the laborious joint bj joint procedure we employ a portion of the truss
as shonn in Fig 6 12 Notice that tiie forces from the other part of the
truss acting on through the cut members have been included,

this part
and in this waythe desired force has been exposed. The sense of these
exposed forces is not known but we do know the directions from our
earlier discussions. Using the equations of equilibrium and making use of
B BO
Figure 6.12
the fact that the lines of action of some of the exposed unknown forces are
concurrent at certain joints, we may readily solve for the unknowns if
they number three or less. To determine CE we take moments about a
point corresponding to joint D. This will give an equation involving only
the desired unknown:
2 Mfl = 0 ,
(1000) (20) - (1000) (10) - lOCE = 0
CE = 1000 lb
2
By observing the force diagram in Fig.

6.12, we can clearly sec that the
member is a tension member.
126 INTRODUCTION TO STRUCTURAL MECHANICS 64
If we desire BD we can take moments about C However this time

also
B2) comes out negative indicating that we have made an incorrect choice
of sense We must change this and then determine whether the bar is
tensile or compressive vihich we can readily do by inspection

It may
be that a suitable section witli sufhcient unLnouns for a solution
cannot be made and we may have to take several sections before we can
expose the desired force mafree body with enough simultaneous equations
to effect a solution These problems are no different from the ones we
studied mChapter 5 where several free-body diagrams w ere needed to
generate a complete set of equations containing the unknown quantity
hxample 3 Ascertain the forces transmitted by each member of the

three-dimensional truss (Fig 6 13) We
can readily find the supporting
by >Rsiderjng the whole structure as a
forces for this simple structure
freebody and by making use of the symmetry of the loading and geometry
(Fig 6 14)
Joint F It 13 dear on an inspection of joint F that the force FE must
be zero since all other forces are in a plane at right angles to it These
lOOOlb
other forces are shown m Fig G IS Summing forces in the x and y di-
rections we get
Figure 6 IS 1000 lb
^ 0
^^
FD 7 . .
= 2000
V202 + 10
FD = 2240 lb compression
0
-AF + 1000 - 2240 = 0

\/500
AF = 1000 - 1000 = 0
Joint B. Going to joint B, we see that AB = 0 and BE = 0, since there

are no other force components on pin B in these directions. Hence,
BC 2000 lb tension.
Joint A. Let us next consider joint A (Fig. 6.16). We will first determine
the direction cosines of the forces AC and AE. Thus:
221
20
~ ~ ^ ^
2^
= 0 = _0 707
Summing forces, we have:
-2000j + ADJ -f AC(-0.440i + 0.892;)
+ AE(-0.707i - 0.707k) = 0
1S8 INTRODUCTION TO STRUCTURAL MECHANICS 64
Hence 0W2AC + AD 2000 (.)
-0 4-16/<7 - 0 707/lZ70 (b)
-0707/iA=0 (c)
We see that AF = AC 0 and AD = 2000 Ib tension
Joint D We now consider joint D (Fig 6 17) The direction cosines

FD anil FD are
for the forces
~10 -10
Ikh ^ -0406
Vw +i<F + 10*
-20
'245 -0816
finD
- = 0 406
24 5
Irn = 0
wm = = 0 803
V20+ 10*
10
Hence summing force<i we get
-2000J - JOOOL - i)Ci + 2240(0 893^ + 0 446fe)

+ ED(-0 406. - 0 816j - 0 406M = 0 (d)
Thus: -2000 + 2000 = 0.81 6i3D = 0 (e)
DC + QAQQED = 0 (f)
-1000 + 1000 - 0.406JED = 0 (g)
We see here that ED = 0 and DC 0.

Joint E. The only non-zero forces on joint E are the supporting forces
and CE, os shown in Fig. 6.18. We may solve for CE directly and get
2240 lb compression.
Joint C. As a check on our problem, we can examine joint C. The only

non-zero forces are shown on the joint (Fig. 6.19). The reader may readily
verify that the solution checks. The results are then:
AF = 0 ED = 0
FE = 0 DC =0
FD = 2240 lb compression AD = 2000 lb tension
AB = 0 AE = 0
AC = 0 BE =0
BC = 2000 lb tension CE 2240 lb compression
Part B. BEAMS
6.5 ANALYSIS OF BEAMS
For our purposes, we can use this simple definition of a beam: it

0 member that has been subjected to a transverse load. The members in the
busses we have
previously discussed were subjected only to axial loads
and were thus
simple tension or compression members. As was shown in
e method
of sections, we could assume that there was a uniform force
'stnbution colinear with these members; the equivalent replacement
force pjMcm for n cut ecction, tlipn, wjs on)> n single force along the
cciiterlmc In IIjc case of a beam, ihc addtUomI tnnsvcric Iwd cau'cs
a force di'-tnbutjon at nnj 'eclion of the beam that more complicniod,
but if we take a porlion of svmmclncal beam loadctl along the cenler
plane as a free fxxh dngnm, an shown in Fjg C 20, we can find a single
force tint will Ik; equnalcnt to the diHnlmtion on the cut surface Tim
IS poîblc since the forces can all lie considered coplanar and, as we have
learned, we can alwajs degenerate an> coplanar distribution of forces
either toa inglc eriun aicnt force or Ion mglc couple
It is usuall) a ingle
force, although the poilion of this single-force equivalent is not known
nor IS it of particular interest in beam theory Intcad we choose (he cen-
troid of the c^TKised area as the position of the force, and we can cone-
ninirc6.20 ri*npc6 2l
and reaction of two different

natural since these forces represent the action
bodies on each other. Consequently, a simple direction is inadequate as a
sign convention when we are concerned only with forces transmitted at a
section and do not care to specify each time that a left-side or right-side
free-body analysis has been undertaken. The following conventions are

generally accepted.
a. Shear Force. When we sum forces in the vertical direction for one of
the free bodies, it is a section is simply related
clear that the shear force at
to the net vertical force from the loads and supports on the chosen free
body. That is, for the direction of V shown in Fig. 6.22 we have:
V net vertical force from loads and supports 6.3
Since the shear forces V and V are equal and opposite for left- and right-
hand free bodies at we can
conclude from the above equation
a section,
that the net vertical loads on each side of a section are equal and opposite.
We can now associate a distinct type of deformation with these forces at
a section in either of two ways, as is shown in a highly exaggerated manner
in Fig. 6.23. If the net vertical force from loads and supports is up on the
Positive shear Negative shear
"V > i ;
Section A Section A
(a) (b)
Figure 6.23
left free body, then clearly the net vertical force must be down for the
right free body, and the deformation shown in Fig. 6.23a is the result.
Phis we call positive shear deformation. Negative shear deformation, which
IS induced by the opposite disposition of forces, is shown in Fig. 6.23b.
132 INTRODUCTION TO STRUCTURAL MECHANICS 6S
Since the shear force is directly related to the net vertical force from loads
and supports, as stated in Eq 6 3, we may also profitably associate a sign
with the shear force for a secUon of the beam Thus in Fig G 23a ne state
that the shear force, or simply the shear, is positive, while in Fig G23b
w e say that the shear is negative The single specification then properly
gives the actual direction of V and nght free body diagram
for a left
That IS a positive shear we know from this sign convention and Eq
for
G 3 that V IS down
for the left section and up for the right section, and so
the directions that were chosen in Fig 6 22 for 7 coriespond to positive
shear IVe have thus established a useful convention that permits us readily
to determine the direction of the shear force at a "section for either free
body without the difficulty, as was pointed out earlier, of having to
specify a prion a left- or right-hand free body
Bending Moment The moments of the external force and supports
b
about the centroid of a section determine, when equilibrium considerations
of the corresponding free body are taken into account, the bending moment
at that section Thus for the directions chosen in Fig C 22 we have
Mx net moment of external forces and
supports about centroid at 4 6 4
The net moment statement will be equal and opposite at a section

in this
for the left and right free bodies and will induce at the section one of two
types of bending deformation (as opposed to shear deformation), as shown
m an exaggerated manner m
Fig 024 A deformation at the section A
Positive bending deformation Negative bending deformation

(a) (b)
Figure 6 21
that IB concave m
the chusen positive direction (in the above diagram this
IStaken as the y direction) is considered to be a positive-bendmg deforroa
tion, while a concave deformation in the negative direction is a negative
bending deformation A positivc-bending deformation at /I m Fig Oilu
means that the moments of external loads and supports taken about the
centroid of A must be clockwise for a left-hand free body and counterclock
wise for the nght hand free body Wccanassociitc this sign with the bend
ing moment M at section A and, from the definitions given and Eq. 6.4, we
can readily ascertain what the actual direction of the couple is for each
free body. Thus a positive-bending moment at A means that the couple
on the left free-body diagram is counterclockwise, etc., as was chosen in Fig.
6.22 and is now illustrated in the diagrams in Fig. 6.25.
Left side Right side
Positive M Positive M
M M
Negative M Negative IVI
Figure 6.2.'>
c. we can employ a familiar convention once again:

Axial Force, Here
compressive action at a section by the external forces and supports will
mean a negative H, while a tensile action will be considered a positive H.
By emplojdng the above conventions, we can thus arrive at consistent
signs for the shear, axial force, and bending moments at a section, irrespec-
tive of which side we take for computation.
6 6 SHEAR AND BENDING-MOMENT DIAGRAMS
We have pointed out that the shear and bending moment will
depend on the section of the beam under examination and so can be ex-
pressed as functions of position x along the beam. In structural work it is
also the practice to include simple plots of these quantities in an
approxi-
aiate, quick manner. In this and succeeding sections we shall consider
simple loadings for which the shear and bending-moment diagrams can
be drawn independently with
little trouble. Later we shall relate these
diagrams so that we will be able to construct more complicated diagrams
with greater dispatch.
In evaluating shear and bending moments
at a section x, we either draw
or imagine a left- or right-hand free-body diagram with the shear
and
ending moments having
senses which correspond to positive conditions
134 INTRODUCTION TO STRUCTURAL MECHANICS {66
m our convention If thc'ê quantities when ne solve

are positive numbers
the equilibrium equations,it means ivc have selected the correct senses
and the shear and bending moments are indeed positive according to the
convention On the other hand, if they are solved as negative quantities,
It means ne have selected the wrong senses, and the shear and bending
moments are then negative according to the convention Thus when i\e
use m the free-body diagram senses that correspond to a positive condition,
according to the convention the algebraic sign of the quantities in the
solutions of the corresponding equations of equilibrium then automatically
giv es the correct eonienltonal sign
The following examples will erve to introduce the simpler aspects of
the shear and bending moment diagrams
Example J e shvll etpress the shear and bending moment equations

11
and shall sLetch the shear and bending moment divgrams for the simply
supported beam slionn m
Tig C26 whose weight nc shall neglect The
supporting forces are seen bj inspection to be 5001b each
y
I ilOOOib
Figure 6 26 5001b 5001b
To get the shear at a section x, we isolate either the left or right side
of thebeam at s and employ the equations of equilibrium on the resulting
free-body diagram If * Jies between A and C of the beam then the only
non internal force present for a leftrhand free body is the left supporting
force If X is between C and B
for such a free body two forces appear
Therefore, if the shear load is to be expressed as a function of z, clearly two
equations covering the ttro ranges are necessary
0 < ar < f/2

500 -r= 0 y= 500 lb (a)
Id the next section there will be two forces for a left hand free body
Thus
1/2 <x< I
y = 500 - 1000 = -500 lb (b)
You note that

will m
conadering free-body diagrams of the right eide
of the beam and using the sign canvention jou will arrive at the same
equation for shear The shear diagram then, bccomca the discontinuous
6.6
curve shown in Fig. 6.27. The sudden changes in shear force are a result
of the idealization of point-force loadings. Actually there would be
con-
tinuous variations in shear near the loads, since all loads are actually
distributed over finite areas.
-t-500

-500
Figure 6.27 Shear diagram
Now let us turn to the bending-moment equations. Again, we must

consider discrete regions.
0<x <1/2
500z - M=0 M = 500x (c)
1/2 <x <l

M = 500x - 1000(x - 1/2) = 500(i - x) (d)
The bending-moment diagram appears in Fig. 6.28. TYe know that M

is beam and has a value at
zero at the ends of the 1/2 which may be com-
Figure 6.28
puled from Eqs. (c) or (d). The variations of M

between these points
are linear with x and consequently are straight lines in the diagram.
Example 2: We shall now include the weight of the beam in the previous
example in computing shear and bending-moment equations and in
con-
1000 lb
A 1 r
^wlb/ft B
F
k-
c
1 H
k
Figure 6.29 +
500 ib ^ 5001b +^
136 INTRODUCTION TO STRUCTURAL MECHANICS S66
structing the diagrams The neight s uniformly dislnbuted along the

beam and can be expressed as !b/{t Figure 6 29 shows the external
loads and new supporting forces
Resultant for wt
Let us consider the at car at a aecUon between A and C A left-side

freebody is shonn m
Fig 630 for this purpose The shear force is de
termined in the manner outlined in the previous example
0 < z < f/2
V = 500 + ^ - HI (a)
l/2<z<l
V- 600 + 1000- tra - -500 + 1^ - tra (W
Because of the linear nature of the equations the shear diagram is a set
of straight lines The shear is computed at points just to the right of
z 0 and just to the left of x = f as well as at po nts directly before
and directly after z = 7/2 These latter lalues are determined by setting
z = 7/2 in Eqs (a) and (b) respectively and solving tor I All these
points are connected by straight hues as shown m Fig 6 31
Figure 6 31
In determining the moment at a section between 0 and 7/2 we replace

the loading in over this section by its equivalent resultant wx at the
position z/2 (sec I^g 6 30) The bending moment is
6.7 IMTRODUCTION TO STRUCTURAL MECHANICS 137
0 < X < 7/2
M = (^500 + w?\
-^
,
a:
- wx^
-J-
j
1/2 <x<l
M - -
= ^500 + f) a: 1000
^ (d)
The bending-moment diagram is thus a second-order curve as shown by

the full lines in Fig. 6.32. You may ask how we know that the curve is not
Figure 6.32
concave-up, as shown by the dotted lines, since this satisfies the require-
ment that it be second order also. We could, of course, plot out the
equations or compute the variation of slopes, but it will be shown in the
next section that an easier method is available for making the decision.
Before proceeding further, it must be carefully pointed out that the

replacement of a distributed load, such as the weight in the last example,
by a single resultant force is only meaningful for the particular free body
on which the force distribution acts. Thus, to compute the reactions for
the entire beam taken
as a free body, we can replace the weight distribu-
tion by the weight at position 1/2. For the bending moment at x,
total
the resultant of the loading
for the free body shown in Fig. 6.30 becomes
wx and is midway at position x/2. In other words, we cannot, in making
shear and lending-moment
equations and diagrams, replace loading distribu-
tions over the
entire beam by a resultant and then proceed there is inherent ;
in these equations and diagrams an infinite number of free bodies, each

smaller than the beam
itself, Avhich makes the above-mentioned replace-
nients invalid for
shear and bending-moment con.siderations.
6 7 relations between
distributed loads, shear,
*ND bending moments
To relate distributed loads with shear and bending moments

âthematically, we shall have to consider more critically the loading
c ion ^(x) so we can guarantee consistent conclusions in the relations
nt arc developed.
We shall adopt the convention that -when w{x) is posi-
tive the loading will be understood to be in the positive y direction (up-

i\ard for horizontal beam's)
Let us consider an infinitesimal element, dz, of a beam shown loaded
mth distributed and point loads (Fig 6 33) Notice that the position of
the element has been choen at a
location where there is no point
force so that the conclusions %%o
shall reach are restricted to such
locations Under such conditions
the shear and bending moments
can be assumed to tory continu
ously along the element This fact
has been taken into account in tho
free body diagram of the element
shoivn in Fig 0 34 Notice that the
bending moment and shear have
been shown as positnc, as has the
loading u?(x) In this way, the neg-
ative sign that results in statics from choosing wrong directions is con-
si'^tent with the sign conventions that we have adopted for these quan-
tities Summing forces iti the vertical direction
7-(r + ^<i) + ui<fa = 0 6S
This equation then becomes
Taking moments about o for the beam element, we get
Cancelling terms and dropping the last term as negligible, since it contains
the product of tw o differentials, we have '
Equation 6.6 relates the slope of the shear diagram with the load, while
Eq. 6.8 relates the slope of the moment diagram with the shear. In the
following examples, we shall use these relations, which are of general
interest in beam theory, to help formulate the shear and bending-moment
diagrams for a given loading.
Example 1: Let us make a quick shear and bending-moment analysis of

the following beam. The rate-of-loading curve is a straight line whose
Figure 6.35
value at point B is known. This curve is then determined by using similar

triangles and by considering the accepted sign convention. Thus:
w{x) = -x/2 Ib-ft
The reactions may be deter-

mined, by considering the entire
beam as a free body, to be 533 y
lb and 567 lb for the left and
right supports, respectively.
We shall next compute the
shear and bending-moment equa-
tions. Clearly this must be done
for two portions of the beam.
A left-hand free body exposing
the section at x is shown in Fig.
6.36. A second variable ^ along
the beam has been shown. For Figure 6.36
any value of x, it runs from 0
to X and is useful in determin-
ing the contribution of shear and bending moment at secticin x from
the loading distribution in the interval mentioned above. Thus:
0 < x < 10
UO INTRODUCTION TO STRUCTURAL MECHANICS 5 67
Integrating, jve get.
V - 533 - (a)
l'
In the remaining portion of the beam we liave;
lQ<g<20
V- 533 -^- 1000 467 - (b)
The bending-moment equabona become for tlie mtcr\3ls'
0 < 2 < 10
l/- 533i-j['|(i-)i- 533i-ijr* (c)
10 <g< 2Q
M - S33b - X*| I*"**

" '***
- 467x + 10,000 (d)
Let U3 now sketch the shear and bending-rooment diagrams, tnakmg

use of the differentiai reUtlen 0 0 ond 6 8 (Fig 6 37). The rate of loading
I-lgure 6 37
curve w{x) has been shown for this purpose. From Eq. (a) it is clear that
the shear is positive at a: = 0 and decreases as a second-order curve. Note
that either curve (a) or (b)
might be considered possible
at this point in the proceed- Negative slope Positive slope
ings. We may resolve the
dilemma by noting that the
rate of loading w is negative
and becomes a larger negative
number as we move from left
to right. Thus the slope of
the shear curve is negative
and becomes increasingly
steeper. Figure 6.38 may be
helpful in picturing this var-
iation in slope. It is clear that
curve a is the desired one.
With the 1000-lb force there
is a sudden decrease in shear,
as explained earlier. The re-
Fipure 6.33
maining portion of the dia-
gram follows directly.
In considering the bending-moment curve, we see that at the end A it
must be zero and must start out in the positive region as a cubic curve.
The shear is positive and decreasing, which indicates that the slope of
the bending moment is positive and is flattening. At C the shear changes
suddenly from a positive to a negative value, indicating that there is a
corresponding sudden change in slope at the point in the bending-moment
curve. This gives a cusp in the moment diagram. The remaining portion
follows directly. The section of greatest moment is at the cusp in this
problem.
Example 2: Shown in Fig. 6.39 is a cantilever beam with a negative

parabolic loading as well as a point load and couple. Shear and bending-
Figure 6.39
moment equations and diagrams are to be formulated for the

exposed
portion of the beam.
=
We shall soU e the forreg and couple on the section of the beam adjacent
to the wall, aa has been done in earlier chapters, and nc shall consider
these as cxtcrnM supports for the beam Because these quantities are to
1000 lb
<
Figure 6 40
be handled as external loads we do not apply the sign convention of shear

and bending moments to them Thus, from the equilibrium considerations
aboê
n= 1000 + Jof^Ze'dz- 0333 lb

e- 15 000 + (I000)(I8) + 2i> * - 113 000 IWt
The shear forces can be given for two portions of the beam on each side
of the 1000-lb load since the 15,000-lb ft couple influences the shear only
through Its effect on the supporting force R Thus
Q < a: < 18
V -ma- w
IS < t < 20
V- 0330 - 2 d( - 1000 - 5330 - 5*> (W
In the case of the bending moment, the equations are written for three
portions of the beam, since the 15 OOO-lb couple will in this case make a
contribution directly when tlie section c is to the right of it (going from
left to right)
0<a-<10
-mm-i-vmx-
- ~+ c
6330x - 113000
10 <z< 18
31 113,000 + 63301 - J 2P(i - {) i{ + 15,000

Af - -+ 63301-68,000
18 < a: < 20
M= -113,000 + 6330a; - (a; - $)
+ 15,000 - 1000(a: - 18)
/. M +
o
5330x - 80,000
To sketch the diagrams and thus ascertain the positions of the key points,
we use the slope relations.The loading diagram has been redrawn (Fig.
6.41) with the supporting force distribution being replaced by a force and
Figure 6.41
a couple at the wall face. The shear diagram starts out as positive,
but,
because w is negative and increasing in value, the slope is
negative and
must steepen. At the 1000-Ib load there is a discontinuity due to the
nega-
tive instantaneous shear contribution of this load to
sections to the right.
The greatest shear load is at the base and is 6330 lb. The bending-moment
diagram begins as negative, due to C of the support,
but has a positive
slope which is flattening due to the fact that V is
positive and decreasing.
At the couple there is an instantaneous positive contribution
of moment,
resulting in an upward step in the diagram. The
slope continues to flatten
smoothly until the concentrated load is reached. Here
the slope becomes
instantaneously flatter as a result of the sudden
ciiange in the shear
If we vere to carry out the analysis
from right to left, we would have
the same diagrams as those in Fig. G.41,
and if the same reference is used
tne resulting equations would be identical.
144 INTRODUCTION TO STRUCTURAL MECHANJCS $68
Part C CHAINS AND CABLES

6 8 INTRQOUCTtON
In engineering often encounter rclatuely flexible cables or
chains ore used to support loads In suspension bridges, for example,
tliat
uc And a coplanar arrangement in tvhich a cable supports a large load but

in nhieh the \Neight of the cable itself may often be considered negligible
In transmission hues on the other hand the principal force is the \%eight
of the cable itself In this sectionue sliall evaluate, when certain data arc
available, the shape of and the tension m
cables for both these cases
To computations the model of the structural sjstem will be
facilitate
assumed to be perfectly flexible and incxtensible The flexibility assump-
tion means that the hypothetical cable must always be oriented tangent
to the force which it is transmitting mtemally, it is clear that this trans-
mitted internal force must be tensile m
nature Such sunplifications permit
direct mathetnatic.ll attack at little loss m accuracy m this type of prac
tical problem
69 COFUNAR CABLES
Let U3 consider a coplanar cable suspended between two ngid

supports (Fig 6 42) We shall consider two situations, each involving a
different manner of loading the cables
Figure 6 42
Case a The loading has a variation in the z direction which is little

affected by the changes in the configuration of the cable caused by the
application of the loads Tins would lie the ca<!c of the BU<pcnsion bridge
mentioned abov e
Case t The load lias a variation in llic t direction which can lie directly
related to llic final ehape of the cable Ihis would be the case of tlic trans-
mission line
Since, in case (a), the load can be considered mdcpendcnl of the dcflec
tion of the cable, we can use ngid-body equivalence relations for the cable
or portions of it. In ca^c (b) tins will also be true, since the final position
:
of the loading can be expressed directly in terms of the deformed geometry

of the cable, as will be demonstrated in the second sample problem.
We have set up a coordinate system at the lowest position of the cable.
A free-body diagram of the cable section from this point to some point x, y,
which corresponds to the final geometry of the cable, has been selected and
is shown in Fig. 6.43. For our con-
ditions of load,we may replace the

y
load distribution by a single re-
sultant force, W. For the first sit-
uation, the magnitude of this result-

ant force will be a known function
of the coordinate x that marks the
end of the free body. For the other
situation, this resultant will have a
magnitude that can with some com-
putation be related to the coordinate x, corresponding to the final posi-
tion of the end section of the free body. We
then have three forces acting
on the free body, and, consequently, they must be concurrent at some
point a. The force diagram is shown in Fig. 6.44. By summing forces
Figure 6.44
in the vertical and horizontal directions, respectively, and then dividing

the resulting equations, we form the relation
ian6 = W/Tu 6.9
where can be considered an unknown constant for the problem and 6 is

the angle of inclination of the cable section at xy. We can then say that:
tan 0 = dy/dx 6.10
Eliminating tan 9 from the preceding equations, we get
dy
6.11
dx
This is the basic differential equation relating the final shape of the. cable
with the loading system. If W
is a known function of x (case a) we may ,
integrate the equation directly to give the shape of the cable in terms of
the unknown constant T,, and an integration constant. For case (b) addi-
tional manipulation is required.
The tension in the cable can also be given as a function of TF and the
constant Tu Noting the pre\nou3 force diagram, we can say.
r= 6 12
It IS from the above equation that with the load entirely in the down*
clear
vard direction the tension 04111 increase with increasing x, since TT must
increase under such conditions The maximum tension, then, occurs at one
of the supports It is this value that is of particular interest to designers
The unknown constants of the equations given above are determined
from the known geometry of the problem, as will be illustrated when we
take up two important examples illustrating cases (a) and (b) as given
earlier The first example entails a load that is uniformly distributed along
the ar direction The second example will involve a load that is distributed
uniformly along the length of the cable itself
tlsample 1 Shown below is a cable terminating at points at the same

elevation It supports a loading distribution which w uniform, given by a
~T~rT T;T T
Figure 6 45 loading-' ^wlb/ft
known constant 1C Other known data are f the span, and/, the sag The
maximum force m the cable, the shape of the cable, and the length of the
cable are desired Neglect the weight of the cable itself
For the shape of the cable, wc employ Eq 6 11 Thus
&
dx~ Tn
Integrating we get
ter*
y = ^+ ,
const
When X * 0 p 0 mdicatmg that the constant of integration must be

zero Thus the curve is that of a parabola given by the equation
Using the sag/, we may determine the constant m tlie above equa-
tion Thus, since y = / when z = f/2 then
wP
Hence: 7'
I u =

8/
The curve may then be given in terms of the given parameters I and / as:
2/
= 4/-
The maximum force in the cable must appear at the support. We may
compute this force by using Eq. 6.12,where becomes (wf)V4. Hence:
. rp A , _L-

~ 2 yr- (4/f
Finally, to determine the length of the cable for the given conditions, we
must perform the following integration:
L= 2 ds = 2 Vdx^ + dy^
Now the slope, dy/dx, equals wx/Tu, which in this case becomes 8fx/P.
Therefore;
This may be integrated to give:
!/2
Substituting limits we have:
Rearranging so that the result is given as a function of the sag ratio f/l
and the span I, we get:
1
sinh~i i
4//i
Example 2: We shall next consider a cable loaded

by its own weight, as
shown in Fig. 6.46. The
loading will be uniform along the path of the
cable, and will be denoted by w The resultant load for any section W
14B INTRODUCTION TO STRUCTURAL MECHANICS 569
at z will then he given aa >, Hence the basic dilTerential equation

becomes
(a)
dt~
We must now determine the \anation of load as a function of z by de-
termining how a IS related to the coordinate x To do this we replace dy
m a way ahich will permit the ecparation of variables m the above
equation Thus
dy s= [da*
Substituting we get
dy f/dsy (W
ds " VW/
Solving for (ds/dx)* we get
+ l
We may now separate variables

j.
dt
Taking the positive root so as to give meaningful results, we integrate

the above expression to ^ve
z =
Tu
sinh* +
WiS
K-,a
const
The constant must be zero since = 0 for r =* 0 However, this equation

gives a relation between x and * and we would prefer a relation between
z and y Thj may be aceompbêd by first solving for e in the above
relation
T. , >4*
TTiisequation then gives us, after we multiply through by w the van

alion of loading as a function of z Substituting for in Eq (a) from the
abov e result, we get the rebUon
Integrating we get:
cosh +
Tu . ,
y = ,
const.
w, 2u
Since 7
/
= 0 for x = 0, this constant becomes Tulw,. Hence we have:
w,x
1 6.13
T
1 U
This curve is called a catenary curve.

To determine T we substitute the condition in which x = 1/2 and
1/ = /. TJms:
This equation may be solved by trial and error. Knowing we may then
proceed to determine the maximum force in the cable, as well as the
length of the cable, in the manner shown in the preceding example.
6.10 SUMMARY
Essentially what we have done in this chapter is to apply pre-
viously developed material to situations of singular importance in engi-
neering. Further information on beam theory and indeterminate structures
may be found in books on strength of materials and structural mechanics.
We turn again to new material in the next chapter where we will discuss
the Coulomb laws of friction.
PROBLEMS
1 . In Fig. 6.47, find the forces transmitted by each member. Be sure to state
whether they are tension or compression members.
1000 lb
Figure 6.43
2. In Fig. 6.48, find the forces transmitted by each member.
7. Find the forces in member JF in Fig. 6.53. (Several cuts are necessary.)
in Fig. 6.54 a simple plane truss? State why this
truss is
8. Is the plane truss shown
Delete CD
and solve for the supporting forces and
not statically determinate.
the fou'cs in the members.
^ 1000 Ib
9.
10.
Figure 6.54
Find the forces in the members in Fig. 6.55.
In Fig. 6.56, find the forces in the members and the supporting forces for the
space truss ABCD. Note that BDC is in the xz plane.
Figure 6.56 Figure 6.57
11. In Fig. 6.57, find forces in all the members. Note that ACE is in the xz plane.
12. The plane of ball sockets CDHE is in the zy plane while the plane of FGDE is
parallel to the xz plane in Fig. 6.58.~Note that this is not a simple space truss.
Nevertheless, the forces in the members can be ascertained by choosing a
desirable starting joint and proceeding by statics from joint to joint. Determine
the forces in all the members and then determine the supporting forces.
152 INTRODUCTION TO STRUCTURAL MECHANICS
Fipure 6 58 FiR\irc 6 59
13 (ai In Fig C 59 find the (orccs in membcre JR AD CD and DE

(b) Find the bending moment the axial force and tlie shear force at the center
ofbeam EJ Neglect deformation considerations of the lienm in computing the
bending moment
1 1 What IS the shear and bending moment at the follow ing positions'* (a) 6 ft from
the left end (b) 12 ft from the left end (e) S ft from the right end
1000 lb
50 lb
1 i
rr 1 sS
Figure 6 60 L JO -4*~15 >L 15 J

15 In the above problem write the shear and bending moment as a ftinction of x
for the beam Draw the shear and bending moment diagrams approximately
to scale evaluating key points
16 Give the shear and bending moment equations for the cantilever beam and
make shear and bending moment diagrams
Ftfsiirc 6 61 10 10
introduction to structural mechanics 153
Qjyg slieiir iind bcnding-niouicnt ccjuiitions for the beam and make slicar
and bending-moment diagrams.
1000 lb
Figure 6.62
18. (a) AVhy do you think that the positions of zero shear are of interest to de-
signers? (b)Prove that the change in shear between any two sections along a
beam equals the area under the loading curve, plus any point forces. (Vi =
j~io d + .) Note that a downward ia(.r) contributes negative area.

f
(c) Show that the change in moment between any two sections along a beam
equals the area under the shear diagram, plus any point moments.
19. Show the shear and bending-moment diagrams and evaluate key points only.
problem 18 to facilitate the computation.
Utilize the results obtained in
20.
Figure 6.63
Sketch the shear and bending-moment diagrams, and compute key points,
using results obtained in problem 18.
30 Ib/ft
Figure 6.64
1000 lb
174 FRICTIONAL FORCES 575
P and the couple are the only evternal force effects that enter into the
preceding equation For a given screw, we have, then, a means of estimat-
ing the force F that is required to begin elevating or to continue elevating
a load P
7 5 naLLING FRICTION
Let us now' consider the situation where a hard roller moves with-
out slipping along a horizontal surface while supporting a load at the W
center Since experience indicates that a horizontal force P is required to
maintain uniform motion, some sort of resistance must be present. We can
understand this resistance if we examine the deformation shown in nn
exaggerated manner m
Fig. 7.21 If force P 5s along the centerline as shown,
.
W= toad on wheel
Figure 7.21
the equivalent force system coming onto the roller from the region of con-
tact must be that of a force
whose Unc irf action also goes through the center
of the roller, since three forces must be concurrent for equilibrium. In order
to develop a resistance to motion, it is clear that this force N must be
7.6
FRICTIONAL FORCES 175
oriented at some angle in the direction of motion, as is shown in Fig. 7.21.
The scalar equations of equilibrium become:

z= cos <j> P = N sin <j>
Therefore: P/W = tan 
that tan sin The sin is seen to be a/r from Fig. 7.21. Therefore
^ <f>. 4>
we may say:
P/W = a/r (a)
Solving for P, we get:

P = Wa/r (b) 7.14
The distance a is called the coefficient of rolling resistance.

Looking at form (a) of the above equation, we see that if the required
pull P for uniform motion is proportional to the load (i.e., P/W is con- W
stant) a must be a constant for a given geometry (r = const.) and material.
Coulomb stated that such was the case, and added that, for a given mate-
rial, the ratio P/W varies inversely as r ;
that is, as the radius of the cylinder
isincreased, the resistance to uniform motion for a given load decreases. W
In accordance with Eq. 7.14(a), this means that for given materials, a is
constant for all sizes of rollers. However, other investigators have con-
tested both statements, particularly the latter one, and there is a need
Lacking better data,
for further investigation in this area. we present the
following list your use, but we must caution that
of rolling coefficients for
you should not expect great accuracy from this general procedure.
Coefficients of Rolling Resistance
o {Inches)
Steel on steel 0.007 to 0.015
Steel on wood 0.06 to 0.10
Pneumatic tires on smooth road 0.02 to 0.03
Pneumatic tires on mud road 0.04 to 0.06
Hardened steel on hardened steel 0.0002 to 0.0005
7.6 SUMMARY
In this chapter we have examined the results of two independent

experiments, namely that of impending or actual sliding of one body over
another and that of a cylinder rolling at constant speed over a flat surface.
Without any theoretical basis, the results of such experiments must be
used in situations that closely parallel the experiments themselves. Thus
we have not tied together sliding and rolling friction. In the terminology of
fluid mechanics, we may think of rolling resistance as a wave drag
176 FRICTIONAL FORCES 5 76
which refers to that part of the re^staucc to a body moving through a

fluid that results from the flow pattern m
general The deformation of the
bodies at the point of contact may be thought of as the flow pattern m
the case of rolling resistance Sliding fnction is then analogous to the shin
friction
on the body moMng through the fluid In fluid flow, both drags
are present and usually equally significant However, in the case of the
motion of a cylinder, one of the actions is usually predominant Thus, for a
cylinder accelerating with any appreciable magnitude, surface friction only
need
1 be accounted for With no acceleration only rolling resistance need be
considered as has already been shown Most situations fall into these cate
gories Far very small accelerations, both effects are present and must be
taken into account, and we can expect only a crude result for such com
putatioiis
Before going further m
mechanics, we must carefully define certain
properties of plane surfaces in order to facilitate later computations m
mechanics where such properties are most useful This will be done m the
next chapter
PROBLEMS
Ifthe coefficient of friction is 0 3 find the largest angle 6 before the block
begins to slide dow a tfie mehne in Fig 7 22
Figure 7 22 Figure 7.23
2 In Fig 7 23 what la the value of the forceF inclined at 30 to the horizontal

need^ to get the block just started up the incline'* What ra the force F needed
to keep it just moving up at a constant speed? The coefficients of static and
dynamic fnction are 0 3 and 0 275 respectively
3 Find the force F nectled to start tlie 200 lb weiglit moving to the right if the
coefficient of fnction isji. = 035
rieure 7 21
4. Show that by increasing the inclination 4> on an inclined surface until there is
impending slippage of supported bodies, we reach the angle of repose <j) so that
tan (fj, = p,
5. What is the minimum coefficient of friction required just to maintain the
bracket and its 500-lb load in a static position? (Assume point contacts at the
centerlines of the arms.) Center of gravity is 7 in. from shaft centerline.
Figure 7.25
6. If the coefficient of friction in the above problem is 0.2, at what minimum

distance from the centerline of the vertical shaft can we support the 500 lb
without slipping?
7. Given that p, = 0.2 for all surfaces. Find the force P needed to start the
block A to the right in Fig. 7.26.
10.
8. In Fig. 7.27, what is the maximum load W that the 1000-lb force will hold up if
the coefficient of friction p, at D is 0.3? Neglect all other friction and the weights
of the member.
9. In the preceding problem a weight of 300 lb is suspended from the pulley.
For a load of 1000 lb, what are the normal and frictional forces transmitted to
the pulley at D?
In Fig. 7.28, the static and dynamic coefficients of friction for the surfaces in
contact are p, = 0.3, pd = 0.25. What is the minimum force P needed to just
get the cylinder rolling?
178 FRICTIONAL FORCES
Fjgure? 29
11 An insect tries to climb out of & hemispherical bowl of radius 2 ft (Fig 7 29)
If the coefScient of friction between insect and bowl is 0 4 how high up does
the insect go If the bowl is spun about a vertical ajus the bug gets pushed out
m a radial direction by the force mrj* as you learned in physics At what
speed u will the bug just be able to get out of the bowl
12 The cylinder in Fig 7 30 weighs 200 lb What is the friction force at A1 If
there is impending slippage what is the friction coefficient? The supporting
plane is inclined at 60 to the honzonto)
13 If we neglect friction at the tollers and if the coefficient of static friction is 02

for all surfaces ascertain whether the 5000-lb weight in Fig 7 31 will go up
down or stay stationary
14 A rod IS supportedby two wheels spinning in opposite directions If the wheels
were horizontal the rod would be pla<d centrally over the wheels for equi
hbnuin However the wheeb have an inclination of 20 as showTi and the rod
must be placed at a position off center for equilibrium If the coefficient of
friction is 0 8 how many feet off center must the rod be placed?
15.
Figure 7.32
The rod in Fig. 7.33 is pulled atA and it moves to the left. If the coefficient of
dynamic friction for therod at A and B is gi, what must the minimum value
of IF2 be to prevent the block from tipping? With this value of IF2 determine
the coefficient of static friction between the block and the supporting plane
heeded to just prevent the block from sliding.
16. In Fig. 7.34, the block of weight IF is to be moved up an inchned plane. A rod
of length c with negligible weight is attached to the block and the force F is
applied to the top of this rod. If the coefficient of starting friction is deter-
mine the maximum length c for which the block will begin to slide rather than
tip.
17. A bar rests on surfaces inclined at angle /3 with the horizontal (Fig. 7.35). At
what maximum angle a can we place the bar without its slipping if the coeffi-
cient of friction is gj? Determine the supporting forces at A and B for this
condition.
Figure 7.35
Figure 7.35
18 Compute the frictional resisting torque for the concentric dry thrust bearing
shown m
Fig 7 36 The coefficient of friction is taken as no
19 Compute the frictional torque needed to rotate body A in Fig 7 37, assuming
that the pressures are uniformly distnbutod over the surfaces Also show that
when a = 90* the result degenerates to the fiat dry thrust bearing
20
Shown m
Fig 7J8 is a cone clutch Assuming that uniform pressures exist
betneen the contact surfaces compute the maximum torque that can he
transmitted The coefficient of fnclionisOSOand the activating force islOO lb
21. Do problem 20 when the pressure increases linearly from zero at the inner part
of the cone to a maximum at the outer part of the cone
22 If p, B 0 2 find the torque required to start the wheel in Fig 7 39 rotating
This IS a simple band brake
Figure 7 40
23 An idler pulley is used to increase the angle of wrap for the pulleys shown m
Fig. 7 40 If the tensum m
the slack side is 200 lb find the maximum torque
that can be transmitted by the pu}le>s for a coefficient of friction of 0 3
24.
For a coefficient of friction of 0.2, find the maximum torque that can be trans-
in the belt.
mitted through the pulleys in Fig. 7.41. Also find the tensions
25. A hawser from a ship is wrapped three times around a capstan as shown in Fig.
7.42. The dock man pulls with a force of 50 lb. For a coefficient of friction of
0.25, what is the maximum force that the man can constrain from the boat?
26. A length of belt rests on asurface and runs over a quarter of the drum
flat
(Fig. 7.43). loadA W

rests on the horizontal portion of the belt, which in turn
is supported by a table. If the coefficient of friction for all surfaces is 0.3,
compute the maximum weight IF that can be moved by rotating the drum.
27.
A conveyor is carrying ten 50-lb boxes at a 45 setting (Fig. 7.44). The coeffi-
cient of friction between the belt and the inclined surface is 0.05. Furthermore,
the coefficient of friction between the driving pulley and the belt is 0.4. The idler
pulley is moved along the direction of the conveyor by a crank mechanism so
that this pulley is subject to a 500-lb force from the belt. Compute the maxi-
mum tension in the belt.
23. In Fig. 7.45, a conveyor has two driving pulleys A and B. Driver A has an
angle of wrap of 330 while B has a wrap of 180. If the coefficient of friction
between the belt and the horizontal platform is 0.1 and the weight to be trans-
ported is 10,000 lb, what is the smallest coefficient of friction between the belt
and the driving pulleys? One-fifth of the load can be assumed to be between
the active pulleys at all times and the tension iti the slack side (underneath) is
2000 Ib There is a free-wheeling pulley at the left end of the conveyor
Figure? 45 Figure 7 46
29 Shown in Fig 7 46 la the section of a V belt Derive the following equation

of impending slipping os we did for the flat belt
Tt Bln 0/2
30 A simple Oclamp u used to hold two pieires of metal together The clamp
has a single square thread with a pitch of 0 12 inch and a mean diameter of
0 75 inch The coefficient of friction is 0 30 Find the torque required if a lOOO-lb
compressive load is required on the blocks If the tliread is a double thread,
what IS the required torque?
Figure 7 4?
31 Consider the single-threaded square screw thread of Case B Section 7 4

Assume that the applied torque needed to raise the load P is released That is
Vz = 0 Show from the equations of equihbnum on the screw that if ft is equal
to or greater than tan a the screw will not unmnd, that is it is seif locking
32 A tumbuckle having a single square thread of pitch 0 I inch and a mean
diameter of 0 5 inch is used to develop a tensile force in pm connected member
A5as shown in Fig 7 48 A twating bar CD of length 12 mcUcs la U'ed and
forces of 10 lb applied at the ends to form a couple This twists the tumbuckle
and creates tension m the rod AB Compute the tensile force to be devel
oped m IB if the coefficient of friction for the tumbuckle is 03 Is this self
locking?
Figure 7.48
33. If the coefficient of rolling friction of a cylinder on a flat surface is 0.05, at

what inclination of the suiface will the cylinder of radius r roll with uni-
form velocity?
Properties
of Surfaces
8 1 INTRODUCTIOK
If we are buying a tract of land, we certainly want

to consider the size and, with equal interest, the shape and
orientation of the earths surface, as n ell as its agricultural,
geological, or aesthetic potentials
whatever interests us
most about the plot The size of a surface, i e the area, is
,
a familiar concept and has been used m the prei lous sec-
tions It is the shape and orientation of a surface that will
184
8.2 PROPERTIES OF SURFACES 185
formulations that
be examined in this chapter. There are a number of
convey a certain meaning about the shape and disposition of a surface
relative to some reference. To be sure, these formulations
are not used by
engineering work, where a variety of quantitative
real estate people; but in
descriptions are necessary, they will prove most usbful. In general we shall
restrict our attention to coplanar surfaces.
8.2 FIRST MOMENT OF AN AREA AND THE CENTROID
Shown in Fig. 8.1 is a coplanar surface at an orientation that is
relative to a reference on the plane of the area. We define the first moment
of area A about the x axis as:
Mx = j^y dA 8.1
and the first moment about the y axis as:
My = 8.2
These two quantities convey a certain knowledge of the shape, size, and
orientation of the area which we can use in many analyses of mechanics.
You will no doubt notice the similarity of the preceding calculation to

that which would occur for moments in a parallel force distribution
oriented
normal to area A. It has been shown with regard to the moment of
such a
force distribution that a single force located at
a particular point x,y could
be found that is equivalent to the distribution for purposes
of rigid-body
computations. Similarly, we may concentrate the entire
area A at a posi-
tion Xc,yc, called the centroid, where, for
computations of first moments,
this new arrangement is equivalent
to the original distribution (Fig. 8.2).
The distances Xc and y, are usually caUed the centroidal distances. To
186 PROPERTIES OF SURFACES S82
compute these distances we simply equate moments of the distributed

area and the concentrated area about both axes
ydJi
/
(a)
Ay< >= J^ydA 'A
\ sdA
Axt j^xdA ^~A
(b)
It may readily be shown that once the centroid has been thus established
we can use it to compute first moments about other axes This we will
leave to one of the problems at the end of the chapter Therefore if an area
IS such that it may be subdivided into simple composite areas whose
centroids are known by inspection we can easily compute the moment of
the entire area about any axis m the plane of the area by adding up the
moments of the composite areas where each moment is the product of the
area times the corresponding centroidal distance
The concept of the centroid may be extended to curved surfaces lines
and volumes m the following manner
a Curved Sur/acc
Figure 8 3
6 Line
properties of surfaces 187
8.3
In these latter three-dimensional concepts, the various first moments

may be thought of as moments about a plane. Thus x dl is the first
j
moment of the line about the yz plane of the reference. It should be pointed
out that the first moments of the above items may possibly be negative.
8.3 SECOND MOMENTS AND THE PRODUCT OF INERTIA

OF A PLANE AREA
We now consider other properties of a plane area relative to a

reference. The second moments of inertia of the area A about the x and y
axes, denoted as /* and /, respectively, are defined as:

188 PROPERTIES Of SURFACES 84
f^y^dA (a)
ly = I dA (i>) a 7
The second moment of inertia can-

not be negative, m contrast to the
first moment Furthermore, because
of the square of the distance from

the axis, the second moment of
inertia gives an increasingly greater
contribution to elements of area
that are increasingly further removed from the axis
In an analogy to the centroid, a single point may be located m the area
\sbere the entire area may be concentrated to give the same second moment
of inertia for a given reference Thus
I
y'dA
Ak\ - y'dA t** 4-
f A
ft8
f I dA
^
Ak\ = x^dA Li * 4 .
1 A
The distances I* and ky are called the radii of gyration It must be strongly
pointed out that this point will have a position m
the area which depends
not only on the shape of the area but also on the position of the reference
This IS unlike the centroid nhich is independent of the reference position
The prixiuct of tncrlia relates an area directly to a set of axes bj the fol-
lowing formulation
This integral may be negative We wiU soori show that second moments
and products of inertia are related
8 4- TRANSFER THEOREMS
We shall now set forth a theorem that mil be of great use in com-
puting second moments and products of inertia for areas that may be
broken into simple composite parts This theorem will permit us to solve
moments or products of inertia about any axis m
terms of moments or
products of inertia relative to a parallel set of axes going through the cen
troid of the area m question
In Fig 8 7 IS shown an x' axis parallel to and at a distance d from an axis
X going through the centroid of the area The latter axis is called a centroidal
axis The second moment of inertia about the x' axis is
:
8.4
PROPERTIES OF SURFACES 189

Figure 8.7
= fjyrdA = Jîy + dydA

where the distance y has been replaced by {y + d). Integration leads to
the result;
Iz' = 2/' dA +2dJ^ydA+ Ad^

The first term on the right-hand side is clearly The second term involves
the first moment of area about the x axis, but this is a centroidal axis
which means that the first moment of inertia about the axis is zero. This
is so since the distance yc from this axis is zero. We can now state the trans-
fer theorem (sometimes called the parallel-axis theorem)
(-^)about any axis ~ (f^)about a parallel "f" Ad^ 8.10

axis at centroid
In strength of materials there is occasion to ascertain moments of inertia

about axes which are not at the centroid. The areas involved are compli-
cated and not subject to simple integration. In structural handbooks,
listings of areas and moments about various centroidal axes are
of inertia
given for many of the practical configurations. It is in the computation of
non-centroidal moments of inertia for such areas that the parallel-axis

theorems are most desirable.
Let us now examine the product of inertia in order to establish a parallel-
axis theorem for this computation. Accordingly two parallel references are
shown in Fig. 8.8, one at the centroid and the other oriented so that the x
=
X'
c (
(x+c)
s
Centroid
Figure 8.8
X'
190 PROPERTIES OF SURFACES
axes are separated by d and the y axes are separated by c The product of
inertia about the non centroidal axes I'y' can then be given as
Ixu = xYdA = + c)(y + d) dA

Carrying out the product neget
/si, = J^xydA + cj^ydi + dj^ xdA A- dc A

Clearly the fir<it term on the right side is /, nhile the next two terms are
zero as explained earlier Thus we ariive at a parallel axis theorem for
products of inertia of the form
tar ny let ~ pa 1M set of

^ ^
of ont aiM ot ccDUOul
If the area under consideration has an axis of symmetrj the product of
inertia for that and any axis orthogonal to the axis of symmetry must be
zero You may readily see this by considering the ares in Fig 8 9 which is
symmetrical about the axis AA

Notice that the centroid is some-
nhero along the axis (Why) The
axis of symmetry has been indicated
as the y axis, and an arbitraiy x
axis has been shown Also indicated
are two elemental areas that arc
positioned as mirror images about
the y axis The contribution to the
product of inertia of each element
13 ly dA, but with opposite signs
that is, the element in the first
quadrant contributes a positive

increment and the element in the
second quadrant a negative incre-
ment The net result is then zero
Since the entire area can be con
Figure 8 9 Bidered to be composed of such
pairs, it becomes evident that the
product of inertia for such cases is
zero This should not be taken to mean that some other non symmetric
area cannot have a zero product of inertia about a set of axes We shall
discuss this last condition in more detail later
8 5 COMPUTATIONS INVOLVING MOMENTS

AND PRODUCTS OF INERTIA
We shall now examine several ses for the computation of mo-
ments and products of inertia
8.5
in Fig. 8.10 is a rectangle. Compute the moment

Shown and
Example I:
about the centroidal xy axes as well as about the xy
product of inertia
axes.
Figure 8.10
Ix, h) ^xv For computing 7j, we can use a strip of thickness dy at

a uniform distance y from the x axis. The area dA then becomes o dy.
Hence we have:
r+ 6/2 +6/2
/x - 6/2 - 6 /2 '
This is a common result and is easily remembered since it occurs so often.

Verbally for such an axis, the second moment is equal to -jV the base a
times the height b cubed. The second moment of inertia for the y axis may
immediately be written as:
(b)
where the base and height have simply been interchanged.

As a result of the previous statements on symmetry, we immediately
note that: ,
7xv = 0 (c)
b. Ix, 7]/, Jx'y. Employing the transfer theorems, we get:
ly = -^Jba? + abdP
Jx' T^cdA + abc^
In computing the product of inertia, we must be careful to employ the

proper signs for the transfer distances. In checking the derivation of the
transfer theorem, we see that these distances are measured from the
primed reference (non-centroidal) to the unprimed (centroidal) reference.
Therefore, in this problem the transfer distances are (+c) and (
d).
Hence the computation of Ixy becomes:
Ixv = 0 + (a6)(+c)( d) = abed
and is thus a negative quantity.

192 PROPERTIES OF SURFACES |85
Example 2 Compute the seamd moment of a circular area about a

diameter (Fig 8 U)
Figure 8 11
Using polar coordinates e ha%e for h

7, (r sin $yrd9 dr = j^^^xr'dr*
Completing the intcgralion we have ,
r* -\D/2 D*
/,
4 "Jo CA -1
~x 10
Example 3 Find the second moment
of inertia of the area about the base
7
(Fig 8 121 Also determine the product
of inertia about the base and left side
The simplest approach is to con
eider the effects of two composite
areas i e , a rectangle and a circle
lie shall compute the second moment
of the rectangle and then subtract the ^ ^ ^
second moment of the circle Thus
using the parallel axis theorem, we have Figured 12
The integral smSifflmay

^
be evaluated b} methods of sub-
stitution or may readily be seen

^
$m*6d6 equals the area under th<
curve shown at left which n
halfthe area of the rectangle
Hence this integral er]uals
86 PROPERTIES OF SURFACES 193
(/xOreot = (*)(5)(10=) + (10) (5) (5^) = 1667 ft
=
(7*')c.rcie = ^+ (7r)(P)(7^) 154.6 ft^
Hence the net second moment is 1667 155 = 1512 ft^. The product of
inertia becomes;
Hx'y'Uct = 0 + (50)(2.5)(5) = 625 ft^

(/xv)c.rcie = 0 + (7r)(P)(7)(3) = 65.9 ft^
Consequently the net product of inertia is 625 66 = 559 ft^.
8.6 RELATIONS BETWEEN MOMENTS AND PRODUCTS
It will now be shown we can ascertain moments and products

that
of inertia for a reference some
if,other reference that has the same ori-
for
gin, these quantities are known. Two such references are presented in Fig.
8.13. We will assume that the moments and products of inertia for the
unprimed reference are known.
Before proceeding we must know the relation between the coordinates

of the area elements dA between the two references. This is simply a rota-
tion of reference. That is:
x' = X cos a -1- sin a 3/ (a)
y' = sin a -f cos a

a; ?/ (b) 8.12
With relation 8.12(b) we can express Ix' in the following manner:
fx' = (y'Y dA = (X sinex + y cos a)^ dA 8.13
Carrying out, we have:

= sin= aJ^x^dA - 2 sin a cos a xy dA -f cos^ a y^ dA
194 PROPERTIES OF SURFACES 5 8d
Therefore
/* = lu sm* a + /, eos* a 2/,j, sm a cos a ait
A more common form of the desired relation can be formed by using the
following trigonometric relations
cos* or = ^(1 + cos 2ar) (a)
am* or = 1(1 cos 2a) (b)
2 Bin cos or = sin 2a (c)
We then have
T
Jx - + 2
/
2
/v * ""
To determine 75 v,e need onij replace the a m the preceding result by

( + ir/2) Thus
n -f cos (2a + ir) 7*v sm (2a -f ir)
Not that cos (2a +)= cos2 and sm (2o + ) sm 2o Hence

the above equation becomes
Iv C03 2o 4- 7,v sm 2a 8 16
^
Next the product of inertia 7,^ can be computed in a similar manner
lx's dA jîxcosa A- y sm a)( ir sm + y cos a) dA

This becomes
Tgs' Bin a cos o(7, 7|,) + (cos* a Bin* a)ln

Utilizing trigonometric identities we get
7i',^ sm 2a -f 7 cos Za 817
Thus we see that if we know the quantities 7, ! and 7*^ all the momente
and products of inertia for every set of axes at the corresponding point can
be computed And if we empliq?- the transfer theorems we can compute
moments and products of inertia at the centroid and hence can do so for
any reference m terms of the above-mentioned quantities
Although three quantities appear to determine all moments and product''
of inertia of an area at a point they are not components of a vector We
will show later that these quantities are related to a more complex quantity
called a second order tensor which has nine scalar components
8.7
8.7 POLAR MOMENT OF INERTIA

product of
In the previous section, we saw that the moments and
inertia for an orthogonal reference
determined all such quantities for any
orthogonal reference having the same origin. We will now show that the
sum of the pairs of second moments is a constant for all such references at
Figure 8.14
a point. Thus in Fig. 8.14 we have a reference xy associated with point a

Summing 7* and ly, we have:
7s + 7 = y^ dA + x^ dA = (x^ + y) dA = dA
Since is independent of the inclination of the coordinate system, it be-

comes apparent from the above equation that the sum 7* -h 7 is inde-
pendent of the inclination of the reference. Therefore, the sum of moments
of inertia about orthogonal axes is a function only of the position of the
origin for the axes. This sum is termed the polar moment of inertia, Ip. We
can then consider 7p to be a coplanar scalar field. Mathematically this is
expressed as:
Ip = Ip(x,y) 8.18
where x and y are the coordinates of the origin in the plane as measured
from some convenient reference.
8.8 PRINCIPAL AXES
There are still other conclu.sions that may be drawn about moments
and products of inertia associated with a point in an area. In Fig. 8.15 is
an area in which a reference xy has been chosen for study the origin being
at point a. We will assume that Ix, Ip, and Ixy are known
for this reference
and will ask at what angle we shall find the maximum moment
of inertia.
196 PROPERTIES OF SURFACES 88
Since the sum moments* is constant for a, the minimum

of the second
second moment must correspond to an axis at nght angles to the axis that
corresponds to the maximum second moment Since moments of inertia
Figure 8 IS
have been shown in qs 8 15 and 8 16 to be functions of the variable a

at a point, these extremes may readily be determined by setting the
partial derivative of /> with respect to a equal to sero Thus
^- (f. - ^K-sm 2o) - 2:cos 2a = 0
If ae denote the value of a that satisfies the above equation as &, we have
(/ /,) sin 2a 2It, cos 2a 0
2/
Hence tan2 = 7 *7- 8 19
This formulation gives us the angle a which corresponds to an extreme

value of i e , to a maximum or a minimum value Actually there are t\\ o
,
possible values of 25 that will satisfy the above equation Thus
25 = i? where B= tan~
or 2a = (B + )
This means that we have two values of 5, given as
. B . B.tt
at
-2
Thus there are tw 0 axes orthogonal to each other On one of these axes is
the maximum moment of inertia and, as pointed out earlier, the minimum
must appear on the other axis TTiesc axes are called the principal axes
* It u customary to drop the term locrtia* when talking about eecond momenta of
inertia.
8.9
Let us now substitute the angle

a into Eq. 8.17 for hy.
sin (lan- + T cos (tan-

This becomes:
= -ih- -f*)
-
[(/ i!y +
+ [ih - i.y + 47 ?,]'

Hence: Ix'v' 0
Thus we see that the products of inertia corresponding to the principal

axes are zero. If we set Ix't/ equal to zero in Eq. 8.17, you can demonstrate
the converse of the preceding statement by solving for a and comparing
the result with Eq. 8.19. That is, if the product of inertia is zero for a set
must be principal axes. Consequently, if one
of axes at a point, these axes
axis of a set of axessymmetrical for the area, the axes are principal axes.
is
The concept of principal axes will appear again in the following chapter
in connection with the stress tensor and, later, with the inertia tensor. It
is not an isolated factor, therefore, but characteristic of a whole family of
quantities. We shall, then, have further occasion to examine some of the
topics introduced in this chapter from a more general viewpoint.
8.9 SUMMARY
Most of this chapter was devoted to second moments and products

of inertia of plane areas. We found transformation equations that permitted
us to compute these quantities for any set of orthogonal axes at a point,
once these quantities were known for one such set of axes at the point. The
polar moment of inertia and principal axes were established for any such
point. When we consider the concept of stress in the next chapter, we shall
learn that such transformation relations and such characteristics are pres-
ent in other quantities of physical interest.
PROBLEMS
1. Show how one can compute the moment of area of a plane surface about any
axis in the plane once the centroid has been located with respect to a given xy
reference.
2. Find the centroid of the area of a semicircle of radius a.
3. Find the centroid of the right triangle in Fig. 8.16.
198 PROPERHES Of SURFACES
4. Find Ibe centroid ol the area under tJ>c half smc wa>c m Fig 817 ^Tiatisthe
first moment of this area alioul axis AA^
5 InFigSlS n hat IS the first moment of the area under the parabola about an
axis through the origin and going through point r = Gt + 7j?
6 In Fig 8 19 find the centroid of (ho indicated area
7. (a) Find the coordinates of the centroid of the plane area bounded by the
curve y = ox, the x axis, and the line x = h (b) Find the centroid of the
plane area bounded by the cunes y = or* and y = x
8. What IS the firet moment of the area shown about the diagonal AA m Fig 8^
9. Find the centroid of the line A BCD in Fig. 8.21. 3ft;BC 1ft; CD 2
ft.
10. Find the centroid of the upper boundary (i.e., the parabolic curve) in problem 5.
11. Find the coordinates of the centroid of the quarter of the

circumference of
the circle lying in the first quadrant.
12. Using vertical elements of volume as shown in Fig. 8.22, compute the centroidal
coordinates Xc,tjc of the volume. And, using horizontal elements, compute Zc of
the centroid.
z
z
13. If = ox in the body of revolution shown in Fig. 8.23, compute the centroidal
distance Xe of the body.
14. Find the centroid of the volume shown in Fig. 8.24 where the bottom portion
isa quarter of a cylinder.
15. Find the centroid of the truncated right circular cone in

Fig. 8.25,
16. Find 7i and 7v and 7iy for the area of problem 4. Determine
the radii of Evra-
tion for the indicated xy axes.
17. Find 7j and 7y and Ixy for the area of a semicircle as
shown in Fig. 8.26 De-
termine radii of gyration.
goo PROPERTIES OF SURFACES
Figure B 26
18. Find /. and for the tnangte with one \crtcx at the onpn, another at (a 0)
and the third at (6,c)
19. Find and /,, for the angle ecction sho^n m Fig 8 27
20. If the second moment of inertia shout axis AA in Fig 8 28 is known to be

600 ft^ what IS the (ncment of inertia about a parallel axis BB a distance 3 ft
from AA, for an area of 10 ft*? The centroid of this area is 4 ft from BB
21. Compute /, and for the area ho\in m problem 6
a Compute Ix, If and In for the area shown in problem 8

a Compute and for the area given m problem 7(b)
24. It IS known that area A in Fig 8 29is JOftând has the foUoningmomentsand
products of inertia for the centroidal axes shown
I, = 40 fl< I, 20 fl< In -4 ft
Find the moments and products of inertia for the z'p' referent at (a)
for the rectangular area shown in Fig. 8.30. Also compute

25. Find Ix, h, and
the polar moment of inertia at (a) and at (6).
26. Express the polar moment of inertia of the square as a scalar field (i.e., as a
function of x,i/, the coordinates of points about which the polar moment is
taken).
Figure 8.31 X
27. Find the direction of the principal axes for the angle section of problem 19
about point A.
28. Find the principal axes in problem 5 about the origin. Let I = 2 and a = 1.
29. Determine the principal moments of inertia at point A in Fig. 8.32.
Figure 8.32
30. Prove at any point 0 in the plane of an area A where an xy reference has been
established, as shown in Fig. 8.33, that the maximum and minimum moments
of inertia are given by the equations:
31. Referring to the diagram in the preceding problem, show that the axes for
which the product of inertia is a maximum are rotated from xy by
an angle a
so that:
N r j
tan 2a =
2Ix,
and that the maximum product of inertia is given by the following relation:
/x - /, 2
Introduction
to Continuum Mechanics
Part A BASIC DEFINITIONS

9 1 INTRODUCTORY CONCCPTS^STRCSS
In Chapter 5 learned that to find the support
ing forces for an indeterminate beam ue had to use the
equations of ngtd body statics as %\eU as consider the
internal behavior of the beam We shall pursue this line
of discussion further at this time in order to introduce the
subject of continuum mechanics Suppose we imagine
that a plane 3/ is passed through a body uhich is m equi-
S02
9.1 INTRODUCTION TO CONTINUUM MECHANICS 203
Figure 9.1
librium, as shown in Fig. 9.1. We wish to ascertain the force distribution

that is transmitted from one part of the body to the other through this
interface. Considering part 5 as a free-body diagram (see Fig. 9.2), we
can find from rigid-body mechanics a force and couple at some position
in the section that is the correct
equivalent of the desired distri-
bution, provided that the applied
forces have not appreciably
changed their orientation as a
result of deformation. There are
an infinite number of possible
distributions which will yield this
resultant demanded by equilib-
rium. To determine the proper
distribution, we must consider
the internal actions of the body,
just as we did in the case of the
simpler indeterminate beam problem. In such considerations, we must
account for the manner of deformation that takes place in the body; thus
the rigid-body assumption, which was good enough to fix the resultant over
the section, must give way to a more accurate model so that the specific
distribution having the resultant can be ascertained. Therefore we must
satisfy the equations of equilibrium given in Chapter 5, as well as other
equations, to evaluate the internal transmission of force in a body. It is
fins additional step of
computing the actual force distributions transmitted
throughout a body rather than just the equivalent resultant forces over
portions of a boundary of the body, that distinguishes continuum me-
chanics in problems of equilibrium from the more limited fields of rMd-
bodj' mechanics and structural mechanics.
lo help us formulate the means of describing the distribution of^force
over the surface in Fig, 9.2, we will consider a small section of the"^surface
Ihere will be a resultant force BF and a resultant couple 5C for this
S04 INTRODUCTION TO CONTINUUM MECHANICS $92
section (Fig 9 3) If the area is decreased to infinitesimal size, the couple

must disappear, because in such a limit the force distribution across the
area becomes uniform and paiaBel and therefore can be replaced by a
single force We wU then delete the couple SC from the ensuing remarks
since ive shall soon go to the mfimtesimal lunit It is convenient to break

up SF into a set of orthogonal components as 8ho^vn Fig 9 4, whichm m
one of the components SFn is normal to the area while the other compo-
nents, SF and 6F are tangent to the area We may now define the normal
stress fl-n and shear stress r, by the following limiting processes
* hm a iLi
dA
dF^
s hm 91
<-o SA dA
,
SF., dF.,
SA dA
We see that shear and normal stresses are really forces per unit area at a
point Note also that they are "icalar quantities In describing the force
distribution transmitted through an internal section as was examined at
the outset, i\e give the shear and normal stress distribution over the
92 STRESS NOTATION
In the previous section we discussed a stress distribution over a

plane section inside a body Wc can determine shear and normal stresses
for planes at any inclination in the body and thus determine a distribution
for the entire body With three stresses set forth for everi interface at a
point becomes imperatuo to formulate an elTecttve and meaningful
it
notation to identify stresses I ci us do this for interfaces parallel to the

planes of a Cartesian reference as shown m
Fig 9 5 An infinitesimal cubic
free body of the internal region of the body has been shown oriented to
present interfaces parallel to the reference. Normal and shear

stresses
have been shown on faces away from the reference. A

double index scheme
has been utilised to identify the stresses. The first subscript indicates the
direction of the normal to the plane associated with the stress, while the
Figure 9.5
second subscript denotes the direction of the stress itself. The normal
stresses c have a repeated index, since the stress direction and the normal
to the plane on which the stress acts are colinear. The shear stresses will
then have mixed indices. For example, is the value of the shear stress
acting on a plane parallel to xz whose normal proceeds in the y direction,

while the stress itself is oriented in the x direction.
What about the sign to be associated with these stresses? Normal stress
is considered positive at a point in a medium for a certain direction if an
infinitesimal free body, such as the one given above, undergoes tension
in that direction. A compressive action on the element in a given direction
means negative normal stress for that direction. There are a number of
conventions for shear stress. It will suffice for us to consider a shear com-
ponent as positive at a given point if on the corresponding outer face of
the cube oriented at the point the shear has a sense in the positive direction
of the reference.
We will soon see that if we know the stresses on three orthogonal inter-
faces at a point, we can ascertain the stresses on interfaces at any inclina-
tion at the point. Therefore, the entire internal distribution throughout
a body can then be expressed in terms of stresses on interfaces parallel to
one set of orthogonal planes.
9.3 A FEW GENERAL REMARKS
In the previous section, the concept of stress was developed with

the aid of a solid body in equilibrium. This was done only for
simplicity.
It must be made clear that these concepts are not restricted to either solid
206 INTRODUCTION TO CONTINUUM MECHANICS 93
bodies or to equilibrium, any more than are the forces from uhich they
are derived Ihus, since there are force distributions throughout fluids is
\\cU as solids, whether they accelerate in some maimer or not, there are
also stress distributions throughout these medn The evaluation of stress
distributions and the motions of the tncdii as they aie related to the
stresses is, m the broider sense, the subject of continuum mechanics
It IS convenient to classify subdivisions of continuum mechanics accord-
ing to the nature of the continuous medmm invohed Thoê subjects
encountered m undergraduate studies are primarily fluid mechanics and
strenglh of materials* The following are definitions of fluids and elastic
bodies which correspond to these subjects
a A fluid will be taken as any substance which continues to change

shape as long as there is a shear stress present, however small Liquids
and gases are thus fluids
b An elastic body undergoes a definite displacement (or breaks com-
pletely) when subjected to a shear stress For instance, the solid
block on the left m Fig 9 6 changes shape ina manner conveniently
Solid Fluid
Figure 9 6
clmracterized by the angle a when subjected to a shear stress If this

svere an element of fluid (as shown on the right), there would be no
fixed o even for an infinitesimal shear stress Instead, a continued
deformation persists as long as a sheanng stress is applied It is also
a characteristic of the elastic body that the amount of deformation
15 proportional to the msîtude of external loads up to some limiting
condition
We must remember tliat these classifications arc man-made, for the

sake of convenience There are eub^nces, such as paraffin, which act
somewhat like both categories, but most substances of significance m
technology can readily be classified as one or the other
Returning again to the illustrative problem of a fairly stiff body m equi-
librium, you will recall that we need the familiar equations of equilibrium
and also the laws of deformation to proceed with the determination of
* For more accurate studies in the field, we woi^d employ the theory of elasticity, of
which strength of materials is a simplification
For the more general case of a medium deforming and

stress distribution.
generalization of the
not in equilibrium, we must use Newtons laws as a
equilibrium equations, deformation laws, the laws of thermodynamics,
and an equation of state. The methods used in such general cases require
additional equations to insure the conservation of mass. In employing
Newtons laws, we may consider the medium to be composed of an array
of infinitesimal particles. The conclusions we will soon reach in particle
dynamics are then applicable to the study of the mechanics of a deformable
continuum not in equilibrium.
To summarize the remarks of the preceding sections: Continuum
mechanics is that part of mechanics in which it is necessary to consider
the internal activity of a body. In statics the information desired is usually
the stress distribution, while in dynamics the motion of the medium is of
interest as well; The mechanics of rigid bodies and particles supplies the
equations that comprise a part of the laws to be satisfied in analysis of
continua. With a clear knowledge of these equations, you should progress
smoothly from particle mechanics to the fields of fluid mechanics and
strength of materials.
Part B. STRESS RELATIONS
9.4 STRESS AT A POINT
The study of stresses on an infinitesimal element of convenient

shape leads to extremely useful relations betAveen stresses at a point in a
continuous medium. It will be of interest to consider several cases of par-
ticular importance.
Case 1. The Stationary Fluid. Since a fluid cannot Avithstand a shear

stress, a stationary fluid must necessarily be completely free of shear stress.
An infinitesimal prismatic free body of fluid under these
circumstances is
presented in Fig. 9.7. Since a fluid cannot develop tensile
stress, only
compressive normal stresses are shoAvn. Equating the
force components
in the y and z directions equal to
zero Ave have:
dzdx a-n dx ds sin a = 0
0- dx dy (Tnn dx ds cos a - 7* = Q
Note that:
cosa = | = | andthaty^^f^
* 7 IS defined as the weight per unit volume and is called the specific weight.
208 INTRODUCTION TO CONTINUUM MECHANICS $94
the contribution of gravity, 13 of a negligible order m the limit The above

equations then simplify to
We can thus conclude that the normal stress m all directions at a point is
the same For these cases a single magnitude is associated îth every
point in the fluid and we thus have a scalar field The stress distribution
IS then called a pressure distribution and is denoted by the scalar p
Case S Fncttonless Flutd tn Metwn Some fluids exhibit such small

frictional tendencies in certain flows thatthey may then with little error
be considered aa fnctionleas an idcalwalion which results m significant
simplification of analysis This means that for such a case there are no
shear stresses for any motion 0/ the fluid elements Using the diagram m
Fig 9 7, we express the scalar components of Newton s law in the y and z
directions Thus with p as the density of the fluid element we have
Oyy
,
asax
,
~~ , ,
dx di sm or *= p
dx duds
Oy
dx d>/ ds dx du ds
a,, dx dy dx ds cos
where Oy and a, we replace the sin a and

are acceleration components If
cos cf as indicated earlier and drop etpreôns of negligible order the m
limit (gravity and inertia terms), we arrive at the same conclusion that
we did for a stationary fluid That is
<r <retc
Thus the stress distribution in ft fnctionless fluid in motion is also that of

a scalar pressure field
frictional effects
Case 3.Viscous Fluid Motion. In viscous fluid motion,
a point, it will be
must be taken into account. To discuss the stress at
of fluid (Fig. 9.8).
convenient to examine an infinitesimal tetrahedron
bodies, in which tensile
Since we shall generalize the results to elastic
stress is possible, normal stresses are shown in the diagram.

positive
Employing Newtons law normal to the inclined
in the direction of the
surface of the tetrahedron, we can solve for stress o-nn in terms of the nine
stresses indicated on the reference planes. Dropping gravity and inertia
terms as before, we can write the following relation;*
^rin ~ ^xxl" 1 Cfyipn" b b Tzylnl
^Tzzln + TyiUin + TtzUl + TzyUm + Tyzinl
where I, m, and n are the direction cosines of the normal to the inclined
surface ABC. In a similar manner, we can determine two orthogonal
components of shear stress on the inclined surface (not indicated in dia-
gram) in terms of the same nine stress components.
Since the inclination of ABC is arbitrary, we can see that stresses on
allplanes at the point of the fluid element can be computed once the nine
components in the reference planes are known (as was indicated in an
earlier section). You will recall that in scalar fields only one magnitude is
needed at a point, while in vector fields three magnitudes are required.
Hence, we have something apparently new and more complicated, for
nine magnitudes are required to specify a condition at a point.
This new
quantity is ca lled a tensor (actually, in this case, a second order tensor)
* Thia has been carried out in detail in the appendix.
and the a tensor field A number of other very important

distribution
quantities beside stress can be conadered as tensors such as the incrira
tensor We shall defer presenting a precise definition of a tensor until we
come to the discussion of the mertia tensor, whose properties mil be most
important to us m the dynamics of rigid bodies The stress tensor is
usually expressed in the following form
Notice in this array that the first subscript identifies a row while the
econd subscript identifies a column The normal stresses form a lefUo-
ngiit diagonal
Case 4 The Slahc Elastic Bodi/ A similar argument can be developed

for the static elasticbody (or any solid continuous medium) as wc did in
the case of vi;cous fluid In the exs of the static elastic body there is
equilibrium and the summation of forces to zero for the tetrahedron in

Fig 9 8 leads to the same Eq 9 2 and the same resulting conclusions
Again the distribution is that of a tensor field
9 5 SOMC IMeORTAMT rROPtRtlES or THC STRESS TENSOR
We shall now present a few important properties of the stress

tensor and will then proceed to show how the products and moments of
ineitn studied m llie last chapter arc related to the stress tensor
a The stress tensor ts syvimetnc This means the shear stresses that have
reversed indices are equal that is t,, = t,, Tr =* t,
Observing the array of terms given by Eq 9 3 we "ce that the mem-
bers form a symmetric arrangement about the diagonal This accounts
for the description given in the above lieadvng To show this and other
facts let us consider the special case of a cubic element from an
clastic body in equilibrium, in which only shear stresses on four faces
y Crjr)6
<T).
Figure 9 9
are present. These stre.sses may be considered coplanar, as is shown

in Fig. 9.9. The pair of adjacent forces nearest the
reference has been
designated a and the adjacent pair farthest from the reference

b.
Summing forces in the x and directions, we immediately

y see that;
(Ti/x)i, (Tjjx)a (xxirlb (rjy)a
Note that the shear stresses in parallel faces must have opposite
senses, as is properly shown in the diagram. Taking moments about
a convenient point A at a corner, we see that:
(rvx)b = (Tzv)b 9.5
It is also true from Eq. 9.4, then, that:
9.6
Thus the equality of the shear-stress values with interchanged indices

has been demonstrated for this case. Note, further, that we have two
equal and opposite couples acting on the cubic element. This means
that the shear stresses on adjacent surfaces must always be directed
toward or away from the corner, as is properly illustrated in Fig. 9.9.*
Not to observe this is to violate the consideration of equilibrium.
The same conclusions of symmetry and directional restrictions of
the shear stresses may be reached for a viscous fluid in motion. We
need only say further that the relations 9.4, 9.5, and 9.6 will be found
for this caseby dropping terms of a higher order in the unit that
stems from inertia and gravity in considering Newtons laws.
We may then generalize the preceding formulations for any con-
tinuous medium. Thus:
Xxi/ Tj/x Txt Tzx Tyz Xzj 9.7
b. The average of the normal stresses forms a scalar field. It may be shownf
that the sum of a set of orthogonal normal stresses at a point is inde-
pendent of the set of directions chosen. (Actually, this is true for
any tensor quantity.) This means that at position a in Fig. 9.10 we
may say:
ITxx + ffyt, CTzz = ffx'x + ^y'y' + <rz'^ 9.8
It is clear, then, thata value the average normal stress, -

3 ( 0-11 -{- o-^y
+ rnay be associated with every point in the medium, and, thus,
part of the tensor field forms a scalar field. In elasticity, this is called
the hulk stress, and in viscous flow it is sometimes called simply the
pressure.
*
It may now be apparent why we cannot formulate a simple sign convention at
a
point and may justify the rather clumsy convention proposed earlier of considerine
interfaces of the cube farthest from the reference,
t See Milne-Thomson, Theoretical Hydrodynamics (New York: Macmillan, 1950).
St2 INTRODUCTION TO CONTINUUM MECHANICS 195
Figure 9 10
c Two-dimemional stress relations and principal stressLet us now con-

sider a tiio-dimensional stress field in rshich the components in the
z direction arc zero That is, = t,, = Te = 0 Such would be the
case in a reasonably thm pHto on which the loadings are coplanar
with the center surface In fluid flow, this would be a flow whose
velocity in some direction, say the z direction, is zero and where the
other components of velocity are independent of r Thus an airfoil
of infinite length and constant cross section would be applicable
(Fig 0 U left and right)
T
Figure 9 11
Let us consider a triangular element of unit thickness (Fig 9 12)

The element will be considered aa part of an elastic body m equi-
librium, but the results may be extended to a viscous fluid Solving
forces in the direction normal to the inclined surface, we have
ffnn ds dr Sin a dy cos a

r#, dz cos a T, dy sin O' = 0
Dividing through by ds and replacing dx/ds by sin a and dy/ds by
cos cf, we have
Vfi-i *= On "h *'* "1 sin a cOS a 99
:
^nn
Figure 9.12
Note that this equation is identical in form to Eq. 8.14 (except for
a plus sign in front of txv as a result of sign convention) in which the
moment of inertia Jx of a plane area was evaluated in terms of moment
and product of inertia about a set of orthogonal axes inclined at
some angle a relative to the new reference. Thus we may express
Cnn in the following manner (which was worked out for Ix ')
<r = cos 2a + r,, sin 2a 9.10
Now by summing forces in the direction of the inclined surface, we

form the following relation:
gjjj 2a 4- Txu cos 2a 9.H
In this discussion the normal and shear stresses on any inclined sur-
face at a point are clearly related to these stresses in the reference
direction, just as themoment and the negative of the product of inertia
for an inclined set of axes are related to corresponding quantities for
the reference axes. We can say, therefore, that stresses and the inertia
quantities transform in the same manner at a point. The stress
studied above is a special case of a stress-tensor distribution
namely, the two-dimensional case. Similarly, the area moments and
products of inertia will later be shown to be a special case of the
general inertia tensor for masses (see chapter on inertia tensor). This
accounts for the fact that the transformation equations are the same
for these quantities.
In comparing the formulations of this and the previous chapter,
note that:
a. Normal stresses correspond to the second moment of inertia.

b. Shear stresses correspond to the product of inertia.
c. The polar moment of inertia corresponds to the sum of normal
stresses.
The idea of principal axes applies also to the two-dimensional stress

lhat IS, a and a -f r/2 on which there will
there will be directions
be respectively a maximum and a minimum norma! stress and a zero
shear stress The angle is giien as
tan 2a =
Vxx
2r

On
9 12
In the general three dimensional case, there arc three orthogonal

directions tint correspond to zero shear stress at each point m the
field On three of thc'sc axes will appear respectively the maximum
and the minimum normal stress, while the other direction corre-
sponds to some intermediate value of stre*
Part C HYDROSTATICS
AND AEROSTATICS
96 imnDoucnonv COMMENTS
As we have pointed out, we require a number of laws, other than
Newtons, for the study of continuous media However, the pressure
distribution in a static fluid may be evaluated with the tools thus far
developed In other words, it is statically determinate In considering
various types of fluids under static conditions, we find that certain fluids
undergo very little change in density despite the ovistence of large pres-
sure^ These fluids are invariably in the liquid state, ûch as water Under
such circumstances, the fluid is teimed tncompressthk, and it is assumed
during the computations that the density is constant The study of in-
compressible fluids under static conditions is called hydrostaltcs Where
the density cannot be con'îdered constant, such as m a gas,we consider
the static problem as compres$ihh and sometimes uê tlie name aerostatics
to identify this class of problems
The classifications of compressibility given above are reserved for
statics In dynamics, the question o! when the density may he treated
fluid
as constant involves more than just the nature of the fluid Actually, it
depends mainly on a certain flow parameter (the Mach number) We
then speak of incompressible and compressible fiowSy rather than incom
pressible or compressible fiutds These considerations are beyond the
jcope of this text, they form the basis of considerable study m fluid
niptbaiiics
9 7 THE CRADIEHT
In order to ascertain pressure distribution in static fluids, we
shall consider the equilibrium of forces on infirutesimal fluid elements of
convenient shape. Since we are now interested in the variation of pressure

in a medium, we shall choose free bodies for which the second order terms,
which were dropped in our considerations of stress at a point, may now
be equated. From such bodies we can then formulate the desired variations
in pressure.
For example, consider an infinitesimal rectangular parallelepiped of
fluid (Fig. 9.13). We wish, first, to compute the resultant force on this
Figure 9.13
element from the pressure distribution per unit volume of the element.
A reference with planes parallel to the fluid element has also been shown.
The corner of the element nearest the origin is taken as any position x,y,z.
The pressure at this point is given as p. On face (1) of the element, we
have a pressure that may be represented as:
^ ,
dp dx dp dz
This is reached by considering linear variations of pressure in all directions

in the immediate vicinity of point x,y,z and computing the pressure in
this way at the center of face (1). Face (2) is positioned a distance dy from
face (1) so that the pressure there can be considered equal to the pressure
on face (1) plus an increment due to this shift in position. We may then
say:
dp dx dp dz dp
P2 = p + dx 2 + ^2 + dy
dy
Note that we could express the increment of pressure from the shift more
accurately, but that this would bring in terms of an order that would make
them negligible compared to the remaining terms of the equation. The
net force in the direction may now be computed from the above
y pressures.
Having chosen the rectangular parallelopiped as a free body, notice how
we can cancel out the first-order terms p and leave only the second-order
terms, which give the variation in the wnnll of the pressure distribution
Thus
rff, = -^dzdydz
In a similar manner, mc can find that the forces m the other directions
from the pressure distribution are
ilFi * ^dzdydz dF, = --^dxd{/ds

Before proceeding further, ne should point out that the above forces on
the element could haie been achicied had ne taken the pressures on the
adjacent surfaces nearest the reference to be equal to p and added second
order variations to this value for the outer faces, as is illustrated in Fig
9 14 It IS this formulation that is usually taken m such situations The

force on the element can then be given as
The force per unit volume i^ then
dF . 9 13
dr dj/ ds |_dr di/ dz J
Thus we have related a vector field, ic, force per unit volume, with a
scalar field p in a manner that has physical significance Since this rela-
tionship occurs often in analysis, it is comoment to define a vector oper-
ator, called the gradient operator, which relates in this way a vector and a
scalar field.
grad = i|+j|; + fc| 9-11
The right side of Eq. 9.13 can then be given as grad p, and so we can say:
/ = grad p* 9.15
In electrostatics, you will remember, the gradient of the electric potential

V gives the electrostatic field intensity E. That is:
E= grad V
9.8 PRESSURE VARIATION IN AN INCOMPRESSIBLE STATIC FLUID
Shown an infinitesimal fluid element. The forces

in Fig. 9.15 is
acting on the element are the stresses from the surroundings and the
gravity force. For equilibrium, we have:
7 (dx dy dz)k + (grad p) dx dy dz 0
The resulting scalar equations are:
dpjdx = 0 (a)
^p/dy = 0 (1>)
dp/dz = 7 (c)
From this, we see that the pressure can only vary in the z direction, which
has been selected as the direction of gravity. (It will be left for you to
Figure 9.15
deduce from the preceding formulations that the free surfacef of the
liquid must be at right angles to the direction of gravity.)
Since p varies only in the z direction and is not a function of x and y,
we may use ordinary differentials in Eq. 9.1G(c). Thus:
* The
gradient operator is also expressed by the symbol V. Therefore/ = Vp.
t The
free surface is the interface between a liquid and a gas. Usually
the gas is the
atmosphere.
218 INTRODUCTION TO CONTINUUM MECHANICS S90
dp/dz 7 917
lu order to evaluate the pre'ûrc distiibuUon ttsclf, we must integrate

between con\enientl 3 choien limits Choosing the subscript o to repre-
sent conditions at the free surface TV e integrate from any position g where
pressuieisp to position where the pressure is atmospheric and denoted
as pstta Tlius
Taking y as constant for an incompressible fluid, A\e may readily integrate

P.tra ~P -7(2(1 - 2)
or p pm *= 7(2o z) - yd 9 18
We usually term p piB., le the pressure above atmosphere, as the

gage pressure, with the sjTObol p. Hence
p, 7d 9
19^
Exunipte Manomelry is a pressure-mtasunag technique the formulatior^

of which follows directI) from the preccdiog discussion
Figure 9 16
U
The simplest t> pe of manometer is the lube Tins is shown in Fig 9 16
connected to tank A tvhi^ pressure at point o is to be measured Tou
will notice that the fluid m
the tank extends into the U tube making
contact with the column of mercury The fluids attain an equilibrium
configuration from which it is relatively simple to deduce t!ie tank pres
sure Because of its high density mercon is usuallj employed as tlie

second fluid when appreciable proe.urcs are expected since shifts de
manded bj equilibrium will then be reasmubb small
The procedure in deducing pa to to locate points of equal pressure on
the U tube legs and iJicn to compute these pressures bj incompressible
pressure relations along earfi leg This will relate the unknown pressure
with tile known pressures Since points A and of the M U
tube are at the
same elevation and are joined by the same fluid, their corresponding
pressures will be equal:
JIM Pa "h Tad = pir Patm "h Tug?i
Po Patm "I" Tad
If fluid A has a very small density compared to mercury, we may, under

most circumstances, neglect the term y^d. Hence:
Pa Patm "h Tjjg^l
The differential manometer will yield the difference in pressure between

two regions. In the case of the tanks in Fig. 9.17, note the equality between
Figure 9.17
pressures Pm and ps- In computing these pressures along each leg of the
manometer, we will be led to the desired result:
Pa - P6 = Ttdi - Tads - Tngdz
9.9 GENERAL PROCEDURE FOR A STATIC COMPRESSIBLE FLUID
The derivation of the differential relation, dp/dz = y, was not

restricted to incompressible fluids. Considerations of compressibility enter
only w'hcn wê desire an algebraic relation between pressure and elevation.
We must, then, know something about the behavior of the fluid in order
to express y in terms of the running variables p or z and thus allow for the
integration of the equation.
The relationships, sometimes theoretical and other times experimental,
that exist between the specific weight and other properties such as pressure
and temperature are called equations of state. For some substances, these
relationships are not expressible in the form of a mathematical equation
but must instead be given by curves or charts. Steam is such an example.
However, the perfect gas, as you have probably studied in earlier courses,
has a simple relation which is given as follows:
)
SESO mTRODUCISON TO CONTINUUM MtCHANiCS 599
pi = HT 9 20
where p ~ pressure (Ibf/ft
t
~ Specific \ olume (lVlbm)
T absolute temperature {Uankinc)
We shall restrict our attention to the perfect gas which js valid for air
or its components for relatively large ranges of pressure and temperatures
The equation of state containing v as given above greatly helps us evalu
ate the required functional relation of the specific weight y since l/v
and 7 are simply related by their definitions which are respectively the
mass and weight of a body per unit volume of the body Since mass and
weight have already been related we shall consider the units of 7 and l/v
in order to establish how these quantities arc rel itcd Thus the usual units
arc
1 1^ (b) 9 2t
V ft*
If vre dmde 7 by ff the local acceleration of gravity, the result for Eq

9 21(a) w
y =lugs
9 ft*
Kow multiply by Jo the constant defined m Chapter 1 The units become

Ibm
'g
gj __ ~
ft"
W e see that the abov e result js the same ns 9 2! (b) It is then correct to say
& 1
W
-g
1 g
or y= (^) 9 22
Vffo
In virtuallj applications the magnitude of g/ga is unity

all practical fluid
since the local acceleration of gravity does not appreciably change over
the elevations encountered in engineering applications Consequently
we find the relation
J/r7 9 23
which numerically gives correct results for such problems However we

wall at least start with 9 22(a) and 9 22(b) in the ensuing problems until
the limitations of height are noted so that simplifications can be justified
: :
9.10 EXAMPLES OF PRESSURE VARIATIONS

FOR STATIC COMPRESSIBLE FLUIDS
We shall now compute the pressure-elevation relation for two

cases, namely, the isothermal (constant temperature) fluid and the case
where the temperature of the fluid varies linearly -with elevation. These
occur in certain regions of our atmosphere. The fluids are considered
perfect gases.
Case 1. Isothermal Perfect Gas. For this case Eq. 9.20 indicates that the
product pv is constant. Thus at any position in the fluid, we may say:
Piî = P 2 V2 = pv = const. 9.24

Or, using 9.22
Pi 2l
1
^ = Pi 1 S'*
p
-
1 g
= const. 9.25
yi 9 o 72 go 7 go
We will assume that the elevation range is small enough so that g is con-
stant and equal to ga in value. Thus:
2l = 2* =2_ const. 9,26

7i 7i 7
Using the above relation, we may express the basic differential Eq. 9.17
as follows:
iE = V
dz const.
Separating variables and integrating from pi to p and zi to z, we have

fp dp _ _ Ci dz
Jpi p Jzi const.
Cairying out the integration, we get:
In pT
Jpi const.Jzi
Putting in the limits, we have:

1
(z - Zi)
Pi const.
Now use pi /71 = const, from Eq. 9.26 and solve for p:
-~ "Yi
(2 - 2,) 9.27
p = Pie

This gives us the desired relation between elevation

and pressure in terms
of known conditions
pi, 71 at elevation zj.
S22 INTRODUCTION TO CONTINUUM MECHANICS 5911
Case S Tempcralure Fanes LtnearZy u.tft Cêta;on The temperature \ an-

ation for this cae is given by
T *= r, + Kt 928
where T\ is the temperature at the datum {z *= 0) and fC i a constant

In order to be able to separate the variables of Eq 9 17, we must solve
for Y from the equation of state and, m
addition, detennine dz from Fq
9 28 These results are
(o)
^ RTg,
II (b) 9 29
Substituting mto Eq 9 17, we get, on rearranging the terms
g dT ^
* 9 30
gKR T p
To integrate this equation, we must
knoxv how g varies with either tem-
perature or pressure for this problem However, we shall again assume
that g IS constant and equal to g<, in value for the range undertaken Thus,
integrating from the datum ( = 0) where p,, Tj, etc are knonn, we have
In
Pi I
Solving for p and replacing the temperature T by 7*i + -Ke, we have for
the final cxprc'wion
= r T,
P 9 31
'Lt. + A'zJ
In concluding this section on compressible static lluids, we must point
out that if wc know the manner in which the specific weight vanes, we
can usually separate variables in the basic Eq 9 17 and integrate out to
an algebraic equation between pressure and elevation
911 tTFECr OF SURFACE FORCE ON A Ft.U10

CONriNCD SO AS TO REMAIN STATIC
If external pressure is exerted on a jiortion of the boundary of a

confined fluid, this pressure, once all fluid motion has subsided, will extend
undiminished through the fluid Two examples are illustrated in Fig 9 18
'flio truth of this statement can be demonstrated by examining cjhn-
drical elemeiils of fluid projecting from the pressurized boundary, as is
shown in the diagrams in Fig 918
Equilibrium demands that the pre'surc
increase on the Interior end of the clement must keep pace w ith the pres-
sure applied at the boundarj Since the clement may be tho^cn of anj-
length and inany position, it should be clear that a pressure p developed

on the boundary must extend through the field.
This principle underlies the action of the hydraulic jack and hydraulic
brake (Fig. 9.19). Since a pressure developed by piston C is felt throughout
the fluid, the force in piston B must exceed the force applied to the piston
C by the area ratio Ab/Ac. In this way, a considerable mechanical
advantage may be developed.
9.12 HYDROSTATIC FORCES ON SUBMERGED SURFACES
In Chapter 4 we presented means of ascertaining the resultant

force on a plane surface from a parallel surface-force distribution oriented
at right angles to the plane surface. With the means that we now have
available to determine the pressure variation due to the gravitational
action throughout the fluid, as well as the action of pressure on the free
surface, we can now com-
pute the resultant forces
on the plane surfaces des-
cribed in Section 4.6 (Case
B). You will be asked to
carry out such computations
in the problems at the end
of the chapter. We will now
show that curved surfaces
submerged in any static
fluid can be partially han-
dled by methods used on
plane surfaces. Figure 9.20
Such a surface is shown
in Fig. 9.20 submerged in
a static The force on an area element
fluid. is directed along the normal
to the area element and
is given as;
HA INTRODUCTfON TO CONTINUUM MECHANICS 912
dF = -pdA 9 32
IS was explained in Chapter 4 Taking the dot product of each side of the
above equation with the unit vector i, we get the component dF, nhicli
IS illustrated m Fig 9 2l That is
dF* = ~pdA i
But dA actually the projection of the area element onto a plane

i IS M
perpendicular to the x direction, and ne shall denote it as (d/4). This, too,
IS illustrated in Fig 9 2i Clearly, if this projected area were moved to
Figure 9 21 2
another plane N, which is also perpendicular to x, so that the elevation is

unchanged, the force dF, would be unaffected This means we could, in
effect, project the entire curved surface onto plane N and then, by methods
presented earlier, compute the resultant force component (Fn), Such a
computation becomes that of a parallel force distribution that is oriented
normal to the projected plane area, thus we can find a single force the m
X direction which equivalent to the action of the fluid on the curved
is
We can do this also in the y direction and, there-

surface in this direction
fore, two orthogonal components of the resultant force can be determined
by methods of plane surfaces Note that these directions were chosen
parallel to the free surface
Now let us consider the component normal to the free surface We ha\ e
as before, the statement
dF, -p dA^h = -p <dd). 9 33
The pressure from the gravitational action of the fluid is jydx, with limits
between the free surface and the area element We then have
dF. - -{^f%di){dA),
Considering a constant with respect to the integration between
(rfA), as
za and z, we may it under the integral sign, and the product
include
( ds) is the volume element of fluid above
(dA), then becomes dn, which
the area element as showm irt Fig 922 Hence
dF, = 9.34
This last integral is the weight of the column of fluid above the area ele-
ment dA, and it is clear that the total vertical force component is the total
weight of fluid directly above the
surface; this force component thus
has a line of action through the
center of gravity of the column of
fluid resting on the surface.
We have now formulated the
means to determine orthogonal
components of the resultant force
on the submerged surface. These
force components give the equiva- Figure 9.22
lent action in these directions of
the entire surface force distribu-
tion from the fluid on the curved surface. Their lines of action will
not necessarily coincide.* However, in practical problems it is the force
components in directions parallel and normal to the free surface that are of
greatest use. The following problems illustrate the preceding remarks.
Note that the conclusion of this section, as well as that of the previous
no way restricted to incompressible fluids. It
section, is in is valid for any
fluid. We shall now consider two examples that illustrate the formulations
of these sections. For simplicity, the fluid in this problem is incompressible.
Example 1: Compute the resultant force on the gate AB

as a result of
hydrostatic pressure (Fig. 9.23). The gate is 5 ft wide. Determine the line
Figure 9.23
of action of this force. We setup a reference for this plane submerged

surface, as shown in Fig. 9.24. The pressure due to the gravitational effect
ou the water for a strip of area a distance y along the reference is:
This means that the resultant system on the curved submerged

of a
surface may be that
wrench and not a single force.
Figure 9 H
p -yy 6in 60 *= 0 SeSyy
The elemental force must be normal to the surface and at the center of
the strip It has a value of
<f/ (0 866yy)<5dy) t
The resultant force is then the integral of this force distribution
Fa =*
866)ry dy h
Taking y as constant (62 4 Ib/ft) we can carry out the integration readily
F* = 600(M>lb
The contribution of the air pressure at the free surface gives a uniform
pressure on the gate which is cancelled by the air pressure on the outside
surface of the gate
We tmiat now find the hne of action of this force Assume that it is at
position j and equate the moment of this resultant about the x aKis with
the moment of the d str hution about this axis Thus
-mm,,, - - yij- - (S) (0 S66)7J da

j Ji
eOOOOif = ~
27(1
J2732*-Ir32>3 * 1359000
|/* 226/t
The resultant force replacing the distribution is then at a position
22 6 17 3 * 53 ft Wlow point B as is shown in Tig 9 23 Owing
to the uniformity of the presstue along any stnp dA we eee that the
resultant force must be along the centerline of the door Tl is point is
called the center of pressure as was pointed out earl er in Chapter 4
I'totice that the center of pressure below the centroid of the area In an
Figure 9.25
exercise at the end of the chapter, you will be able to prove that this must
always be the case.
Example 2: Compute the liorizontal and vertical components of the re-

sultant of the hydrostatic pressure distribution on the gate AB, which is
a quarter of a cylinder (Fig. 9.26). Assume the gate is 10 ft wide.
a. Horizontal convpone7il It has been shown that we can project the

area ofAB along a horizontal direction and thus form area JSC, as
Figure 9.26
shown in Fig. 9.26. This can be handled in a manner similar to the

preceding problem, and the result is that {Fn)z = 218,000 lb.
b. Vertical component. The vertical component is equal
to the weight
of the water above the curved surface. Breaking the volume up
into
a rectangular parallelopiped and a quarter cylinder, we thus have:
(F), = 62.4 [(30)(100) + = 236,000 lb
As in the previous problem, we have a cancellation of atmospheiic

The line of action in this problem is quite simply ascertained
eilects.
when we realize that each force element df is normal to the
circular arc AB
and hence must pass througli the center of curvature
shown as C (Pig. 9.27).
Figure 9 27
Clearly the resultant must also go through the point 0 at the middle sec
tion of the quarter-cjhnder
We can develop ample formulae for computjiig rapidly the forces on

surfacessubmerged in an incompressible fluid You will derive these in
the problems at the end of the chapter The important thing here is to
imderstaad the mechanics involved in such computatiot^
913 BUOYANCY
The buoyant force on a body is defined as the net vertical force
that sterna from, the fluid or fluids m contact
with the body A body in
flotation IS in contact only with fluids, end the surface force from the
fluids 18 in equilibrium with the force of gravity on the body To ascertain
the buoyant force on bodies botli m flotation and subject to other condi-
tions, we merely compute tlic net vertical force on the surface of the body
by methods we have already discussed Thus no new formulations are
involved m buoyancy problems
Consider the body submerged m a fluid in Fig 9 28 Ihe body surface
has been divided into an upper poilion AUB and a lower portion ALB
Figure 9 28 L
along a path forming the outermost periphery of the body The buoyant
force may be considered to be the net vertical force exerted by the fluid
on the'ê surfaces Each force equals the weight of a column of fluid directly
above it The net effect must simply be the difference in the magnitudes
of these forces, since it is clear that they are in opposite directions When
we sum the forces, everything cancels except for an upward force that is
equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by the body. This conclusion is
the well-known Archimedes principle.

Any pressures on the free surface of a fluid would not influence the
buoyant force, since the pressure would be distributed uniformly through-
out the fluid and would result in equal and opposite forces on the two
surfaces AUB and ALB.
It should be apparent that the buoyant force of abody in flotation at
the interface of two immiscible fluids (such as air and water) is the weight
of both of the fluids that are displaced by the body. In the case of vessels
floating on water, we usually neglect the weight of the displaced air in
problems of buoyancy.
Example: Compute the depth tliat a 100-lb force will submerge the buoy
shown in Fig. 9.29. It is a right circular cone whose weight we shall
Figure 9.29
neglect. Calling the depth of immersion x, we can compute by similar

triangles the radius of the cone cross section at the free surface as:
1/10 = r/x A r = x/10

TJsing the principle of buoyancy and neglecting the contribution of the
air, we have, on noting that the volume of a right circular cone is J the
area of the base times the height:
100 =
x =
X = 5.35 ft
Part D VISCOUS FRICTION

914 VliCOUS FRICTION
In Chapter 7 we considered the friction between two rigid bodies
in direct contact Under certain conditions ne learned that the frictional

force developed between the bodies at the contact surface could be ascer
tamed We will now consider the fnction between two bodies that interact
not by direct contact but indirectly through a film of fluid separating them
This resistance is called micoua fndton By preventing direct contact m
this way i e by we decrease the amount of fnc
lubricating the surfaces
tional resistance and more important we decrease the inevitable wear
present when two bodies mo\e against each other directly The lubricating
fluid may be a liquid or possibly a gas
Since viscoua friction is explained m
terms of the internal behavior of
the fluid that separates the bodies it is a phase of continuum mechanics
and thus has not been undertaken until this time
As an introduction to this topic let us consider an infinite plate B
parallel to the zg plane moving uniformly relative to an infinite stationary
flat surface A over a film of fluid separating the surfaces (Fig 9 30) Note
that the z direction chosen to correspond %Yith the \eIocity of plate B

is
For such an arrangement the motion of the fluid elements may bo con

sidered to be restricted to directions parallel to the xy plane i e no flow
in the 2 direction Since the flow pattern in every plane parallel to the xj
plane is identical with that in the the fluid motion can simply be
zy plane
described in terms of the coordinates * and y and this may be considered
a coplanar prol lem
We know that a thin layer of fluid wiU adhere to the surface of a body
moving through the fluid At the contact surface of B the fluid has the
velocity V of the plate, while at the contact surface of A, the fluid directly
adjacent is stationary. In between, the fluid moves in a manner which ex-

perience indicates can be idealized as a series of thin layers sliding one over
the other; the velocity, therefore, changes from zero. Corresponding to the
lowest layer, to V, corresponding to the top layer at B. This has been illus-
trated in Fig. 9.31.At time i = 0, these hypothetical layers are imagined
to have been darkened, and at some time t later the layers are shown in
advanced positions proportional to the corresponding velocities. The out-
line thus formed approximates a velocity profile when we take this x axis
as a velocity axis to some appropriate scale. Actually there will be a smooth

continuous curve and not the discontinuous line formed as a result of the
simplified considerations. From this picture, we know intuitively that there
is a resistance to this motion in the form of shear stresses between the
layers. The bodies A and B are thus subject to a drag that results from the
shear stress on the fluid adhering to the bodies.
What is the nature of this resistance? It may in part be explained quan-
titatively in terms of molecular action in the fluid. Two effects can be
pointed out.
1. Molecular atlraclion. There is an attraction between molecules

in a
fluidwhich impedes the fluid motion. The intensity of this action
depends on the type of fluid (larger for liquids than gases), the tem-
perature, and, to a smaller degree, the pressure of the fluid.
2. Momentmn transfer. There is, within the apparently regular macro-
scopic fluid motion, a haphazard molecular motion that causes mole-
cules ofone layer to migrate to adjacent faster or slower layers. A
fastmolecule entering a slower layer will slow down because it collides
with the slower molecules, Avhich, as a consequence, are somewhat
speeded up. The reverse action takes place when a slow molecule
drifts into a faster layer. The net effect of this migratory motion
normal to the main direction of flow is to decrease the relative ve-
locities between the layers and thus to increase the resistance to flow.
Experiments on a number of fluids, which we shall call Newtonian fluids,

show that the shear stress at an interface between layers is proportional
to the distance-rate-of-change of velocity in a direction normal to the
interface. That is:
dV
T OC 9.3.5
dn
this means that at some interface AA (Fig. 9.32), the shear stress is propor-
tional to TT, the slope of the velocity profile toward the
y axis at that
elevation. Inserting the proportionality constant
y in the above equation,
we get Newtons Avell-known viscosity law:
aF
T = y dn 9.36
where y. is called the coeSictent of nacostlj * The \aluc of this coefficient

depends on the molecular actions described earlier and thus for a given
fluid it IS a function primarily of
tlie temperature In general the
value of the coefficient decreases

with an increase in temperature
for a liquid and increases with an
increasing temperature for a gas
(Why)
If we can ascertain the slope
of the velocitj profile at the sur
mov mg plate B know
face of the
ing y from handbook data vve can
then compute the drag on the plate
per unit area as a result of viscous
fncUon
In developing Newtons viscosity hw
for Newtonian fluids we have
used a highly simplified flow of fluid namely a two-dimensional flow in
which the fluid elements move along straight parallel lines As far as geo-
metrical considerations are concerned Newtons viscositj law may be
valid for any flow mwhich the particles move along straight parallel lines
This type of flow is called parallel flow We can compute the shear stress
by this formula at any interface tangent to tlie direction of flow by emploj
ing the derivative of the velocity variation in a direction normal to this
interface An important example is flow jn a straight pipe The hjers of
Figure 9 33
fluid that \ e used to describe the u finite flow between flat plates become
here a senes of concentric cylindrical layers sliding over each other The
layer at the pipe surface is stationary while layers for smaller radii have
larger velocities that become moMinum at the center (Fig 5) 33) To get
We have used thesame symbol for thecoeCBc entof v scos tyaswed d for Coulombs
dry fr ct on coeffic ent Th s s the usual uotston aad no d fficulty need ansa if one
notes carefully the cootext of the d scuaa on vhen the sj mbol ft appears
the shear stress on the pipe, we employ Newtons viscosity law in the
following manner:
where a minus sign is employed for the following reason. We know that for
an increasing r, V diminishes in value and so dV/dr is negative at the wall.
Since we take positive y as the direction of flow in the pipe, the stress on
the pipe must be in the positive y direction. By putting in the minus sign
in the above formula, then, we make the a positive value, which is what
we want. If we know the velocity variation with radius r from the center-
line, we may ascertain t^. For non-parallel flows, in which the model of
overlapping fluid layers is still valid, we must, for more accurate work, use
a more general viscosity law; the discussion of this law, however, is beyond
the scope of this text. In many practical problems involving the motion of
rigid bodies in contact through lubricated surfaces, we may neglect curva-
ture of the flow and use Newtons viscosity law to develop a reasonably
accurate result. Such a case will be illustrated in Example 2 that follows.
A necessary condition for the entire discussion thus far has been the
model of flow in which laminae of fluid can be imagined sliding over one
another in a regular manner. Actually this is often not a reasonable model.
Under certain conditions, macroscopic chunks of fluid fluctuate in a manner
that is random in nature, and this random motion is superposed over what
is otherwise a regular flow. Such flow is called turbulent flow, while the type
that we have been discussing is laminar flow. Newtons viscosity law is not
valid for turbulent flows. Predicting which type of flow is present is an
important segment of the field of fluid mechanics. It will suffice for us to
say here that for highly viscous fluids, such as oils under reasonably small
velocities that we encounter in lubrication problems, we can assume that
we have laminar flow.
Finally it must be pointed out that a non-Newtonian fluid will have a
plot of T versus dV/dn, which is not a straight line as in the case of a
Newtonian fluid. Most of the practical fluids of interest, such as air, oil,
and water, may be considered as Newtonian fluids. We shall now consider
a typical problem.
Example 1: A plunger is moving through a cylinder at a speed of 20 ft

per second (Fig. 9.34). The film of oil separating the plunger from the
cylinder has a viscosity of 0.020 Ib-scc/ft. What is the force required to
maintain this motion?
We shall assume that the thickness of the layer is uniform over the
entire peripheral surface of the plunger. Furthermore, because the film is
thin, we shall assume a linear velocity profile for the flow of oil in the film
(Fig. 9.35). To find the frictional resistance, we must compute the shear
stress at the plunger surface. Thus we have:
234 INTROOUCUON TO CONUNUUM MECHANICS S914
The {iicUetval (otce then becomes
F, = Tjt = 960ii^ - 3U1M
Figure? 35 Figure? 36
Example 2 A vertical shaft rotates la a bearing (t ig 936} anditnill

be assumed that the shaft b concentric* with the bearing journal A film
of oil of thickness e and viscoatj p* separates the shaft from the bearing
journal If the shaft rotates at a speed of w radians per second and has
a diameter D v.hat is tVw fnctwwial toniuc to be overcome at this speed?
ft there a transverse load on the shaft we know from lubrication theory that the
ahaft must occupy an eccentnc position lo the journal in order to permit the film to
have a pressure distribution which will withstand the load
Neglect centrifugal effects at the bearing ends and assume a linear velocity
profile.
fluid particles move along lines which are not straight,
Even though the
can with reasonably good accuracy still employ Newtons simple
we
viscosity law. Thus the shear stress t on the shaft is:
-
= 0
coZ)/2
T Ho
e
The torque is:
fioTrD^ki}
torque =
4e
PROBLEMS
1. What is a continuum? Can you cite a case in which a gas cannot be considered
a continuum? Explain.
2. On the faces of the cube that are farthest from the reference, draw in the
following stresses: (a)
ri; (b)
<r; (c) t. On the faces of the cube nearest
the reference, draw in the following stresses: (a) o-; (b) t,; (c) Tx^
Figure 9.37
3. Explain the difference between a fluid and an elastic body, (a) from a chemistry
viewpoint and (b) from a mechanics viewpoint.
4. Explain why there can be no shear stress in a stationary fluid.
5. The following stresses e.xist at a position P at time t in the flow of fluid as shown
in the diagram:
z
Figure 9.38
236 {NTROOUCTION TO CONTINUUM MECHANICS
If the \elQCity of flow at the point P at tune f 13 T = 16 + 7jj find the value
of normal stress m the direction of flow
6. Since Eqs 92,910 and 9 11 were developedby using infinitesimal free bodies
they generally apply to a point "Whem, however, maj these formulae be applied
to finite free bodies?
7. In Fig 9 39 is an body having the shape of a rectangular parallelepiped
elastic
whose pressure in the region of the par
It is at rest within a stationary fluid
allelopiped is 500 Show that on any interface of the elastic body
psi (a)
the normal stress is 500 psi 0) If on face BCDE and EDFG there is exerted
by some agent (not shown) an additional uniform shear stress of +200 psia,
what IS the normal stress on the diagonal plane BCGFt
8 TVhat IS meant by the statement that the stress tensor is symmetrical? If you
have a fimU cube of fluid taken as a free body from a flow (see Fig 9 40) and
it is subject to non uni/om shear stress distributions on all faces, what re-
strictions on these distributions does the symmetry of a stress tensor impose?
9 Show in the Iw o-dimensionai case that the sum of the normal stresses at a point
on mutually perpendicular interfaces is independent of tlic orientation of the
set of orthogonal interfaces
]0 A steel bar is pulled by a 500 Ib force that is the resultant of uniformly dis
tnbuted forces at the ends of the bar Determine normal and shear stresses
along an interface BE inchned at 60 as shown
11. The stress at a point in a plate that has all loads coplanar with the plate
center-surface is
INTRODUCTION TO CONTINUUM MECHANICS 237
Ti = 500 psi
ffiz = 100 psi
(Tyy = 50 psi
Compute the direction of the normals to the principal planes and compute the
principal stresses.
12. What relates two-dimensional stresses with moments and products of inertia
of plane surfaces?
13. A pressure distribution in a non-viscous fluid is given as:
p = -f- ?/ -f- zf* -H 16t -t- 10
What is the force field per unit volume on fluid elements from surrounding
surface forces? At position r = lOi -j- 6/ -h 3fc, what is this force along the
direction of the position vector at time t = 0?
14. In the case of a static fluid, show why the free surface must be normal to the
direction of gravity.
15. What is the pressure in the tank in Fig. 9.42, using the inclined manometer
shown: 7,,^
= 850 llj/fth-
16. In Fig. 9.43, if the pressure in tank A is 100 psia, what is the pressure in tank B?
17. In an adiabatic atmosphere, the pressure varies with the specific volume in the
following manner:
pv'^ = const.
where fc is a constant cquiil to the ratio of the specific heats Cp and c,. Develop
an expression for pressure as a function of elevation for this atmosphere, using
the ground as a reference.
18. In the atmosphere directly above the earths surface, the temperature decreases
linearly with temperature according to the formula:
r= (59 - 0.00357 z)F
where z is the elevation above sea level in ft. When the temperature reaches
67, the atmosphere becomes isothermal over an interval. At what elevation
does this take place and what is the pressure at this elevation?
19. What force P is required to raise the 5000-lb load in Fig. 9.44?
S38 INTRODUCTION TO CONTINUUM MECHANICS
20. A vessel contains nater at an elevation ol ^0 it over ulut-h compressed air at

5 psig la Ttiaintained (Fig 9 45) W'batia the resultant force on the door shown
m the diagram from the water and air, both outside and inside^
21. Tl;e \easel q{ the pcccediag prohletn now has two immiscible fluids water and
oil (Fig 9 46), and the air above the oil is evacuated to a pressure of 3 psig
What IS the resultant force on the door from fluids mside and air outside the
container (the specific gravity of oil is 08}?
22.
Figure 9 46 Figure 9.4T
In Fig 9 47 IS a plane submerged surface in an incompressible fluid The area is

shown on edge and the plane of this area shown e'ctcnded to meet the free
surface along line 00, whose trace is seen in the diagram Point 0 then, serves
,
aa an origin to measure the position of area elements along the plane of the
submerged area Using this diagram, show the following things
(a) The resultant force on the surface a given as
\n\ =
where p, is the pressure at the centroid In other words, the resultant force on a
plane submerged surface is found by computing the value of the pressure at
the centroid of the area and then multiplying by the area
(b) The distance y' of the center of pressure is given as:
2/' = 2/c +2^

Aye
where 7c is the second moment of inertia of the submerged plane area about the
centroidal axis'parallel to the 00 axis.
23. Using the formulae developed in the previous problem, compute the force from
the water onto a circular door of radius 2 ft (Fig. 9.48). Indicate where the line
of action of the force intersects the door.
Figure 9.48
24. Compute the force on the rectangular door shown in Fig. 9.49. The door is
5 wide. Find where the line of action of the force intersects the door. If the
ft
door has a hinge at B

and is latched at A, what is the force on the latch?
23. Find the resultant force from the fluids on the door AB in Fig. 9.50, which is
5 ft wide. Indicate the line of action of the force.
26. The semi-circular door AB

in Fig. 9.51 is 4 ft wide. What is the magnitude and
line of action of the resultant force from the fluids?
7. In Fig. 9.52, find the resultant
force vector acting on the wall from the water.
If the resultant
force is considered to go through point A, what must be the
accompanying couple? Work it out on the basis of a unit width of the wall
240 INTRODUCTION TO CONTINUUM MECHANICS
28 WTvat 13 the force on the conical stopper from the Tvater in Fig 9 53?
29 TVhatistheresultantforcconthegateytBffointheflmdamFig 9 54?Givethe
mclioation of the resultant force from the horizontal
Figure 9 fri Figure 9 S5
30 Imagine a fluid which nhen stationary stratifies m such a uay that the
specific weight is yj at the free surface and then increases linearly with depth
so that at a depth h below the free surface it has 1 } the specific ncight at the
free surface (Fig 9 55) If the pressure is ntmosphenc at the free surface what
IS the pressure as a function of depth? Give the formulations for the resultant
force on a submerged pbne surface AB having o unit width Also give the line
of action of the resultant
31 For a hypothetical fluid similar to lliat of the above problem let 79 bo 30
Ib/ft* and the depth at which 7 13 doubled be 30 ft This fluid acts on the
gate in Fig. 9.56, which has a unit width. What is the horizontal force com-
ponent from the fluids?
32. If watermoving uniformly along a channel, find the total force acting on an
is
interface of fluid thatis shown as a dotted line in Fig. 9.57. Water height is h.
33. The tank in Fig. 9.58 is filled to the edge with water. If a cube 2 ft on an edge
and weighing 100 lb is lowered slowly into the water until it floats, how much
water flows over the edge of the tank if no appreciable waves are formed during
the action?
Figure 9.58
34. A large slab rests on soft ground at the bottom of a lake (Fig. 9.59). The slab
has sunk into the ground a slight distance so that water cannot reach the under-
surface. If the slab weighs 2000 lb and has a cross-sectional area parallel to the
free surface of 10 ft^, what initial force is required to start moving it up? When
it has moved a slight distance up so that water reaches the lower surface, what
is the force required to hold the slab?
35. A wooden rod weighing 5 lb is mounted on a hinge below the free surface (Fig.
9.60). The rod
is 10 ft long and uniform in cross section, and the support is 5 ft
below the free surface. At what angle a will it come to rest when allowed to
drop from a vertical position? The cross section of the stick is f in. in area.
36.
A cylindrical tank is held below the free surface of water by cords (Fig. 9.61).
The tank is initially filled with air at a pressure of 14.7 psia. The air has a
US INTRODUCTION TO CONTINUUM MECHANICS
specific gravity atthat condition of 0 0765 Ib/ft* A

valve la opened slowly at
the bottom of the tank and water eaters Assume no loss of air The air com
presses isothermally (pr = const ) What is the force T
required to hold the
38 cylinder down before and after the ait is admitted? The weight of the cyhnder
IS 50 lb
37. Why does the coefficient of viscosity decrease in value with increase temper- m
ature for a liquid and merwise with increasing temperature for a gas
The plunger moves to the at a speed of 10 ft/mm and rotates at 2 rad/mm
left
It 13 lubricated by oil that has a viscosity of 0 025 Ib sec/ft* What is the
wrench required to overcome this friction?
Figure 9 62
39 Oil moves through a pipe having an inside diameter of 12 in The pipe la
100 ft long If the velocity profile (or the oil is given b> the equation
where D
a the inide diameter and r is the radial distance out from the center
hoe, both m
inches and the coefficient of the bracket has been so chosen as
to give V the units ft/sec Ascertain the drag induced on the pipe from the
41 mo\'ing fluid if the viscosity is
0 020 !b sec/ft
40 A a diameter of 8 in is used to damp out rotations of
circular plate with
shaft by rotating m a bath of oil which has a viscosity 0 030 lb scc//t
AA
insidea narrow cyhnder ^Fig 963) If the shaft a rotating with an angular
speed of 10 rotations/mm what is the damping torque?
For the apparatus m the above problem develop an expression giving the
damping torque as a function of x (the distance that the moving plate is from
its center position) (see Fig 9 64) Do this for an angular rotation u rad/scc
Introduction to
Variational Mechanics
10.1 INTRODUCTION
In the study of statics thus far, we have followed

the procedure of isolating a body to expose certain un-
known forces and then writing either scdlar or vector
equations of equilibrium that include all the forces acting
on the body. At thistime alternate methods of express-
ing conditions of equilibrium, called the method of virtual
work and, allied to it, the method of minimum potential
S43
244 INTRODUCTION TO VARIATIONAL MECHANICS }102
energy, will be presented These methods will yield equations of equilibrium

that include only certain forces on a body, and in some problems they will
provide a more simple means of solving for certain unknowns We will
require an understanding of the concepts associated with these methods in

order to continue into the mnofionaf pnnop/es oj mechames (bej ond the
scope of this text) which lead to the equations of Lagrange, Hamilton,
Jacobi, etc that form the foundation of advanced classical mechanics Thus
for our immediate, and future, needs in mechanics, the method of Mrtual
work is of great significance
Pari A METHOD OF VIRTUAL WORK

10 2 PRINCIPLE OF VIRTUAL WORK FOR A PARTICLE
For Que mtroductwn to the pcincvple of n irtualwork, we wvU first

consider a particle acted on b> external loads Ki K, whose resultant
force pushes the particle against a rigid constraining surface S m space
(F)g 101) This surface 5 18 assumed lo be fnclionle'LS and will thus exert
Figure 10 1
a constraimng force N on the particle which is normal to S The forces Ki

are called active forces in connection with the method of virtual work, while
N retains the identification of a constraimng force as used previously
Employing the resultant active force Kg, we can give the necessary and
sufficient conditions for equilibrium for the particle as
JCs -f*
= 0 1 t
We sliall now prove tliat we can express the necessary and sufficient
conditions of equihbnum in yet another way Let us imagine that we give
the particle an infinitesimal hypothetical displacement that is consistent
wlth the constraints, i e , along the surface, while keeping the forces Kr
and iV constant Such a displacement is termed a tnrlUQl dtsplacemeni, and
Will be denoted by 3r, m
contrast to real infinitesimal displacement, dr,
10.2 INTRODUCTION TO VARIATIONAL MECHANICS 245
which might actually occur during a time interval dt. We can then take the
dot product of the vector 5r with the force vectors in the above equation.
That is;
Kit Sr N Sr 0 10.2
Since N
is normal to the surface and Sr is tangential to the surface, the
corresponding scalar product must be zero, leaving:

Kr Sr = 0 10.3
The expression Kr Sr is called the virtual work of the system of forces.

The equation, then, says that the virtual work by the active forces on a
particle with frictionless constraints for any virtual displacement consistent
with the frictionless constraints is necessarily zero for a particle in equi-
librium.
We will now show that this statement is also sufficient to insure equilib-
rium for the case of a particle initially at rest (relative to an inertial refer-
ence) at the time of application of the active loads. This makes Eq. 10.3
equivalent to Eq. 10.1 for such circumstances. To demonstrate this, assume
that Eq. 10.3 is true but that the particle is not in equilibrium. If the latter
is the case, this particle must move
a direction that corresponds to the
in
direction of the resultant of all forces actingon the particle. Consider that
dr represents the initial displacement during the time interval di. The work
done by the forces must exceed zero for this movement. Since the normal
force N
cannot do work for this displacement, it means that:
Kr dr > 0 10.4
However, we can choose a virtual displacement Sr in Eq. 10.3 that is exactly

equal to the proposed dr stated above. According to Eq. 10.3, we then get
a statement {Kr Sr = 0) which contradicts the one we arrived at (Eq

10.4) when we assumed that the particle is not in equilibrium. Having

accepted Eq. 10.3 as a known condition, we can then conclude that our
conjecture that the particle is not in equilibrium is false. Thus we see that
Eq. 10.3is not only a necessary condition of equilibrium, but, for an initially
stationary particle, is in itself sufficient for equilibrium.
We can now state the principle of virtual wmrk for a particle. The neces-
sary and sufficient condition for equilibrium of an initially stationary particle
with frictionless constraints requires that the virtual work for all virtual dis-
ylacements co nsistent with the constraints be zero*
*
It can now be shown why this test breaks down for a
particle that is moving. Consider
a particle constrained to
move in a circular path in a horizontal plane, as shown in
me diagram.
The particle is moving with constant speed.
here are
no active forces and we consider the constraints
as fnctionless.
The virtual work for a virtual displacement consistent with the con-
s raints at
any time t gives us a zero result. Nevertheless, the particle is not in equi-
num since clearly there is at time I an acceleration toward the center of curvature.
1
^hy we had to restrict the sufficiency condition to particles that are

initially stationary.
246 INTRODUCTION TO VARIATIONAL MECHANICS 10 3
The case of a particle that is not constrained is a special case of the
gitualjon di''cussed above Here /V = 0 so that Eq 10 3 js applicable for

all infinitesimal displacements as a criterion for equilibrium
103 PRINCIPLE OP VIRTUAL WORK FOR A RIDID BODY
We now examine a rigid body in equilibrium acted on by a number

of active forces and constrained without the aid of friction We shall con-
sider the body to be made up of elementary* particles m* for the purposes
of discussion The conclusions from the prei lous section will be applied to
these particles In Fig 10 2 wc have several constraining forces A, which
Figure 10 2
must be normal to the boundary of the body Alo shown are the active
loads K,
Let us now consider a particle of mass Active loads, constraining
forces, and forces from other particles may possibly be acting on the par-
ticle The latter forces are internal forces Sy which maintain the rigidity of
the body Using the resultants of these various forces on the particle, we
may state the necessary and sufficient conditions for equilibrium of the
particle as
(K,).-f-(A)*-l-(SR). -0 10 5
iVow we give the particle m, a virtual dispiscement fr, that is consistent

with the extenor constraints and with the condition that the body is ngid
Taking the dot product of the vectors in the above equation with Sr, we
get the relation
(Kfi). Sr. + (A'h). . Sr. + (S)s Sr. = 0 10 6
It IS clear that (IVjt), 5r. must be sero, as was explained earlier Let us
sum the equations of the form 10 6 for all the particles that are considered
to make up the body We have, assuming n particles
:
Let us now consider in more detail the internal forces in order to show
that the second quantity on the left-hand side of the above equation is
zero. The forceon m, from particle m, will be equal and opposite to the
force on particle rrij from m,-, according to Newtons third law (Fig. 10.3).
Figure 10.3
The internal forces on these particles are shown as S.y and Sy,. The first
subscript identifies the particle on which a force acts, while the second
subscript identifies the particle exerting this force, which means that:
5,7 = - 5,7 10.8
Any virtual motion we give to the particle must be such as to maintain a

constant distance between the particles. This will be the case if
a. Both particles are given the same displacement Br.
b. The particles are rotated relative to each other.
We now consider the general case where both motions are present; that is,
both m, and m,- are given a virtual displacement Br, and, furthermore, m,-
is some angle 5<#) about m,- (Fig. 10.3). The work done in
rotated through
the rotationmust be zero, since Sy, is at right angles to the motion of the
mass my. Also, the work done on each particle during the equal displace-
ment of both masses must be equal and opposite, since the forces move
through equal displacements and are themselves equal and opposite. Since
the mutual effect of all particles of the body is of the type described, we
can conclude that the internal work done for a rigid body during a virtual
displacement is zero. Hence, a necessary condition for equilibrium is:
^
1=1
(Kn).- Sr.- = 0 10.9
Tins states that the virtual

work done by active forces on a rigid body having
frictionless constraints during virtual displacements consistent with the con-
slraints is zero
if the body is in equilibrium.
readily prove that this is a sufficient condition for equilibrium of
an initially stationary body by reasoning in the same manner that we do
S4B INTRODUCTION TO VARIATIONAL MECHANICS |10 4
in the case of the single particle We will state first that Eq IQ 9 is valid
for abody If the body is not m
equibbnura, then it must begin to move
Let us say that each particle m* moves a distance dr, consistent with the
constraints under the action of the forces The work done on particle m, ts
(Er). dr. + (fVj,). * dr. + (Sa). dr. >0 1010
But (iV^), ' dr, IS zero because of the nature of the constraints, when we
sum for all particles, the sum ^
condition of rigiditj of the body Therefore,
(Sr), dr must also be zero because
we may state that the sup-
of the
position of no equilibrium gives the following inequality
2 (Kr). dr. > 0 1011
But we can conceive a virtual dispbcement ir, equal to dr for each particle,
which leads us to a contradiction between Eqs 10 11 and 109 Thus the
supposition that gave us Eq 10 11 must be m%alid and the body must be
m equilibrium This proves the sufficiency condition for the principle of
Mrtual work m
the case of a rigid body with ideal constraints that is
initially stationary at the lime of application of the actiie forces
104 rRiNcirte or virtual work

TOR A SYSTEM OF (OEALLV CONNECTED RIGID BODIES
Consider now several rigid bodies that are connected by smooth

pms and sockets or that are m direct fnctionless contact (Fig 104) For
any particle mi m the sy stem of free bodies, w e may ha^ e a resultant active
force (Er) a resultant restraining force (INr),, a resultant internal force
C<Sr)< from the other particles within the body, and, finally, possibly a
resultant force from another body (!>), by direct contact or through a pin
or socket connection. The necessary and sufficient condition for equilibrium
for this particle, then, is;
{KR)i + (SR)t + (iVs),- + (I?a)i = 0 10.12
We give the particle m,- a virtual displacement 3r, which is consistent with
the constraints and mth the conditions that the body be rigid. Taking the
dot product of the above vectors with 6r,-, we get:
(Kr), 5r,- + (Sa),- 8ri + (iVa)i 5r, + (Oa)t 5r,- = 0 10.13
As we pointed out earlier, (Wa), Sr, must be zero. Summing for all par-
ticles of all the bodies of the system, we get:
Sr,- (Da),- Sr,] = 0 10.14

=i
where the sum (Sa) Sr,- is zero due to the rigidity of the bodies, as we
discussed earlier. The have an equal and opposite com-
force (Da), will
panion force on the particle of the other body directly in contact with m,-.
Since both particles must have the same displacement in the direction of
this force in order to maintain contact, it is clear that the second sum given
above is also zero. We then have as a necessary condition for equilibrium:

n
(fCa),- 8r.- = 0 10.15
=i
for all virtual displacements consistent with our aforestated constraints.

It will be left to an exercise to prove that not only is the above equation
necessary for equilibrium of a system of bodies, but that it is also a sufficient
condition for equilibrium for a system of initially stationary bodies.
The principle of virtual work may now be stated for a system of rigid bodies
with frictionless constraints and connections. For a system of initially station-
ary, rigid bodies, the necessary and sufficient condition for equilibrium is that
the virtual work of the active forces be zero for all possible virtual displacements
consistent with the constraints.
10.5 DEGREES OF FREEDOM
We have developed equations of equilibrium for systems of bodies

by using the concept of virtual work for virtual displacements consistent
with the constraints. These equations do not entail reactions or connecting
forces, and when these are not of interest, the method is quite useful. Thus
we may solve for as many unknown active forces as there are independent
equations. It is then of prime interest to know how many equations can
be written for a system.
SSQ INTRODUCTION TO VARIATIONAL MECHANICS 510 5
y To d& this we shall Jirsl define the number

of degrees of freedom of a system to be the
number of tndependent coordinates tn some

reference which ts required to locate fully the
system ta the reference Thus for the pendu-
lum in Fig 10 5, which is restricted to move
in a plane, there is one independent coordi-
nate 9 that locates the pendulum Hence

this system has but one degree of free-
dom We may ash, cannot ne specify x
and p of the bob and thus are there not
two degrees of freedom The answer is no,
because when we give i or y the other
Figure 10 5 coordinate is determined, since the pen-
dulum support, being inexteasible, must
sweep out a known circle as shown in Fig
105 In Fig 10 6, the pistoQ and crank arrangement, the balance, and the
four-bar linkage require only one coordinate and thus ha% e but one degree of
freedom On the other hand, the double pendulum has two degrees of
freedom and a particle in space has three degrees of freedom The number
Figure 10 6
of degrees of freedom may

usually be readily determined by inspection.
Since each degree of freedom represents an independent coordinate, we
can, for an n degree of freedom system, institute n unique virtual displace-
ments by varying each coordinate. This will then give n independent equa-
tions of equilibrium from which n unknowns related to the active forces
can be solved. We now examine several problems to illustrate the method
and its advantages.
10.6 PROBLEMS WITH IDEAL CONSTRAINTS
In instituting a virtual displacement in a system, we shalbvary

one of the independent coordinates that describes the orientation of the
system as stated above. Such a coordinate may well be an angle 6, so that
the virtual displacement of the system may be formed by a variation of 0,
which denoted as 50, as will be seen in the ensuing examples.

is
After you examine the following problems, you can most profitably work
them out by methods of free-body diagrams, and from this you can see the
advantage of using the method of virtual work for such situations. Examine
Example 3 with particular care.
Example li A force P supports a load F through light bars of equal

length (Fig. 10.7). Compute by the method of virtual work the angle 0
necessary for equilibrium with a prescribed P
and F.
We see by inspection that one coordinate 0 describes the configuration
of the system. It therefore has one degree of freedom. We shall neglect
friction at the pins and supports and shall thus consider the constraints
as frictionless. Also we shall neglect the weight of the members. Thus we
see that we can assume a virtual displacement SO that will involve only
Figure 10.7
258 INTRODUCTION TO VARIATIONAL MECHANICS 106
the active forces P

and F
(known quantities) m
an equation which will
permit the evaluation of the unknown $ Let us compute the virtual work
of the active forces
a Force P The virtual displacement 69 is such that the force P has a

motion in its direction of IB$ cos 0, as } ou can see from Fjg 10 8 The
virtual work for force P is thus
, - pm cos 0
b ForceF Tbelower member will have an upward motion correspond
ing to that of pm B and will, in addition have a rotation 60 that will
keep pin C the slot Therefore, force F has an upward motion
in
that 18 the superposition of 160 sin 0 as seen m
Fig 10 8 andl508m0,
as shown m Fig 109 which illustrates the rotation of bar BC The
fact that the pm C apsiears to have wandered from the slot in Fig
109 is due to the fact that on]} a portion of the motion of the
aj tem has been accounted for Thus we maj say for F
iWr = -2Ff60 sin 0
Kote that the minus ign results from the fact that the force is in
the opposite direction to the virtual displacement at that point
Emplo}ing the principle oi virtual work, we maj say
Pf60ro90~2F0sm0 = O
Cancelling f60 and solving for 0, we get
Taking the acute angle from the above, we get the desired result
Tic see from this prohlem that we lave solved an cquilihnum problem
without liavjng had to include all forces acting on the svstem, as was the
case when we used the free-body diagram approach. The main caution
here is to include all the active forces and properly to account for the
virtual motion at each active force.
Example 2: Two uniform bars are connected by pin connections and are
supported by a pin connection at A
(Fig. 10.10). A horizontal force P
acts at pin C. Knowing this force, the length of the bars, and their weights,
can you tell what the equilibrium configuration of the system will be if we
neglect friction at all joints?
We have here a problem in which two independent coordinates fii and 62
are sufficient to describe the orientation of the system. then have two We
degrees of freedom and can use two independent virtual displacements
that yield two independent equations of equilibrium to give the desired
unknowns 61 and 62.
Consider first a virtual displacement produced by varying The active
forces involved are W2 and P. The equation of virtual work becomes:
Ph5d2 cos 02 TFj

5 602 sin 02 = 0
Solving for 02, we have:
02 = tan-i
2P
(a)
Let us now give the system a virtual displacement by varying 0i while

keeping 62 fixed. This means that all particles in bar BC have the same
motion corresponding to pin B. All active forces are then involved. We
have:
TFi - 601 sin 0i TlVi50i sin 0i + Pli50i cos 0i = 0
Solving for 0i, we get:
01 = tan* (b)
Wi/2 + 172
We have thus found equations (a) and (b) which specify the equilibrium
configuration of the system under the assumptions made.
Example 3; Shown in Fig. 10.1 1 are two simple members AS and BC, each
of length pinned to each other at B. Member AB is pinned to the ground
I,
support at A, while BC may roll along the ground support on a frictionless

roller. This motion, moreover, is impeded by a spring with
a spring con-
Figure 10.11
254 INTRODUCTION TO VARIATJONAL MECHANICS 5106
stant K If the spring is unextended when 0 ^

dt what is the \alue of 6
for equilibrium when a weight IK is placed on the system at
We ha\e here a system of one d^ree of freedom The active forces are
the weight W and the force from the spring which for the angle 6 is
Ptpnag 2A/(cos do - cos 6) (a)
We shall now give the system a virtual displacement 5B while keeping

all forcesconstant including the spring force It is then necessary to com
pute the virtual displacements of B and C in the vertical and honsontal
directions respectively To get iya we ahall fust compute ya terms of fl m
Thus
ya ^ I sm 0 (b)
Next take the differential of both sides of the equation We then get
dya I cos d dd (c)
This TeUtion between dy* and dfl pTfcOstly the same as the iclalvon
between Sya and 5$, whicb you can prove to yourself by evaluating Sys
by the methods that have been used m
the preceding examples Thus
5ya IcosSSQ (d)
The reason that (c) and (d) are of the same form becomes apparent when
we reconsider the difference between real and virtual displacements The
former may actually happen dunng a time interval di while the latter la
imposed on the system without an elapse of time DdTerential relations
such as (c) take no cogniiance of time intervals and so it la clear that (c)
and (d) must be the same In general to get relations between variations
of two coordinates it is profitable to determine the algebraic relation
between the coordinates and then take the differential of the equation
You can then consider the differentials to be the desired variations To
illustrate further, the position ar, is (in terms of $)
*, = 2f cos d (e)
which we already employed m (a) Then the differential of the equation is
dr.= -Sfsm^dfl (f)
and eo we can say

x.-2l8in?W (g)
Hence the virtual work is
IWk = ~W1 cos 0 60 4/CP(cos 00 ~ cos 0) sm 0 60

If we equate to zero we get the condition for equilibrium Cancelhng out
160, we have
W cos $ 4irf{cos 00 cos 6) sin 0 = 0
Dividing through by cos 0 and multiplying by 1 we get
tK -f 4K{(cos 00 cos 0) tan fl = 0 (b)
This equation can be solved for by trial and error

In Section 10 9 Example 2 we rfiaU return to this problem for the
purpose of solving by another ptocedme
10.7 EXTENSIONS OF THE PRINCIPLE OF VIRTUAL WORK
Up to this point, we have considered systems in which the con-

straints could be considered frictionless. And the virtual displacements
made did not violate the constraints of the problem. Such ideal systems
and such use of virtual displacements permit us to solve certain problems
in a most economical manner. On these premises, we can develop other
useful procedures of mechanics, as we will see in the next section. However,
we are not actually restricted to frictionless constraints in the use of the
principle of virtual work nor must a virtual displacement be compatible
with the constraints. Let us examine each of these departures from the
rules followed up to this point.
a. Friction. If there are non-negligible friction forces at the surfaces of

contact, we can use the principle of virtual work, as given previously,
provided that these frictional forces are considered as active forces.
When (/), is used to represent the resultant frictional forces on a
particle, the equation for virtual work becomes:
{KR)i
(Sr,- -|- (/i?)i Sr,- = 0 10.16
t"i t=>i
As in previous methods using the free-body diagram, we must have

the direction of friction forces opposing the actual motion or real im-
pending motion. This direction of the friction forces is then main-
tained no matter what the virtual displacements may be. We shall
now consider an example illustrating these remarks.
Example: In Fig. 10.12, the weight Wi of 500 lb and the weight 2 of W

400 lb are known to be in equilibrium. If W
2 has developed its maximum
Figure 10.12
friction in a direction as shown, what is the frictional force at Wit Neglect

friction at the pulley.
The active forces, now including the friction forces, are shown in the
S56 INTRODUCTION TO VARIATIONAL MECHANICS 107
diagram This system is ol one degree of freedom Taking a \ irtual dis-

placement Sr, we have
500 cos 60 Sr + ftSx + /jSx 400 cos 30 5x = 0

Carrying out the arithmetic operations we
have
06 = 0
To get another equation, we take as a free

body the 400 lb body in a standard wa} (Fig
10 13) Inspecting this simple case we see
that
= 40lb
^ c< 60 = 200 lb and hence fiA' *
/,
Returning to Eq (a), we may solve for/i
Figure 10 13 /, 96 - 40 - 561b
We should point out that the method of virtual work is often of little
advantage where friction la present In such problems, we must dismember
the system to ascertain the friction forces and thus one of the mam ad-
% antsgcs of virtual work is lost
b Violation o/ consiratn/i For simplicity, let us now consider a friction-

less problem If we desire a normal force at some contact surface, wc
may use the method of virtual work by causing a virtual displacement
in nhich the constraining surface is theoretically penetrated, proiidcd
we treat the normal force at the surface as an activ e force The method
of virtual work then becomes
(K), '><
+E 0
^
where /VJ are those normal forces that correspond to constraining
surfaces which have theoretically been penetrated Each time a con-
straint IS efTectivcIy violated in this manner, an additional degree
of freedom is associated with the system and we can thus write more
equations of equilibrium than the number of degrees of freedom cor-

responding to the case of no violation of constraints The following
examples illustrate this possible ue of the method of virtual work
Example / Find the normal foreeatR for eqinlibnum if the constraints

are fnctionless, the membere have negligible weight, and and AC BC
have equal length (Fig JO 14)
We shall take a clockwise virtual rotation of the ajstem ABC about
point A through an angle ia This means that the restraint at B will lie
violated, so we have included A as an active force The equation oC
virtual. work then becomes
Inc08fll5a I'f*2c03fli **0

Figure 10.14
Hence: Nb W12
You could infer this result by inspection. The problem has served primarily
as an illustration of the statement (b).
Example 2: A simple truss is shown in Fig. 10.15. The constraining forces

for this truss are seen by inspection to be 1000 lb each. We wish to de-
termine the force in member FE.
We can think of member FE as a constraint lor portions I and II of

the structure, shown shaded in Fig. 10.16, in that it prevents variations
of the angle 6. That is, by considering variations of 6 for a situation
where structure I is fixed, we would violate constraints FE and the
support K. By considering these constraining forces as active for such a
variation, we may employ the method of virtual work. Thus, we impose
258 JN7RODUCTJON TO VARIATIONAL MECHANJCS 10.8
10S9
a virtual displacement td on the system as shown in Fig. 10.17. Equating

the virtual work equal to zero, we get:
lOFESd - (I000)(20)W = 0
FE 2000 lb compression
You may verify the answer by the method of sections. The method of
virtual work ia }ust as quick and effective as the conventional procedure
for this problem.
Pdrt B. METHOD OF
MINIMUM POTENTIAL ENERGY
10.8 CONSERVATrVC SrsTCMS
We shall now return to ideal systems and shall ogain consider only
displacements consistent with constraints. Furthermore, we shall restrict
ourselves in this section to certain types of active forces. This will permit
us to arrive at some additional useful relations.
Let os suppose that the bodies and particles under consideration are
acted on by active forces of such a nature that the value of each active
force depends on its position of appUcation in space. In short, these farces
are expressible asjuncHona of position.
The work done by such forces when the body undergoes some actual
change of porition from poation 1 to position 2 along some path is then
given as;
Wt^ = J^Fix,y,z) * rfs 10.18

If, furthermore, the force F{x,y,z) is expressible as the gradient of some scalar
function (f>,
called the potential function, then:
Wi-a = (grad (f) ds 10.19
Expressing as scalar components, we have:
^ (H + If + 2 ^)
'
*
fi
Carrying out the dot product, we get:
r (to * + ij '*!'
+ s *) =
Hence: TTî .2 = </>2 <#>i 10.22
Thus the work done by such forces is independent of the path taken and
dependent only on the end points. These forces are called conservative forces.
We shall rewrite the above equation in the following form:
Wi-2 = 7, - 72 = A7 10.23
where 7, termed the potential energy, is the negative of the scalar for the <f>
particular force system. Clearly, from this development, it is seen that the
change in potential energy between two points equals the negative of the work
done by the active force in moving between these points along any path.
Two examples of conservative forces will now be presented and discussed.
1. The constant force. If the force is constant at all positions, it can always
be expressed as the gradient of a scalar function of the form {ax by cz), +

where a, b, and c are constants. The constant force, then, is ai 6jf ck. + +
In limited changes of position near the earths surface (a common
situation), we can consider the gravitational force on a particle of mass, m,
as a constant force by mgk. Thus the constants for the general
given
force are a = 6 = 0 and c = mg. Clearly, ^ = mgz and 7 = mgz for
this case.
2. The force proportional to linear displacements. Consider a body limited
by constraints to move along a straight line. Along this line is developed a

force directly proportional to the displacement of the body from some
position on the line. Considering this line to be the x axis, we can give
this force as:
F = Kxi 10.24
where a: is the displacement from the point. The constant IT is a positive
number, so that, with the minus sign in this equation, a positive displace-
nient from the origin means that the force is negative and is then directed
back to the origin. A displacement in the negative direction from the origin
260 INTRODUCTION TO VARIATIONAL MECHANICS 510 9
(negative x) means that the force is positive and is directed again toward
the origin Thus the force given above is a restoring force about the origin
An example of this force is that
of a linear spring (Fig 10 18)
The force that the spring will
evert will be directly proportional
to the amount of elongation or
X compression in the x direction
bejond the uncvtended position
which IS taken at the origin of
the ;r avis Furthermore the force
Figure 10 la IS a restoring force The constant
K applied to this situation is
called the spring comtani

The scalar function for this type of force is easily evaluated as Kx^l2
<(>
The change in potential energy due to the displacements from the origin
to some position x, therefore, is
V iCi*/2 10 25
The change in potential eneigy has been defined os the negatu e of the
work done by a conservative force as the body goes from one position to
another Clearly, then, the potential energy change can be considered
work done by the reaction to this force during this
directly equal to the
displacement In the case of the spring, this would be the force from the
surroundings attached to pointB In extending the spring from the unde-
formed position, this force does a positive amount of work This work can
be considered as a measure of the energy stored m the spring, for when
allowed to return to its do this amount of
original position, the spring will
positive work on the surrounding? at B, provided that the return motion
IS slow enough to prevent oscillations etc* The reason for employing the
term potential energy may now be more apparent
109 CONDITION or CqUIUSRtUM

rOR A CONSERVATIVE SYSTEM
Let us now consider a system of rigid bodies, ideally constrained,

and acted on by conservative active forces The principle of virtual work
requires that for a virtual displacement from a configuration of equilib-
rium, the virtual work done by the active forces, maintained constant
during the virtual displacement, be eero We shall now show that the con
dition of equihbnum can be stated m
yet another way for this system
Actu&lly the requirement is that the actwa be "reversible* or ' quasi static " You
mil icam more about this in the thermodynAmics course
:
We shall now examine the variation in potential energy for such a system
during a displacement from equilibrium. For simplicity, we consider the
case where the active forces F, are in the x direction and functions only of
the coordinate x. We may then say, in moving in the x direction:
AV =- F, dx 10.26
S/o'
Let us express F, at position a: by a Maclaurin series in terms of conditions
at the equilibrium configuration (which we take at a: = 0 and denote by a
subscript of zero)
f, + :+() J+ 10.
Now substitute into the integrand given above in Eq. 10.26:
-
-E /.[ Wo + (f ).
- + {^)S. + ]*
The integration may be expressed for each term:
AV. -E /; +
/; /;(f
10.29
Noting that (F,)o, are constants with respect to the integration,
we may integrate each term to get:
AV = -E (f ).f -E (S). ^ +
10.30
Note that we have replaced x by Ax to indicate a small but finite displace-

ment from the origin. If now we allow Ax to become infinitesimal and we
drop terms of higher order than the first, this expression becomes:
dV = -2^(F,)odx 10.31
t=i
Now
=
^ (F,)o dx is equal to the virtual work in a virtual displacement
dx from the equilibrium configuration, keeping the forces constant.
Consequently, the principle of virtual work indicates that this term is zero.
We may thus say that for first-order effects the variation in potential
energy for a real or virtual
displacement from a configuration of equilib-
rium is zero. That is:
a7 = 0 10.32
262 INTRODUCTION TO VARIATIONAL MECHANICS 109
Maihemaiicolly, this means that the piênttal energy has a slabonanj valve al
o conJiguTalion of cguifiinum, or, puUmg tt anolher way, the tanoDon of Vis
zero at a configuration of equilibrium ITius w e have another criterion for
equilibrium which we may use to solve problems of equilibrium for con-
servative-force systems with ideal constraints
To ue this formulation for Bolving problems, we would proceed in the fol-
lowing manner Fir^t determine the potential energy of the sjstem using
convenient data in terms of a set of independent coordinates that locate the
system Then take the variation, 6 , of this quantity This is, for our pur-
poses, the same as taking the diiferentia) Thus suppose T is a function of
independent variables 9, thereby having n degrees of freedom
The variation of V becomes
10 33
For equilibrium, we set this equal to zero according to Cq 10 32 For the

right side of the above equation to be zero, it is necessary that the coefh
went of each Sg, be zero, since the Sg, are independent of each other Thus
ar
0
10 3t
This gives us n independent equations, from which we can solve n

unknowns
In the next section, we shall show that there are different types of
equihbna, where the potential energy satisfies this equation The following
problems illustrate this method of approach
Example I A block weighing IF Ib is placed slowly on a sprite hav-
ing a spring constant of A Ib/ft (See Fig 10 19) Calculate how much
(he spring 13 compressed at the equiUbnum con
figuration
I This IS a simple problem and could be solved
W 1
by using the definition of the spring constant,
-.^ but we shall take advantage of the simplicity to
illustrate the preceding comments Notice there
1 are <Mily conservative forces acting that of

X ^ gravity and that of the spring Using the unex-
tended position of the spring as the datum for
gravitattonal potential energy and measuring i
from the position of the spring as shown, we
Figure 10 19 have for the potential energy of the system
V ^ -Wx + \Kx^
Consequently, for equilibrium we have:
^ = -TF +
dx
Ka; = 0
Solving for x, we have:

X =
K
Example 2: Let us now do
E.'cample 3 of Section 10.6 by varying the po-
the forces on the system are conservative and we
tential energy. Clearly,
have one degree of freedom. We can, therefore, compute the potential
energy V of the system as a function of d. Considering the weight to be at
B (obviously this does not affect the equilibrium conditions of the prob-
lem) and using the line AC as a datum, the potential due to gravity for
the suspended body is:
Vb = Wl sin e (a)
and the potential energy of the spring compressed from the configuration
So is:
flpnng = ^/iC4Z^(cos 00 cos S) (b)
Hence:
V = Wl sin 6 + 2PX(cos So cos S)*
dV
For equilibrium, = 0, and so we have:
do
TFi cos S -h APK{cos Bo cos S) sin S == 0 (c)
Dividing through by I cos S, we get:
W -1- 2lK{cos So cos S) tan S = 0 (d)
which is the same transcendental equation reached in Example 3 of Sec-

tion 10.6.
10.10 STABILITY
To illustrate certain principles in the simplest way, consider a

cylinder resting on curved or flat surfaces (Fig. 10.20). If we neglect fric-
Figure 10.20
264 tNTRODUCTION TO VARtATIONAL MECHANICS 1010
tion, it IS clear that the only active force is that of gra\ity Thus ^ê ha\c
here consenative systems for which Eq 1032 is valid The only possible
virtual displacement is along the path In aicK case, dy/di is zero, so that
for an infinitesimal virtual displacement the first-order change in elevation
isêro and thus the change in potential energy is zero for first order con-
siderations The bodies, therefore, are m equilibrium according to the
previous section However, it is apparent tliat there are distinct physical
differences between the states of equilibrium of the four cases
Case A The equilibrium here js stable, in that an actual displacement from
this configuration is such that the forces present tend to return the body
to its equilibrium configuration Notice that the potential energy is at a
mtmmum for this condition
Case B The equilibrium here is unstable, in that an actual displacement
from the configuration is such that the forces present aid in increasing the
departure from the equihbnum configuration The potential energy is at a
maztmum for this condition
Case C The equilibrium here is neutref Any displacement means that

another equilibrium configuration is established The potential energy is a
constant for all possible positions of the body in the vicinity
Case D This also may be considered tinstahfc, since any displacement to

the left of the equilibrium configuration causes on increasing departure
from this position
These statements Unking stability and instability with minimum and
maximum potential energy, respectively, can be generalized for any conser-
vative system
How can we
whether a system is stable or unstable at its equilibrium
tell
configuration other than by physical inspection, as was done above^ Con-

sider again a simple situation where the potential energy is a function of
only one space coordinate x That is, V ~ V{z) We can expand the po-
tential energy in the form of a Maclaurin series about the position of
eqoifibrmm Thus
(a
We that at the equilibrium configuration the change in poten-
know
tial energy for a change m
configuration dz is zero This means that
{tlV/dx)^ = 0 Hence we can restate the above equation
T- ^V 10 36
In determining the nature of the equilibrium, we must inspect the second

denv atii c of T, since it is the dominant term on the right side of the abov e
equation If it is positive, then AV is positive and consequently we have a
minimum potential energy at equilibrium and, thus, stable equilibrium. If
negative, then AV is negative and consequently we have a maximum po-

tential energy at equilibrium and, thus, unstable cquilibritm. Finally, if it is
zero, we must investigate the ne.\t higher-order derivative in the expansion

and so forth.
For cases where the potential energy is known in terms of several vari-
ables, the decision as to stabilit 5 is correspondingly
^
more complex. For
example, if the function V is known in terms of x and y, we have:
For minimum potential energy and therefore for stability:
dV_dV_ (a)
dx dy "
/ dw Y /dW\(d-'V\
(b)
\dxdu) )\dif
-r- (c) 10.37

3x2 Qy2
For maximum potential energy and therefore for instability:
dV_dV_Q (a)
dx dy
( dW Y (dW\(dW\
(b)
\dxdv) \ax2 )\df
^ + ^<0
3x2
-f
ay2
(c) 10.38
The criteria become increasingly more complex for three and more inde-
pendent variables.
Example: In the system shown in Fig. 10.21, the spring is unextended

when 0 = 45. Find the configurations of equilibrium and determine the
nature of these equilibria. Neglect friction.
266 INTRODUCTION TO VARtATtONAL MECHANICS 51010
This IS clcarlj a conservative *>stem so that we may use the energy

criterion for equilibrium We slinll first compute the potential energy of
the system using the configumtion 0 45 as the source of the datum
ksels for the \ariou8 energies Thus
V' 211 [acosfl ac0345"] + JK(2(oc05^ oco3 45*)3* (a)
The %anation of V then becomes
SV = 211 a sin fl W 4Ka( cos^ a cos 45") fiin PW (b)
Setting this equal to scro ue form the relation
We have here tw o posstbilctics for BattsfjnRg the equation First sin 6 sz Q

13 a vjlulion 80 Me may say that 0| * 0 {this may not be mechanically
possible) is a configuration of equihbnum It is also clear that another
fiolution can be reached by setting the bracket equal to tcro
IT + SKo cos 0^ 0
a
cose 1 ^
rr"
^2 2Ac
The solution for 0 is
s then
We can evaluate the nature of these equibbm by finding iPK/dfi* The

expression <fF/<W is seen from (b) to be
a ~2fro sin 8 4Ao(cos 0 cos 45") sin 0
-2WOCOS0 4bo'(co^8 sin'P)

+ 4irB*co3 0 cos 45"
When 6 = 0 IS substituted, the expression becomes
d*V 1
-.2Wa - 4^V + 4f:a*
Clearly this is a negative quantity, which indicates that the equihbnum

is unstable Now consider the situation where cos0 = 1/vS W/2ha
Firet replace sin fl by 1 coS* 0 in (g)
Now substitute for cos 6:
dS^ -"{il-s:)
Carrying out the products, we get:
-V2 Wa + E!
K
- - + 2i:- - vîr
1)
Collecting terms, we have:
^= 2\/2 Ifa + - y)
To show that positive, we need only demonstrate that
this
is
2K'a > W^/K. We

next impose the condition that the spring is stiff
enough so that 6 does not exceed 90. If this were to happen, we would
require a different type of constraint appearing at this condition, as we
can see in Fig. 10.21. This means that we are considering cases where
cos 0 > 0. In other words from Eq. (e)
J__iL>o " 2Ka

v/2 2Ka y/2
Rearranging, we get:
f<V2
Squaring both sides, we have:
< 2d?
K}
Multiplying by K, we get:
TP
K < 2Kc? (j)
We see inEq. (i) that from this consideration the bracketed quantity
(27W
IFyiC) exceeds zero. Since the remaining term is positive, it
indicates that we have stability.
PROBLEMS
1 Show that the work done by a couple during a virtual displacement 60 is
-(^d)(50) (Fig. 10.22).
S68 INTRODUCTION TO VARIATIONAL MECHANICS
rf'
Figure 10 22
2 Prove that Eq 10 15 13 a sufficient condition for equilibrium for a sjstem of

rigid bodies connected and supported b) smooth pins and sockets or direct
fnctionlesa contacts
3 Hou many digrees of freedom do the following sj-stems possess? IVhat co-
ordinates can be used to locate the sjstem?
(a) A rigid body not constrained space m
4 (b) A rigid bodj constrained to move along a plane surface
(c) The board AB m
FTg 10 23a
A B
Figure 10 23a
(d)The apparatus of problem C in Chapter 5

(e)The suspension in problem 19 in Chapter 5
(0 The spherical bodies shonn m Fig 1023b
may slide along shaft CC, which m turn
rotates about aiis EE Shaft CC ma> also
slide along EE The spmdie EE is on a rotat-
ing platform Give the number of degrees of
freedom and coordinates for a sphere, shaft
CC and spindle EF
If H = 1000 lb and P = 300 lb find the angle 9 for equilibrium in fig 10 24
5 If iFi = 100 lb and TF* = 150 lb find the angle 6 for equibbrium m Fig 10 25
INTRODUCTION TO VARIATIONAL MECHANICS 269
6.
At what elevation h must body A be for equilibrium? Neglect friction,

(a) Take each body as weighing 50 lb. (b) Take body B as weighing 100 lb.
Figure 10.26
7. Do problem 24 in Chapter 5 by the method of virtual work.

8. Do problem 19 in Chapter 5 using the method of virtual work.
9. What is the relation between P and Q for equilibrium in Fig. 10.27?
10. Determine Q for equilibrium in Fig. 10.28. The pulleys are frictionless and
have weights IFi and TFj. The sliding body has weight Wz.
11. Assuming frictionless contacts in Fig. 10.29, determine magnitude of P for
equilibrium.
Figure 10.30
S70 INTRODUCTION TO VARIATIONAL MECHANICS
12 A 30-ft rod weighing SO lb is hinged to a block weighing lOO lb (Fig 10 30)

A force of 100 lb is exerted on the block in a direction up the incline \\ hat is
the angle a for equilibrium Take all surfaces as smooth
13 Find the angle d for equilibrium in terms of the parameters given m Fig 10 31
Neglect friction and the weight of the beam
Figute 10 31 Figure 10 32
14 Determme the angle of inclination of each linkage m Fig 1032 The rollers
move without friction on the support
15 Find the tension in the cord if the bodies have developed their maaraum
fnction (Fig 10 33)
c D
Figure 10 S3 Figure 10 34
16 In Fig 1034, what is the force in member CD of the simple truss? Use the
method of virtual work All members arc of equal length
17 Po problem 6 in Chapter 6 by the method of virtual work
18 In problem 13 m Chapter 6 find the force in member JB by the method of
virtual work
19 Do problem 25 in Chapter 5 by the method of virtual work
20 Rnd the supporting force at A in Fig 10 35 by the method of virtual work
Figure 1QJ5 Figure 10 36

INTRODUCTION TO VARIATIONAL MECHANICS 271
21. In Fig. 10.36, how high up can a man get before the ladder starts to slip? The
coefficient of friction on top is 0.3 and on the bottom support 0.2. Use the
method of virtual work.
22. In Fig. 10.37, what is the maximum value of a for which the beam can be in
equilibrium, assuming n to be the coefficient of friction at both contact points?
Use the method of virtual work.
23. A beam BC of length 15 ft and weight 100 lb is placed against a spring (which
has a spring constant of 10 Ib/in.) and smooth walls and allowed to come to
rest (Fig. 10.38). If the end of the spring is 5 ft away from the vertical wall
when it is not compressed, find by energy methods the amount that the spring
will be compressed.
24. Do problem 5 above by the method of minimizing potential energy.

28. If the springs in Fig. 10.39 are unstretched when 6 = 6d, find the angle 6 when
the weight IK is placed on the system. Use the method of minimizing potential
energy. Top and bottom members have length a. Others have length 2a.
272 INTRODUCTION TO VARIATIONAL MECHANICS
29 If the springs are unstretched when $== So what will B be when the weight W
IS added (Fig 10 40)? Take U 100 lb a *= 1 ft Ai 5 Ib/m A, = 10 ,
Ib/in and So = do
30 When rod in Fig 1041 laintheverticalposition the spring attached to the
wheel by a flexible cord is unstretched Determine all the possible angles 6 for
equilibrium Show which are stable and which are not stable The spring has
a spring constant of 8 Ib/in
31 In Fig 10 42 the spring is unstretched when S 30 At any position of the

pendulum the spring is lionzontal If the spring constant is 50 Ib/in at what
position will the sj-atecti be in equilibrium
32 Find the equilibrium configurations for the8>5tcm of equal bars of length 10
ft and weight W
50 lbs (Fig 10 43) The spring is unstretched when the bars
are horizontal and has a spring constant of 100 Ib/ft
Elements
of Kinematics
11.1 INTRODUCTION
Kinematics is that phase of mechanics concerned

.
with the study of the motion of particles and rigid bodies,

with no consideration of what has caused the motion.
We can consider kinematics as the geometry of motion.
Once it is mastered, we can smoothly proceed to the rela-
tions between the factors causing the motion and the
motion itself. This area of study is called dynamics.
273
)
274 ELEMENTS OF KINEMATICS 11 2
Dynamics can be conveniently separated into the following divisions, all
of nhich i\e will study m this text
1 Dynamics of a single particle (You will remember from our chapters

on statics that a particle is on idealization having no volume but
having mass
2 Dynamics of a system of particles This follows division 1 logically
and forms the basis for the motion of continuous media such as fluid
flow and rigid-body motion
3 Dynamics of a rigid body A large portion of this text concerns itself
with this important part of mechanics
4 Dynamics of a system of rigid bodies
5 Dynamics of a continuous deformable medium One of the most
important cases of this is, of course, the fluid
It IS clear from our opening statements that the particle plays a vital
role in the study of dynamics What is the connection between the particle,
which 13 a completely hypothetical concept, and the finite bodies encoun-
tered in physical problems'^ Briefly it is this In many problems, the size
and shape body are not relevant in the discussion of certain aspect*^
of a
of Its motion, only the mass of the object is significant for such computa
tions For example, in towing a truck up a hill, as shown in Fig 11 1, we
Figure 11 I
would only be concerned with the mass of the truck and not its shape or
size (if we neglect forces from the wind, etc ) * The truck may just as well
be considered a particle in computing the necessary towing force Other
situations were pointed out in Chapter 1, and you are urged to review that
material
PART A Elements of Vector Calculus
11 2 DIFFERENTIATION OF A VECTOR WITH RESPECT TO TIME
In the study of statics, we dealt with vector quantities We found

It convenient to incorporate the directional nature of these quantities
We are neglectiBg the rotational effects of the wheels also
11.2 ELEMENTS OF KINEMATICS 275
in a certain notation and set of operations. These operations could be

degenerated to the familiar algebraic operations on scalars in most cases.
\^ê called the totality of these very useful formulations vector
algebra.
It once again necessary to expand our thinking from scalars to vectors

is
this time for the operation of differentiation and integration with respect
to time.
For scalars, we are concerned only with the variation m magnitude of
some quantity which is changing with time. The scalar definition of the
derivative, then, is given as:
dfjt)
lim
fit
' + At) -f(ty
11.1
dt L At
This leads to another function of time, which may be differentiated in

this manner, and the process may be repeated again and again, for suitable
functions, to give higher derivatives.
In the case of a vector, the variation in time may be a change in magni-
tude or may be a change in direction or both. A vector that varies in this
way is sometimes indicated as F{t). The formal definition of the derivative
of a vector F with respect to time has the same form as above:
dF
= y Fit -f At) - Fity
lim 11.2
at ^^-*0 At
If F has no change in direction during the time interval, this operation

differs little from the scalar case
However, when this is not the situa-
tion, we find, for the derivative of z
F, a new vector having a magnitude
as well as a direction that is different
from F itself. It is this directional
consideration which can be some-
what troublesome.
Let us consider the rate of change
of the position vector of a particle
with respect to time; this rate is
defined as the velocity vector, V, of
the particle. Following the defini-
tion given by Eq. 11.2, we have:
^= lim r
K^ + AQ - rjt)
11.3
dt
The position vectors given in the bracket are

shown in Fig. 11.2. The sub-
traction of these two vectors gives rise to the vector Ar, which is shown
as a chord connecting two points along the trajectory of the
particle. Hence
we can say;
S76 ELEMENTS OF KJNEMATJCS 111 2
,
Ar
lim 77 ijm -r~r.
dt A& at
As A( goes to zero, the direction of Ar approaches tangency to the trajectory

at position r(0 and approaches As in magnitude Thus in the limit, Ar/As
becomes a umt vector t tangent to the trajectory We then can say for
the above equation
dr ,, ds
114
Therefore, drjdt leads to a vector having a magmtude equal to the speed of

the particle and a direction tangent to the trajectoryKeep m mind that
there can be any angle between the position vector and the trajecto'y
Students seem to want to limit this angle to 90, which actually restnets
you to a circular path
Let us now consider the differentiation of vectors undergoing certain
algebraic operations that were presented m Chapter 2 on statics Examine
first the sum of two vectors, A{t) and B(t) The derivative of this sum can
be earned out by the following three steps
a)
dt 4,-<i L J
In step 2 we have ued the condition that the limit of the sum is equal to
the sum of the limits This and other theories concerning the limits may be
earned over from the scalar theory of real vanables, since each vector
function 15 expressible in terms of three scalar functions The taking of
sum of vectors is, therefore, a distnbutive operation
the derivative of the
Consider next the derivative of the dot product of the vectors A and B
Using our theorems on limits, we have
d
Adding and subtracting /f(f + At) B(t) m the numerator, we have

df -
I>)
Rearranging the numerator, we get

/
'
Ait + AO \B{t + At) BU)] + \A{t + M) - ^(01 B{t)
lim
At
Thus taking the limit, we write;
diA B) j dB ,
dA 11.6
It may similarly be shown for the derivative of the cross product that;
^JAxB) = Ax
dl
^
dt
,dA
dl
X B 11.7
Finally, consider the derivative of the product of a scalar function of

time and a vector function of time. It will be left as an exercise to show
that;
Thus in differentiating the various types of products involving vectors,

we proceed in a manner analogous to the differentiation of the product of
scalars that we learned in elementary calculus.
11.3 INTEGRATION OF A VECTOR WITH RESPECT TO TIME
Let us now consider the integration of a vector. We have shown

above that for the vector A{t) we can generally find a vector B{t) by the
process of differentiation, as we defined it earlier. That is:
dA{i)
n(i) = 11.9
We can, on the other hand, proceed in the reverse order. For a suitable
vector B{t), we can determine the vector A{t) up to a constant vector. In
other words, A{t) is said to be the integral of B(t) and is given mathemat-
ically as:
A{t) = j B{t) dt 11.10
Let us suppose now that we have a second relation:
We can say, assuming B{ty is

B(0' _ ^
a suitable function, that:
Aity = J B{ty dt 11.12

278 ELEMENTS OF KINEMATICS 1113
Furthermore using the distributive rule of differentiation we may form

the relation
j^(M + A) = -^ + -^- B+B 111 !
The definition of integration then stipulates for the above equation that
A-^ A = (B A- B)dl
j
Replacing the left Side of the above equation using Eqs 1110aidlll2
wc ha\ e
j
Bdt +j B
f {B JrB)dt 1111
rftus if /rom tht disfrt&idiie nature of dxêrenhaUon that flu. operation

/oHoioa
of tnlegralion must also be dtstnbuUtc
Now consider the product of /(/) a scalar function of time and C a
constant vector T\ e know that m differentiating only the function /(/) is
involved Thus
Since C IS not affected during differentiation it must not be affected dur

mg an integration Thus in integrating C a constant vector times /(f)
a scalar function of time we may extract C from under the integral sign
and proceed with the integration by methods of scalar calculus
C(iH}dl = C 1116
j j c(l)dl
Similarly if we have a scalar constant C times a variable vector A{1)
we can say
CAIfi iU=C f Ail) dl 11 17
J
We can furtiier demonstrate that with a constant vector C we can
perform the following steps
fc Vit)dt=c fvietdl (a)
I
Cx Hl)dl = Cx
J
Hl)dl (I.) IlM
How cun we precetd to evaluate the integral of a vector which is a

function of tmit' Using ? (f) to demonstrate the steps wc can by employ
iiig the dislnbultve rule resolve f(0 into rectangular components and
replace the sii glc inlegritioii by three itiUgt itKnsa' follows
1,(0' dl+ \,(0/dl +j y.iOl^dt

f Ail) dt <=
f f
Employing the rule in Eq. 11.16, where constant vectors are extracted
from the integral sign, we then have:
J
V{1) dt = if V,it) dt+j
f Vît) dl + k
f V,il) dl 11.19
Thus the integration of the vector has been replaced by three scalar inte-
grations of the type you have studied in calculus classes.
If we are integrating between limits ti and ti, we can show that the fol-
lowing relation is valid:
B(t) dl = A(h) - A{h) 11.20

ff
provided that dA/dt = B.
These operations of differentiation and integration of vectors will suffice
for the remainder of the text and, indeed, for most situations in mechanics.
We shall now proceed with the study of kinematics.
PROBLEMS
1. Show that {d/dl){A X B) = A X (dB/dt) -f {dA/dt) X B.
2. The vector A{t) is given as 16iî + lOtj 16fe. (a) What is the derivative of
20PA with respect to time? (b) What is the integral of this quantity? Do
part (a) in two ways.
3. The vector B is known to be 6i d- 3j. What is the derivative of the dot product
of B and A{t) of the last problem? What is the derivative of the cross product
of B X A? What are the integrals of these quantities?
4. The following vectors are functions of time;
C(0 = lOH - (2P -f S)j
D{1) = -ZIH + 6k
What is the time derivative of the sum of these vectors? Determine the integral
of the difference of these vectors. Determine the derivative of the dot and cross
products of these vectors. Determine the integral of the dot and cross products
of these vectors.
5. Integrate the vector 6i-i 4- 4ffe between the limits t = 2 to f = 4. Give the
result as a single vector.
6. Integrate the vector .4 = (13 -f- 6l-)J -p 16fc from the time f = 3 seconds to
the time ( = 5 seconds. What is the derivative of /f at < = 10 seconds?
PART B . Derivatives of Vectors Fixed in Rigid Bodies
11.4 CONCEPTS OF TRANSLATION AND ROTATION OF RIGID BODIES
In order to enable us to make general conclusions for the particle,

it will be useful to consider certain topics in rigid-body motion. For pur-
poses of dyn-inucs a rigid body is considered to be composed of a continuous

distribution of particles having mutual distances that are inextensible TVe
may profitably define two simple types of motion of a ngid body
1 Iranslahon If a body moves so that all the particles have the same
velocity relative to ?omc reference at any instant of time the body
IS said to be in translation relative
to this reference This velocity it
should be understood, may vary

wath time and so may be repre*
sented as r(0 Accordingly trans-
lational motion does not necessarily
mean motion along a straight line
For example, the body shovm in
Fi^re 11 3 Hg 1 1 3 IS in translation because at
each instant, each particle in the
body has a common velocity A
characteristic of translational motion is that an> straight line in the
body always retains an orientation parallel to its onginal direction
during such a motion
2 Rofahon a body moves so that along some straight line all the
If
particles of a body, or a hypothetical extension of the body, have a
zero velocity relative to some reference, the body is said to be in
rotation relative to this reference The line of stationary particles is
called the arts of rotation
We shall now consider carefully how we measure the rotation of a body

A single revolution is defined as the amount of rotation m either a clockwise
or a counterclockwise direction about the axis of rotation that bnngs the
body back to its original position Partial revolutions can conveniently be
measured by observing any line segment uch as A 5 in the body (Fig 114)
from a viewpoint directed along the axis of rotation (Fig 115) The lines
Figure 11 4
at the beginning and end of the motion are shown projected onto a plane
perpendicular to the axis of rotation and extended to form an angle
/3'.
rotation cannot change, the

Since the radial distance from the axis of
points A and B segment must traverse circular paths during
of the line
the rotation about 0, as is shown. The radial line OA sweeps through
an
angle |3 during the motion. It may be easily shown that the angle of
the line segments AB and A'B' equals this angle /3. Areas AFB and A'F'B'
formed by the radial lines from 0, the circular arcs about 0, and the line
segments AB and A'B' are congruent, since there can be no changes in
this projected geometry during the partial revolution. Thus, in considering
triangles DAE and OA'E, we see that angles ^DAE and iiÊA'O must
be equal. Furthermore, since angles 2l^.AED and iÂ'EO are also equal, the
triangles DAE and OA'E are similar, and we can conclude that /3 = /3'.
Thus the projections of all line segments onto a plane perpendicular to
the axis of rotation rotate through the same angle. This angle, /3, then
serves as the measure of rotation.
In Chapter 1 of statics, we pointed out that finite rotations, although
they have a magnitude and a direction along the axis of rotation, are not
vectors, since the superposition of rotations is not commutative and there-
fore does not add according to the parallelogram law, which, you will
a reciuii'ement of all vector (luantities. However, it may be shown
recall, is
that as rotations become infinitesimal, they satisfy in the limit the com-
mutative law of addition, so that infinitesimal rotations d(3 are vector
quantities. Therefore, the angular velocity is a vector (juantity represented
as 03, which has a magnitude dji/dt and a direction parallel to the axis of
rotation with a sense in accordance with the right-hand screw rule. Note
that this definition does not prescribe the line of action of this vector, for
the line of action may be considered at positions other than the axis of
rotation. It depends on the situation (as will be discussed in the next
section).
11.5 DIFFERENTIATION OF A VECTOR

FIXED IN EITHER A TRANSLATING OR ROTATING RIGID BODY
Let us consider the derivative of a vector fixed* in a rigid body

for the cases of translation and rotation, respectively. Figures 11.6 and
11.7 indicate both situations.
The vector pt, connects two particles of the body. For translation, all
particles have the same velocity at any time t, and hence the vector p(,
* In the succeeding pages, we shall eonsiiler as fi'ced vectors
only the obvious case
of displacement vectors between pai tides in a rigid
body. In an example at the end of
this section, however, we shall show that other
vectors, such as the angular velocity
yector,_ may at times be considered fixed in a rigid
body. For this reason, we shall
irom time to time generalize our results to any vector A fixed in a rigid body
7
2B2 ELEMENTS OF KINEMATICS ST1 5
cannot change m magnitude or direction for this motion, since the endpoints
must alv.a>s retain the same relative orientation Thus, dpti/dl =* 0 for
translation In general, for any vector A fixed in a translating rigid body,
dA/dt = 0
Fi(!t)Te It 6 Fjgute 11
Consider non ngid body *v m

pure rotation ivith angular \ elocity u A
stationary reference is chosen so tlut us origin is somewhere on the avis of
rotation as is ll 7 A position vector r from this origin

sliown in Fig
locales pirlicle P of the rigid body lliis vector, m elTect, connects tivo
points of a rigid body and is thus fixed in a rigid body Particle P must
always retain constant distances from other particles the body, and so m
it must base a CQntttnt radul distance from the axis of rotation Clearly,
particle P moves along a circular trajectory of radius [rj am a, as is mdi

cited in Pig 117 TT e h u e already show n in Eq 11 4 that the derivative
of a position vector with respect to lime is a velocity vector given by the
following relation
dr ds
dt
"
In this mstance, ds/dt can Vw given as a, a step tViat y&u pinb-

ably remember from your work in physics Thus wc have
Idljr) sin a et 11 21
dt
If tlis IS not familur it imyJw quickly shown

m follows For a circul&r path of radius (rfsina,
wc liavc for d& m radians
ds
JO
jr{ sma
llcnci
a ^ a juld sin **
dt dt
But the right side of the above equation is simply the cross product
X r. Thus we have the important equation:
<0 X r 11.22
It is from the above relation that the particular orientation of the

clear
xyz reference at 0 has no significance other
than possibly giving a set of directions for the
orthogonal components of the vectors involved.
Suppose we now choose another point 0'
along the axis of rotation for this same ex-
ample and set up a new reference x'y'z' (Fig.
11.8). The displacement vector D along the
axis of rotation connects the origins 0 and O'.

A new position vector r' is shown from O' to
the same particle P, and from our initial dis-
cussion we can say;
dr
= CO X r = F
di
and;
But V and V represent the velocity of the same particle relative to station-
ary references and so must be equal from purely a physical argument.
This equality can easily be shown mathematically when we first note that:
4 ^ D +y
Taking the cross product of each term in the above equation with co, we
get;
coXr = coXD-kcoXr'
But CO X D= 0, since co and D are parallel. Thus we see that:
CO Xr = CO X r'
Hence; V=V'
This shows that either computation
yields the same velocity (as is to be
expected). We may
then state that the velocity of a particle relative to a
reference for which the body
is in pure rotation is properly given by
" X r where co is the angular velocity
of the body and r is the position vector
from any point along the axis
of rotation to the particle in question.
Let us next consider the
more general case of a vector fixed anywhere
j .
S84 ELEMENTS OF KINEMATICS ins
m a rotatmg rigid body In Fig 11 9 vector pis shown connecting any two
particles 1 and 2 m the body We wish first to compute dpfdt To do this
draw position vectors from 0 along
the axis of rotation to the particles 1
and 2 at the extremities of p IV e can
then say
d/i
uX ri (a)
di
in ' X rj {b) 11 23
dl
Subtracting (a) from (b) ne form the

relation
rO = X - rO
^ (rz (ri
But rj r, ]$ clearly the diiplace-

inent vector p Thus we have for the
derivative of p with respect to tunc
isi ' if Xp 11^1

dt
Since the vector u can be moved to intersect p when we carry out the cross
product tt IS a free vector for the operation of difTcrentiatingp with respect
to time
Consider now any two particles 1 and 2 moving m any manner in space
We can say for each particle
dnidt - I , (a)
drjdt == 1 j (b)
Subtracting Eqs (a) from (b) ive get
1^-
If we call C the instantaneous displacement vector between particles I
and 2 (and tl us equal to r* n) we can say

dC U2>
di
The diScroice between the icloctl iec/or o/ tv.o particles ts called the relatiie
leloaty vector between the parhdes The above equation therefore shows
that the denvahee of a displacement ledor between onj particles 1 and t
plies the velocity cj particle 2 relative to particle J
Thus m the case of the displacement vector in a rotating rigid body,

apparent that the relative velocity between particles 1 and 2 can be

it is
given as w X pi.s where pi,2 is the displacement vector fixed in the body
between particles 1 and 2. We can then say:
= Fa - Fl = (F,e02.1 = X P1.2 11.26
It should now be clear why the earlier development of the velocity of

particle a rotating body, given by the equation F = w X r, required
P in
that r go from a point 0 along the axis of rotation to the point P. Tech-
nically, the derivative dr/di is the relative velocity between two particles,
since it is simply a special case of the expression dp/dl for which this gen-
eral conclusion was reached. However, for this special case, one of the parti-
cles, being on the axis of rotation at 0, is stationary in xyz, and so the
relative velocity of the other particle P
to this particle at 0 becomes the
velocity of the particle P relative to the xyz reference.
We shall make one more conclusion for a vector fixed in a rigid body.
Let us suppose that the body in this discussion is made to rotate about
another parallel axis of rotation and with the same angular velocity u.
Figure 11.10
What is then the derivative dp/dtl Figure 11.10 illustrates the new situa-
tion. With O' now as a fixed point, we can say for the new position vectors
r{andr2:
^ X r,' (.)
^=,.XrJ (b)
Taking the difference and noting that rh r'l

= p, we then have:
dp
f = xp 11.27
Ihus we get the same derivative for

p when the body is made to rotate
about another axis of rotation but with the same w. We may conclude
rom this that the derivative
of vector p fixed in a rigid rotating body depends
S86 ELEMENTS OF KINEMATICS 5n 5
only on the angular leloctly vector w, taken as a free lector and Vie lector p
itself, and does not oi all depend on the actual line of achon of the axis of
rotation Clearly, the same conclusion fr^lous for the relative motion betn een
two particles of a rigid rotating body
Honeier, in the ease of the velocity of n particle re) itive to an xyz
reference, such as 6X1515 in Fig IJ 11, the above conclusions do not apply
It 15 true that the derivative of the displacement vector from 0 to P

IS the same for the motion about either axis of rotation, and thus it is true
that the relative velocity of particle P to particle 0 is the same for the
motion about either axis of rotation However, it is only when 0 is station-
ary in the xyz reference that xp gives the velocity of P relative to the
xijz reference only for axis of rotation (1), therefore, that dp/di (which
It is
then becomes dr/dl) gives the velocity of the particle P

Although wc have conliiiect ourselves in this discussion to displacement
vectors between particles m a rotating rigid body, the results can be gen-
eralized for any vector A fixed in a rotating body Thua for any such
rigid
vector we have
dA
dt
u>x A 11 28
where is a free vector and the hue of action of the avis of rotation is
not significant The following example illustrates such a vector A which

IS not a displacement v ector
Example: In Fig 1112a shaft AB is spinning with constant velocity :

within its bearings This system is mounted on a platform which rotates
xyr, stationary
I
[i
Figure 11 12
with velocity i relative to xyz. AVhat is the time derivative of the vector
02 ?
The vector Ui has a constant magnitude and must always have a direc-
tion along the centerline of shaft AB. It can then be considered as fixed
to the rigid body AB, along its centerline. Therefore, the derivative of coj
is evaluated by considering the total angular velocity of the body AB,
which is 0 i -{- C02 . Thus:
dui
(0i 02) X 02 = 0t X 02 (a)
dl
Physically it is clear that the angvlar velocity ui is forced to change direc-

tion hy the constraints present as a result of the rotation 0 i of the platform and
has therefore a time variation given by Eg. (a).
11.6 A VECTOR FIXED IN A RIGID BODY OF GENERAU MOTION
We
have just considered tyvo simple motions of a body, namely,
translationand rotation. We will now demonstrate that at each instant,
the motion of any rigid body
can be thought of as the super-
position of both a translational
and a rotational motion. This
fact will permit us to apply the
derivative relations of the pre-
vious sections to a vector fixed
in a rigid body having any
motion.
Consider for simplicity a Figure 11.13
body moving in a plane. Posi-
tions of the body have been
shown at times t and {t -f At) in Fig. 11.13. Let us select any point B of
the body. Imagine that the body is displaced without rotation from its
position at time t to the position at time {t
-f At) so that reaches its B
correct final position B'. This is shown by Alte- To reach the
correct
orientation for (t At), we must now rotate the body an angle A(^ about
an axis of rotation going through point B.
J88 ELEMENTS OF KINEMATICS l-'l?
What difference would occur had we chosen some other point C for such
a procedure For this consider Fig 1114 in uhich we start from the same
orientation at time t and arrl^ e at the orientation at (( + ^0 by first trans-
lating the body so that point C is m

the correct position C Next tie rotate
about an axis through C to reach the correct position for the entire body
It IS apparent from the diagram that the displacement Aflc differs from
^Rb but that the rotation is the same, and so m
general All mil depend on
the point chosen while the amount of rolalwn will be the same for all such
pomta
Consider now the ratios All/At and A^/At These may be taken as an
average translational velocity and average rotational speed, respectively,
of the bodj which we could superpose to get from the imtial position to
,
the final position in the time A/ If we go to the limit by letting At~*0

we have tnslanlaneoua translational and rolaltonal velocities which when
superposed, give the insianfoneoiis moiton of the body Since the chosen
point C in the previous discussion undergoes no motion during the
time At other than the translation, we can conclude that, m the limit, the
translational velocity corresponds to the actual tnslaninneous velocity of
the chosen point at tune t The angular velocity to be used is the same for
'll! points and is the angular velocity of the body at time I In the Appendiv
the preceding argument is earned out for the general motion of a rigid
body m space We can then make the following statements for the desenp-
tion of the general motion of a ngid body relative to some reference at
time t These statements compnse Chasle's theorem
1 Selectany point B m the body Assume that all particles of the
body have at the time t a velocity equal to Vb, the actual velocity
of the point B
2 Superpose a pure rotational velocity u about an axis of rotation
going through point B u
TVith the proper the actual instantaneous
motion of the body is determined and u will be the same for all
points B which might be chosen Thus only the translational velocity

and the axis of rotation change when different points B are chosen
The derivative of a vector A fixed in a rigid body moving relative to
some reference xyz can now be given Since the translation contributes no
vxnation of A with time, as we pointed out earlier, we have the result
dA/dl ~ o> XA
where w is the instantaneous angular velocity of the body
11 7 MOTION OF A PARTICLC IN A RiCIO BODY
We may readily use what we have just learned in ascertaining

the velocity of a particle fixed in a ngid body Consider the rigid body
Figure 11.15 X
shown which has an angular velocity w. Let us assume also

in Fig. 11.15
that the instantaneous velocity of point B is known. From the work in
the previous section, we know that the motion of the rigid body has been
completely specified and that the velocity of each particle in the body is
determined. Let us evaluate the velocity of particle of the rigid body. D
The velocity of is the Dsuperposition of the velocity Vb, which corresponds
to B, plus the motion relative to B due to a rotation of angular velocity u,
which has an axis of rotation going through B. The latter velocity is simply
CO X p where p is the vector from B to D. Thus:
Vd = Vb d" CO Xp 11.29
Furthermore, if we know or can ascertain the acceleration of the parti-

cle B, which is dVBldt, and the angular acceleration of the rigid body, du/dt,
we may readily establish the acceleration of a particle in the rigid body by
employing the preceding relation. Using dots to indicate derivatives with
respect to time, where ao ~ Vd and ub = Vb, we can say:
aD = aBd-coXp-l-coXp
But p is CO X p, since p is fixed in the rigid body. Therefore:
ctd = Ofl + CO X p + CO X (co X p) 11.30
You should by no means memorize these results but evaluate them start-
ing from Chasles theorem. Doing it in this manner will better insure that
you will evaluate the terms properly. We shall now consider several exam-
ples illustrating these formulations.
Example 1 ; A wheel of diameter 2 ft rolls without slipping so that the

hub moves with a velocity of 50 ft/sec (Fig. 1 1.16). Compute the angular
velocity of the wheel.
Figure 11.16
590 ELEWeNTS Of ÎNEMMtCS 111 7
In this particular case we have & ngul body moving space with m
the velocity of twoof its partidesknonn Tlms^tf * 50ian{l owingtothe
no-slipping restriction I ^ 0 Wemayassumethatthccntirebodyhasa
translational velocity I 50i plus a rotational velocity u about an ax s
going through B
The veloeit) of point I must then be
^ 50. -1- Uk) % i~j)
where w is and p is ~~j But I j * 0 which permits us to solve for
50. + 0
4 S' 50 rad/sec
On the other hand we can employ point / so as to give the entire body
a velocity
0 plus a rotational velocity
f ii about an ana going
through A Solving for the motion I * we have
Fj * 50. = 0 + i^k) X ij)
where the vector p now goes from A to B The result is again 50 rad
per sec
Examples In the device in Fig 1117 5nd the velocity of point B and
the angular velocities of both bars
Figure 11 17
We shall first solve for the veloaty at pm B It w clear that the direc-
tion of this velocity resulting from pure rotation about C must be in the
positive Y direction at this instant Thus
Vs = Vaj (a)
Since the velocity of pm A la due to pure rotation abo it is evaluated as
Fa = X p = (2fc) X {-}) = 2. (b)
But points A and B are points of a rigid body (the bar AB) and therefore
the distance from A to B
must not diange This will be true if the velocity
components at A and B along the direction of the bar are equal These
components are illustrated Fig 11 18 Thus m
3 (c)
*= 6 ft/seo
11.7
elements of kinematics 291
^
Figure 11.18
The angular velocity of bar CB can readily be computed, since:
Vb WCB X PCB (d)
6y = X ( {) = ~4>cBj ()
0CB = 6 rad/sec
Getting the angular velocity of the bar AB is simple when we note that
it is a rigid body moving in space in which two points
of the body have a
known motion. Using Chasles theorem, we can then say:
Fb = Ta + AB X PaB (f)
Using Âsk for uab, we have:
6/ = 2i + {<l>ABk) X (3t + j) (g)
This becomes:
Qj = 2i + SipABj 4>ABi (h)
The scalar equations are:
6 = 3âb 2 = 4'ab
which gives u's the same result;
4>ab = 2 rad/sec
We could have adopted another viewpoint in computing the angular

velocity of AB. The derivative of the vector pab fixed in the bar gives AB
the relative velocity of point B to A. Thus:
dpAB/dt Vb Va (i)
The velocities Vb and Va are known, and the derivative of a vector fixed
in a rigid body is uab X pab, thus resulting in the very same Eq. (f).
Example 3: A
vehicle moves along a straight line at a speed of 50 ft/sec
and accelerating at 30 ft/sec' along this line (Fig. 11.19).
is rod ex- A AB
tends from the vehicle and is undergoing angular rotation and acceleration
in the plane of the page. At the instant of interest, the rod is vertical
Determine the velocity and acceleration of the particle at B relative to
the ground, to which the XYZ reference shown in the diagram is fixed.
S92 ELEMEHTS Of <tNEMATiCS 1117
Figure 11 19
Here n e hav e a rigid body AB moving so that the velocity and accelera
tion of Que point rl of the body is known as is the angular velocity and
avceleration of the body Thus we can say
B = f X +w Xp - + 5i X (- lOk) - SOj + 50/ - lOOj ft/sec
\i 0
Xp + X (wXp)
aa - 30y + lOi X (-10k) + 5 X [oi X (-lOk)]
j
08 30j + 100^ + 2o0k 130y + 2c>0k ft see*
In bucceecling parts of the chapter, other approaches to determine the

velocity and acceleration of a particle mil be presented Usually the data
available and the results desired will dictate the avenue of approach At
other times you mil have a choice of altematne procedures Wo hope that
the need to make such choices mil not cause dismay but mil motivate
you to analy ze the problem v* ith even greater care and enable > ou to choose
the most cffectn e and direct approach of the ev oral alternati\es available
SUMMARY OF PART B
1 A vector A dsed m a rigid body that is translating relative to

a reference undergoes no change in magnitude or direction for
tlus reference The Umc rale of change of this vector therefore
IS zero for this reference
2 A V ector A fcved in a rigid body that is undergoing pure rota
tion relative to some reference has a time derivative relative
to that reference which is g^ven as
dAjdi wX /f (>
The line of action of w is not significant for this calculation,

nor 15 the line of action of the aMS of rotation
3 The motion of a rigid body can be described by a translational
motion plus a pure rotation relative to a reference Hence the
time denv ativ e of a vector A fixed in a rigid body mo^ mg m a
general manner relative to a reference is, for this reference
dA/dt ^ uXA (b)

4. The velocity of any point B in a rigid body can then be given

as the superposition of a velocity Va corresponding to the actual
velocity of point A plus a velocity due to rotation about an axis
of rotation going through the point A. Mathematically;
Vb = Va + u X Pas (c)
The acceleration of the particle can be found by differentiating
the above equation:
as = 04 +w X Pab + w X (w X Pad) (d)
PROBLEMS
7. Is the motion of the cabin of a ferris wheel rotational or translational if the
wheel moves at uniform speed and the occupants cause no disturbances? WTiy?
8. A cylinder rolls without slipping down an inclined surface. What is the axis of
rotation at any instant? Why? How is this axis moving?
9. A body is spinning about an axis having direction cosines I = 0.5, m = 0.5,
n - 0.707, as shown in Fig. PI 1.1. The angular speed is 50 radians per sec-
ond. What is the velocity of a point in the body having a position vector
r = 6f -f- ft?
Figure Pll.l
10. In the above problem, what is the relative velocity between a point in the body
at position a: = y = 6, z = 3, and a point in the body at position x = 2,
10,
y = 3, 2 = 0? Coordinates are in units of ft.
11. If the body in problem 9 is given an additional angular velocity to = 6j -p 10/c
rad/sec, what is the direction of the axis of rotation? Compute the velocity
at r = lOj + 3fc ft if the axis of rotation goes through the origin.
12. Two points move in space with the following velocities at a certain time t.
Vi = 6i + lOi Vi = 3/c
(a) What the relative velocity between the particles?

is
(b) TTTiat the angular velocity of a line going through the particles
is
if they
have positions ri =
3i and rj = lOi at the instant I?
294 ELEMENTS OF KINEMATICS
13
A cjjinder rotates about its eenterline with an angular speed of (lOO/ir) rev
olulions/second (Fig Pll 2) What is the velocity of point b If the cylinder
IS now made to rotate instead about BB with (1 (K)/t) revolutions/second what
13 the velocity of b Determine the relative velocity between points 5 and o

for both axes
14 A wheel IS rolling along at 50 ft/sec without slipping (Fig Pll.3) Whatuthe

angular speed UTiat is the velocity of point B on the nm of the wheel?
15 ^Vhat IS the angular acceleration of the disc-i e <*i^hown rotating in Pig

PlI 4 with an angular spe^ of 10 rad/'sec in a fork which itself rotates with a
speed of 50 rad/sec
16
A disc mounted on shaft AB rotates with an angular speed of (20 V) rev/mm

on a platform which rotates on beannp CD with a speed of (40/ir/ rci/nun
(Fig Pll 5) IFhat IS the angular acceleration of the disc
ELEMENTS OF KINEMATICS 295
17.
A vehicle moves down the incline at a speed of 50 ft/sec (Fig. P11.6). shaft A
but have a spin of 5 rad/sec about the
and platform move with the vehicle
"
centerline AB, which remains vertical. What is the velocity of point on D

the platform at the instant it is in the YZ plane, as shown in the diagram?
18. In problem 17 shaft AB is given the additional motion of swinging in the YZ

plane with an angular speed of 10 rad/sec (Fig. P11.7). Compute the velocity of
point D
on the edge of the platform at the instant shaft AB
is vertical. The
point D
is in such a position at this instant that the radial line is parallel DB
to the Xaxis. What is the angular acceleration of the platform?
19. In problem 17 compute the acceleration of point D if the vehicle A is known

to have a deceleration of 5 ft/sec at the instant BD is parallel to the F axis.
20. In problem 18 compute the acceleration of point D. The vehicle at A has a
uniform velocity at the instant that D
is in the position shown.
21. A flexible cord is wrapped around a spool and is pulled at a velocity of 10 ft/sec
relative to the ground (Fig. PI 1.8). If there is no slipping, what is the velocity
''
of points 0 and D1
22.
z
A rod moves in the plane of the paper in such a way that end has a speed of A
10 ft/sec (Fig. P11.9). What is the velocity of
point B of the rod when the rod
IS inclined at 45 to the horizontal?
5
is at the upper supporting edge.
S96 ELEMENTS OF KtNEMAUCS
23. A bar moves in the plane of thepaperso that end A has a velocity of 20 ft/sec
and decelerates at a rate of 10 ft/sec* (Fig PIl 10) TVhat is the velocity and
acceleration of point C when BA is at 30 to the horizontal?
Figure PU U
24 A wheel rotates with an angular speed of 20 rad/sec (Fig FIl 11) A connecting
rod connects point A on the wheel with a slider at B Compute the angular
\elocity of the connecting rod and the velocity of the slider when the apparatus
IS mthe position shown in the diagram
2S< Shown in Fig PU 12 are a piston connecting rod, and crankshaft of an engine
The engine is rotating at 3000 rpm At the position show n, w hat is the v elocity
of pm A relative to the engine block and what is the angular velocity of the
connecting rod^
Figure
26. In Fjg PlI 13, find the velocity of point B relative to the ground The wheel
rolls w ithout slipping Also find theangular velocity of the slotted barm winch
the point B
of the wheel slides nlicn 0 of the bar is 30
27. Find the acceleration of point B rclottve to the ground in problem 20
28 In problem 20, slippage at the contact surface makes the velocity of the wheel
at the contact point 5 ft/scc to the right TiSTiat is the velocity of point B and
the angular velocity of the bar?
PART C. General Evaluation of Derivatives
11.8 INTRODUCTORY REMARKS
In Part evaluated the time derivative of a vector that is

B we
fixed in a rigid body moving in any manner
relative to a reference. We
shall now take up the general case of a vector that is not fixed in a rigid
system.
Consider the simple situation in which we
first know the position vector r
to a particle as a function of time in the form:

r{t) = x{t)i + 2/(0/ + z(0fc 11-31
where x{t), y(t), and z(t) are scalar functions of time. We can differentiate
this vector with respect to time in the following straightforward manner:
F= i)(0i + 2/(0/ + i(0k n.32
Furthermore, the acceleration becomes:

a = xit)i + 2/(0/ + z{t)k 11..33
By such a procedure note that we have formulated velocity and accelera-

tion in terms of components parallel to the coordinate axes.
We do not always know the variation of the position vector with time
in the form 11.31, Furthermore, it may be that the components of velocity
and acceleration that we desire are not those parallel to a fixed Cartesian
reference. The evaluation of F and a for certain other circumstances will
be considered in the follo\ving sections.
11.9 VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION IN TERMS OF THE ANGULAR MOTION

AND ELONGATION OF THE POSITION VECTOR
Rather than consider the coordinates of the particle as we did in

the previous section, we shall in this section, for the purpose of evaluating
the velocity and acceleration of the particle, be concerned with the rota-
tion and elongation of the position vector to the particle. We begin by ex-
pressing the position vector in the following manner:
r = k|r 11.34
where f is the unit vector in the radial direction. Therefore, in taking the
derivative of r we must use the product rule:
dr
H.3.'
dt
Since the vector f is of fixed magnitude, the time variation of this vectoi
can be found if we imagine this vector to
be fixed in a hypothetical rigic
body having an instantaneous angular velocity u corresponding to that

of the position vector r We have already shown that the denvative of
such a vector is u cross the vector Thus the above equation becomes
Since (rf IS a scalar, the last erpression in this equation can be written as
u X lr}f and is hence o> x r ITius
The term d[rj/dl represents the rate of gro\\lh of the vector r in the
direction of r and is hence the simple scalar time denvative r The term
X r repreenls the time variation of r due only to the rigid body"
angular velocity of r For any other vector ne would then have, by this
approach, dj4/dt A/f +
<>: x y1, where is the ng u oody angular ve-
locity of the \ector A This procedure will prove useful later

To find the acceleration of the particle, we may difTercntiate Eq 11 37
once again
But ^ IS X f, as wc e'cplamed earlier, and substituting from Eq 11 37

for r, we get a rather long equation
X r +X ( X r)
If r 18 of constant magnitude as is often the case in mechanical equipment,

Eqs 11 37 and 11 39 degenerate considerably to something rather useful
Thus
F=wXr (a)
a = Xr+x(Xr)
(b) 11 40
can be thought of as connecting

Actually, smee r is of constant length, it
two particles in a hypothetical rigid body having angular velocity u and

angular acceleration w corresponding to that of the line segment, vector
r itself One of the particles for this viewpoint is at the origin and has
a velocity and acceleration of zero We can then see that Eqs 11 40(a)
and II 40(b) can be thought of os special cases of Eqs II 29 and II 30
respectively, from Chasles theorem relating velocities and accelerations of
particles m rigid bodies The following example will illustrate how we can
use this formulation
Example A particle swings around axis AA at a constant angular speed
wi of 10 rad/sec while the platform on which the axis is fixed rotates with a
11.9
Figure 11.20
speed oii of 5 rad/sec as shown in

Fig. 11.20. Find the velocity and ac-
celeration of the particle relative the ground (shown &sXYZ).
The position vector to the particle is of fixed length, so we can say;
V= to X r (a)
where w is the total angular velocity of the position vector. Therefore,

this becomes:
V= (<0i -|- (Oi) X 3fc = ( lOf d" 5fc) X 3fe
Solving, we get: V= 30j
To get the acceleration we differentiate Eq. (a) with respect to time

to get Eq. 11.40(b). Let us now consider what d must be. The angular
velocities wi and wz are of constant magnitude, but owing to the manner
of constraint, the direction of i changes as a result of the rotation (O 2
and, as was described in the Example of Section 11.5, we have:
(i = Wz X i (b)
Thus the acceleration is:
a = (wz X Wi) X 3fc -f (i + 02)

( X [(wi -f Wz) X 3fc] (c)
Inserting values, we have:
a = [S/c X (-lOi)] X3k + (-lOi + 5k) X [(-lOi + 5k) X 3k]
Solving, we write:
a = -50y X 3fc -h (-lOi + 5k) X 30i
a = 300i 300fc (j)
We shall show in Part D how this problem can be solved in a simpler

manner by using two references rather than the one we have employed
here. However, the knowledge of the procedure of this section, combined
with the proper use of multi-references, will afford you powerful tools for
the solution of complex kinematics problems.
'll 10 VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION IN TERMS OF PATH VARIABLES
1q the first section of Part C we formulated velocity and accelera

tion for the case where the rectangular coordinates of a particle are known
ns functions of time Isext we considered the elongation and angular mo
tion of the position vector itself m evaluating velocity and acceleration of
a particle AV e now explore yet anotlicr approach m which the formula
tions are carried out m
terms of the path variables of the particle i e
in terms of geometrical parameters of the path and the speed and rate of
change of speed of the particle along the path These results are partic
ularly useful when a particle moves with a certain speed along a path
that we know a prion (as in the case of a roller coaster) and we desire the
velocity and acceleration vectors
As a matter of fact m Section 11 2 (fc.(| 1 1 4) we have already expressed
the velocity vector in terms of path variables m the following form
where d^/di represents the speed along the path and i ** dr/ds is the unit
vector tangent to the path (and hence cohnear with the velocity vector)
The acceleration becomes
(if dh ,
ds dtt
1142
dt dl dl
It Will be helpful to replace dti/dt in the last expression by (d,/fa)(rfs/dO

in which we have used the chain rule of differentiation W e then have
ds
o 4- 11 43
,dc) ds
Before proceeding further let us consider two positions that are As
Osculat ng plane
Figure II 21
apart along the patl of the particle as shown in Iig 11 21 If As is small

enough the unit vectors * (s) and i{a +
As) may be considered as inter
secting thus forming a pi me If As 0 these unit vectors then form a
limiling plane,which we shall call the osculating plane. The plane will have
an orientation that depends on the position s on the path of the particle.
The osculating plane at r{t) is illustrated in Fig. 1T.21. Having defined the
osculating plane, let us continue the discussion of Eq. 11.43.
Since we have not formally discussed the differentiation of a vector with
respect to a spatial coordinate, we will carry out the derivative det/ds
needed in Eq. 11.43 from the basic definition. Thus:
+ As) -
^= ,i r
,(< ..(s) -!
^ ^
The vectors + As) and ei(s) are shown in Fig. 11.22 along the path
((s
and are also shown with Aei as a vector triangle, a procedure we followed
frequently in statics. TVhen As > 0, all these vectors will be in the osculat-
Figiirc 11.22
ing plane at position s, shown in Fig. 11.22, and the direction of

the plane
Aci becomes, in the limit,normal to the path in the osculating plane, with
a direction toward the center of curvature. (The radius of curvature has a
length denoted as R.) The unit vector in this direction is given as e and
is called the principal normal vector. With this limiting direction of Ae<
established,we next evaluate the magnitude of Ae; as an approximate
value that becomes correct as As > 0. Observing the vector
triangle, we
can say that:
{AcÎ |6{|A<^ = A^
Observing the trajectory, we note that the lines from the center of curva-
ture to the points s and s + As along the trajectory form the same angle
between the vectors

A4> as IS ei{s) and ei(s + As) in the vector triangle,
and so ue can say
fi: As/Jt
Hence we have lAcil As/R

Since we
thus have the direction and magnitude of Ati established in an
approximate manner, we can vmle
As
Ac, **
R
If we use this result in the limiting process (where it becomes exact), the
evaluation of dtt/ds becomes
11 4S
da a,_Q As L J
When we substitute into Eq 1143 the acceleration vector becomes
Ills
dp "
a + R
We thus have two components of acceleration one component m o dtreelton

tangent to the pathand one component tn the osculaitng plane at right angles
to the path and pointing toward the center of curvature These components
are of great value in certain problems
You may already have used this relation in scalar form physics for m
motion along a circular path The osculating plane, then, corresponds at
all points to the plane of the circle
How do we get the pnncipal normal vector tn and the direction of the
osculating planes One procedure is to evaluate e, as a function of s and
then differentiate this vector with respect to s Accordingly, Eq 11 45
indicates that we can determine as well as this way (This will be m
illustrated in Example 2 following ) Taking the cross product of u X
we get a umt vector normal to the oscuHtmg plane
Example 1 particle is moving along a circular path in the xy plane
A
(F)g 11 23) IVhen it crosses the t axB it has an acceleration along the
path of 5 ft/sec* and is moving with the speed of 20 ft/sec in the nega
tive y direction What is the to^ acceleration of the particle
Clearly the osculating plane must be the plane of the path Hence
H
IS 2 ft as IS shown in the diagram We need simply to employ Eq 11 46
for the desired result Thus

20

5., + .,
,
For the xy reference, the accderstioa is
a = -5; - 200i
z
y
Figure 11.24
Example 2; A particle
is made to move along a spiral path, as is shown
in Fig. 11.24. The equations representing the path can be given paramet-
rically in terms of the variable t in the following manner:
Xp = A sin ijr
Dp A cos rjT {A,r],C are known constants) (a)
Zp Ct
where the subscript p is to remind the reader that these relations refer
to a fixed path. When the particle is at the xy plane (z = 0), it has a speed
of Vo ft/sec and a rate of change of speed of ft/sec^. What is the accelera- N
tion of the particle at this position?
To answer this, we must ascertain e,, e, and R. To get ct we write:
drp dxp dpp dzp

= , ,
(b)
ds
d^
But:
dxp
ds
_
~
^p^
dr ds ds
j
dpp dr
dr ds
etc.
Solving for dxpfdr, dyp/dr, and dzp/dr from Eq. (a), we can express
Eq. (b) as:
dr
( = {At] cos pri At) sin pr j Ck)
ds
(c)
But: ds = V'(dxp)* + (d!/p)2 + (dxp)* (d)
Solving for the differentials dxp, dyp, and dZp from Eq. (a) and substituting
into Eq. (d), we get:
ds = [(At? cos T?r)2 (At? sin pr)^ -h dr (e)
Solving for dr/ds from the above equation, we have:
^^ 1
_ ~ 1
ds [(At?)2(cos^ pr + sin- pr) -f (At?^ -f-
in which we replaced (cos^ pr sin* pr) by unity. Returning to Eq. (c)

we can thus say:
-f-
w.

To get e, and R we employ Eq 11 45 but m the following manner

dti/dr dtt
.Riil. ^
ds/dr + C*)"*dr
in which we have replaced (fe/rfr using Eq (f) We can now employ Eq (g)
to find dti/dr
* iTv+V"-
\\henv.esubstitutelhi3ieIationfofdefc/dTUiEq (b) the principal normal
sector e, becomes
R 1*1* , .
If we take the magnitude of each side, we can solve for R
R
:Vv* + C (k)
All'
now have e, and e. at an> point of the curve in terms of the parom'
e
eter r As the particle goes through the xy plane, this means that i of Uie
particle is zero and tp of the path corresponding to the position of the
particle is zero hen we note Cq (a) it is clear, therefore, that t must
be zero for this position Ihus c ami i fur the point of interest arc
I
< (,1>}1 + Ck) (I)
( IV + C*)*'*
RAtt'
" (m)
AV+C'
Me can now express the acceleration vector using Eq 11 46 Thus
- (iv+C)"*' *'* + +
The direction of the osculating plane can be found by taking the cross
product of C| and e.
11 11 CYLINDRICAL COOROfNATCS
The final method we will coiteider in Part C of evaluating the

velocity and acceleration of a particle brings us back to considering co-
ordinates of the particle as time functions, as we did at the outset of this
study This time we shall employ cylindrical coordinates, and we shall
evaluate velocity and acceleration in coraponenta having certain directions

that are associated with the cylindncal coordinates of the particles Thus
Figure 11.25
particle P in Fig. 11.25 is located by specifying cylindrical coordinates

f* and z. The
(j>,
transformation equation between Cartesian and cylindrical
coordinates are seen to be;
X = rcos4> r
y
f sin <f)
= tan"* y/x 11.47
Unit vectors are associated with these coordinates and are given as:
cj, which is parallel to the z axis and, for practical purposes, is the same
as k. It is helpful to consider this as the axial direction.
Cf, which is normal to the z axis, pointing out from the axis, and is
identified as the radial direction from z.

e^, which is e? and
normal to the plane formed by and has a sense in
accordance with the right-hand screw rule for the permutation
z, r, We call this the transverse direction.
<#).
It will be noted that e? and will change direction as the particle moves
relative to the xyz reference. Thus, these unit vectors are generally /wncfoons
of time, while e. is a constant vector.
Using previously developed concepts, we can e-xpress the velocity and
acceleration of the particle relative to the xyz reference in terms of com-
ponents always in the transverse, radial, and axial directions and can use
This information is most
cylindrical coordinates exclusively in the process.
useful, for instance, in turbomachine studies, where, if we take the z axis
as the axis of rotation, the axial components of acceleration are significant
for thrust computation while the transverse components are important
for torque considerations. It is these components that are meaningful for
such computations and not components parallel to some xyz reference.
The position of the particle determines the direction of the unit vectors
6r and at a ny time t, and it can be expressed as:
e.j,
The author has used the notation f to distinguish it from r, which, according to
previous definitions in statics, is the magnitude of r, the position vector.
r = 4* Zft 11 4S
To get the desired velocity, ne differentiate r mth respect to time
dr/dl r + ifr 4 2t.

We may think of and t, as forming a rigid body with P as the origin
We can consider it as having as any ngid body, a translation \elocity cor-
responding to the velocity of P plus a rotation The rotation, for this system
IS always about the 2 axis and is as can readily be seen by consulting
Fig U 25 Since e, is fixed in this body, it has r time fate of change given
by 4k X t. But since k is the same as e,, we have
f = 4t Xo = 4ti 11 19
The velocity of particle P is, then
V re, 4 rê^ 4 2(*

To get the acceleration relative to xyz in terms of cylindrical coordinates
and radial, tranaverse, and axial components, we simply take the time
derivative of the velocity vector
<3
dl
ft, 4 fh 4 t4** 4 4 >"4** 4 f 11 51
The time derivatu e of is
4, X C4 4ti 11 S2
Using Eqs 11 49 and 11 52, we find that Eq 11^1 now becomes

o rc, 4 4 4 r^*er 4
Collecting components, vve write
o (f f4 ^), 4 (f4> 4 4 le. 11 5.1
Thus we liave accomplished tlie desired task A similar procedure may

be followed to reach corresponding formulations for spherical coordinates
By now jou should be able to produce the above equations readily and
should by no means attempt to memorize them
For motion m a circle in the xt/ plane, note that ? = z = 0, and ? =* r,
and so we can get the follow mg simplifications
r= r4t* (b)
ft s= ~ x4*fr (1) 11
For circular motion, the unit vcctorcis tangent to the path, and the unit
V cctor fr is normal to the path and pointing away from the center of curva-
ture. Therefore, when we compare these results with those stemming from
considerations of path variables (Section 11.10), it is clear that for circular
motion in the xy plane of a right-hand triad:

(for counterclockwise
motion as seen from -fs)*
(for clockwise motion
as seen from -\-z)
r

11.55
Thus Eqs. and 11.46 are equally useful

11.54(b) for quickly expressing the
acceleration of a particle moving in a simple circular path. You prob-

ably remember these formulae from ear-
lier physics courses and may want to
use them in the ensuing work of this C

chapter. We must caution, however,
that these acceleration formulae are
valid only for circular motion in a plane
of fixed orientation in space. As an exam-
ple of when these may not be used,
consider once again the Example of Sec-
tion 11.9 where there is a pure rotation
of the arm relative to the platform;
but the fact that the platform is rota- Figure 11.26
ting means that the motion of the
particle relative to the ground, which
is what we are interested in, is not a simple circular motion in a plane.
Actually -moves about a spherical surface of radius 3
it ft along some
complex path, such as that shown in Fig. 11.26. You may ask why
we two circular motions, one around the
cant superpose axis of the AA
platform and one around the axis CC. To get the velocity, we can do this,
but you will only find part of the acceleration if you try to superpose
results from Eqs. 11.54(b) and 11.46. The reason is this; because of the
constraintson the arm, the direction of one of the angular velocities toj
iscontinually changing direction as a result of the angular motion wa,
and, while this contributes to the acceleration, it is not taken into account
by the superposition approach. We must either consider the angular motion
of the position vector as it was explained in Section 11.9 or introduce an
additional moving coordinate system to help simplify the problem.
* The sense of e, is
that of the velocity of the particle, whereas the sense of
6^ is
determined by the reference zyz. It is for this reason that a multiplicity
of relations
between these unit vectors exists.
rxanipTe The motion of a particle relative to the ly* reference (Fig

11 27) can lie expressed as foUotes
Lxpre^s Up position \rlncit> anil acceleration of the particle using

cjlmdncal coonimates with
componenta in the axinl
transverse, and radial dircc
tions
The c>hndncal coordinates
for the particle as functions
of time can be given from the
transformation equations (Fqs
11 47) ss
f = (361* + I00t)' =11661

,5
61
4^0
r -U+ 10 (a)
The position vector r can then be given as
r - n + (U + I0), (b)
The direction of must be such that tan "* V3 "nie

acceleration vectors arc found by difTcrcotiatitig Eq (b)
V velocity and
f * + U 6 + 3ft,
11 6G,
*= 1 1 +n60e, X ,) + 3Ue,
11 GCe^ + STe,
0=11 OGIf + Off, = II Gr(^k X + 6/, = ,) Cfe,
SUMMARY or rAITT C
In Uvvs pn?! v.c \vavc c\anvvvvd pcoccduccs toe evaluating

body The data available
derivatives of vectors not fixed in n ngid
and the results dwired in any one situation vvill usually indicate
which method to employ
1 The poili(m vector of a pirlicle is given in terms of Cirtcsian
compomnts which arc known functions of time The velocity
and acceleration of the particle arc Ificn found bj di/Tercntiating
the coordinates
r r(I)$ + + z(f)k
!/(i)j
r = x(0i + j,(0j + rlOk (a)
n iW* + HOJ +
11.112.
When data for a moving particle are given in terms of the angu-
larmotion and elongation of the position vector itself, consid-
ered as a directed line segment in space, we have for
the
particle:
r = W
y= at
+ u X r (b)
a = ^
at
? -h 2^ (w X
at
F) -h ci X r -f w X (w X r)
3.
If the position vector has a constant length, we get the follow-
ing useful results:
r= wX r .
(c)
,
a = wXr-f-Xr = wXr-f-wX(wXr)
which a special case of the acceleration relation developed
is
for particles in a rigid body from Chasles theorem.

The motion of a particle may be evaluated in terms of path
geometry plus the speed and rate of change of speed along a
path. The components of the velocity and acceleration are
4. evaluated for directions related to the path. Thus;
V=
(d)
d^s ,
{ds/diy
where s is the position along the path

6( is the unit vector tangent to the path
R is the radius of curvature of the path
6 is the unit vector normal to the path in the osculating
plane directed toward the center of curvature
This approach is quite useful for the case of a particle that is
made to move along a path whose geometry is known a priori.
Finally, in certain problems, such as those in turbomachinery,
it is desirable to consider the motion of a particle in terms of
cylindrical coordinates and a manner so that the results are
in
always in components in the axial direction, radially out from
the axial direction and transverse to this direction. The results
are;
r= rcf 26,
F= re? -j- r<ê^ ie,
a = (r - Tj,'^)er + {f$ + 2f4,)e^ + ze, (e)

PROBLEMS
29 A particle rotates at a constant angular speed of 10 rad/sec on a platform
wliilc the platform rotates with a constant angular speed of 50 rad/sec about
31
axis vlA (Fig Pll 14) WTiat is the velocity and acceleration of the particle at
the instant the platform is m
the \ 1 plane and the radius vector to the particle
Cocma aa angle nC SC nvth the Y axis as shown?
so In the above problem the particle has an angular acceleration of 10 rad/sec*

on the platform iihde the platform Im a deceleration of 5 rad/sec* Compute
the velocity and acceleration of the particle
A propeller dm
on airplane is undergoing a yan rotation of ^ rad/sec and is
simultaneously undergoing a loop rotation of J rad/sec (Fig Pll 15) The
propeller is rotating at the rate of 100 rpm with a sense m
the positive 1 dircc
tion WTiat is the relative velocity between the tip of the propeller a and the
hub B at the instant that the plane is honiontal as shown The propeller is
10 ft m
total length and at the instant of interest thv blade is in a vertical
position
32 A particle moves with a constant speed of 5 ft/sec along the path shown m
lig Pll 1C Compute the acceleration at points 1 2 and 3
33 If mthe above problem the speed K 5 ft/sec only at point A and it increases
5 ft/sec for each foot traveled compute the acceleration at points 1 2 and 3
Figure P11.17
34. A particle moves with a constant speedof 10 ft/sec along the path shown in
Fig. P11.17. TVhat is the acceleration at position a; = 5 ft? Hint you will
recall from the calculus that the radius of curvature is given as:
p ^ n+ (d!//dxrr^
dhj/dz^
35. A particle is made to move along a path given in terms of the parameter t in
the following manner;
(x)p = -sin2r (y)p = cos2t (z)p = e"'
Give a simple sketch of the path. When the particle is at the elevation z = 1,
the speed along the path is 5 ft/sec and the rate of change of speed along the
path is 10 ft/secL Find the acceleration of the particle at z = 1
36. Determine the direction of the osculating plane to the curve of problem 35 at
position z = 1.
Figure P11.18
37. In Fig. P11.18, a particle moves with a constant speed of 5 ft/sec along a
straight line having direction cosines I = 0.5, m= 0.3. What are the cylindrical
coordinates when |r| =20 ft? What are the axial, radial, and transverse veloc-
ities of the particle at this position?
38. A 300 rpm and the airplane moves at a speed

propeller rotates at the rate of
of 200 ml/hr along a straight line. Give the velocity and acceleration of the
propeller tip in terms of cylindrical coordinates and directions if the propeller
is 10 ft from hub to tip.
39. An airplane is diving at a speed of 900 mi/hr. If the maximum acceleration

that the pilot can endure in a direction from toe to head before blacking out is
4 gs, what is the minimum safe radius of curvature for his trajectory as he
comes out of the dive?
31J ELEMENTS OF KfNEMATICS 51112
40 A car IS moxing with a speed of 60 miles per hour and rounds a cur\c haMng a
radius of curs'aturc of lOCO ft \M at is the acceSeration of the car?
Figure Pll 19
41 Hod 03 0 and b slide awaj from each other w th a constant vclocitj of 5 ft/scc
along the a\is CC mounted on a platform w hicK rotates nt an angular vcloc ty
of 10 rad/sec about axis EB and has an angular acceleration of 5 rad/sec* at
the time when the bod es are at a distance r 3 ft from EE
(a) Dctermitw the \clocitj and acceleration of the bod es us ng cyl ndrical
coordinates
(b) Dcterm ne the velocity and acceleration of tlie bod es considering the
angular motion and elongation of the position vector to the particle The rod
CC IS along the 1 avis at the time of interest
(c) Compare the results of (a) and (b)
PART D The Relationship of Motions

for Different References
11 12 THE RELATIONSHIP BETWeEN DERIVATIVES OF A VECTOR

FOR DIFFERENT RErCRENCCS
Note that inapparatus aunlyzed in the example of Section 1 1 9

tiie
and Fig 1126) the pnrticle of intere5t

discu!sed later in Section 11 10 (see
hns a simple circular motion relative to the platform w hile the platform
carrying the rotating particle nith it executes a pure rotation relatixe to
the ground Thus by considering two different references i e the plat-
form and llic ground respcctix cly, we can etudj the complex motion of the
particle in terms of the simple motions of the particle rclatix e to the plat-
form and the simple rotary motion of the pUtform relative to the ground
W e Rhall now explore the use of more Uian one reference in order to sim
plilj the analysis ol kinematic problema generally As a first step it vs
necessary to examine the procedure of differentiation with respect to time
m the presence of sev cr vl references mov mg rotative of each other
Since a reference a non-deformable sj^stem and may be considered as

is
coordinate system, be consid-
a rigid body, it can, relative to some other
ered as having at any instant a translational velocity Rcorresponding to
and a rotational velocity w about an

origin axis of rotation going through
its
the origin (Fig. 11.28). (Thus the

origin is the point B of our previ-
ous discussion in Section 11.6.)
Consider in Fig. 11.28 the posi-
tion vector p in the xyz reference
to some moving particle at time
t.This vector is, in effect, a dis-
placement vector between two
points in space and is hence a
unique vector for any and all ref-
erences. To be sure, the direction
cosines of p for the XYZ reference Figure 11 .28
will differ from those for the xyz
reference, but the actual direction
of this vector is unique. This is not true for the rate of change of p with re-
spect to time. Just as the observed action on the stage in the theater depends
on the position of the observer, so the manner of variation with time of p
depends on the reference from which this variation is observed. As an ex-
ample, consider the special case in which the particle P, and therefore p,
is fixed in the xyz reference. The derivative dp/dt observed from the xyz
reference is a zero vector, since p cannot change in magnitude or orientation

in this reference. However, the derivative dp/dt observed from the XYZ
reference need not be zero for this case. You have seen in Part B that
a vector fixed in a rigid system such as the xyz reference has a derivative
with respect to time of x p, where is the angular velocity of the xyz
reference relative to the XYZ reference. We can then say for this special
case:
Before proceeding any further, it should be understood that once a deriva-

tive has been established for a reference it can be treated as
any vector
in that it can be replaced by a set of orthogonal
components parallel to
the axes of any reference. Thus the vector idp/dl)xrz in the
above discus-
sion can be replaced by components parallel to the xyz reference.
Having demonstrated in the special case that the derivative of a vector
is dependent on the reference of observation, let us return to the
general
ZU ELEMENTS OF KINEMATICS
case where particle P is not fixed in the xj/z reference This is indicated m
Fig 11 29, which shows a particle P moving along a trajectory C Such a
situation might be simulated by a body that is represented by the parti-
cle P
moving in a known manner relative to the interior of an airplane,
represented by the moving reference xyz, while the airplane (i e xyz) has ,
Figure 11^9
a known motion relative to (he ground, XYZ, given terms of the vectors m
ii and e wish now to formulate a relation between the denv atu cs
dp/dt as ob'served from both references To reach the desired results cffcc-
tivelyi It will be helpful to expre^ the vector p m terms of components
parallel to the xijz reference Thus
P ^ xi + yj zk 11 S?
Differentiating the above form with respect to time for the xyz reference,
we have
"
(*)...
If we take the denv atu e of p with respect to time for the XYZ refer-
ence, we must remember that i,j, and of Cq U 57 will each be a func-
tion of time, since these vectors will be rotating relative to the XYZ ref-
erence Thus
But dildt IS <j X I, etc The last expression in parentheses can then be
stated as
i + y} +zk ^ xfw X i) + y{w X -h 2(w X k)
X (*i) -h X (ly) -h X (rk)
X (xt -h ly -f zk) = u Xp II 60
In Eq 11 59, wc can replace (i + yi + ek) by (t/p/d/),,, according to

Eq 11 5S, and (xi + K/ + z^) by X p, according to Eq 11 00 Hence
CO Xp 11,61
We can generalize the preceding result for any vector A :
jxvz
+ uXA 11.62
\ dl V )xyz
where, you must remember, w is the angular velocity of the x?js reference
relative to the XYZ reference. We shall have much use for this relationship
in the succeeding sections.
11.13 THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN VELOCITIES

OF A PARTICLE FOR DIFFERENT REFERENCES
We must now redefine the velocity of a particle more carefully

in the presence of several references:
The velocity of a particle relative to a reference is the derivative as seen

from the reference of the position vector of the particle in the reference.
Figure 11.30
In Fig. 11.30, the velocities of the particle P relative to the XYZ and
the xyz references are, respectively:
As we pointed out in the previous section, {V)xyz may be expressed in

components parallel to the xyz reference at any time t, while {V)ryz may
be expressed in components parallel to the XYZ reference.
Now it will be of interest to relate these velocities, which we may readily
do by first noting that:
r = i? +p 11.64
Differentiating with respect to time for the XYZ reference, we have:

3t6 ELEMENTS OF KINEMATICS 511 13
f'xiX
m\ +(<k)
^ \dt }x II 65
\ dt }xYz
The term {dRJdl)x\z is clearJy the velocity of the origin of the xyz refer-
ence relative to the XYZ reference, according to our definitions We have
already denoted this term as ti m Section 11 12 The terra {dpfdl)zyz
can be replaced, by using Eq 11 61, in which {dpfdl),ft is the velocity of
the particle for the xyz reference The above expression, then, becomes the
desired relation
Vi\2 -f- /{ -j- w Kp 11 66
Quite often the XYZ reference is the ground and thus an inertial reference
(You will remember that for an inertial reference, F ma, where a is
the acceleration of the particle in that reference )
We sometimes call
1 xrz the absolute motion while Yx^t is termed the relative motion"
that IS, relative to the moving reference xy The follomng form will often
be found vn ongmoeimg texts for the above equation

r.bj = Yn) + K + X p 1167
Wo shall now illustrate the use of the preceding formulations m a number

of examples
Example I An airplane moving at 200 ft/sec is undergoing a roll of two

radians per minute (Fig 1131) When the plane is honzontal an antenna
IS moving out at a sjwcd of 8 ft/sec and is at a position of 10 ft from the

centerline of the plane Assuming that the axis of roll corresponds to the
centerline what is the vclocitj of the antenna end relative to tlie ground
when the plane is horizontal?
A st3tionai> reference on the ground has been set up as shown The
airphne is selected as the moving reference n ith the x avis corresponding
to the axis of rotation and the y axis to the antennas direction
First establish the motion of the ifesired element relative to Ike mocinp
reference The items are
p 10; ft
(a ),
The motion of the moving reference relative to the ground is:
R= 200i ft/sec
w = rad/sec
By employing Eq. 11.66 we thus get the desired result:
Vxyz 200i d" 8jf ft/sec
Example 2: In the preceding problem, the plane is climbing at a 10 angle

at the instant that the other data are presented, as is illustrated in Fig.
11.32. The vectors used for the motion of the particle relative to the xyz
Figure 11.32 Z
reference wll be put in components parallel to the XYZ reference in the

following manner:
p = lOj' = 10 sin 10i + 10 cos l0j
Kyz 8f = 8 sin 10i + 8 cos 10j

The translation and rotation vectors of the new reference are:
it = 200 cos 10i + 200 sin 10i

w = cos 10t sin 10j
The result can then be found directly from Eq. 11.66. Thus:
VxYz = - + 8 cos 10j + 200 cos 10i + 200 sin 10

8 sin 10i
- cos 10i + ^sin 10j) X (-10 sin 10i + 10 cos 10i)
VxYz = (200 cos 10 - 8 sin 10)i + (200 sin 10 + 8 cos 10)j -

We can carry out the problem, using components for the vectors parallel
to the xyz reference. The motion of the particle relative to xyz is given in terms
of:
P = 10/ = 8i'
The motion of xyz relative to XYZ becomes:

R= 200i' w = --î'
The result is:
VxYz = 200i' + 8j' - Jfc'

It wjll be left for jou to show tbit tins la the same \ector that wc de-
veloped earlier, which mdiratcs Hut it makes no difftrencc what compo-
nents we want to work with ns far as the final nsult is concerned
rxoiiiplc 3i For the efTiticnt operation of an lmpulê turbine (Fir 11^33),

the blaile entrnnee angle fl must be tnwU eijiut to the ilireitionof the fluid
\rlocit\ rtlaliM to the Wades Ihe ttUdi-a Imac n \elMcit> nlituclotlie
ground of 300 h'ot per seiond while the aelocit^ of tin fluid is 20U0 feet
per Second relate c to the ground ot o direction of i0 as shown What
must 6 be?
Here we maj establish two rehremes One we will fix to the norsle
since wcknott the telocity of the flui<! niatnc to this reference Tliescc-
ond reference will lx established oo os to translate with tlie blades in the
plane of the page (Fig 11 34) Koto that the blades are also rotating
Y 300(t/5ec-^|
Figure 11 31
about the axis of the turbine shaft Howexcr, the motion of the fluid can
be considered not to be alTected bj this aspect of tlie blade motion and
80 for simplicity the second reference is not completely attached to the
blades Since = 0 for the tyz reference relative to the \ } Z refereme
the velocities of the fluid telaUae to the tefetences are related as
f'xrt = + ft
Now it IS 300y and the velocity of the fluid relative to the A1Z is
f\r 2 = 2000 sin 20'V + 2000 cos 20*i = ISSOi + GSij (b>
Tlie velocity relative to the xg: reference,c , to the moving reference

i
13 unknown This quantity, partu.ularly its direction will then give the
correct angle for the blade entavnee Substituting Lq (b) into to? (a),
we get
:
1880i + 684j = Vrvz + 300;

= 1880i + 3847
Getting 6 is now a simple matter:
tan e = = 0.205

e = 11 . 6
Thus for the fluid to enter smoothly into the blade system, the entrance
angle of the blading must be 11.6.
11.14 THE ACCELERATION OF A PARTICLE FOR DIFFERENT REFERENCES
The acceleration of a particle relative to a coordinate system is simply

the time derivative as seen from the coordinate system of the velocity relative
to the coordinate system. Thus
- - (|f'
(I XYZ
(I 11.68
This notation may seem cumbersome to you, but once you are familiar
with it most of the subscripts can be dropped.
Let us now relate the acceleration vectors for the two references under
discussion.We can accomplish this by differentiating with respect to time
the terms in Eq. 11.66 for the XYZ reference. Thus:
dVxYz
a XYZ ( \ 11.69
\ dt )xYZ
It will be convenient to carry out the derivative of the cross product using
the product rule. Thus the above equation becomes:
To introduce more meaningful terms, we can replace:
(fX,,
using Eq. 11.62 in the following way:
( is\ _ (^p\ I
320 ELEMENTS OF KfNEMATICS 511 14
Substituting into Eq 11 70, we get
OXiZ + +
(^)... (t). +" X
+ (t)
\ut /liz
xp
You will note tliat (rfl is a,a,, that {dp/dt)rg, is r,y,, and that
(du/dt)xYZ IS u Ilcncc, collecting terms we have
oxYZ = aj( + ft *i" 2ii X + Xp + X (faiXp) ll 71
where w and u arc the angular velocity and acceleration, respectivelj

of the xyz reference relative to the XYZ reference This equation, then
relates the acceleration vector as observed from two different coordinate
systems The \cetor 2(a x is called the Conohs acceleration vector
and wc will examine its interesting effects in Section 11 16 Using the prev-
alent engineering notation, the above equation becomes
a.b = Omi + ft + 2 X ri + w X p + tf X (a> X p) H 72

Although this equation may seem somewhat terrifying at first, you will
find that by using problems that would othenvise be tre-
this relation
mendously difficult can readily be carried out You should keep m mind
in solving problems that any of the methods developed in Part C can be
used for determining the motion of the particle relative to the xyz refer-
ence or for determining the motion of the origin of xyz relative to the \ YZ
reference We shall now examine several problems, which we shall use m
the notation, i, w., etc to denote the various angular velocities involved
,
The notation, (i e without subsenpts), however, will be reserved to

,
represent the angular velocity of the xijz reference relative to the XYZ
reference
-p ju, 1=10 rad/sec

|W2l=5 fad/sec
Figure 11 35
Erample 1 Find the velocity and acceleration of the particle of the Ex

ample in Section 11 1) relative to the ground The diagram is presented
again as Fig 11 35 for convenience The angular velocity of the arm
relative to the platform is 10 rad/aec shovsn veetOTaWy the diagram m

11.'14 ELEMENTS OF KINEMATICS 321
the ground
as wi, while the angular velocity of the platform relative to
IS 5 rad/sec, shown vectorally as wj. We
choose the reference xyz as fixed
to the platform, while XYZ
is fixed to the ground. At the instant of inter-
est, the arm ab is in the vertical position, and the references coincide.
A. Motion of particle relative to xyz.
p = 3fe
Vxyz = Wi X P = ( lOi) X (3fe) == 30j
Oxyz = Wi X P -|- <Oi XP = Wi X Vxyz -h 0
= (-100 X (30j) = -300k

B. Motion of xyz relative to XYZ.
R = 0 R =0 R= 0
to = Wo = 5fc to =0
For the velocity;
V\Yz = Viyt R 'h w Xp
Vxiz = 30j + 0 -h 5fc X 3fc = SOj ft/sec
For the acceleration:
axvz = Oxyt -1- R+ 2w X Vxyz -f->Xp-t-wX(WXp)

axYz = -300fc -h 0 -1- 2(5fc) X (30y) 0 + 5fc X (5fc X 3fc)
axrz 300fc 300i ft/sec*
Notice that the essential aspects of the analysis come in the consideration

of parts A and B of the problem în this case simply two pure rotations
while the remaining portion involves direct substitution and vector alge-
braic operations.
Figure 11.36
Example 2; A vehicle moves along a straight track at a speed of 10 ft/sec

and accelerates at a rate of 5 ft/sec*. A pendulum is suspended from the
vehicle and when it is vertical it has an angular motion in the XY plane
of 2 rad/sec and also an acceleration in the XY plane of 5 rad/sec^
. 11.14 ELEMENTS OF KINEMATICS 323
in the plane of the paper at an angle of 30. Find the acceleration and
velocity of weight A relative to the ground.
Let us first formulate the various angular velocities present. The cart
moves with a speed of 50 ft/sec along a circular path so that the angular
speed of OC, and therefore the cart itself, is easily determined from our
work on plane circular motion to be = 5 rad/sec. And, because of the
deceleration of 20 ft/sec^ the cart must also have a rate of change of
angular speed of i rad/sec^. These angular motions are clearly rela-
tive to the ground. In Fig. 11.38, the vectorial representations are shown
as wi and wi along the stationary reference XVZ. Relative to the cart

are two angular motions of the weights a rotation of the spindle CC,
shown in the diagram as wa, and a rotation of the weights about the
spindle, shown in the diagram as wj, having at the instant of interest
a direction normal to the page. It should be clear, from the constraints
of the construction, that the direction of wj will change continually as a
result of the angular motion wj, and the direction of wa will change as a
result of wi. We shall solve this problem by using two different types of
moving references.
Analysis 1. Fix xyz directly to the moving cart so that it has only the
motion of the cart.
314 ELEMENTS OF KlNEMMtCS 511 14
A ^fotwn of particle relatue to xyz
p = 0 866k +0^
F,,, = (w- + wa) X p = (5i + 10k) X (-0 8G6k + 0 5j)
= -5t + 4 33j + 2 5fc
art. Since the particle docs not Ime a simple circular coplanar
motion in the xyz rcTtrentc we shall carrj out differentiation
o{ the \eloat 5 with respect to time remembering that p is of
constant magnitude
Ory. = (m + j) X P + (Ui + W|) X p

a,y. = (wi+ m) X (~5 4 33y + 2 5k)
+ (w + ii) X (-0 S66k + 0 5j)
It IS wj <= 0 for the xyz reference but that because
clear that
of the changing direction of the vector tiic xy reference m
ne have
wj * Wj X j
Thus
Or,. * <5i + 10k) X (-5i + 4 33; + 2 5k)
+ (10k X 5i) X (-0 seek + 0 ^)
a,^. -86C.-G25j + 2l7k
B Motion of xyz relotiie to Y1 Z
R - -SOk
R s tfi X - |i X (-80k) 40^
/{ = i5i X R + w, X /J -J X (-80k) + Ji X 40/
= -16/ + 20k
= Ul = Ji
W = Wi = i
We may now ascertain the acceleration asrz Thus
axTt = af + ^ + 2tii X f'ry, -l-<iiXp-h<iiX(wXp)
axrz = -86 Gi - 62 5/ + 21 7k - 16/ + 20k + 2{|i)
X (-51 + 4 33/ + 2 5k) - 4i X (-0 8G6k +0 5/)
+ ii X [ht X (-OSOOk + 0 5/)]

axrz 86 Gi SI 3/ + 46 Ik ft/sec*
ylnafysts Fw syi directly onto tlie spindle This gives the particle a
simple plane circular motion m
the xyz reference We can use Fig 11 38
again
A Motion of particle relatue to xyz
P = -0 866k +05/
= CO. X /> = 5i X (-0.866fe + 0.5j) = 4.33i + 2.5k
(Ixy: pWoCn + = (l)(25)(0.866fc 0.5j) +0

= 21.7fc - 12.5i

K = sun I
These are the same as for Analysis 1, since

/{= 40i
^
the origin of xyz for either case is identical.
6 -L 9f\l-
CO = coi + C03 = + lOfc
CO Note that the magnitude of coi is changing and that the direction
of C03 is changing due to the constraints of the problem. Thus:
CO = coi + cO[ X C03 = + (21 X lOfe)
CO = 51 5j
We can now find the acceleration as:
axrz = Oxyz + ij + 2co + coXp + coX(coXp) X Vxyz
axYz = 21.7fc - 12.5j - 16j + 20ft + 2(î + 10ft)

X (4.33i + 2.5ft) - (|i + 5j)
X (-0.866ft + 0.5i) + (hi + 10ft)
X [(î + lOft) X (-0.866fe + 0.5j)]
= 86.6i 81.3j + 46.1ft ft/scc-
Example 4: A wheel rotates in the plane of a platform with a

speed of
4 rad/sec (shown as co,) and accelerates at a rate of 6
rad/secâll rela-
tive to the platform (Fig. 11.39). The platform,
meanwhile, rotates with
Z
an angular velocity o{ 2 d/aec rdative to the ground and decelerates

at a rate of 3 rad/sec* A bead slides along a spoke of the wheel as is
shown in the diagram It hasa \cIoeity of S ft/scc along the spoke toward
the center of the wheel and is accelerating at a rite of 10 ft/scc* At
the instant of interest the bead is I ft from the center of the wheel
Find the \ clocity and acceleration of the bead rclatii e to the ground
W e choose the ground reference so that 1 is parallel to the spoke carry
mg the bead at the instant of interest as show'n m the diagram We shall
soU e this problem bj using tw o different analyses
Analjm 1 Fix xyz onto the wheel
A Motion oj parheU rdafite to xtjz
p =j 1^. * -5y Ox * -10;

B il/olion o/ refolue to A1
R= lOi
wa X R * 2k X lOi * 20j
/{ a+ wj X R * -3k X
XR JOi + 2k X 20; => -30; - 40i
w i + i 4fc + 2k 6k
ui 4* tij = 6k 3fe * 3k (The angular velocity vectors tfi
and w; do not change direction)
Hence Vtu Vr,% +A+ Xp
-5; + 20; + 6k X; ISJ - 6i ft/sec
axn Om + + 2w X I X p 4* w X (w X p)
- -10; - 30; - 40i 4- 2(6fc) X (-5j) 4- 3k X ;
4- Ck X (6k X;)
= I7i - 76; tt/sec*
Analysis S Fix xyt onto the platform so that the wheel spins relative
to xyt Isotc that the bead now has a complex motion in the xyz reference
with the position vector changing in value while it is rotating This is
not an advisable reference to use for this reason
A Molten of particle relahte to x
Proceeding as we did in Section II 9 wo have since p = j and [p| = J
P !p!p =J
4k X ; - 5i
-4* - 5i
ai 2^ Ui X;S 4- [p|<3i X /S + |plwi X(i Xp) 4-
- -10(4fc Xj)4-6kXi4'4k X (4k X^ - lOy

. 401 - 6f - 16y - 10/ - 3-11 - 20J

R= lOi
k= 20i ^ Same as in Analysis 1
K= 30; 40iJ
(0 = Ui = 2fe
fj) 0^2 3/c
Hence: Vxyz = +w Xp
+ JR
= _4j _ 5/ + 20i + 2fc X j = 15j - ft/sec

axYz = + R + 2 X + X p + w X (w X p) CO
= +34i - 26i - 30i - 40i + 2(2fe) X (-4t - 5j)

+ (-3fe) X j + 2fc X {2k X i)
= 17i - 76/ ft/sec^
It is clear that the second approach makes for undue hardships.
SUMMARY OF PART D
1. References are rigid systems, and the motion of one reference

xyz relative to another reference XYZ
can be given by a trans-
latory motion corresponding to the actual instantaneous veloc-
w with
ity of ft of the origin of xyz plus a rotational velocity
an axis of rotation going through the origin of xyz. w and ft
are measured relative to XYZ.
5.
2. We have shown that vectors have time derivatives relative to
each reference that are related by:
T- to X (a)
\ dt ) XYZ \ dt ) xyz
3. The velocity of a particle relative to any reference is the time

derivative for that reference of the position vector to the parti-
cle.
4. The relation between velocities relative to different references is:

Vxyz = Vxyz -J- ft + w Xp (b)
where w the angular velocity of reference xyz relative to the

is
XYZ reference,
p is the position vector of the particle for the
xyz reference, and R
is the displacement vector from the origin
of the XYZreference to the origin of the xyz reference.

The acceleration vectors for
a particle relative to different
references can be related to each other by the following equa-
tion:
aXYZ = y2 + + 2w X Vtyt 4" XP + fcl X (w X p) (c)
where fi is the translational acceleration of the xyz reference

relative to the XYZ reference and where w is the angular ac-
celeration of the Tift reference relative to the XYZ reference
6 In evaluating the motion of the particle relative to xyz, i e
Vty, and o,v or in evaluating the motion of the origin of the
xyz reference relative to the XYZ reference, i e K and ft, ,
we can mahe full use of the methods set forth in Part C for
computing deruatives in any reference
PROBLEMS
42. Find the velocity of the particle relative to XYZ m problem 29, using a moving
reference
43 Find the velocity of the particle D relative
to A YZ (fixed to the ground), using a mov*
ing reference, for problem 17
41 Find the velocit> of the particle D relative
to \]Z, using a mov ing reference, for prob-
lem 18
4S. A moves along the track nith a ve-
vehiilc
locity of 50 ft/sec (Fig PI 1 20) A pendulum
evtends from the vehicle and swings in the
A Z plane with an angular speed of 2 rad/sec
Along the circular path in the pendulum
\ij^5 rev/sec
bob, a particle performs 5 revolutions per
second relative to the bob Find the velocity
of this particle relative to the track when
Figure Pll 20
the pendulum is m
a vertical position Let
the particle be at the bottom of the circle at
this instant, as shown
46. In problem 45, if the pendulum is also spinning about its own axis with an
angular velocity of 10 rad/sec m
the po^tiveZ direction, what is the velocity
tA l.'ut! part'iVie Tîatrre \o Dit tniW
47 Compute the velocity and acceleration relative to A'l Z of the bodies of prob-
lem 41, using a mov mg reference Compare the results with prev lous computa-
tions
48. A wheel rotates with an angular speed of 5 rad/scc on a platform which rotates
with a speed of 10 rad/sec as shown in Fig Pll 21 A bead moves down the
spoke of the wheel, and when tlie spoke is vertical the bead has a speed of 20
ft/eec, an acceleration of 10 ft/sec* along the spoke and is positioned 1 ft from
the shaft centerline of the wheel Compute tlie velocity and acceleration of the
bead relative to the ground at this instant
49. In the previous problem, the whecl'icceleratcs at the instant under discussion
with 5 rad/sec*, and the platform accelerates ivith 10 rad/sec* Find the velocity
and acceleration of the bead
50.
Figure P11.21
To simulate the flight conditions of a space vehicle, engineers have developed

the centrifuge, shown diagrammatically in Fig. PI 1.22. A main arm, 40 ft long,
rotates about the AA axis. The pilot sits in the cockpit which may rotate about
axis CC. The seat for the pilot maj*^ rotate inside the cockpit about an axis
shown at the point B. These rotations are controlled by a computer that is
set to simulate certain maneuvers corresponding to the entry and exit from
the earths atmosphere, malfunctions of the control system, etc. When a pilot
sits in the enclosure, his head, particularly his ears, has the position shown
40'-
<Xr lORPM
-Ti- B
5RPM
Figure Pll,22 Figure P11.23
in Fig. P11.23. If themain arm is rotating at 10 rpm and accelerating at 5 rpm^

and the capsule isrotating at a constant speed about CC at 10 rpm and the
seat rotates at a speed of 6 rpm inside the capsule, how many gs is the pilots
head subjected to?
51. Do the above problem by using two viewpoints that are different from the
ones you utilized in your last analysis.
52. A pilot has different tolerances for acceleration components. They are roughly:

In a vertical direction, i.e., toe to head 5 gs.
(Here the pilot experiences blackout or may pass out completely.)

Front to rear 15 g's.
(Here vision becomes greatly distorted.)
Arrange a test program on the centrifuge so that each acceleration is reached
separately while the other accelerations are kept below one-half their tolerance
levels.
330 ELEMENTS OF KrNEMATICS 81115
PART E Solution of Forces

on d Particle Having a Known Motion
1115 ANAJ.YSIS OF THE FROBLCM
The solution of forces for a particJe having a knowTi raotiou is
actually a problem m the province of dynamics

However, the major part
of the analjîs is and since the dynamical aspects of the
kinematical,
problem are quite simple we have included it m this chapter have
learned that such kmematical quantities as velocity and acceleration
depend on the reference for which they are computed The force vector
however, is quite independent of references Early m our work in statics

we learned that the accekralion of a particle of mass m is related to the
resultant force acting on it by the t ector equation
r=ma UTJ
protaded the acceleration a is measured relative to an inertial reference
and proiided the velocity relative to the inertial reference is very much
smaller than the speed of light
For man> engitioetuig applications, the earths surface may be consid
erod os an inertial reference with sufficient accuracy, although it actually
rotates relative tomore accurate inertial references

In many cases the motion of a particle is known relative to a reference
that cannot, for the required accuracy, be considered an inertial reference
Such would be the cae for the bead monng on a wire fixed in a rapidly
rotating wheel illustrated in Fig 1140 This particle may haa e an accelera
Y
r.gHtc u to X
lion teUlwc to the wheel However, we cannot use Eq 11 73 to oscer

tarn the force on the particle using this acceleration Instead, we must
compute the acceleration of the bead relative to an inertial reference
(the ground in this ca^*) before Using this equation Employing Eq 1171,
we would then be able to say
F maxrz = mfoxi,, + /i -f 2 x F 4- Xp 4- wX ( X p)3
Example: In Fig. 11.41 is the plan view of a rotating platform. A man is

seated at the position labeled and A is carrying a mass of 1/50 slug at
the rate of 10 ft/sec in a direction

straight ahead of him i.e., to the
center of the platform. If this plat-
form has an angular speed of 10
rad/sec and an angular acceleration
of 5 rad/sec^ at this instant, what
force must he exert to cause the
mass to accelerate 5 ft/sec'* toward
the center?
Reference xy is fixed to the ro-
tating member, while XY is sta-
tionary relative to the ground. The
former is not an inertial reference,
so we shall have to ascertain the
acceleration of the mass relative to
the ground. This may be done in
the following manner.
A. Motion of mass relative to xy axes.
p 10: Yxyt lOi axyt 5i
B. Motion of moving reference relative to inertial references.
j^ = 0 JR = 0
-lOfc u = -5Je
<0 =
Hence: a.vrz = 5i + 2( lOfc) X ( lOi)
-5k X lOi + (-lOfe) X (-lOfe X lOt)
axvz = -5i -50j + 200j - lOOOi = 150y - 1005i ft/sec^
Employing Newtons law for the mass, we get:
F= ^(160j - 10050
F= dj - 20.1i lb
This is the resultant force coming onto the mass. Since the man must
exert this force and also withstand the pull of gravity in the k direction,
the force exerted by the man on the mass is:
Fmass ~ 20.1: lb
-|-
^ fe (a)
If the platform were not rotating at all, it could serve as an inertial

reference. Then we would have:
Fniass ~ AC 50 = lb
Including gravity, we get:
Fmass = - i lb
^ (b)
This force considerably different from, solution (a)

is
Since most of our experience la based on actions observed relative to the
earths surface the forces v.e exert and the expected accelerations are
related in accordance with Nenton'a law given as Eq 11 73 If we were
Bitting in the chair of the ôtÛng platform with no view of the ' ground

we would intuitively e\pect the same acceleration relative to the plat-

form to result from a given force on a mass as it is m

our daily experience
It 13 clear from this problem tliat to get the same acceleration relative
to the man in the moving case requires a considerably different force
This fact may cause discomfiture and confusion m
a pilot who must make
certain motions with his hands relative to the plane while the plane is
undergoing a severe maneuver
1*1 16 THE COPIOUS FORCE
There are times when we must work with a non inertial reference
For instance m missile work and m meteorology we have flight times that
are large enough to make the rotation of the earth significant in certain
calculations In such cases the earths surface cannot be considered as
truly an inertial reference Even then however, we like to think of the
dynamic relations for motion relative to the non inerljal reference in the
formT' I and to do this we rewrite Eq II 74 jn the follow nig form
F- m/I - X 1',^, mw X p - ww X ( X p) 11 75
Thus, to an observer m
the non inertial reference the motion due to a
force F would be the same as if he were observing the motion in a truly
inertnl reference provided additional hypotlietical forces the minus
quantities on the left side of the above equation, are included This ap-
proach has great physical appeal, despite the bj^pothetical nature" of
Trajectory of earth
1-igure 11 42
the forces that w e have to include m

addition to the force "W e shall nowF
consider several situations in whicli the eartli's surface cannot be taken
as an inertial reference We ehall employ a reference \ VZ at the center
of the earth, with the Z axis colioear wiA the N
S axis of the earth This
the sun and

reference has essentially a constant translatory motion about
the earth rotates about the Z axis one revolution per day
(Fig. 11.42).
To a high degree of accuracy, it is an inertial reference.

start by considering particles that are stationary relative
to the
We
earth, i.e., in the xyz reference as shown in
Fig. 11.43, in which a location
Figure 11.43
along the equator has been chosen for convenience. The angular velocity
of xxjz fixed anywhere on the earths surface can readily be evaluated:
w =
(24)(36do) ^ ^ rad/sec 11.76
Newtons law, in the form of Eq. 11.75, for this stationary particle posi-
tioned at the origin of xyz simplifies to:
F viR 0 11.77
p and Fxyj are zero vectors. Let us next evaluate the

since fictitious force,
mil, for the particle, using R = 4000 miles:
-mR = -m{-\Ryi) = ?a(4000) (5280) (7.29 X lO'^)!/ = m{().1122)j
Clearly, this isa centrifugal force, as we learned in physics. Note that

the direction of this force is colinear with the gravitational force on a
particle, but with opposite sense. Note further that it has a magnitude
that is (0.1122/32 2)100 = 0.35 per cent of the gravitational force at the
indicated location. It is clear why, in the usual engineering problems, such
effects are neglected.
Assume that the particle is restrained by a flexible cord. According to
Eq. 11.77, the external force F (which includes gra^'itational
attraction
and the force from the cord) and the centrifugal add up to
force zero, and
334 ELEMENTS OF KiNEMATtCS 36
Figure 11 44
hence Ihoc forces are in equilibrium They are shown m Fig U 44 in

which 7 represents the contribution of the cord Clearly a force T radially
out from the center of the earth will restrain the particle and so the direc
tion of the flexible cord will point toxcard the center of the earth On the
other hand at a non-equatonal location this ivill not be true The gravity
force points toward the center of the earth but the centrifugal force-
now having the value m[f2(sin points radially out from the Z axis
and thus T the restraining force must be inclined somewhat from a direc-
tion toward the center of the earth Therefore except at the equator or
at the poles (where the centrifugal force is zero) a plumb bob does not
point directly toward the center of the earth However this deviation is
%ery small and is negligible for virtually nil engineering compulation'*
Consider next a freely falling body at the equator near the earths
Flîro 41 iS
:
11.16 ELEMENTS OF KINEMAllCS 335
Figure 11.46
surface.In addition to the centrifugal force, the Coriolis force associated

with the Coriolis acceleration will also act on it. Assuming again that at
the instant under investigation the particle is at the origin of the xyz
reference at the equator, we can write the equation of motion in this way
l/igj t/lR X Vxyz) = tflOxyz 11.78
Thus a body moving radially inward toward the center of the earth, as
shown in Fig. 11.46, has a Coriolis force acting in the negative x direction,
which causes an acceleration relative to the observer in xyz in the negative
X direction. If we dropped a mass from a position in xyz above a target,
therefore, the mass would curve slightly away from the target even if
there were no friction or wind, etc., to complicate matters. (What happens
if the mass has at the time of release a motion in, say, the x direction, as
in the case of a bomber?) Furthermore, the induced motion in the x direc-

tion itself induces Coriolis force components of a smaller order in yet an-
other direction, and so forth. You will surely begin to appreciate how
difficult a free fall can really become when great precision is attempted.
Figure 11.47
consiiier a current o! air or current ol w'lter moving the m

Northern HemjspJiere In the absence of a Coriolis force, the fluid would
move in the direction oppoiitc to the pressure gradient vector In the
diagram, the vector grid p, has been shown for simplicity along a
mcndian Imc pointing toward the ctpi itor Tor fluid motion m this direc
tion a Corjohs force will be present in the minus
y direction and so the
fluid nil! follow the dotted path BA Ihe induced motion is to the right
of the direction of flow develojied by the pri.s*:ure gradient alone By a
similar argument you can demonstrate

that m tlie Southern Hemisphere the
Coriolis force induces a motion to the
leftof the flow that would be present
under tlie action of the pressure gr idi
ent alone Such elTectsarcof stgmficance
in meteorology and oceanography
7}fc M
thff prcceAing
paragraph explain why cyclones and
whirlpools rotate m a counterclocK-
wi'e direction in Uie Northern Iltmt
sphere and a clochni<ie direction jn
the Southern Hemisphere In order to
atart, a whirlpool or cyclone needs a
as indicatedby the dotted lines. This result is the beginning of a counter-

clockwise motion. You can readily demonstrate that in the Southern
Hemisphere a clockwise rotation will be induced.
As the space age descends on us, we will, as engineers, have to be in-
creasingly more cognizant of such fascinating problems as we have pre-
sented here, which in former times we were able to disregard.
11.17 SUMMARY
In the first four sections of this chapter, we formulated a rather

general set of rules for the kinematics of particles and rigid bodies. Using
kinematics, we were able in the final section to solve for forces when the
motion of the particle is known. We now turn to the problem of finding the
motion when the forces on a particle or rigid body are known. This is a
considerably more difficult undertaking, since it involves the integration
ofone differential equation or several simultaneous differential equations.
We shall begin our studies in dynamics in the next chapter by considering
motion along a straight line. It is the simplest form of motion, yet it is
quite prevalent in many practical engineering situations.
PROBLEMS
53. A mass A weighing four ounces is made to rotate at a constant angular speed
of 02 = 15 rad/sec relative to a platform (Fig. P11.24). This motion is in the
C
plane of the platform, which, at the

instant of interest itself, is rotating at
an angular speed of wi = 10 rad/sec
and decelerating at a rate of 5 rad/sec
relative to the ground. If we neglect the
mass of the rod supporting the' mass A,
what is the axial force, bending mo-
ment, and shear force at the base of the
rod (i.e., at 0). The rod at the instant
of interest is shown in the diagram.
54. In the above problem, mass A may

slidealong the rod. What radial force
is required to accelerate the mass at
5 ft/sec^ along the rod toward 0 for
the conditions given in the problem?
The initial velocity of the mass A relative to the rod is zero.
55. .An exploratory probe shot from the earth is letuining to the earth. On enter-
ing the earths atmosphere, it has an angular velocity component of 10 rad/sec
about an axis normal to the page and a component of 50 rad/sec about tlie
vertical axis. The velocity of the object at the time of interest is 4000 ft//ec
vertically with a deceleration of 500 ft/sec'. A small sphere is rotating
at
5 rad/scc inside the probe assbowninFig Pll 25 At the time of interest the
probe IS oriented so that the trajectory of the sphere jn the probe is in the plane
of the page and the arm is vertical What is the axial force in the arm and the
bending moment at its base (neglect the mass of the arm) at this instant of
time if the sphere has a mass of 0 02 slugs
Figure ril S6
56 A man tUro'A's a ball from one side of a rotating platform to a man diametneally
opposite asehoiininFig Pll 26 What is the Conolis acceleration of the ball?
57 A Northern Hemisphere at a lati

river flons at 2 ft/sec average velocity in the
tude of 40 in the north south direction (Fig PI 1 27) What is the Coriolis
acceleration of the water relative to the center of the earth?
;ure Til 27 Figure Pll^

59.
Find the angular velocity required to maintain the configuration of the

flyball
governor, as shown in Fig. Pi 1.29. Connection A is fi.xed in the vertical direc-
tion, while weight B may move up or down along the shaft.
60.
A shaft AB rotates at an angular velocity of 100 rpm (Fig. P11.30). A body E

of weight 20 lb may move without friction along rod CD fixed toAB. If the
body E is to remain stationary relative to CD at any position along CD, how
must the spring constant K vary?
2 > c
61.
i)
100 lb
JSOlb
3
H=0 4
for all surfaces
Figure Pll.31
A platform rotates at 2 rad/sec (Fig. Pll.31). A body C weighing 100 lb rests

on the platform and is connected bj a flexible weightless cord to a mass weigh-
ing 50 lb, which is prevented from swinging out by part of the platform. At
what extreme value of x will bodies C and B remain stationary relative to the
platform? The coefficient of friction for all surfaces is 0.4.
Integration
of Newtons Law
for Rectilinear Translation
PART A Smsic Particle
T2 1 INTROPUCTION
^Ve shall now consider a scries of situations in

which the resultant force on a particle has the same direct-
all limes The resulting motion is
ion and line of action at
then entirely confined to a straight line and is sometimes
called rcciiltnear iransiattoif
The force may be a constant, a function of time, a
function of velocity, a function of position, or any com-
340
122 RECTILINEAR TRANSLATION 341
bination of these possibilities. We shall examine these various situations

in the succeeding sections of Part A of the chapter. Primarily, we shall
be solving simple differential equations and interpreting the results.

I
12 2 FORCE IS CONSTANT
Shown in Fig. 12.1 is a particle of mass m being acted on by a

constant force F. The plane on which the body moves is frictionless. The
force of gravity is equal and opposite to the normal force from the plane
X
Figure 12.1
so that F is the resultant force acting on the mass. For convenience, we

choose the x axis as colinear with the line of action of the force. We need
use only the scalar notation for Newtons law since all vectors involved
are colinear. Thus:
F ma = m (Fx
dl^
12.1
We rearrange the equation to give a standard form in which the highest

order derivative appears first with a coefficient of unity;
d-x/dF = F/m 12.2
This is called a second order differential equation with constant coefficients.

Integration may be carried out by simple quadratures. Thus we get:
dx
= F = F
dt m + Ci 12.3
where Ci is a constant of integration. Integration again gives us:
FF
=
3:
m Z + Cif + C2 12,4
We have thus found the velocity of the particle and the position as
functions of timeup to two constants. These constants may be readily
determined by having the solutions yield a certain velocity and position
at a time t - 0. Usually these conditions are termed initial
conditions
That is:
when < = 0 V= Fo x = xa l 2 ..'j
This maybe accomplished by substituting the initial conditions into

Eqs. 12.3 and 12.4 and solving for the constants
Ci and C^. Thus:
342 RECTILINEAR TRANSLATION i123
l'.-(0) + C,
I. - - (0) + t,.(0) + c,
Vt
Therefore Ci = t * Ci = xb
The equations of motion are then
V=V. + ^t (a)
i-z.+ K,(+î (b) 12.6
In the case of a freclj CaUiu" bodv Fftn g which maj be taken as

constant for reasonably small drops U
the initial n elocitj and position are
zero we get in this case the formulae
I * z ^ igl li.T
trhich >ou 1701 no doubt recall from earlier physics courses
1S3 FORCe IS A FUNCTION OP TIME
bring the diagram m

Fig 12 I, let us norc consider the force F
as a function of time F(l) This function need be only piecewise contiou
ous* for the operations to be corned out m
the eaûiDg analj^'is Thus
the difrerential equation can be expressed as
rfx no 12.8
dF m
Integrating we have
^
dl
-

cm
m
J9
dl + Ci 12.9
Integrating once again we get the povilion
Here thedummj variables r and ^ have been used to permit the final limit t
to be the desired \ enable of the problem
If the integral cannot be earned out analj tically wecanemploj numer
ical or graphical procedures \s in the prevnous case tfe constants of inte-
gration can be ascertained b> substituting for initial conditions
Having onl> a fin te number of finite d eonttwi ties.

12.4 RECTILINEAR TRANSLATION 343
12.4 LINEAR RESTORING FORCE ^
Let us now consider an important special case in which the force

is a function of position. A mass is resting on a frictionless
floor and is
body by spring 12.2).^ We

connected to some immovable a linear (Fig.
|nAA/WW^ m
Figure 12.2 i
take the origin of the coordinate system at a position whore the spring
does not exert a force on the mass. If the mass is moved to the right of this
point, the linear spring develops a restoring force proportional to the
displacement, as was discussed in Chapter 10. Thus for a positive value
of X there is a force with a sense in the negative direction. Similarly, in
the negative region of the x axis, the force from the spring has a sense cor-
responding to the positive direction and is therefore a restoring force pro-
portional to the displacement. Mathematically, this becomes:
F = -Kx 12.11
where K, the proportionality constant, is called the spring constant and

is usually given in pounds per inch of extension or compression of the
spring.
At any is a resultant force on the
position other than the origin, there
mass of Kx, normal and gravitational forces cancel. Such posi-
since the
tions can be reached by some initial disturbance to the S 3stem. We shall
evaluate the ensuing motion of the mass on the assumption that the mass
of the spring is negligible. If this were not so the force delivered to the
mass from the spring would depend on the motion of the spring, and a
considerably more complicated analysis would be necessary. Thus New-
tons law for any position x becomes:
m d^x
dF
-Kx 12.12
Rearranging, we have:
12.13
dt- m
This is a second order differential equation with constant coefficients
for
both the dependent variable x and its second derivative. Instead of
trying
* A spring whose extension or compression is directly proportional to the force.

U^ RECTILINEAR TRANSLATION S124
to rearrange the equation to effect a quadrature as ue did in the previous

cases * v.e shall take a more general \iea point toward differential equa
lions
To solve this differential equation we must find a function of time
x{() which when substituted into the equation satisfies the equation
1 e it to an identity We can either guess at x(t) or use a for
reduces
mal procedure It can be shown mathematically that the most general
solution of the aho\e equation wall consist of a linear combination of
two functions that cannot be wntten as a multiple of each other There
w'lll also be two arbitrary constants of integration Thus Ci cos Vh/m t
and Ci sin ^/Kjm t w ill satisfy the equation as we can readily demonstrate
by substitution and they are independent in the manner described TV e
can therefore ''ay
j: Cj cos y/TJm t + Cj sm V/f/m t 12.U
where C\ and Cj are the aforementioned constants of integration to be

determined by the initial conditions
C,
TV e may conveniently represent each of the above functions by employ

ing rotating vectors of a magnitude that corresponds to the coeffici ents o f
thefunctions ashas been shornim Fig 12 3 for the function Ci cos Vh /m I
If the vector ratstes coontercfackvrise with an angular veloctty of xÂ/n

radians per unit time and if Ci lies along the i a'?is at time t = 0 the projec-
tion of this vector along the x axis represents the desired function Vectors
used in this manner are called pbasors
Consider now the function Ctumx/fC/mt which we can replace by
Cj cos(VX/m < v/2) as we learned in elementary trigonometry The
phasor representation therefore would be a \cctor of magnitude Ct
that rotates w ilh angular t elocily x^K/m and that is out of phase by ir/2
with the phasor Ci (Fig 12 4) It is dimr that when vectors Ci and Ci
rotate at the same angular veloaty they can be replaced by their \ector
*Th scanbedoTif byreplac ngiPx/dPhy (dV/dx){dx/dt) which lae mply V[dV/di)

:
sum. This is shown in Fig. 12.5 where vector Ca replaces the vectors C\
and Cj. Now we can say:
= VCf + Cl =. tan->
Ca (3
^
Since Ci and Cs are arbitrary constants, Cj and /3 are also arbitrary con-
stants. Consequently, we can replace the solution given by Eq. 12.14 by
another equivalent form
X = Ca cos {VkJm < /3) 12.15
From this form, you probably recognize that the motion of the body is
harmonic motion. In studying this type of motion, we shall use the following
definitions;
Cycle. The cycle is that portion of a motion (or series of events in the
more general usage) which, when repeated, forms the motion. On the
phasor diagrams, this wovdd be the motion from one revolution of the
rotating vector.
Frequency. The number of cycles per unit time is the frequency. It is
equal to s/KImj^rr for the above motion, since ^Kim has units of radians
per unit time. Sometimes '^Kjm is termed the natural frequency of the
System in radians per unit time or, when divided by 2Tr, in cycles per unit
time.
Period. The period, t, is the time of one cycle, and is therefore the recip-
rocal of frequency. That is:
-
27r
VK/m ,
Am-plilude. The largest displacement attained by the body during a

cycle is the anrplitude. In this case, the amplitude corresponds to the
coeflScient Cz.
346 RECTILINEAR TRANSLATION 512 4
Phase angle The phase angle w the angle bet>\een the phasor and the
X when t = 0 i e the angle 0
axis
A plot of the motion as a function of time is presented in Fig 12 G

where these various quantities are ônn graphically
It la usually easier to use the earlier form of solution Eq 12 14 rather

than Eq 12 15 in satisfying tmlial conditions The position and velocity
can be given as
X Cl cos Vh/m + C3 sm Vhjm

I I
V CiVA/w sin VA/m < + CtVÂArt cos VA/w i 12 I 6
The initial conditions arc
when t-0 X - x% l-lc

Substituting we get
xo = Cl 1 0 CjV'A/wi
Therefore the motion is
We can generalize from these results by noting that anj agent supplying
a linear restoring force for all motions of a mass lakes the place of the
spring in the preceding computations We must remember that to behave
this way the agent must have negbgible mass Thus we can associate with
such agents an equivalent spring constant A which we can ascertain if we
know the static deflection S caused by some knon n force TT e can then say
A, - F/S 12 18
Once we determine the equivalent spring constant, we immediately

know that the natural frequency of the system is {M2ir)VWJm cycles per
unit time. This is the number of cycles the system will repeat in a unit
time if some initial disturbance is imposed on
the mass. Note that this natural frequency de-
pends only on the stiffness of the system and
on the mass of the system and is not dependent
*
on the amplitude of the motion.
We shall now consider several problems in
which we can apply what we have just learned
about harmonic motion.
Example 1 A mass weighing 10 lb is placed

:
carefully on the spring shown in Fig. 12.7.

When the mass is released very slowly, the
spring extends a distance of 2 inches. What
is the natural frequency of the system? If
the mass is given a velocity instantaneously

of 5 ft/sec down from the equilibrium posi- Figure 12.7
tion, what is the equation for displacement
as a function of time?
The spring constant is immediately available by the equation
K= F/S = 10 lb/2 in. = 5 Ib/in.
The equation of motion for the mass can be written for a reference whose
origin is at the loaded equilibrium position shown in the diagram. Thus:
in^=W-K{x + 5)
where 5 is the distance from the unextended position of the spring to the
origin of the reference. However, from our initial equation, 5 = F/K
= IF/A. Therefore, we have:
m ^=
aP-
TF - K{x + W/K) = -Kx
and the equation becomes:
+ mK X =
d^x
(UP
,
Thus the motion will proceed about the position of static equilibrium,
which isan extended position of the spring, in precisely the same manner
it did in the discussion where the static equilibrium position and the
un-
extended position of the spring happened to coincide. This conclusion
follows from the fact that Eq. (a) is the same as Eq. 12.13.
* Actually, when the amplitude gets comparatively large, the spring ceases to be
linear, and the motion does depend on the amplitude. Our results do not apply
to such
a condition.
,
Wecan then use the rcsultestcmming from that discussion for handling
this problem Using the notation as the natural frequency rad aiis m
perumttime weha%e
5 Ib/in /(5)(32) / f~
10 Ih/g ft/sec* \ 10 \in secV
l(5)(32)
10
( ^ \ = 13 9 rad/sec
) Vmt sec*/
'
1 l -ft-
The motion is now gnen by the equation

X * Cl sin 139f + Utcos 13 0
X * 139Ccosl39t - nOCjSvn t39t
From the spccihcd initial conditions nc know that when 1=0 z = 0

and y *= 5 Therefore the constants of integration become
Cj 0 C, * - 03^9
The desired result then is
x-0T>98ml39^ft
Example 2 In Fig 128 s bod> weighing 5 lb is positioned on the end
of a elcodcr cantilever beam whose msss ae ran neglect in considering
the motions of the body at its end
If ne know the geometry and the composition of the cantilever beam

and if the deflection involved a verj small v\ e can compute from strength
of materials the deflection of the end of the beam that results from a
lertical load there In this case suppose we have computed a deflection
of 0 5 in for a force of 1 ib tVhat would be the natural frequency of the
bodi weighing 5 lb for small oscillations m
the \ertica1 direction
Because the motion is restricted to small amplitudes we may consider
the mass to be translating in the \ertical direction the same manner m
os the mass on tluj spring m
the previous case The formulations of this
section arc once again applicable The equivalent spring is found to be
A. = F/S = 1/05 = 21b/in
The natural frequency for a 5-lb weight at the end of the cantilever is then
12.5 LINEAR RESTORING FORCE

AND A FORCE VARYING SINUSOIDALLY WITH TIME
We shall now consider the case of two different types of forces

present simultaneously (Fig. 12.9). The sinusoidal force has a frequency
Fq sin cot
|-vAw!/VVV'^ m
Figure 12.9
of w (not to be confused with cj, the natural frequency) and an amplitude

of Fo. At time t = 0, the mass will be assumed to have some known velocity
and position, and we will investigate the ensuing motion. Measuring the
position X from the unextended position of the spring, we have for Newtons
law;
fJp-X
= Kx + Fo sin oit 12.19
Rearranging so that the dependent variable and its derivatives are on

the left-hand side of the equation and dividing through by m, we get
the standard form:

d^x
q
K X = Fo
.
,
m sin wc
,
12.20
ttr m
If the right-hand side is zero in such an arrangement, the equation is
termed homogeneous. This was the case in the previous section. If any
function of t or constant appears on the right side, as in the above case,
the equation is non-homogeneous.
The non-homogeneous differential equation of this
general solution of a
type found by getting the general solution of the corresponding homo-
is
geneous equation and then finding some particular solution which satisfies
the full equation. The sum of these solutions, then, is the general solution
of the equation. Sometimes the solution for the homogeneous equation is
termed the completnentary solution.
In this case, we have already ascertained the complementary solution:
Xc = Cl sinViC/?n t C2 cos ^Klmt 12.21
To get a particular solution Xp, we can see by inspection that a function

of the form Xp = C 3 sin wt will give a solution if the constant
C3 is chosen
properly. Substituting this function into Eq. 12.20, we thus have:
sin cat Co sin ut = sin oii

7ti m
350 RECTILINEAR TRANSLATION S1SS
Clearly, the value of Cj is restricted to
Fg/m
C, = 12 22
h/m *
\\ e can now express the general solution of the differential equation at
band
2 Cl sm /
\m
* I 4- Cj C03 -v/^
\m + K/m w* sm wt
t ?
12 23
Note that there are two arbitrary constants which are detemimcd from
the initial conditions of the problem Do not use the results of Eq 12 17
for these constants, since uw must now tnclude ihe particular solution in
ascerlatntng the constants WhenI = 0, thenar * 29 andr 2o,andweha\e
the conditions
Xg = Ct
Fg/m
+ K/m
F w
12^1
SoUing for the constants, ne write
Cj xt
aFt/m
1225
'
VK/m (K/m - i^^)VK/m
Returning to the solution 13 23, notice that we hate the supcrpo'îlion
of two harmonic motions one nitli a frequency equal to VK/m, the nnt-
ura! frequency of the system, and the other with a frequency of the
'*dn\nng function,' i e the non homogeneous part of the equation The
,
frequencies w and are not the same in the general case The phasor
representation then shows that since the rotating vectors hate different
tlKUre 12 to
angular speeds, the resulting motion cannot be represented by a

single
phasor and hence the motion is not harmonic.

The two parts of the motion are termed the transient and the steady state
for the frequencies Wn nnd w, respectively. With the introduction of friction
(next section), we will see that the transient part of the motion dies out
while the steady state persists as long as there is a disturbance present.
Let us now consider the amplitude of the steady-state part of the mo-
tion. Dividing numerator and denominator by K/m in Eq. 12.22, we have
for this motion:
'
Since w, the driving frequency, can be varied, we study the magnitude
;; which is shown plotted in Fig. 12.10. As the forcing fre-

1 {o)/uy
,
quency approaches the natural frequency, the term Soes to

^ y
infinity and thus the amplitude of the forced vibration approaches infinity.
This is the condition of resonance. Under such circumstances friction, which
we neglect here but which is always present, may limit the amplitude.
And when very large amplitudes are developed, the properties of the re-
storing element do not remain linear, so that the theory which predicts
infinite amplitudes is inapplicable. Thus the linear, frictionless formula-
tions cannot yield correct amplitudes at resonance in real problems. The
condition of resonance, however, does indicate that large amplitudes are
to be expected, and these amplitudes are dangerous, since the large stresses
that will be found in parts of the restoring system as well as in the moving
body may cause disastrous important in most
failures. It is therefore
situations to avoid resonance. If a disturbance corresponding to the natural
frequency is present and cannot be eliminated, we may find it necessary
to change the stiffness or the mass of a system in order to avoid resonance.
From Fig. 12.10 we can conclude that the amplitude will become small
as the frequency of the disturbance becomes very high. Also, considering
the formula for the amplitude (Eq. 12.26), we see that before resonance
the sign of the coefficient is positive, and after resonance it is negative,
indicating that below resonance the motion is in phase with the disturbance
and above resonance the motion is directly out of phase with the disturb-
ance. This is readily demonstrated by the arrangement given in the second
of the following two examples.
Example 1 A motor mounted on springs is constrained by the rollers

;
to move only in the vertical direction (Fig. 12.11). The assembly weighs
600 lb and when placed carefully on the springs causes a deflection of
0.1 in. Because of an unbalance in the rotor, a disturbance results that is
approMmatclj sinusoidal m the \ertical direction with a frequency equal

to the angular speed of the rotor The amplitude of this disturbance is
30 Ih when the motor is 17^ rpm IVhat is the steady state
rotating at
motion of this system under these eircumstances if ae neglect the mass
of the springs, friction and the inertia of the rollers?
The spring contant for the ay'stem is
K 600/0 1 - 6000 Ib/in
and the natural frequency becomes
62 rad/sec or 9 86 cyclcs/sec
The 8teady*8tate motion is
TofK
Xf
\ - (w/w,)*
30/6000 1720

1 -[1720/(9 R6)(60)I='" 00
0 00067 sin ISOt in
Note that the dnwng frequency is above the natural frequency In

up motor* and turbines nc must sometimes go through a natural
starting
Datum _
,crx.
a = 5"
01 = 10 rad/sec
m=lslug
Flffure 12 12 K = 500!b/ft
^ 12.5 RECTILINEAR TRANSLATION 353
frequency of the system, and it is wise to get through this zone as quickly
as possible to prevent large amplitudes from building up.
Example 2; A mass on a spring is shown in Fig. 12.12. The support of the

spring at x' is made to move with harmonic motion in the vertical direc-
tion by some external agent. This motion is given as a sin oit. If at < = 0
the mass is displaced in a downward position a distance of 1 in. and if it
has a speed downward of 3 in./sec, what is the position of the mass

at < = 5 sec? a = 5 in., w = 10 rad/sec, K = 500 Ib/ft, and m = 1 slug.
Let us express Newtons law for the mass. Note that the extension of
the spring is given as x x'. Hence:
d^x ,,
-A(.-X)
Replacing x' by the known function of time, we get, upon rearranging
the terms:
d^x K Ka .
317 + ,
This is the same form as the Eq. 12.20 we just investigated, in which the
disturbance is exerted on the mass directly. The solution, then, is:
X = C\ sin ^ + Cicos i + sin o:t

\ VI
(
\m 1 -
-x
(co/VK/m)^
Putting in the numerical values of VK/m etc., we have:

X = Cl sin 22At -f Cj cos 22.4i -f- 6.25 sin lOi in.
Now consider the initial conditions. We have:

1 = Cj
3 = 22.4C, + (6.25)(I0) .-.

Ci = -2.65
The motion, then, is:
X = 2.65 sin 22.4f + cos 22.4t + 6.25 sin lOt in.
When t = 5 sec, the position of the mass relative to the lower datum is
given as:
(x)b = 2.65 bin (22.4)(.5) 4- cos (22.4)(5) + 6.25 sin 50

Wb = (-2.65) (-0.890) + (0.456) + (6.2.5)(-0.262) = 1.174 in.
You can demonstrate, by shaking on the end of an elastic band sup-

porting a mass in the manner of this problem, the change of phase occur-
ring at resonance between the motion of the mass and the motion
of the
disturbance. Below resonance both motions arc approximately in phase,
and above resonance the motions are approximately out of phase. Without
friction, the change, according to the mathematics,
is discontinuous, but
with the presence of friction, i.e., in a real case, there actually is a
smooth,
although perhaps rapid, transition between both extremes.
354 RECTIHNEAR TRANSLATION 5126
126 LINEAR RESTORING FORCE WITH VISCOUS DAMFINO
Wo shall now consider the ease in which a special type of friction is
present In the chapters on statics you will recall ue considered Coulomb

or dry friction for the eases of sliding and impending motion This force
was proportional to the normal force at U c interface of contact and de-
pendent on the matenal of the bodies At this time we shall consider the
ease of bod es separated from each other by a thin film of fluid As ne
learned m
Chapter 9 the frictional force is non independent of the matenal
of the bodies but depends on the nature of the fluid and as computations
of Chapter 9 show is proportional for a given fluid to the relative velocity
of the two bodies separated by the film Thus
f = -c{dx/dt) ,\ 12 27
where c is called the coefficient of damping The minus sign indicates that
the frictional force opposes the motion t c must always have the opposite
sign of the velocity
Figure 12 13
In Fig 12 13 IS the mass spring model with damping present We shall
investigate motions subsequent to a set of gi\en initial conditions

all
The differential equation of motion is
c
dt
In standard form this is
d^x ,
c_(^ ,
h 0 12 28
dl* mdt
This IS an homogeneous second order dilTerent al equation with constant
coefficientsWe shall expect two independent functions with two arbitrary
constants to form the general solution to this equation Because of the pres
ence of the first derivative in the equation we cannot use smes or cosines
for trial solutions form and pre-
since the first denvative changes their
vents a cancellation of the time function Instead we use e* where p is
determined so as to satisfy the equation Thus
X= 12 29
Substituting, we have:
+- - =
Cip=cP
^ m Cl pep + m Cie*-' 0
Canceling out Cie*"', we get:
p^ -p + -
+m m
= 0 12.30
Solving for p, we write:
-cM - iKM ^ - K/m

p = V{c/2my- 12.31
It will be helpful to consider three situations according to the magnitudes

of the damping coefficients, spring constant, and mass.
Case A. cj2m > y/ K/m
Here the value p is real. Using both possible values of p and employing
Cl and Ci as arbitrary constants, we get:
Rearranging, we have:
X = e-(c/2m)([C(jg V(c/2m)s-A7m t '^(c/2m)-iC/m
(]
Since c/2m > V(c/2m) K/m, we

see from the above equation that as
the time t motion can only be that of an exponential of de-
increases, the
creasing amplitude. Thus, for any initial conditions there can be no oscilla-
Figure 12.14
tion. The motion is illustrated in Fig. 12.14 and is called over-damped

motion. Such a motion is of use in door stops.
C'ase B. c/2m < -\-VK/m
This means that we have a negative quantity under the root in Eq. 12.31,
and extracting V 1 = i, we can write
p as follows:
p = c/2m iy/K/m (c/2m)^ 12..32
The solution then becomes:
X = e~ ('''2m)([-(^^gf VA'/m- fc/2m) t ^^g_,VA7m-(c/2m) ij

12.33
From complex number theory, we know that e'* may be replaced by

cos fl +
t sin 0 and thus the above equation can be put in the form*
X - e-w=' {c. [cos + > -v/l - {0]
-
+ [ Vm {)' '
Vm ~ fe)' '] }
Collecting terms and replacing sums and differences of arbitrary constants
by other arbitrary constants, we get the result
^ 3 , + c. sm - (^) (] 1235
The quantity in brackets represents a harmonic motion which has a fre-
quency less than the free undamped frequency of the system The expo-
nential term to the left of the brackets, then, serves to decrease continually
the amplitude of this motion A plot of the displacement against time for
Figure 12 15
this case is illustrated in Fig 12 15, %vherc the upper envelope corresponds
m form to the exponential function
Cose C c/2m = V/C/m
Since this is the dividing line between the over-damped case and one m
w hich oscillation is possible, the motion is termed a critically damped mo-
tion The solution for p becomes
p = ~c/2m 12 36
and it can be shown that tliemotion must be exponential without the

possibility of oscillation (sec Fig 12 14) The value of c for this case is
C = 25/^ I2JI
and It is For the remaining steps in-

called the cnticalrdamping constant
\ olving the solution of free, damped motion, simply ascertain the constants
from the initial conditions of the problem In discussing damped motion, we

shall still consider the "natural frequency of the system to be that of the
corresponding undamped case and shall refer to the actual frequency of

tlie motion as the frequency of free, damped motion.
12.7 LINEAR RESTORING FORCE,

VISCOUS DAMPING, AND A SINUSOIDAL DISTURBANCE
If we include a sinusoidal di.sturbing function, Fo sin in the pre-

ceding problem, the differential equation in the standard form becomes:
d^x ,
c dx . Kx = sm ut
Fo ,
12.38
d 37 d
dt^ m dl m m
This is now a non-homogeneous equation. The general solution will be the
homogeneous solution worked out in the previous section, plus any partic-
ular solution of Eq. 12.38, which we shall consider at this time.
Fq sin cot
K
I
I-vXAAAAAMAAAH
I
Figure 12.16
Since there is a first derivative on the left side of the equation, we cannot
expect a particular solution of the form D sin ui to go through. Instead, we
shall try the following:
.Vp = D sin wt + E cos cot 12.39
The constants D and F are to be adjusted to facilitate a solution. Sub-

stituting into the differential equation, we write:
Dw* sin ~ coE sin

cot EciP- cos cot -f
m wD cos cot
m col
d
m D sin cot d
m
E cos cot = sin cot
m
Collecting the terms, we have:
~ Dco^ ~ (oE + ~ Z)') sin cot

(
\ m m )
d- { Eca'^ d- ~ coD
m d- e\ cos cot = 0
\ m /
We set each coefficient equal to zero and thus get two simultaneous
equa-
tions in the unknowns E and D:
358 RECTILINEAR TRANSLATION 1S8
~i;ui< D + -r:
+m m
= o
Rearranging and replacing K/m by we get

- w2) + fi-Ctfc/m) = -/,/m
D( uc/m) + JS(w* <^) = 0
Using Cramers rule, we see that the constants D and E become
-Ffl/m oic/m
0 w* wj (F,/mW - 2)
w' o>c/m ( - b.*)* + {b!c/m)
1
~ac/m w uJl
u oil Fe/wj
ûc/m 0 1
" (Fe/m)(uc/m)
W* - u3 uc/tn (w* uiy + ioic/m)
wc/m w* <*
The entire solution can then be given as
_ _ _ Fo/miw^ uj) Fouc/m*

,
cos at
(* - ?)* + (c^/m) *" ( - ul)> + (c/m)*
12 40
The constants of integration arc present in the complementary solution

Xe and are determined by the initial condition to which the entire solution
given abo\e is subject
The complementary solution here is a transient in the true sense of the
word, since it dies out in the manner explained m the preceding section
The particular solution is a harmonic motion mth the same frequency as
the disturbarce Only the amplitude of this motion is affected by the damp-
ing present Note that, mathematically, the amplitude of the steady-state
motion cannot become infinite ivith damping present unless F, becomes
infinite
12 8 SUMMARY OF FART A
In Sections 12 2 and 123, weev-unmed the motion of a particle for

um-directional forces that were constant or that varied with time, and
there was no inherent restriction on the extent of this motion But in Sec-
tions 12 4 through 12 7 the motions examined were essentially confined to
regions about the static equilibrium configuration of the system Such mo-
tions are of great practical significance to engineers and are classified as the
particular branch of dynamics called vibrations. We have
avoided classify-
ing these problems until now to prevent imparting the impression that
they are separate from the general concepts of dynamics. In the next
section, we shall follow the same pattern in an introductory study of the
rectilinear motions of several interconnected bodies.
PART B. Motion of Several Interactins Particles
12.9 INTRODUCTORY NOTE
We now turn to the case where several bodies are constrained to

move in rectilinear motions, which, we "will assume, interact in some man-
ner. Two simple examples are shown in Fig. 12.17. In (a) the masses are
mi
(a)
m,
Figure 12.17 (b)
connected by an inextensible cable, and in (b) the masses are connected

vith springs. We will neglect the masses of the connecting devices. Basi-
cally, the procedure is to take each body as a free body, write Newtons
laws for each, and integrate, making use of any relation between the
dependent variables imposed by the connections or restraints. The prob-
lem is fairly direct for the inextensible cable, but for the springs
it is some-
what involved. Before proceeding, we shall present some definitions and
statements that will later be further explained and demonstrated.
A system is said to be lumped when, for purposes of dynamics, it is
considered to be made up of a finite number of discrete rigid bodies.
By
neglecting the masses of the cable and the springs in the examples
in Fig.
12 17, wc caji classify them as lumped aystema The single mass systems o!
Part A \iere thus lumped systems
You wiU recall from statics that tlw number of degrees of freedom of a
!.ystcm corresponds to the number of independent coordinates rccjuired to
locate the system rclutiit to ome reference In Iig 12 17, the masses
connected by the incvtensible cible have one degree of freedom (we as-
sume that the cable is always m
tension for the configurations of interest)
whereas the system of two masses connected by springs has two degrees of
freedom* and requires the specification of coordinates ri and ;rt i e a co-
ordinate for each mass, since no definite relation CCists a prion between
these coordinates for all motions
1S 10 P ALEMBERT S PRINCIPLE
Wc shall first investigate briefly non-osciUatuig lumped systems

such as the one in Tig 12 17a One method of finding the equations of
rh *-T
mjg
Figure 12 IS
motion in such problems is to isolate each body (Fig 12 18) and utilize
Newtons law The equations are (if friction is neglected)

T * miJf tai
T + mta mty 12 ti
Although coiislraintaurcDolBl onoinFig 12 17(b) the bodies are limited to vertical

motions only
Since the cable is inextensible, x = y and thus if we eliminate x and y

from these equations, we get:
T/wi - Tfm 2 +g
T=
<7
Hence: 12,42
I /mi + l/m2
With T now a known constant force, we can now integrate the motion of
either mass by the methods of Section 12.2 for a constant force. Thus,
using Eq. 12.41a, we have:
g
T = miX 12.43
1/Wi + 1/72
Hence: ^ 12.44
^ I + mi/m2
Integrating, we get:
12.45
There is another extremely effective way of handling this problem.

Suppose we write Newtons law for a, particle in this manner:
F+ (-mo) = 0 12.46
If we consider mo an
to be a force, this equation will correspond to
equation of equilibrium for a particleand we can then proceed with the
calculations and methods developed in statics. When handled in this man-
ner, the term mo is called a D' Alembert force, and we can, in effect,
reduce the methodology of a dynamics problem to that of a statics problem.

This procedure is called D Alembert s 'principle.
'
Figure 12.19
y
With the problem formulated in this way, we can make use of the method
of \irtual Aiork studied in Chapter 10 Since only the DAlembert forces
and the gravitational force on m* arc nctive forces, for a virtual displace-
ment 8i (ce Fig 12 10), vvehave
mixix + (mjff miy)Sy = 0 12 ti
But since ij; = iy and x = y, we have
=S- is
which was developed in the previous procedure Note that this method
did not require the intermediate considerations of T and the free-body
considerations, it is thus considerably quicker for problems where a number
of bodies are connected so as to have few degrees of freedom
1211 OSCILLATORY SYSTEMS WITH MULTI DECREES OF FREEDOM
We will concern ourselves here with a very simple system that

has two degrees of freedom, and we will be able to generalize from this
simple case In the system of masses shown in Fig 12 20, the masses are
X], X2 measured (rom equittbnum configuration
Figure 12 20
equal, as are the spring constants of the outer springs We neglect fnction,
windage, etc How can we desenbe the motion of the masses subsequent
to any imposed set of initial conditions
We first express Newtons law for each mass To do this, imagine the
masses at any position X!,a:i measured from the equilibrium configuration,
and then compute the forces Assume for conv enience that xi > xj The
spring Kt is in compression for this supposition, and hence it produces a
negative force on the mass at Xi ond a positive force on the mass at xi
The equations of motion then are
tn ~= Kxx K^{Xl Is) (a)
-A'l.+ K.d.-iO (1.) 12 49

If you imagine that the masses are at any other non-trivial position, you
will still arrive at the above equations.
Since the dependent variables appear in both differential equations,
they are termed simultaneous differential equations, and we can rearrange
the equations to the following standard form:
d^xi . K ,
, \ n / ^
dP
^+m
dr
-1,
m I,) - 0 (b) 12.S0
Finding a solution is equivalent to finding two functions of time xi{t)
and X 2 {i), which when substituted into Eqs. 12.50(a) and (b) reduce each
equation to an identity. Only second derivative and zeroth derivatives
appear in these equations, and we would thus expect that sine or cosine
functions of time would yield a possible solution. And since both xi and X 2
appear in the same equation, these time functions must be of the same form.
A trial solution, therefore, might be:
Xi = + a)
Cl sin (pt (a)
X2 = Ci sin {pt + a) (b) 12.51
where Ci, Cs, a, and p are as yet undetermined. Substituting into Eq. 12.50
and cancelling out the time function, we get:
-Cip^ + +^ (C*! - 02) = 0 (a)
+- - (Cl - C =
-CiP^
mC m 2 2) 0 (b) 12.52
Rearranging the above equations, we write:
One way have Ci = 0

of insuring the satisfaction of this equation is to
and C2 = This means, from Eqs. 12.51(a) and (b), that Xi and X 2 are
0.
always zero, which corresponds to the static equilibrium position.
While
this is a valid solution, since this
static equilibrium is a possible motion,
the result is trivial. We now ask: Is there a means of satisfying these equa-
tions without setting
Cl and C2 equal to zero?
To answer this, solve for Ci and C2 in terms of the coefficients, as
, if they
were unknowns in the above equations. Using
Cramer's rule, we then have:
364 RECTILINEAR TRANSLATION 512 11
0 -K^fm
^ _ 0
p* + /v/m -f Kll'fti
*
I p* + A/w + Aj/w AV^j
1
-Kilm p* + A/w + Aj/wj
12 51
I p* 4- A/m + Aj/n* 01
^ _ I A/m o|
* p* + A/m + AV/
1
Ai/ih P + A/i(i 4- Ai/ml
Notice that the dtterminant the numerator is m
each case zero If m
the denominator is other than zero, ue must have the trivial solution
Cl as Cj = 0, the significance of which we have just discussed A necessary
condition for a non-tnvial solution is that the denominator also be zero,
for thenwe get the indeterminate form 0/0 for Ci and C* Clearly, Ci and
Ci can then have possible values other than zero, and so the required
condition for a non tn\aal solution is
-p*4*A7m + AV"i AVv

0 12 S3
Aj/m p* + A/m + Kt/m
Carrying this out, we get
( p' + A/m 4- At/ni)* (A*/m)* 12 55
Taking the roots of both sides, ne write
p* 4- A/m 4- At/m rhAVm I2 S7
Two values of p* satisfy the necessary condition ue ha\e impo'scd If we

use the positive roots, the \alues of p arc
p = y/KIm + 2Ktfm 12 58
ivliere p, and pt are found for the plus and minus cases, respectively, of
the right side of Eq 12 57
Let us now return to Eqs 12 53(a) and (b) to ascertain what further
restrictions we may have to impose to ensure a solution, since these equa-
tions foTOi the criterion of acceptance of a set of functions as solutions
Employing VA/m for p m Eq 12 53(a), wc have
(-A/m 4- A'/m 4- A,/m)C'i - (A,/m)Cj = 0 I2 59
From this we see that when we use this value of p it is necessary that
Cl = Cl to satisfj tlie equation The same conclusions can be reached by
employing Eq. r2.53(b). We can now state a permissible solution to the

differential equation. Using A as the amplitude in place of Ci = C 2 we ,
have:
ii = /I sin (VW/m + t rt) (a)
Xi = A sin (y^K/m t + ci) (b) 12.60
we examine the second value of p, we find that for this value it is

If
required that Ci = Ci. Thus if we use B for Ci, and use P as the arbitrary
value in the sine function, another possible solution is:
Xi = B sin (VK/m + 2K^Jm + t P)
Xi = B sin (V/C/m + 2Ki/m t + P) 12.61
Let us consider each of these solutions. In the first case, the motions
ofboth masses are in phase with each other, have the same amplitude,
and thus move together with simple harmonic motion with a natural
frequency V/f/m. For this extended or
motion, the center spring is not'
compressed, and, since the mass of the spring has been neglected, it has
no effect on this motion. This explains why the natural frequency has such
a simple formulation.
The second possible independent solution is one in which the ampli-
tudes are equal for both masses but the masses are 180 out of phase.
Each mass oscillates harmonically with a natural frequency greater than
the preceding motion. Since the masses move in opposite directions in the
manner described, the center of the middle spring must be stationary for
this motion. It is as if each mass were vibrating under the action of a spring
of constant K and the action of half the length of a spring with a spring
I K I
^
|-AAAAA/V\A- m ^/vv|vv\A- m vW\MAA/î
I
i I I
V, V/,
Figure 12.21
constant 2Ki (Fig. 12.21), which explains why the natural frequency for
this motion is V (7C + 2Ki)lm. (It will be left for you to demonstrate
in an
exercise that halving the length of the spring doubles the spring constant.)
Each of these motions is called a natural mode. The first mode refers
to the motion of lower natural frequency, and the second mode identifies
the one with the higher natural frequency. It can be
shown that the general
solution is the sum of the two solutions presented:
366 RECTJLINEAR TRANSIAHON 51212
ii = P/l sin {VK/m i + a)"| T B sin + 2h.i/m + 0) t
xi *= sm (y/K/m i + a) J + L~^ 6>n (VA'/w + 2Kt(m + 0) i
first mode second mode

o{ motion of motion
Four constants are yet to be determined d, B, , and 0 These are the

constants of integration and are determined by the initial conditions of
the motion, that is the velocity and position of each mass at time I = 0
From this discussion we can make the following conclusions The general
motion of the system under study, subsequent to certain initial conditions
IS the superposition of two modes of motion of harmonic nature that have
distinct natural frequencies with amplitudes and phase angles that are
evaluated to fit the imtial conditions Thus the basic modes are the build
mg blocks of the general free motion
If the masses, as well as the springs, were unequal, the analysis would
produce two natural frequencies and mode shapes, but these will not
still
be as simple as the special case we have worked out nor, perhaps, as intui-
tively obvious
As v,e discussed m the
paragraph of this section, tvô natural fre-
first
quencies correspond to the two degree of freedom In the general caê

of n degrees of freedom, there will be n natural frequencies, and the general
free vibrations mil be the superposition of n modes of motion that have
the amplitudes and are phased together in such a way that they satisfy
2n initial conditions
A similar, although more complicated, argument can be earned out for
the case of damping Also, when disturbances are present, more elegant
procedures are available which ore beyond the scope of this text However,
itshould be pointed out that the natural frequencies from the type of
analysis earned out in this section, i e , without inclusion of damping
give the engineer the dangerous frequencies that must be avoided m the
disturbances for if a disturbing frequency or a multiple of it coincides
with, one of tW natural frequencies of the system, large vibrations occur
that may possibly induce large stresses and thus cause a machine element
to fail
PART C Electric Circuit Analosue

for a Mechanical System
1212 INTROSUCTORV COMMENTS

IVe will now show that the differential equations of motion of the
systems of masses and springs studied earlier have the same form as the
:
differential equations describing the flow of charge through certain lumped

electrical circuits. The particular circuit having the desired equation is
termed the analogue of the mechanical system. Although the mechanical
systems we have presented are usually solvable, the system could well be
too complex for direct mathematical treatment. It may then be profitable
analogue and study the characteristics of the mechan-
to build the electrical
ical system by experimenting with the electrical system by conveniently
varying voltages, resistances, etc.*
Another reason for examining circuits here is to be sure that you are
well aware of the analogue, so that the techniques you will later learn for
solving circuit problems, such as those in operational mathematics, will
be available for solving mechanical systems.
12.13 ELECTRICAL AND MECHANICAL COUNTERPARTS
As an introduction, consider the simple lumped series circuit in

Fig. 12.22. Here we have a battery of constant voltage J5,t an induction
L
vwv R
!(
C
Figure 12.22
coil with inductance L, a resistor of resistance R, a capacitor of capacitance

C,and a switch that represents the time f = 0 when it is closed. Kirchhoffs
second law, as you undoubtedly learned in physics, states that, for a clock-
wise direction;
E- L^-iR-^
dt C
[idt
Jo
= 0 12.63
If we replace i, the current, by dq/dl, the rate of change of the charge with
respect to time, we have
E-L^-B~^C = 0
dt^ dt
12 . 6.
This is a second order differential equation which when put into standard
form is:
information on analogue computer techniques see W. W. Soroka, Analog

e(Ms in Computation and Simulation (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1954).
1, a scalar, is not to be confused with the potential field E, a vector,
rvh'icn
we will study in the following chapter. It corresponds to V, the voltage, which is
termed for a battery source.
~ 1 E
dl^
^ / j#
LC^ L 12 63
This equation looks like Eq 12 38, for the case where the driving function
Figure 12 23
jsa constant The mechanical system for Eq 12 38 is shown in Fig 12 23

and the equation is presented again as
12 66
df* '
mdt m
Comparing the terms of the two systems we can set up the following table
of electrical and mechanical counterparts
ilfec/iomcal Electneal
91/stem
Fo E
X q sa jtdt
dx/dt - V dq/dt t
dh/dP - a d^q/dP = dt/dl

m L
c R
K 1/C
both systems are given the same type of imtial disturbances the sub-
If
sequent velocity variation of the mechanical system will be similar to the
variation of the current m
the electrical system An example of a set of
analogous imtial conditions would be
Jilechanical sysUm Eledncal system

when F is suddenly applied when switch is suddenly closed
/ 0 i = 0
X = 0 7 = 0
1=0 t = 0
IVe could observe the current in an equivalent circuit with a meter or

some recording device for such a disturbance and thus ascertain wliat is
to be expected of the velocity m
the mechanical system However, in this
simple case we can solve the differential equation and satisfy the initial
conditions without recourse to experiment Finally, we can conclude that
the concepts of critical damping, resonances, degrees of freedom, etc.,

carry over to circuit analysis.
K K,
|-a/VW\/WV- -\/WV\AAAA- Kaaamaa/'-
1
Figure 12.24
Example: Work out an electrical analogue for the system we studied

has two masses and three springs and two degrees
in Section 12.11 that
of freedom. The diagram (Fig. 12.24) and the equations are repeated
here.
+
d-Xi
d a:i (ii - 3:2) =0 (a)
dl^ m m
K
^
d^Xi
dt^
,
~
m
=*^2
El
m
(xj X 2) = 0 (b)
Using the table of equivalences, we find that the analogue circuit would
have the equations:
d^qi 1
dP
(<ii - gz) =0 (c)
LCi
gz ~ (gi gz) 0 (d)

dl^ LC
Multiplying through by L in each equation and replacing the gs by
Ji dt, we have:
f ii dt II 0 (e)
'
C2 ^
i.ii+ij Iz dt = 0 (f)
Going back to Kirchhoffs law, we see that we have two loops with a com-
mon capacitor Gi. The circuit is shown in Fig. 12.25.
Figure 12.25
370 RECTILINEAR TRANSLATION
1
PROBLEMS
A block IS permitted to slide dot D an inclined surface (Fig 12 26) The coeffi
cient of friction is 0 Oo If the velocity of the block is 30 ft/sec on reaching the
bottom of the incline how far up was it released and how many seconds has it
traveled?
Fo ce
15n>j
10 lb
5i 10*c Ttne
Figure 12 26 1-igurc 12 27
2 A force represented as shotvn m Fig 12 27 acts on a body bat mg a mass of one

6 slug What IS the position and velocity at f > 30 sec if the bc^y starts from
rest at t 0?
3 A body IS thrown upv.'ard With an in tial velocity of SO ft/see Howhighupdoes
it go and how long docs it take to reach the maximum elevation if ne neglect
friction?
4 A body hav mg a mass of 30 Ibm is acted on by a force given b> the^foUowing
equation
F 30* +e
If the velocity is 10 ft/scc at f = 0 what is its velocity and distance traveled

when { = 2 sec"'
5 A body 20 lb is acted on by a force in the z direction given by the

of weight
relation F = 20 s n 6Mb If the body has a velocity of 10 ft/sec when t = 0
and IS at pos tion z 0 at that instant what is the distance reached by the
body from the ong n at t 10 sec? Sketch the d splacement-vs time curve
Force
A body of mass one slug is acted on by a force given by the plot in F g 12 28

If the velocity of the body is zero at < 0 what is the velocity and d stance
traversed when t = 3 minutes?
RECTILINEAR TRANSLATION 371
7.
(a) Show that the spring constant is doubled if the length of the spring is
halved.
(b) Show that two springs having spring constants Ki and lu have a com-
bined spring constant of Ki -}- when connected and have a com-
in parallel,
bined spring constant whose reciprocal is 1 //Ti -f 1 /7f 2 when combined in series,
as shown in Fig. 12 29.
Parallel connection
Series
Figure 12.29 connection
8. If a 5-lb weight causes an elongation of 2 in. when suspended from the end of a
spring, determine the natural frequency of the mass and spring system.
9. A mass is held so it just makes contact with a spring, as is shown in Fig. 12.30.
If released suddenly from this position, give amplitude, frequency, and the
center position of the motion.
10.
M Kj K2 K3
^
|vVVV\A/y- |
1 slug
pvWW-AMc-|
Figure 12.31
A mass is held by 3 springs (Fig. 12.31). Assume the rolling friction on the floor
is negligible, as is the inertial effects of the rollers. The spring constants are;
Kx = 30 Ib/in. A 2 = 20 Ib/in. /G = 10 Ib/in.
Determine the natural frequency of the system. If the mass is deflected

2 in.
and then released, determine the displacement from equilibrium
after 3 sec.
Finally determine the iolol distance traveled during this time.
JI The a beam by a forte P (see Fig 12 32) is

deflection cau'êd at the center of
given m simple
beam theorj as i = PL*/2AEI, where E
is Young s modulus
and 7 the second moment of inertia about the centroidal axis of the croM
is
section and L is the length of the beam If a bodj of mass m
is attached to the
beam at the center, what is the natural frequency of the system m terms of 7 /
and L (Neglect the ma<s of the beam )
J2 For small oscillations, what is the natural frequencj of the system m Fig
12 33 (Neglect the mass of the rod )
13 A rod supported by two rotating grooved wheels (Fig 12 34) The contact
18
surfaces have a coeihcient of friction of ii Explain how the rod will oscillate
m the honzontat direction if it is disturbed in that direction Compute the
natural frequency of the sjstem
It Show for small vibrations that the oaturat frequenej of the pendulum in Fig
12^ IS (l/2ir)V^
15 A block of wood 2 in X 2 m X 2 in floats on water The specific weight of
the wood is 20 Ib/ft Approximate the natural frequency at which the block
will bob up and down in the water if the block is given some initial disturbance
in the vertical direction
\16 In problem 10 a sinusoidal forac having an amplitude of 5 lb and a frequency
of IO/t cycles per sec acts on the body in the direction of the spnngs '\^hal is
the steady-stale amplitude of the mption of the body?
17. In the preceding problem, the following initial conditions arc present
(a) The initial position of the body
3 in to the right of the static equilibrium
position
(b) The initial velocity is zero.

(c) At t = 0, the sinusoidal disturbing force has a value of 5 lb in the positive
direction. Find the position of the body after 3 sec.
18. Suppose in problem 17 that the sinusoidal force with amplitude of 5 lb has a
value of 3 lb at f = 0. Find the position of the body after 3 sec.
19. A sinusoidal force of amplitude 5 lb and of frequency l/25r cycles/sec acts
on a body having a mass of one slug (Fig. 12.36), Meanwhile, the wall moves
with a motion given as 0.3 cos (1) in. For a spring constant = 50 Ib/in., K
what is the amplitude of the steady-state motion?
= 0.3 cos(t)
^^
F=5sin(t)
K
|-AA/WVW Islug
:
vX
20. A vibrometer is an instrument used to measure the amplitude of vibration of a

machine. A very simple form is shown in Fig. 12.37. A mass-spring system or
equivalent linear system is held in a box, and the box is attached rigidly to the
machine being tested. If the mass-spring system has a natural frequency of
10 cycles/sec, and if the mass is one slug and vibrates in the box with an am-
plitude of 0.05 in. when the vibrometer is attached on top of a diesel engine
turning over at 1000 rpm, what is the amplitude of vibration of the diesel in
the vertical direction?
21. The damping constant for the body shown in Fig. 12.38 is 5 Ib/ft/sec. If at its
equilibrium position, the body is suddenly given a velocity of 10 ft/sec to the
right, what will the frequency of its motion be? What is the position of the rnnss
at ( = 5 sec?
K = 2 Ib/in.
M = 1 slug
Figure 12.38
22. If the damping in the preceding problem is increased so that it is twice the
critical damping and if the mass is released from a position 3 in. to the right
of equilibrium, how far from the equilibrium position is it in 5 sec? Theoret-
ically, does it ever reach the equilibrium position?
23. A plot of a free damped vibration is shown in Fig. 12.39. What should the con-
stant Cj be in Eq. 12.35 for this motion? Show that In
xifx-i, where Xi and Xo
are the magnitudes of succeeding peaks, can be
given as Cc/4m)r. The expres-
sion In Xi/x2 is called the logarithmic decrement
and is used in vibration work.
24 A body rests on a conveyor moving with a speed of 5 ft/sec (Fig 12 40) If

the damping constant is 2 Ib/ft/scc determine the equilibniiin force in the
spnng If the body is displaced 3 to the left fromm
26 the equilibrium position what is the time for the mass
to pass through the equilibrium position again^
2j a platform ncighiog 50 lb deflects the spnng 2 m when

placed carefully on the spnng (Fig 12 41) A motor
27 we ghiQg 5 Ib IS then clamped on top of the platform
and rotated on eccentric moss m which weighs 4 oz
and 18 displaced 6 lo from the ans of rotation at an
angular speed of 23 rad/sec The viscous damping
present causes a resistance to the motion of the plat-
form of 20 Ib/ft/sec IVliat is the steady-state amplitude
of the mot on of the platform?
In the aboie problem the moss m is m the lertical
position at time f <0 Also the platform is at a position
r = 0 where x is measured from the posit on of static
Figure 12 41 equilbnum The platform has a velocity of 2 ft/sec
m the upirard direction at this instant Compute the
pos tion of the platform nhen f = 1 sec
Is eglecting the we ght of the connecting bar and neglecting fnction com
pute the acceleration of the blocks in fig 12 42 if II 50 lb and iPt 30 lb
j
Figure 12 <2
28 If in tl e above problem the translatoiy veloc ty of block A is 30 ft/sec at

time t Bad the angular veloaty and acceleration of the connecting rod AB
at this time Length of AB is 10 ft
29 Do problem 27 if the cocfficffiot fnction for coulomb fncUon is

~ 02
ft
30.
Two blocks Wi = 100 lb and IFa =

50 lb are connected by an incxtensible cord
(Fig. 12.43). A springhaving a spring constant = 10 Ib/in. is connected to
K
IFi. A 50-lb force is applied while the system is at equilibrium
and the cord is
taut. Neglecting friction, calculate the acceleration at that instant. If the sur-
faces are lubricated so as to give a damping coefficient for each block of 5

Ib/ft/sec, compute the displacement after the first second.
m Xj
HI nn
Xj
Figure 12.44
31. Two bodies of equal mass, ilf =

1 slug, are attached to walls by springs having
equal spring constants Ki
5 Ib/in. and are connected to each other by a
spring having a spring constant Ks = 1 Ib/in. (Fig. 12.44). If the mass on the
left is released from a position (a;i)o == 3 in. at < == 0 with zero velocity and the
mass at the right is stationary at xj = 0 at this instant, what is the position
of each mass at the time t 5 sec? The coordinates Xi and Xz are measured
from the static equilibrium positions of the body.
32. Using the diagram in problem 31, let Kt be very small compared to Ku As-
sume one mass has been released at 1 = 0 from a position displaced from equi-
librium with zero velocity, while the other mass is released from the equilibrium
position at that instant with zero velocity. Show that one mass will have a
maximum velocity while the other will have a minimum velocity and that
there will be a continual transfer of kinetic energy from one mass to the other
at a frequency equal to the beat frequency of the natural frequencies of the
system.
33. If one of the masses in the problem discussed in Section 12.11 is doubled, what
are the natural frequencies?
34. Set up the differential equations of motion for the identical pendulums con-
nected by the spring having a spring constant K (Fig. 12.45). Limit your
analysis to small vibrations so that the masses M
can be considered as moving
in a translatory manner. Neglect the mass of the pendulum rods and spring.
Determine the natural frequencies and the natural modes.
K
hMAAAAAH
(M)
Figure 12.45
Figure 12.46
33 In Fig 12 40 misses Wi and Wj arp constrained to move along rod cf, which
IS fixed to a rotating platform To a person on the platform the motions of the
bodies would appear as rectilinear translations Set up differential equations
gning all possible motions of the masses rdatne to the platform which has an
angular lelocity and an angular nccelcration The static equilibrium radial
positions of Ml and mj are to be taken at and respectiiely
36 Draw the circuit analogue for tlic mcclianical sjstcm shown in Fig 12 47
Express the equation for the current the loop m
JaAAWvVH M
~~|vWW'^ Ml j
Vseous tianipng
FiguTc 12
37. Draw the circuit analogue and express the differential equation for the current
and charge (Fig 1248)
R L
38. In Fig 12 49, if the sivitch is closed at time t = 0, determine the current as a
function of time Show that the time requu^d for the current to reach (I l/e)
of its final value is L/R, which is called thetimeconrfantof the circuit
Central-Force Motion
PART A. General Theory
13.1 INTRODUCTION
motion
In the previous chapter, we examined the
which maintain the
of particles caused by resultant forces
same direction and line of action. At this time, we shall
resultant
consider the motion of a particle on which the
force is always directed toward some point fixed in an
inertial reference. Such termed central forces.
forces are
A simple example of the above condition is a body moving
377
378 CENTRAl FORCE MOTION 1132
in space in the vicinity of a fixed star Awayfrom the stars atmosphere,

this body will have no frictional forces, and, if no other astronautical bodies
are reasonably close, the only force acting on the body will be the gravita-
tional pull of the fixed star This force is directed toward the center of the
star and, from the gravitational law, is given as
r= 13 1
This situation is illustrated m

Fig 13 I From now on, we shall consider
these bodies as particles, with each mass concentrated at the center of
gravity, as has been explained m
Chapter 1
The major portion of the
chapter will be devoted to
mo-
investigating the possible
tions of the body of mas m
Anunderstandmgof theresulta
IS necessary for even a rudi-
mentary grasp of astronomy

and IS of singular importance
in the increasingly important
field ofspace mechanics
Although we will assume m
the ensuing discussion that the
Figure 13 I star is fixed, and that the cen-
ter of the star, therefore, can
be taken as the origin of an
inertial reference we will later show that the motion of any two bodies
moving in space for which only the mutual gravitational force is present
can be described m
terms of the results denved below The study of the
motion of two particles subject to this general condition js called the two-
body problem in classical physics
T3 2 GENERAL CENTRAL-FORCE MOTION
Before considering the case of gravitational central force motion,

let us examine certain characteristics of all central force motions If we
let F be any central
force, which we shall express vectorially the form m
(F/r)r, Newtons law then stipulates that
Rewriting the right side of the equation we then have

13.2 CENTRAL-FORCE MOTION 379
-r= T, (mV)* 13.3

r at
Take the cross product of r times each side of the above equation;
r X - r = r X I (mV) 13.4
r at
Clearly, the left side of this equation is zero, so we have the result:
(mV) = 0 13.5
at
This relation may be expressed in another way. Carry out the differentia-
tion of dldt(r X mV) and examine the result:
= X x (mV)
I (r X mF) | (mV)
r -f 13.6
Since dr/dt V and F x F = 0, we see that the last expression in the

above equation is zero. Thus;
mV)
^ (r X (mV)
^ 13.7
Using this result in Eq. 13.5, we can say:
^ (r X mF) = 0 13.8
at
and consequently:
r X mV = constant vector = H 13.9
This means that the moment of momentum vector, H, must always be

a constant vector for this motion, and thus the normal to the plane of r
and Fi.e., the direction of His fixed. The plane of r and F, then,
Figure 13.2
must always have a fixed inclination. Since such motion only takes place
if the particle moves in a trajectory
that is coplanar, as is shown in Fig.
13.2, we can c onclude that all central-force motions are coplanar.
* mV IS called the linear momentum vector and will be studied in more detail later.
380 CENTRAL FORCE MOTION 5132
From the fact that I/J] is constant m Eq 139, we can draw a second
conclusion Using the basic definition of a cross product, we express Eq
13 9 m the following way
(r(|F( sm a =* const ^ \U\/m 13 10
where a is the smaller angle between the position vector r and the veloc-
ity V
To interpret this relation, consider the particle at positions At apart as
shown in Fig 13 2 Using the chord to the trajectory, Ar, we can approx-
imate the velocity of the particle V by Ar/Al, an approximation that
becomes exact as Ai 0 We then ha\e, on substituting into the preced-
ing equation

IrllArlsina
j-, const
..
13 11
..
At
The numerator, IrljArl sin a is the area of a paraUelogram that has r and
Ar os sides and a as the included angle But a is
the angle between V and r (and not between r and
Ar) However, os At 0 the angle between r and
Ar becomes equal to this angle o, as w e can see lo
Fig 13 2, and thus we can consider the expression
jr||ArI sin a to be approxunately equal to the area
of the indicated parallelogram with sides r and
Ar for smalt At Therefore, i(r|[Ar( sin a is
approximately equal to the shaded tnangle por-
tion of this parallelogram, as shown in Fig 13 2
To the same order of accuracy, the area of this
Figure 13 3 tnangle represents the area swept out by the po-
sition vector r during the time At, and so
(^}rj|Ar| 5ID a)/ At approximates the average rate
at which the area swept out by r dunng the time interval At In the
is
limit, the above approximations become exact and we can say
exact rate at which r

lim
2 At
- (\i.sweeps out area at time t

dl
This is called the areal velocity From Eq 13 11 we can conclude that the
areal veloctly must he constant Jar all ccrdraljorce motion For the case of
gravitational central forces, this is Keplers second law

For convenience a coordinate system in the plane of the trajectory is
set up in Fig 13 3 The area swept out by the position vector r during a
time interval dt is shaded and can be given mathematically as
dA = (r*dfr)/2 13 13
Dividing through by dl, we have

dA/dt = rW2 13 14
:
But since we have shown that dA/dt is constant, we may say:
= C 13.15
where a constant for the particular motion under study and can be
C is
ascertained from known initial conditions. We will find this relation very
useful in subsequent calculations.
13.3 GRAVITATIONAL CENTRAL-FORCE MOTION
Let us consider Newtons law for a body of mass, m, moving near

a fixed star of mass M, which we can state in the following form
dV = Mm .
m-r
dt
Kirf
r
13.16
Cancelling m and using cylindrical coordinates and components, we can

express the above equation in the following manner:*
-
KM
(r r<^2)er + (r$ -j- 2r<^)e^ 13.17
Since , and F are identical vectors, the scalar equations of the preceding
equation become:
r r<ji^ = KM/r^ (a)
r$ + 2f4, =0 (b) 13.18
Equation (b) can be expressed in the form (l/r)(d/dO(^V) = 0) you

may readily verify, and we then see as in all central-force motions:
= const. = C 13.19
In order to determine the general trajectory, we shall replace the independ-

ent variable of the terms of Eq. 13.18(a). Consider first the time derivatives
of r:
dr dr dA C dr
^ ~ dt~ d<t>dt d<t>
where we have used Eq. 13.19 to replace d(t>/dt. Next consider r in a sim-
ilar manner:
dr (Cdr\ d (Cdr\
1 ,
13.21
dt dr(r* d4>) d<f>^ d)
Again, using Eq. 13.19 to replace d<j>/dl, we get:
13.22
_d(t> \r^ d<l))_ r*
and for conven ience, we now introduce the change of variable, u = 1/r, into
1
*. t'be motion is in the zy plane, we use the notation r rather than f, as we ex-
plained in Section 11.11.
382 CENTRAL-FORCE MOTION 133
the right Bide of this equation, which then becomes C*u*(d*u/d<^*),

as you may verify. By replacing f in this form into Eq 13.18(a) and also
iu the form (Pu* from Eq. 13.19, we get:
-c"
a4>
-Km>
Cancelling terms, we have:
+ u = KM/C^ 1X23
The complementary or homogeneous solution to this differential equation

is:
^ 810 ^ B cog 
and we see by inspection that the particular solution is Up KM/C* and

that the general solution to the differential equation thus is*
= 1/r *= KM/C* + .d sin ^ + B cos 0 13.21
As we learned in Chapter 12, we can put the complementary solution in

the eqvuvalent (om, D cos (4 + d), where 0 and & are then the constants
of integration. We now have as another formulation for l/r:
1/r = KM/C* + D cos (0 + fi) 33.25
You probably recogmze this equation as the general conic equation in

polar coordinates with the focus at the origin. If you do not, at the end of
this chapter is a review of come sections in which we derive the general
conic equation with the focus at the origin in the form:
1/r l/*p + (1/p) cos ( 0' 4- 0) U.K

where c is the eccentricity, p is the distance from the focus to the directrix,
and 0 is the angle between the x axis and the axis of symmetry of the conic
section. In Eq 13.26 0' plays the same role as 0 in Eq 13 25
Comparing Eqs. 13 26 and 13 25, we see that:
P = l/D (a)
t = JXP/KM (h) 13.27
From our knowledge of conic sections, we can then say that if:
DC*/KM ~ 1, the trajectory is a parabola

DC*/KM < 1, the trajectory is an ellipse
^
DC*/KM > 1, the trajectory is .i hyperbola
DC*/KM = 0, the trajectory is a circle
It is thus clear that DC* /KM, the eccentricity, is an extremely important

quantity. We shall look into the practical applications of the preceding

384 CENTRAL FORCE MOTtON 135
PART B Space Mechantcs
13 5 EAITTH SATELLITESLAUNCHED PARALLEL

TO THE EARTH S SURFACE
We shall now employ the theory developed Part A to study them

motion of an earth satellite a problem of great present-day interest The
satellite is launched from the earth and accelerated to a high speed outside
the earth's atmosphere by multi stage rockets At the end of powered
flight, the final stage is usually given a velocity that is parallel to the earths
surface (we shall see why later) After the final thrust has been imparted
to the satellite, it moves under the action of granty only, and its ensuing
motion corresponds to that involved in the two-body problem Since the
mass of the satellite is very small compared to the earth, we can replace
(A/eMh + mteii w), which is required by the two body analysis, by Mnh,
thus making the center of the earth elTectivcly fixed m an inertial reference
We mil assume that at the time of separation of the last stage from the
satellite, the position ro, and velocity P*, of the satellite are known from
rocket calculations, and the direction of motion at this instant is parallel
to the earth's surface i e AA is parallel to BB in Fig 13 5 The velocity,

,
Ve, is then rjô, and the constant C, which equals at any part of the
trajectory, can be ascertained from known "burnout" conditions Thus
C = jUa = roPo 13 32
Using Eq 13 25 for the case of Ae symmetric i axis {0 = 0), we compute

the radial velocity of the particle m the form
r = Pr sin ^ = CD sin ^ 13 33
and from this it is clear that V, is zero when ^ 0 or tt that is when the
particle crosses the axis of symmetry of the trajectory. In our present
problem, the burnout position corresponds to the condition F,

= 0, so if
the radial line from the center of the earth to this position is taken as the
X axis, the conic equation,
1 /r = KM/C^ + D cos <}> 13.34
can be used where is measured from the radial line corresponding to the
burnout position. Substituting the initial condition r = n and = 0 into <{>
Eq. 13.34, we can determine the constant D, since C is known from Eq.
13.32;
D = 1/ro - KM/C^ 13.35
'
Using the universal gravitational constant, K, and the mass of the earth,
M, we then have enough information to determine the eccentricity,
DC^JKM, and therefore to determine the general nature of the satellite
motion after the burnout of the final stage.
To the various possibilities that can result from this type of

illustrate
launching, consider the satellite to have various velocities To at a fixed ro.
so large that DC^/KM exceeds unity, the missile must have the trajectory
of a hyperbola (curve 1) and will eventually leave the influence of the
earth. If Fo decreases to a value vAi^r&DC^/KM =
1, our basic theory tells
us that the trajectory becomes a parabola and is the limiting
path for
escaping from the earth. Substituting the initial conditions frpm
Eqs.
13.32 and 13.35 into the equation DC^/KM = we can
1, then solve for
the minimum velocity required to get away from the
earth at the posi-
tion ro. This is called the escape velocity,
(Fo)^;, and is given by;
(Fo)e == V2KMIro
3S6 CENTRAL FORCE MOTION 5135
Later e will show that launching a missile afc a position tq with a velocity
equal to or exceeding the aboNC calculated velocity will cause the missile
to leave the earth forever for directions other than parallel to the earths
surface
If the velocity is less than the escape velocity for the given ro, the satel-
lite will move an ellipse (curve 3) and is said to go into
in the trajectory of
orbtt Kepler, m his law of planetary motion, explained the
famous first
motion of planets about the sun in this same manner One focus for all
these come curves is the center of the earth, as we ha\ e stated earlier
The other focus moves in from infinity to /' when the satellite goes into
orbit As the launching velocity is decreased further, the focus j' moves
to the left m Fig 13 6 until it coincides with the center of the earth result-
ing in one focus with the trajectory now a circle concentric with the
earth For this condition, the eccentricity is zero and thus the constant D
must also be zero From Eq 13 35, we can conclude, therefore, that for the
launching position the velocity corresponding to a circular orbit is
(Fo)c = V'/a7/r 13 37
For launching velocities less than the above value for a given ro, the focus/'
moves to the left of the earths center, and again the trajectory is that of
an ellipse (curve 5) However, the satellite will now come closer to the
earth at position va) than at the launching position, which up to now had
been the minimum distance from the earth If friction is encountered, the
satellite will slow up, spiral m
toward the atmosphere, and either burn up
or crash If Fa is small enough, the missile will not go into even a temporary
orbit but will plummet to the earth (curve 6) However, for a reasonably
accurate description of this trajectory, we must consider fnction from the
earth's atmosphere Since this type of force is a function of the velocity
of the missile and is not a central force, we cannot use the results here in
such situations for other than very crude calculations * The closest point
on the trajectory to the earth is called perigee and the most distant is
called apogee t (Nearly these points he along the axis of symmetry, and the
launchings considered here must ha*ve been from apogee or perigee We
shall consider other launchings at other points in the next section
Example 1: The Vanguard satellite was launched at a velocity of 18 000

miles per hour at an altitude of 400 miles If the burnout velocity of
the last stage to the earth's surface, compute the maximum
is parallel
altitude from the earths surface that the Vanguard satellite will reach
Consider the earth to be perfect!} sphencnl with a radius of 4000 miles
4400 miles) We must now compute the quantities
(r# 13 KM, C, and D
from the initial data and other known data
* We shall consider this problem m tbe followini; chapter

t D of equation 13.35, will always be pMitive if is measured from pengee
CENTRAL-FORCE MOTION
I
387
13.5
Figure 13.7
To determine KM, use Newtons second law and the gravitational law
at the earths surface for a mass of one slug. The weight If of this mass
is given by Newtons law as;
Tf=(l)(32)lb (a)
And the gravitational law gives Tf as:
(KMUD
W= [(4000) (5280)]=*
:1b (b)
By equating the right sides of Eqs. (a) and (b), we can solve for KM:
KM = 14.3 X 1016 Ib-ftVslug (c)
The constant C is readily determined directly from initial data:
(18,000) (5280)
C= rofo = (4400)(5280)
3C00
C= 6.14 X 10 ftVsec (d)
Finally, the constant D is available from Eq. 13.35:
Q_ 1 KM 1 14.3 X 10*6
ro C* (4400) (5280) (6.14 X lO'O^
D= 0.051 X 10-1 ft-i (e)
The term DC^/KM can then bq computed:

DC^
_ (0.051 X 10-i)(6.14 X IQH)**
= 0.135
KM (14.3 X 10)
(f)
The Vanguard will thus definitely not escape into outer space. The
trajectory of this motion is formed from Eq. 13.34:
14.3 X 10
(6.14 X 10")2
-1- 0.051 X 10-1 cos ^
- = 0.379 X 10-1 ^ 0.051 X lO-i cos ^

<b
T (g)
We can compute the maxuniun distance from the earths surface by

setting ^ T in the above equation
1/w (0 379 -OOal) X 10 - 0 32S X 10 ft

*
fmtt = 5780 mi (j,)
By subtracting 4000 miles from this result we f ml that the highest pomt
m the trajectory is 1780 miles
Example 2 In the previous problem compute first the escape velocity

and then the velocity for a iircular orbit Using Eq 13 36 we have for
the escape ^ elocitj
r 2(l4 3)(IO) 1
(U) = 3 51 X 10 ft/sec
L(4400)(5280)J
or (V)r= 23 900inj/hr
For a circular orbit weha\efromCq 13 37
(T%)c VTiJ/Ao = 16 900 mi/hr
Thus the Vanguard is almost m a circular orbit

Of mterest la problems of space inechames is the orbital time for earth
and planets We know from the basic theory that the areal
satellites
velocity swept outby the radius vector is constant with tune Thus, from
Eq 13 14 we can say
dA/dl * rV/2 const 13 38
Using the initial launching data we can compute the constant
const = r*V/2 = C/2

Hence dA/dl *= C/2 is 39
Let us integrate for a time interval corresponding to one cycle Calling

this time, T, we then have
You may demonstrate by integration that the area of the ellipse A, which
corresponds to one cycle, is equal to irofi, where a and fa are the semi major
and semi minor diameters of the elhpse Furthermore, according to the
conic section review, we know that
o . ..*P 13 41
1 ~*
and that fa = 0(1 - O"* 13 42
which permits us readily to ascertain that r = 2-sab/C

:
Examples: In Example 1 above, determine the orbital time for tlie
Vanguard satellite.
From Eq. 13.27(a) and (b), we see that:
_ = SL
KM D' KM
and by employing this formula and computed data, we have for the semi-
major diameter from Eq. 13.41
(6.14)3(10)/(14.3)(10^) ..
= ~ ^
(I - O.0T8)
Hence:
b = (2.68)(10)(1 - 0.018)'2 = 2.66 X 10^ ft
Therefore:
(7r)(2.68)(10D(2.66)(100
T = ^
~ = 7.30 X 10 sec
C/2 (3.07) (10)
This corresponds to 121.7 minutes.
13 6 SATELLITES LAUNCHED WITH AN INITIAL

RADIAL VELOCITY COMPONENT
Let us now consider situations in which the

initial data include
a radial component of velocity. This means that we do not know, a priori,
Figure 13.8
the orientation of the reference for which the z axis

is the symmetric axis,

but we shall still use the conic equation in the form:
1/r = KM/C^ -)- D cos 13.43

where <}> is measured from the symmetric axis. The radial velocity is then:

390 CENTRAL FORCE MOTION 513<5
Vf =* r sm4> ^ CD sin t}> 13
With 0 as the angle between the x aw and the launching axis the initial
conditions of the problem are
when 0 == ^ r = To V^r = (^^) Vt = (V"#)# = ro4o
Thus the constant C immediately available as roCV#)# and to get D we

is
submit Eqs 13 43 and 13 44 to the above conditions We therefore have

on rearranging terms
l/r KMfC* = Z) cos 0 (a)
(r,)4 = CD sm & (b) 13 43
Dividing through by C in Eq (b) squaring sides for both equations and

adding both equations we get the following formulation for the con
stant D
We can then evaluate the eccentricity from the formula DC^/KM, and
get for
hMV
First bringing C
KM
into the bracket
tU" C* / mT'
and then replacing C by rt(l'*)o m the
entire equation we get the eccentricity conveniently in terms of launching
data
KU
+ [(!',). -
Il 13 4
iv.)i
{
With this result, we
can immediately show that the angle of launching
of the satellite is not signihcant in determining whether it will escape from
the earth Suppose the launching is at an angle a at position to as shown
in Fig 13 9 Consider the case where the eccentricity is unity which is
the limiting condition for ballistic outer-space flight. Replacing (7)o

and
(Fr)o by Fo cos a and Fo sin a, respectively, in Eq. 13.48, we have for
this condition:
rpFo cos r / KAf \ 2 ii /2

1 =
KM -[(Fo-n)^ + (FoCos.-^-^^^)J 13.49
Squaring both sides and expanding the terms in the bracket, we have, on
rearranging terms:
(KMY = (roFo cos

r
[Fg sin^ -f- Fg cos= - 2
KM
-f
/ KM \2"l
J
13.50
Combining the first two terms in the bracket as Fg and multiplying through
by the coefficient of the bracket, we have;
{KMy- = rgFg cos^ a - 2nKMYl cos^ a -f {KMY 13.51
Cancelling the terms {KMY rearranging the equation, we write:
roFg cos= a. (roFg - 2KM) = 0 13.52
It is clear from this equation that whenever the bracket is zero the equation
is satisfied and we have the limiting condition of outer-space flight. Thus:
( 7o)b = V2KM/n
which is the escape velocity for any inclination a. We developed this result
earlier for the situation where a = 0.
Itmust be remembered that Fescape in this formula is measured from
the center of thq earth. The velocity attainable by a rocket system relative
to the earths surface does not depend on the position of firing on the earth,
but primarily on the rocket system and trajectory of flight. However,
Figure 13.10
the velocity attainable by a rocket ^stem relative to the earths center

depends on the position of firing on tiie earth's surface and this position
ISimportant in determining whether an escape velocity can be reached
Figure 13 10 showing the extreme situations of a launching at the equator
and at the north pole, should clarify this point Note that the motion, of
the earths surface adds to the final missile velocity at the equator, but
that no such gam is achieved at the north pole
Example 1 Suppose the Vanguard satellite in Example 1 of Section 13 5
13 off course by an angle = 5* at the time of hunching but otherwise
has the same initial data Determine whether the satellite goes into orbit
If 60 determine the maximum and minimum distances from the earth s
surface The initial data for the launching are
fo 4400 mi V, 18 000 mi Tir
Hence (F,)a (18 000) sm a (18 0IW)(0 0872) = 1570 mi/hr
(F*) * (18 000) C03 a (18 000)(0 996) 17 930 miAr

Uauig the value of KM as 14^ X 10* IKt/slug from the previous ex
ample and using Eq 13 46 for the constant D we can express the tra
jectory of the satellite as
r (440O)(5280)ni7 930) 1^
L 3600 J
r-
14 3 X 10
(44QQ)(5280)*(J7 930)
+ ||^(4400)(5280) |'
]J
r 1515
+
^ L(4400)(5280)(I7 930) I}"
= 382 X 10 + 6 19 X 10 CQS^
For the minuaum distance set 4k ~ 0
I/rm. = 5S2X W = 444 X W-*

Hence r <= 0 225 X 10* ft - 42) tni
Thus alter being launched at a position 400 miles above the earth a
surface the satelhte comes within 260 miles of the earth as a result of a
5 change in the launching angle This missile therefore must be launched
almost parallel to the earth if it la to attain ft reasonably permanent orbit
The maximum distance out from the earth is found by setting ^ = ir
in Eq (a)
JAm,. = 38 2 X 10 - 6*
19 X 10 * - 32 0 X 10
Hence fmM = 5920 roi

Example Assume a satellite is placed into orbit about a planet that

2:
has the same mass and diameter as the earth but that has no atmosphere.
At the minimum height of its trajectory, the satellite has an elevation
of 400 miles from the planets surface and a velocity of 18,500 miles per
hour. To observe the planet more closely, we send down a smaller satellite
from the main body to within 10 miles of this planet. The sub-satellite
is given a velocity component toward the center of the planet when the
main satellite is at its lowest position. What is this radial velocity and
what is the eccentricity of the trajectory of the sub-satellite? At the time
of launching, the sub-satellite has the tangential component (T^)o, which
corresponds to the mother ship and an unknown radial component
(7r)o. Thus we have the following data;
To = 4400 mi = 23.2 X lO*^ ft
(y)o = 18,500 mi/hr = 27,100 ft/sec
KM = 14.3 X 10'^ Ib-ftVslug
Substituting these data into Eq. 13.43 and using Eq. 13.46 for D, we
have for the trajectory of the sub-satellite:
14.3 X 10*5
[(23.2)(10')(27,100)]2
1 14.3 X 10>s
+
{[ 23 2 x . 10 ' [(23.2)(10')(27,100)]*
r iVr)o ^
+ (a)
L(23.2)(10')(27,100)J I
Carrying out the arithmetic operations, we get:
1 {Vr)l
- = 36.2 X 10-' + 48.10 X 10->' + 39.5 X cos
'
<j) (b)
r 10J
By substituting <#> = 0 and r = 4010 miles into Eq. (b), we can determine
the proper radial launching component, (Fr)o:
(Frjo = 5410 ft/sec = 3690 mi/hour
The eccentricity of the trajectory, from Eq. 13.48, is:
e = (23.2)(10')(27,100)
, Tot too 14.3 X 10
|(54 -1-
14.3 X 10' 1^27, (23.2) (10') (27, 100) J J
Hence: 0.306
13.7 REVIEW OF COHIC SECTIONS
A conic section is the locus of all points whose distance

from a
fixed point has a constant ratio to the distance from a fixed line. The
fixed
point is called the focus (or focal point), and the line is termed
the directrix.
Putting the focus at the origin of a coordinate system
and the directrix
394 CENTRAL FORCE MOTION f 13 7
parallel to the y axis, as shown m Fig 13 II, ue can \snte the follovsing
equation m polar coordinates for the conic section
PZ> p r cos
The ratio < is termed the eeccn/ncity of the come section Rearranging
terms, we get
It IS clear from Fig 1311 that for each point P of the locus there is a mirror
Fifture 13 11
image V Thus, for this arrangement, the i axis is a symmetric axis of the
curve
For some other reference iV mclmed to the xy reference by an angle jS,
the equation of the conic for that reference clearly is
13 5S
where is measured from the x' axis This is the general form of the equa
tion for a conic section m polar coordinates with the focus at the origin
of the reference
To see the significance of , the ecccntncitj ,
we can express the simpler
form of the conic equation m rectangular coordinates m the following way
(1 - *)i* + p* + 2/hx - t*p* 0 13 56
From this form wc sec that if 1, the coefficient of i* is zero and the
result is a parabola. If e < 1, the coefficients of and are of the same

sign but unequal, thus making the curve an ellipse. If, finally, e > 1 the
squared terms are unequal and of different signs so that
coefficients of the
the equation represents a hyperbola. (You will be asked in an exercise to
show why 6 = 0 corresponds to a circular orbit.)
Figure 13.12
Ifwe restrict our attention to the case of an ellipse, as shown in Fig.

13.12, we can compute the length of the major diameter (usually called
the major axis) by solving for r from Eq. 13.54, when = 0 and = tt, (f> <#>
and adding the results;
2a = rj -f ri = -f (a)
13.57
The term a is the semi-major diameter. To determine the semi-minor

diameter, b, we C on the trajectory. Distance Tc is indicated
consider point
as / in the diagram, and the distance from the focus /i to the center at 0
is e. Using the basic definition of a conic, we can say:
DC p + e~^ W
Noting the shaded right triangle in the construction, we can write;
/ =
By substituting (c) into (b), squaring both sides, and rearranging, we get:
b- -f e* = j5(p ^ g)2
Observing Fig. 13.12 and noting Eq. (a), we can say:
e = (o Ti) = a
1 +e (c)
396 CENTRAL FORCE MOHON S137
Substituting (e) into (d) we get
b + (
From Cq 13 57 e sec that
!> = (!-)
Substituting Eq (g) into Eq (f), we have
Cancelling terms wherever possible we get
Finally, it can be shown by integration that the area of the dhp*^ is
given as
xab
PROBLEMS
Reoiew Probktnt for Conte Section*
1 If the eccentricitj of an ellipse is 04 and the distance from the focus to the
directrui is 3 units vs hat are the majoi^ and minor d ameters and the area en
closed by the curve?
2 (a) Show that in Fig 13 12 the di'^tancc/an the scmi maj ir diimcter o are
1
equal
(b) Show that in Fig 13 12 e/a = e
3 (a) Using Eq 13 56 show that there is symmetry with respect to the line OC
(b) Introduce a second focus ft (as shown in Fig 13 12) so that ft is 2e units
from fi along the * avis (i e / is the image point of fi with respect to OC)
Show that if P IS any point on the ellipse the sum of the distances from the
foci to P IS equal to its maior diameter 2a
4 Derive the equation of the conic section (in both polar and Cartesian form)
when the directrix js p units from the focus (which is at the origin of the coordi
nate system) the eccentricity is e and the directrix makes an angle of fi with
the y axis (i e the directrix n tilted with respect to the x and y axes)
Cenirai Force Problems

5 A particle moves under gravitational influence about a body 3/ the center of
which maj be taken as the origin of amnertial reference (Fig 1313) The mass
of the particle is 50 slugs At time I it is at a position 4500 miles from the
center of JU with direction cosines f == 0 5 m 0 5 n = 0 707 The body is
moving at a speed of 17 OOO miles per hour along the direction e< = 08i +
CENTRAL-FORCE MOTION 397
0.2/ -f- 0.566fe. What is the direction of the normal to the plane of the trajec-
tory?
6. If the position of the particle in the above problem should reach a distance
of 4300 miles from the center of body
M when the direction cosines of
the position vector are I = 0.762, 2
m= 0.0, n =
what should
0.647,
the transverse velocity 7^ of the
particle be?
7. A satellitehas at one time during its

flightaround the earth a radial com-
ponent of velocity of 2000 mi/hr and
a transverse component of 16,000
mi/hr. If the satellite is at a distance
of 4400 miles from the center of the
earth, what is its areal velocity?
Figure 13.13
8. In problem 7, express the equations
of motion of the particle in terms of
polar coordinates measured from an
xy reference where x corresponds to the direction of r when the particle has
the velocity and position as given in the problem.
9. According to experiment, the universal constant K is:
K= 6.66 X 10" cm sec" gm"
Determine the mass of the earth, using KM = 14.3 X 10' ft/sec. Then
determine the percentage of error incurred in computing the eccentricity of
the path of motion of a satellite having a mass of 1000 slugs when we assume
that the earths center is fixed in an inertial reference.
10. Using Eqs. 13.27(b) and 13.34, show that if the eccentricity is zero the trajec-
tory must be that of a circle.
'
11. A satellite is launched and attains a velocity of 19,000 miles an hour relative
to the center of the earth at a distance of 200 miles from the earths surface.
It has been guided into a path that is parallel to the earths surface at these
conditions'.
(a) What kind of trajectory will it have?
(b) What is its longest distance from the earth's surface?
(c) If it is in orbit, compute the time it takes to go from the minimum point
to the maximum point from the earths surface.
(d) What would be the minimum escape velocity for this position of launching?
12. The acceleration of gravity on the planet Mars is about 0.385 the acceleration
of gravity on earth, and the radius of Mars is about 0.532 that of the earth.
What is the escape velocity from Mars at a position 100 miles from the surface
pf the planet?
13. Suppose you are in orbit around Mars with an eccentricity of 0.5 for your orbit.
At the lowest point in the orbit, you are 200 miles from the surface of Mars.
(a) Compute the maximum velocity of the space vehicle relative
to the center
of Mars.
(b) Compute the time of one cycle.
(c) Compute the maximum distance from the surface of Mars.
)
398 CENTRAL FORCE MOTION
II A man is in orbit around the earth in a space v chicle. At his lowest position,
he is moMng with a speed of 18,500 miles an hour at an altitude of 200 miles
Since he wants to come back to earth, at hia lowest position he fires a retro-
rocket straight ahead which stows him up If he wishes to get within 50 miles
from the earths surface during the first cjcle after finng his retro-rocket
what must his decrease in velocity be? How long will it take him to get from
the 200 mile altitude to the 50 mile altitude^ (Neglect air resistance
15. A satellite is launched at a speed of 20 000 miles per hour relatn e to the earths
center, at an altitude of 300 miles above the earth s surface The guidance
system has malfunctioned and the satellite has a direction 20 up from the
tangent plane to the earths surface Will it go into orbit^ Give the time re-
quired for one cycle if it goes into orbit or the time it takes before it strikes the
earth after firing Neglect friction m
either case
16 A rocket system is capable of giving a satelht a velocity of 22 000 miles an
hour relatn e to the earths surface at an elevation of 200 miles above the earths
surface ttTiat n ould be its maximum distance from the earth if it were launched
(1) from the north pole region or (2) from the equator, utilizing the spin of
the earth aa an aid? Assume both launchings are from pengee
17. The moon's radius is about 0272 that of the earth and its acceleration of
gravity at the surface is 0 165 that of the earth at the earths surface A rocket
approaches the moon w itb a velocity corapanent tow ard the center of the moon
of 2000 miles an hour and a transverse component of 5000 miles an hour rela
live to the center of the moon The rocket is 2000 miles from the center of
the moon when it has these velocity components Will the rocket go into orbit
around the moon i! we consider only the gravitational effect of the moon on
the rocket? If it goes into orbit, how close will it come to the surface of the
moon^ If not docs it collide with the moon^
18. A meteor moving at a speed of 20,000 miles an hour relative to the center
is
of the earth when it is 350 miles from the surface of the earth At that time,
it has a radial velocity component of 4000 mi/hr How close does it come to
the earth's surface
f
General Motion
of a Particle
14.1 INTRODUCTION
In this chapter we shall consider the motion of

shellsand charged particles. Since they cannot be consid-
ered rectilinear or central-force motions, we term them
general motions. We wll first integrate the scalar compo-
nents of Newton's laws and then, after the constants of
integration have been put in, we will eliminate the pa-
rameter time. The relation between the spatial coordi-
399
400 GENERAL MOTION OF A PARTICLE 5142
nates is called the trajectory of the partide We have already used trajec-
tones m our work on central force motion
We will begin with a simple study of short-range ballistic missiles with
and without friction We will next consider the motion of charged bodies
moving in electric and magnetic helds, and, finally, we will state some
fundamental conclusions that can be drawn from a study of any system
of particles These conclusions will be useful when we take up the motion
of rigid bodies and deformable continua m
later chapters
PART A Ballistics of Shells
14 2 INTRODUCTION TO SALUSTICS OF SHELLS
Assume that a shell ismoving over a short range with a shallow

trajectory, that the ground is a plane surface, that the attraction of gravity
IS m a direction normal to the
plane representing the earth's
surface, and that the missile
IS shot at a velocity V# at an
angle at, as is shown m Pig
14 I As explained in the open-
ing section, we wuh to deter
mine the trajectory of the shell
under these extremely simple
circumstances Firstwe shall
consider the case when no fne
tion is present
Case A No Fnclion Newton's law for this case is
= -mjy Ul
Since there is a uni-directional force on the particle during the motion,
It IS clear that the trajectory is coplansr, and we have chosen xy to cor-
respond to this plane The scalar equations of Eq 14 1 then become
d*x ()
(b)
Each equation may readily be integrated an operation that corresponds

to the rectilinear translation problems of Chapter 12 Thus
14.2 GENERAL MOTION OF A PARTICLE 401
dxidt G\
> X = C\t -{- Ci (F*)
dyfdt = gt + Cz (c)
y = -gty2 + Czt + (74 (d) 14.3
The four constants of integration can easily be solved from the initial
conditions of the problem, i.e., the firing conditions:
when t
0 dx/dt = To cos ao (a)
dy/dt = Vo sin ao 0>)
X = 0 (c)
y = 0 (d) 14.4
It is immediately clear from (c) and (d) of Eq. 14.4 that Cz = Ci = 0. Fur-
thermore, (a) and (b) give the results Ci = Fo cos ao and Cz =
Fo sin ao.
The equations depicting the motion as a function of time now become:
dx/dt = Fo cos ao (a)
X = (Fo cos ao)( (b)
dy/dt = gt -f Fo sin ao (c)
y gt^/2 + (Fo sin ao)( (d) 14.5
To get the trajectory, we simply eliminate the variable t in Eqs. (b) and
(d). Solving for t in (b) and substituting into (d), we thus have:
y = - Q
O 7T7 cos G +^ 0
2 (Fo aoy
The equation clearly is a parabola. There is no longer the possibility of a
variety of conic curves, as is the case when the curvature of the earth is
accounted for and the force of gravity is directed radially toward the center
of the earth.
Employing the above relations, we shall now consider two important
features of this motion in the following problems.
Example 1: Given Fo and ao, find the distance covered along the ground,
the time elapsed during flight, and the maximum height of the projectile.
To ascertain the distance traveled along the ground we set y = 0 in
Eq. 14.6 and solve for x. (This assumes that the target position is at the
same elevation as the firing position.) Thus:
~ ^ 0 (a)
Tv
2(FoCOsao)
There are two roots for x that satisfy the equation. These are:
Zj s= 0
Vq tan Off co3^ Oo yosmSoro

11/2
J
One root, of course, must be zero, since it must correspond to the firing
condition The desired distance I then is Zt Thus
Y% sm 2aa
I (c)
g
The time duration of the flight may be found by substituting the
value ! into Cq 14 5(b) suid solving for i
Yt sin 2at
(V* cos a)t
Vfl sin 2ao 2Yt sin oa
The maximum altitude occurs in this problem at x 1/2 (This may

be seen if ne set dij/dt ~ 0 and solve for x ) Substituting x 1/2
(>osm 2aa)/2g into Cq 14 6, cancelling, and collecting terms, -ne get

1 1, sin* 4Xo
2g
(e)
Fvamplc 2 Consider the inverse problem of Example 1 That is I,

the horizontal distance to Che target, is given and a muzzle velocity Ft
18 stipulated The information desired is the angle of firing, o*. IVe can
use Eq (c) of tlie picvious example to get the required a<,
em2a,5f/11 (f)
If the right side exceeds unit> in magnitude, it is clear that no at will

satisfy the problem, which indicates that there is insufficient muzzle
velocity available to teach the target It gl/Vt is less than unity, there
a ill be tvv 0 solutions for the angle 2at With f as a positive measurement,
the possible angles 2ati will be in the first and second quadrants, and oo
itself may be either of two acute angles This possibihty is illustrated in
Fig 14 2
I or a given set of initial conditions, Example I has shown that there is
one target but tor a given target and muzzle velocity, we have just
demonstrated that there are either two possible initial settings or none
Case B Fnction Pnseni Let us now examine the shell problem again, and
this time include friction We xvill asume that the moving body is either
spherical or is so stabilized in its trajectory ttial it presents the same cross
section in the direction of motion If the object moves through quiescent
air which has no strong cross xvinds and up-drafts, the fnction force
developed during flight is at all times tangent to the trajectory and always
opposing the motion It has been shown expenmentally that the friction
force for a given shape of projectilewiU then be a function of the magnitude
: :
y y
of the projectile velocity relative to the ground and also a function of such
properties of the air as density and viscosity. If the analysis is restricted
to trajectories that are fairly shallow, the variation in air properties during
flight will be small and the friction force can be expressed in the form
/ = -mH{V)V 14.7
where H, called the friction function, is some function of V, and m, the
mass of the projectile, is included to simplify subsequent calculations. Fig-
ure 14.3 illustrates the various forces that act on a projectile moving in a
shallow trajectory. We shall express Newtons law in component form first
in the x direction and then in the normal direction n with a sense toward
the center of curvature of the trajectory. The equations then are:
m d^x = -mH{V)
^ cos a (a)
mo = mg cos a (b) 14.8

Replacing a by V^/R, as was shown in Section 11.10, and cancelling m,
we may express Eq. (b) as:
V^/R = g C.o'S.a 14.9
Since the trajectory of our problem always curves toward the
ground, it is
clear that the tangent to the trajectory has a negative
angular motion as
we follow the particle in its flight. Hence the differential quantity da. is
always negative in our analysis. Since ds is always positive in this discus-
Figurc 14.4
ston^we Min see in Kg. 14.4 that

B (a positive quantity) oan be replaced
y */(i m
Eq. 14.9. Also replacing V by
(&/*), we can write
404 GEMERAL motion OF A PARTICLE $142
R ~ ds/da ~ dtdtds ~ dldl dt "

Equation 14 0 now becomes
,.da
E^--ffCOSa 1411
Since dxldl = V cos , Eq 14 8(a) can be nntten m the following form

after we cancel out m
(d/dt)(ycQ5a) = -//(Hcosa
FromEq 14 11 soUe for dt and substitute into Eq 14 12
Vda
(o)
g cos or
ff a d(V co^ a)
cos
//(E) cos a 0>)
V da
Rearranging the last equation \\c get the basic differential equation for
the trajectory under the restrictions of this case
da
This equation not separable and even mth a given //(E) cannot be
is
integrated in a simple analytical manner But it is a desirable form for m

numerical methods of solution starting from known initial data E# and ao,
and you may wish to return to this problem when you have studied such
numenca! methods as finite difFcrenccs Or, with the increasing availability
of digital computers, >ou may later wish to solve this problem by machine
methods For now, however, wc shall solve tins equation for the special
case of 1 very shallow trajectory by making certain simplifications (see
Example) U E is found as a function of a from Cq 14 14, w e can find t(a),
x(a), and y(a) as follows Integrate Eq 14 13(a) from / *= 0 to f on the left
side and from a oo to a on the nght idc We then ha\ e for t the desired
result
I
}<, g cos a
B> multiplying Eq 14 13(a) by dx/dl on the left side and by E cos a
(which equals di/dt) on the nght side we find x by the followang quadra
ture
Eda
14 16
-x: ff
FmaU>, multipljing Eq 14 13(a) by dyfdt on the left side and by the

14.2
GENERAL MOTION OF A PARTICLE 405
V sin on the right, we get the following quadrature

equivalent value
for y'.
14.17
^ M g
trajectory ^vheve the friction
Examples Consider the case of a very flat
Develop an approximate
function is known to be KV\ K being a constant.
consider the basic differential Eq. 14.14.

Expanding the
^^We^shall first
II(V) by we have:
differential on the left side and replacing
cos a1
/1/v
V sin a = Q- la;
approximation that
Since a will be small in this problem, we make the
cos <x 1 and sin a = a. The equation then becomes.
dVIda Va = KV^fg (b)
Solving for dV/da, we get:
dV /da = T^(a + KV^/g) (c)
conditions) we
For a situation where ao.KVl/g (from known initial
can reasonably assume that a KV^/g during the flight,
and so we can
neglect a in the parentheses of the above equation. The equation then
becomes:
dV/da = KV^/g (d)
Separating variables and integrating, we have:
YHJ = (a ao)
2 Jvo 9
2K
... y-2 _ y-2 = (ao a)
9
Solving for V^, we write:
1
= (e)
(L/Fo)^ + {2K/g){a, - a)
We have thus found F as a function of a in an approamate analytic

manner. To evaluate the coordinates x and y, substitute (e) into Eqs.
14.16 and 14.17:
da
X = (f)
p[(l/Fo) + i2K/g){ao ~ a)]
and, replacing tan a by a, we have for y:
fa a da
~Ja, g[(l/Fo)^ + {2K/g)ia, - a)]
(g)
To aid in integration, (f) and (g) can be rewritten as:

+ (
406 GENERAL MOTION OF A PARTICLE 514 2
1_ da
* 2A. [g/l2L l-S) + c] - o
1 / a da
~2A [j/(2AI1) + o.] - o
These can readily be integrated
+ ') -
- si {" + {iti +

(jifrs )K.
\S e can determine the maximum elc\'ation and its location by substituting

ao 0 into Eqs (h) and ( 1 ) Thus for the maximum eleiation
MI + ) ['" (^ + ) -
>' = "
+ 2 ^]}
To find the distance I along the honzontal nhere the missile reaches its
launching eIe%ation ne set ^ 0 in Eq (1) and solve for a
+ (saT! )'" (yfil

+ + ( 2 MI + )' 2A
fk)
This equation is of the form
a+Bln(B-a}=C
nhercB and C are knonn constants t\e can solve this transcendental
by trial and error It is helpful to rearrange the equation m the
equation
foUowng way for such a computation
a=C B In (B a)
Now plot the left side and right side roughly as a function of a, as shown
in Fig. 14.5. The point of intersection computed to any desired degree
a into Eq. (h)
of accuracy represents the de.sired a. Substitute this value of
and solve which becomes the desired distance 1. From the complexity
for x,
of this simplified problem, you can begin to appreciate the difficulties
involved in trying to account for friction. In an exercise at the end of the
chapter, you will be asked to work out this same problem by another
method so that it results in an approximate analytical solution.
PART B. Motion of Charged Particles
14.3 OPENING REMARKS
of charged particles is not only influenced by gravita-

The motion
tional attraction but also by electric and magnetic fields (the necessary
salient features of which will be reviewed in the next section). The charged
particles we will examine, such as electrons and protons, are so small in
size that we do not consider friction (a macroscopic manifestation) in con-
junction with them. What corresponds to friction in the large is the
average cumulative interactions of microscopic bodies of the same order
of size as the charged particles we are about to study. These interactions
are primarily a result of particle collision, which we will leave for a later
chapter. Also, in many problems the forces on a particle from electric and
magnetic fields are considerably larger than gravitational forces, and so we
shall neglect gravity in the ensuing discussion.
For certain applications, these particles approach the speed of light,
and in these situations classical Newtonian mechanics does not apply.
The special theory of relativity tells us that we must consider mass m as a
variable when the speed of light is approached. This means that Newtons
law must be expressed as;
F = (mV) 14.18
I
in which the mass m is a function of the velocity relative to the inertial
reference, and can be shown to be;
mo =
-
m 14.19
Vl - FVe^
where jmo is called the rest mass and corresponds to zero .velocity
c isthe velocity of light in a vacuum and thus a universal
constant
For m to be appreciably different from mo, the velocity V obviously must
be extremely large.
The behavior of charged particles has always been of
paramount im-
408 GENERAL MOTION Of A PARTICLE 1144
portAncc lo cl wlrical engineers, but v> 5th the grow-th of nuclear and thermo-
nuclear technologj', all enpneers will almost tieccvarily have to deal with
Fuch In fact, the much-publicized field of magneto-hj drodynam-

particles.
ics isemerging as an ctpcrimcntal and theorctied field in which the fluid
particles arc considered to luavc charges and thus to bo subject to electric
and m.agnctic forces in addition to the stresses and body forces U3u.illy
analyzed in fluid meclianics.
14 4 CLCCTRIC AND MACNCTIC PORCCS
Before applying Kentons laws, let us review the concept of elec-

tric and magnetic fields m a vacuum,
I. KUclrtc fitid First we will examine Coulomb's law for charged parti-
cles whoso sire is small compared to the separation di-itancc (Ilg 14 C),
O ^ O
Coulomb found tint a central force exists Ixtwcen the particles which is
caused by the charges* and is analogous to the gravitational force Ijctwccn
two particles The magnitude of tlio force is proportional to the proilucl
of the charges, instead of to the ma-sMs, nj* w the c.^c with gravit.itional
force. TliC es.<icnl 1 .il difTtrencc l)Ctween gravitational and coulombic forces
Is that the latter c.an either be one of attraction for unlike charges or repul-
sion for like cliarges l>elwecn the particles; gravitalional force, on the other
hand, is alwaj's one of nltraclion. Coulombs law is given n-s;
The constant of proportionality depends on the system of units that are

employed as well ns on the medium between the charges. Uririg the ration-
nlizcd MKSC units, for a vacuum (or air) we have the following result:
g<7t
F lUt
where F is in newtons
an* the charges in coulomlrt
r IS the K*panling distance in meters
*1 is the dielectric constant for a vacuum wluch cciuils
8JL11 X lO''* famds/meUr
?upp'e<o we ha\e a charge
17 and a a-ory-mall poiiive In! charge iji which
,
we Can anywhere in sp ice. Tlie foreo on the te*l cliarge

position is then
avai'able from Coulombs law, Di II 21 If we divide Iwth sides of the

equation by by the test charge, we have in effect the force per unit
q^, i.e.,
of positive charge at any point in space resulting from the influence of qi'.
F^ qx
14.22
q2 47reor*
A force defined at all points in space is called a force field. We have here,
then, a force field due to the charge qi, and we shall call this force field, E,
the electric field strength. Thus:
14.23
Aireor-
Any charge q^ will then hifve a force on it that is given by the vector qzE,
which has a sense toward or away from qi depending on whether it has
the opposite or the same type of charge as qi.
We have introduced the concept of E by using a single fixed charge gi.

Actually, fields can be formed by any orientation of discrete charges g,
or by distributions of charges. The force per unit charge on a positively
charged particle in space that results from any such configuration is con-
sidered to be the electric field E for that arrangement.
S. Magnetic field (steady). We are all familiar with the fact that when a
compass is brought near a magnet or a steady direct current the direction

of the needle depends on the position of the compass relative to the magnet
or current. We customarily speak of a magnetic field in such regions. Experi-
ments indicate that for a vacuum (or air) there is a force on a charged
^
particle moving through a magnetic field. This force is given by the equa-
tion;
F = qV X B 14.24
where F is the force on the particle in newtons
g is the charge on the particle in coulombs
V is the velocity vector of the particle relative
to the field in meters/second
B is the magnetic flux density in webers/meter'*
When electric currents are causing the magnetic field, the Biot-Savart
law permits us to integrate along the wires and thus to compute the
magnetic flux density, B, in the following way:
B 14.25
where ;uo is the permeability which equals 47r X 10~ henries/meter

i is the current in the wire in amperes
ds is the segment of the wire carrying current i
r is the distance from a point in the field to element ds
of the wire in meters

is the unit vector along r
Figure It 8
Although ViC shall not use the Biot-Savart law, Fig 14 7 illustrates the
elements m the equation
In using vector employ, os a graphical aid, a set of
fields it is helpful to
curves that are tangent to the vectors at each point along each curve
In the cose of an electrostatic field about a single charged particle, these
ivould form a set of radial lines as shown m
Fig 148 These lines are called
Jlux lines for electrostatic fields, and m the case of velocity fields V{,x,y g 1)
as used m the flow of fluids, they are called slrcomhnes Figure 14 0 shovss
field that represents the flow of a liquid

a set of streamlines for the velocity
around a sphere Velocity vectors have bjn shown at several points to
illustrate the fact that the streamlines must always be tangent to these
vectors at all points along the lines
Finally, magnetic fields arc similarly represented by magnetic field
lines In this section, since ac are concerned with uniform magnetic fields,
the lines be straight For convenience in studying the motion of a

will
particle, we a uniform field onented normal to the page of
shall consider
this book In such a case, the lines appear as dots, if the vectors at each
position point out of the page, and as crosses if the vectors point into the
page (Fig 14 10)
The lines of the electric field and the slrearalmes have a simple meaning
Tlic former represents the direction of the force exerted on a positive charge
X X X X
X X X X
X X X X
Magnetic field pointing Magnetic field pointing
Figure 14.10 out of page into page
at any point; the latter represents the direction at each position of the
fluid motion. In the case of a magnetic field, the lines actually represent
the direction that a tiny compass will take when placed at any position
in the magnetic field.
14 5 MOTION OF CHARGED PARTICLES
We can now write the differential equation of motion for a charged

particle moving through electric and magnetic fields:
at
= qE + gVxB 14.26
The equation looks deceivingly simple. With other than simple uniform
magnetic and electric fields, it becomes a difficult equation to integrate.
This equation is fundamental in
the design of cathode ray tubes,
particle accelerators, etc. We
shall in this section consider
only applications involving con-
stant electric and constant mag-
netic fields.
Case A. Constant Electric Field.

If a voltage is placed on two
parallel plates that have a large
cross-sectional area compared to
the distance between them, an Figure 14.11
electric field is formed between
the plates which for practical
purposes can be considered uniform. Thus a charged particle moving in
this region is by a constant force in a direction normal to the
acted on
plates (Fig. 14.11). Let us assume that the particle is an electron of charge
e, is moving initially in the xy plane, and is entering the region of the
plates with velocity Fo, which is small compared to the speed of light. The
,
plates are situated m a perfect vacuum The differential equation of motion

for the electron can then be gi\en for tins problem as
tn^ = eEj
r>.
1127
From Eq 14 1, we see that this problem corresponds to that of the shell

moving in a fnclionless atmosphere under the influence of a uniform gravi-
tational field Since, clearly, mg problem corresponds to eC
of the earlier
from the origin we can simply
of the present one, for a particle starting
quote the resulting equations of motion for the charged particle u mg
Eq 14 5 as a guide
^
ir
r cos a (a)
Vt (cos Oft)! (b)

eC
tn
,
/ -f- * sin tts (c)
^+V,(smn)t W)
The trajectory must be parabolic in nature and is of the form
eE X*
y
*' ir~
2m (Focos )*
+ x tan oo
We shall now apply these results to the \ery interesting problem of the
cathoderay tube, whicli IS shown diagraramaticallym Fig 14 12 A heated
cathode gives off electrons which are attracted to the positive anode by
the electrostatic attraction Some go through the small hole and enter
the parallel plates with a velocity Va and an angle o = 0 During the time
the electron is between the plates, it undergoes a parabolic trajectory
given by Eqs 14 28 and 14 29, which for oo - 0 become
dx ~ (a)
dt
X = Vot (b)
dy eEt
(c)
dl m
eEf
(d)
eE x^
y ~ 2m VI (e) 14.30
After the particle emerges from the moves along a straight line
plate, it
until it hits the phosphorescent screen. The impact of the electron causes
the screen to light up time at the impact point, which can be
for a short
seen by a viewer from the outside. We shall now develop the relation be-
tween the position of the impact point on the screen and the voltage on the
plates. In Fig. 14.13 appear the necessary geometrical data for this cal-
culation. We assume that the curvature of the screen is so small that
we can consider it as a plane. The time that the particle remains between
the plates can easily be found from Eq. 14.30(b). Letting x equal I, we have:
At = l/Vo 14.31
Thus the change in elevation, Ay, during this part of the motion is found
from Eq. 14.30(d):
The exit velocity in the from Eq. 14.30(c)

y direction is also available as:
V = eEl/mVo 14.33
On leaving the plates, the electron thus has the direction 6

where:
= Yv eEl/mVo _ eEl
tan 0 ~ 14.34
Ex Vo mEg
414 GENERAL MOTION Of A PARTICLE 1145
From this point on, the pnrtiele mo\es at mcUnation The posi
this fixed
tion y, ivherB the particle finally strikes the screen at a distance L from the
end of the plates is then determined m
two steps First there is the com-
ponent that results from the motion outside the field at the fixed angle 6
Calling this j/j we can write
yi/L =* tan 6 ~ eCl/mVl

yi = eElLJmVo 14 33
The change in elevation during the parabohc motion in the field is gi%en
by Eq 14 32 and the total deflection y is the sum of the two contnbutions
eEP
It 36
mVi 2mV2
A steady stream of electrons of velocity produce a luminous spot
F will
on the screen at a position y, whose exact location depends on the strength
of the field E But we know from elementary physics that E is proportional
to tho impressed voltage V, so the position of the spot can be a measure
of voltage. It a sinusoidal voltage ts placed on the plates, E wiU vary
sinusoidally with lime, and the luminous spot will move wath harmonic
motion in the y direction
Consider now an additional set of plates at right angles to the preceding
set By the same arguments we can demonstrate that this new set of plates
causes the electrons to move in tho z direction and thus for a sinusoidal
voltage on this new set of plates the luminous spot has a harmonic motion
in the 2 direction In the standard oscilloscope in Fig H 14, the plates
are arranged so that if we put sinusoidal voltages on both sets of plates
simultaneoudj we can make the beam of electrons form very interesting

patterns on the screen. The patterns depend on the relation of the ampU
tudes and frequencies of the impressed \oUagcs It will be left as an exer-
cise toshow when a circle and an ellipse can be formed on the screen.
Other more complicated figures, sometimes called Lissajous figures, are
shown in Fig. 14.15. In actual use, one of the plates of the oscilloscope is
given a sawtooth voltage
variation (Fig. 14.16) that
causes the electrons to sweep
across the z axis of the screen
Voltage
at a certain frequency and, in
effect, in one direction only.
The voltage to be studied,
which comes from some pickup
Figure 14.16
such as a piezo-electric crystal
or a strain gage,is then placed
on the other set of plates. If the signal voltage is cyclic, we can, by adjust-
ing the frequency of the sweep voltage, form a fixed pattern on the screen
that enables us to interpret the incoming signal.
Case B. Constant Magnetic Field. We now turn to the case of a constant
magnetic field. This field is directed into the page, as is shown in Fig. 14.17.
Figure 14.17
The field can be given as Bk for the reference chosen. A particle of

mass
m and charge +q is entering the field with a velocity Vo coplanar to the
page. The subsequent motion of the particle is given by the following
equation, if we neglect gravitational influence:
ma = qBV X k 14.37
To simplify the analysis let us first make a mental picture of the possible
motion Upon entering the field, the particle is moving in the x direction
The initial force acting on it must be at right angles to the 2 axis and at
right angles to the direction of the field The previous diagram reveals
that initially the force is m the y direction, and thus the motion directly
after entering the field willstill be m
the xtj plane but will be inclined
to the horizontal For such a condition as shown in the diagram, the
force F again is in the xrj plane and induces a further increase m the
velocity at right angles to the trajectory in the xy plane, and so forth
Thus it IS clear that the motion must be coplanar Using components m
the tangential and normal direction, we can write Eq 14 37 as
This results m the scalar equation
andnotinglhat*, x { k)wehave
From (a) it is apparent that speed ds/dl

of the particle is constant and that V is
therefore constant Equation (b) indi-

cates that the radius of curvature is
constant and is given by the equation
R = mV/qB U 40
Thus the particle must follow a circu-

lar orbit With the above radius as is
shown in Fig 14 18 If the particle has, on entering the field, a velocity
component in the direction of the field, this component, being parallel
to B, induces a zero force, and the velocity in this direction consequently
Figure 14 19
is unchanged. The result is a trajectory that corresponds to that of a spiral,

and the radius of the circular projected motion is determined from the
component of the initial velocity normal to the field. Note that the stronger
the field, the smaller is the radius of this helical motion.
It must be cautioned that only relatively simple problems of this type
submit so easily to a solution. If the influence of gravity is included, the
motion has a drift to the right (Fig. 14.19). Can you explain in a qualitative
manner why this should happen?
PART C. A System of Particles
14.6 THE GENERAL MOTION OF A SYSTEM OF PARTICLES

1
As we have pointed out, translating rigid bodies can be considered

as discrete particles and can be studied by the methods we have already
presented. Rotating rigid bodies and deformable bodies such as fluids,
however, must generally be considered to be composed of a continuous
distribution of 'particles. All such bodies are then subject to the generaliza-
tions we shall make
any system of particles.
for
Let us examine a system of n particles that has a type of interaction
between the particles to which Newtons third law of motion (action equals
reaction) applies. Newtons second law for any particle (lets say the ith
particle) is then
where /fj is the force on particle i from particle j and is thus considered
an internal force relative to the system of particles. It is clear that the = i
j
term of the summation is to be deleted since the zth particle cannot exert
forceon itself. The force F, represents the resultant force on the ith
particle
from the forces external to the system of particles (Fig.
14.20).
If these equations are added for all n particles, have
Carrying out the double summation and excluding terms mth repeated
, we find that for each term
indexes, such as/[i,/i* etc nith any one set
of indexes there will be a term with the reverse of these indexes present
For example, there ill be for the force fit a force /! A consideration of the
indexes shows that these represent action and reaction forces betv,cen a
pair of particles, and thus it is clear that the double summation Eq m
14 42 should add up to zero according to Newtons third law Newtons
second law for a system of particles then becomes
drr, d
U43
where F now represents the vector sum of all the external forces acting
on all the particles of the system
To make further useful simplifications, we shall define the first moment
of mass of a system of n particles about a point os
litt
where r, represents the position from the point to the ith particle We can
find a position, called the center of mass* of the 'system, m the array of
Z
I mi O
particles with position vector where the entire mass of the system of
particles can be concentrated to give the correct first moments Thus
re ~ Stn,rt 2 m Tt 14 45
Sm, .If
This IS shown m Fig 14 21 You will have an opportunity to demonstrate

* In the Appendix will bclound the relation between centroids of areas and the center
of mass
in an exercise that the position of the center of mass is a property of the

system of particles and not the position about which the moments are
taken.
Let us reconsider Newtons law, using the center of mass concept. To
do this, replace S m,r, by Mvc in Eq. 14.44 to give:
,4.46
From this we mass of any aggregate of particles has

see that the center of
a motion that can be computed by methods already set forth, since this
is a problem involving a single hypothetical particle of mass- M.
Actually, we have already been using this principle in the study of
ballistics of shells. What we have computed, in effect, in the previous sec-
tions of this chapter is the motion of the mass center of the missile, which,
as has been shown, can be handled by the consideration of a single particle.
The missile is so small compared to its trajectory that for our purposes the
motion of the center of mass fully characterizes the motion of the body.
14.7 SUMMARY
In Chapters 12 and 13, we integrated Newtons law for rectilinear

translationand central-force motion, respectively, and in this chapter we
have integrated Newtons law for certain problems of interest that have a
more general motion. We also, with the aid of the mass center, formulated
Newtons law for any aggregate of particles. In the next two chapters,
we shall present alternate procedures for handling more efficiently certain
classes ofdynamics problems for particles. You will note that since the new
concepts are all derived from Newtons law, whatever can be solved by
these new methods could also be solved by the methods we have already
presented. This separate and thorough study of these topics is warranted
by the gain in insight into dynamics and' the greater facility in solving
problems that can be achieved by examining these alternate methods and
their accompanying concepts. As in this chapter, we will make certain
generalizations applicable to any aggregate of particles. Although the con-
clusions we will reach will have limited use at present, they will form the
basis for the dynamical analysis of rigid bodies in Chapter 18 through 20
and thus should not be underestimated in importance.
PROBLEMS
! A bundle of mail falls out of an airplane flying horizontally with speed
Fq
at a height h above the ground. How far (measuring in a
horizontal direction)
from where it was dropped will it hit the earth, and how long will it take?
440 GENERAL MOTION OF A PARTICLE
2. A from a hill SOO ft abo\ e a plain The angle of finng la 15 above

shell 13 fired
the bonzontal, and the tnuztie vdocity is 3000 ft/sec At what bomontal
distance will it hit the plain? (Neglect fnction )
3. AfiportsmaninavaUeyistrjiRgtoBhootadeeroDahill He quickly estimates
the distance of the deer along hia line of sight as 500 yards and the height of
the hill as 100 yards Hia gun has a muzzle velocity of 3000 ft/sec If he has no
graduated sight, how many feet above the deer should he aim his nfie order m
to hit it (Neglect fnction )
4. An archer is chasing a deer m
a jeep If the jeep moves at 30 nu/hr and the
deer moves at IS mi/hr along the aame direction, at nhat inclination must
the arrow be shot if the deer is 100 yards ahead of the jeep and the initial
speed of the arrow is 200 ft/sec relative to archer (Neglect fnction )
5. Do the above problem if the jeep and deer arc moving at right angles to each
other Gn c, in addition to the inclination of the arrow from the ground, the
inclination of the arrow from the Ime AB in Fig 14 22
ISmi/tir
Figure 14 22
6 In Fig 14 23, a mass is held by 4 springs For small motions from the equi
hbnum position, the motion in the x direction does not affect spnngs Ai,
while the motion in the p direction docs not affect the spnngs A'j Write the
differential equations of motion for the ma^ Integrate the motion for initial
conditions z - xo, p - po, x - xg, and p pt If amplitudes m
the x and y
directions are the same and the spring constants are equal, what is the trajec-
tory of the motion?
7. In the above problem, explain howy ou would initiate the following trajectories
(a) A circle of radius r with 3/ moving clockwise
(b) A circle of radius r with ^f moving counterclockwise
(l) a straight line inclined at 45^ m the first and third quadrants
(d) A straight line at 45 m the second and fourth quadrants
Assume y ou can choose spring constants at mil
8. If a rifleman aims and fires at an melination of 5 from the horizontal aliat
15 the maximum elevation reached by the bullet and at what distance from the
rifleman does it hit the ground, which is at the same elevation as the rifle. Take
friction into account by assuming that the friction function, H{V), is KV^
where K= 10^ lb secVft^ slug. The muzzle velocity is 2000 ft/sec.
9.
Figure 14.24
We are to fire a projectile at a vertical cliff 5000 yards away (Fig. 14.24). What
isthe initial inclination of firing, ao, and the elevation, y, at which the projectile
strikes the cliff if we wish the projectile to enter the cliff at right angles to the
surface? The muzzle velocity of the
gun is 3000ft/scc, and the friction
function is 10"< Ib/slug. y
10. If the friction function is propor-
tional to the velocity, i.e., KV, find
an expression for the maximum ele-

vation of a shell in terms of Fo, ao,
and K
for the case of a very shallow
trajectory.
11. We shall develop an analytical ex- Figure 14.25
pression for the motion of a projec-
tile with a frictional resistance equal
to KF^ tangent to the trajectory for the special case of a shallow trajectory
(Fig. 14.25).
(a) Show that the differential equations of motion can be expressed as:
mx = -Kx^[l + {y/iyyi^ (a)
my = -Kxy[l -f {y/xyy^ - mg (b)
(b) Assume we have a shallow trajectory so that we can neglect (y/x)^. Show
that, with initial conditions x = xd when t =
0, Eq. (a) can be integrated
to give:
{Kio/m)t -f 1
(c) Employing Eq. (c) in (b), find the complementary solution as:

. C
yc
t +
^Kfo
43a GENERAL MOTION OF A PARTICLE
where C is a constant of integration Show that a particular solution is
(d) Show that for y y* wheo t = 0 the velocity y becomes
^ ^ Va + (mg/2Kjt) _ mg /Kga '*'

,
A (f)
(Wm)l + 1 2KJa\m )
(e) Determine x and y as functions of time
12 What IS the friction function in problem 117 Do problem 8 using above results
13 A positive charge of 1 coulomb is present at a position given by the position
vector r lOi +
6j -h 3fi meters Also a positive charge of 2 coulombs is
present at position r = 6i -h 2^ meters What is the force in newtons on a
negative charge of \ coulomb at the position r = 3^ meters
14 An electron has a charge of 602 X I 10 *

coulombs and a rest mass of 9 106 X
10 "'Lilograms It m
moves a magnetic field given as 10xi+20(y*+ +
6fewebers/equare meter When the particle is at position r lOi 6/ + 8k +
meters it has a velocity given as F 100^ + metere/eec What is the
force on the particle
15 An electron is moving m
a linear accelerator at a speed of 100 000 mi/sec
relative to the ground Using data from problem 14 find the mass of the elec
tron relative to the ground The velocity of hght is 186 000 mi/aec
16 We know from elementary physics that the electric field between two parallel
large plates shown in Fig 14 26 equals V/d where V is the applied voltage
m volts and d is the distance between the plates in meters and has a direction
from the higher voltage to the loner voltage An electron enters the plates
17
with a velocity of 10 m/sec m
the vertical direction at the center of the capac
itor If the voltage is 100 volts and the distance d is 10 cm how far up mil the
electron move before striking either of the plates?
r=i
+1 I-
l IM loovotts 4
Figure It 26 Fi|,ure 14 27
If there were a uniform magnetic field of 10 wcbers/cm* into which the electron
of the above problem is moving instead of the electric field what is the result-
ing motion if we neglect gravity? 14 27 ) Rg
norma! to page
Figure 14.28
18. Shown in Fig. 14.28 is an idealization of the apparatus used by J. J. Thomson

to measure the ratio of charge to mass of an electron, i.e., e/m. A heated cath-
ode C gives off thermal electrons which are accelerated toward the anode A,
as in the case of the cathode ray tube, and a thin beam of electrons goes through
the apertures. A voltage Vo is placed on the plates D, which tends to deflect
the electron. However, the strength of the magnetic field normal to the page
as shown is adjusted so that it has a value Bo, which causes the beam of elec-
trons not to deflect. With this value of Fo and Bo and the geometry of the tube,
compute the velocity of the electron as it approaches the screen. Now take
the magnetic field off and measure the deflection 6 on the screen. Compute
the ratio e/rn from these observations.
19. A hydrogen ion having mass 1.672 X 10=^ kg enters a pair of plates with a
kinetic energy of 10'^ joules, as shown in Fig. 14.29. The voltage on the upper
plate is linearly varied after this instant from 0 to 80 volts in 10 sec and
then drops immediately to zero. Find the velocity of the particle and the
distance above or below the x axis when it emerges from the plates.
+
z
1
:m
1 .
8 cm ^
Figure 14.29
20. An electron starts at rest in a uniform electric field E. Find the distance and
velocity as functions of time, using relativistic mass.
21. In Fig. 14.30, an electron is at the origin at time < 0, = A

constant electric
field E is
directed along the y axis and a constant magnetic field B
is directed
along the x axis. Find the spatial coordinates of the electron in terms
of (.
424 GENERAL MOTION OF A PARTICLE
22 A sawtooth voltage is placed on the horizontal deflecting plates o{ a cathode
ray oscilloscope giving the instruments a sweep time of 27r/w sec If a signal
voltage given as 0 am 2<ij< la placed on Uie vertical plates, what view will we
get on the screen
23 Certain cathode ray oscilloscopes wiU perform a single sweep when any slight
voltage appears on the vertical deflecting plates If the sweep time is 2 sec,
and the sweep triggers when a volt^ of 0 2 volts appears on the vertical
deflecting plates show the picture that would be flashed on screen (this can
be photographed) when a signal
= Ae'
13placed on the vertical deflecting plates If a l-cm rise on the screen cot
responds to one volt of signal, what will be the manmum height of the trajec-
tory as seen on the screen
24 IFi = 10 lb = 6 ft, jji = 10 ft, ?, = 10 ft
11 j * 5 lb li = 5 ft, = 6 ft, *= 0
IFj 8 lb Zj 0, yi e 4 ft, zt 0
Figure 14 31
Three bodies are shown in Fig 14 31 and their weights and positions at tune t
are given Determine the position \cctor of the center of mass at time I
25 l/ing the data of problem 24 deleimine the velocity of the center of mass if
the bodies have the following velocities
Vi * 6* + 3/ ft/sec
n* lOi - ft/sec
f j 5= 6fc ft/sec
26 Determine formally the center of mass of a homogeneous block having sides

of length a, b, and c (Fig 14 32)
Figure 11 32
27. Suppose that the aceeleration of gravity in problem 26 varies linearly with z.
That is:
p = z + po
28. Would the center of mass, in problem 26, coincide with the center of gravity?
If not, compute the displacement in the z direction between the two points if
a = 10 ft, 6 = 5 ft, c = 8 ft, and ga = 32 ft/sec.
Determine the position of the center of mass of the homogeneous bar that is
in the shape of a quarter circle, as shown in Fig. 14.33.
29.
Figure 14.33
An object decelerates downward (from C to B) at 1000 mi per hr per sec (Fig.

14.34). Inside is a rod BC rotating in the plane of the paper at a rate of 50
rad/sec relative to the vehicle. Two masses rotate at the rate of 20 rad/sec
around BC on rod EF. If the masses are each 1 ft from C, determine the force
transmitted (not the couple) at C between BC and EF if the mass of each of the
rotating bodies is 10 Ibm and the mass of rod EF is 2 Ibm. BC is in the vertical
30. position at the time of interest. Neglect gravity.
Figure 14.35
A plane is undergoing a motion as shown in Fig. 14.35. It is decelerating at

the rate of 20 mi/hr/min. The propeller weighs 40 lb and rotates at 150 rpm.
What is the force (not the couple) transmitted to the propeller at the hub due
only to the motion of the propeller as a mass?
Energy Methods
PART A Analysts For d Single PdfUcle
151 INTROBOCTIOH
In the previous chapters we have integrated the
diflerentialequation derived from Newton s law to yield
the velocity and position as a function of time for rec
tilmear translation for central force motion and for cer
tarn ca-ies of more general motions At this time v\e will
present an alternate procedure that of the method of
energy and vie will see that certain classic of problems
426
15.1 ENERGY METHODS 427
Figure 15.1
can be more easily' handled bj' tliis method. The basic equation underlying
this approach can be ascertained from Newtons law for a particle moving
relative to an inertial reference, as shown in Fig. 15.1. Thus:
13.1
IMultiplj' each side of this equation by dr as a dot product and integrate

from n to fj along some path:
, fndV , fudV
In the last integral, we have multiplied and divided bj* dl, thus changing
the variable of integration to t. Since dr/dt = V, we then have:
Hence we arrive at the familiar equation:
15.2
where the left side is the well-known expression for -work, and the right
side is clearly the change in kinetic energj" as the mass moves from position
ri to ra.
Suppose we state a scalar component of Newtons law in one direction,

say the x direction. Using vector notation, we have:
P . dV,.
Taking the dot product of each side of the above equation

with dr and
using dxi dyj -f dzk in its place, we get, after integrating:
458 UNERGY METHODS 1151
= (a)
Similarly
j^F,dj^f[(.V,)l~lV,)l] (b)
J"F,dz = fUV,)l-lVX] (e) 15 3
Thus the above equations demonstrate Uiut the work done on a particle
m any direction equals the change m kinetic energy associated mth the
component of velocity in that direction
\\ e can U'se the energy equations as a means of solving problems instead
of going directly to Newton's law This approach w particularly handy
when velocities are desired and forces are functions of position However
it must be understood that any problem solvable by the energy equation
can be solved from Newtons law, it is mainly a question of convenience
Esamplet An automobile is moving at 60 mi/hr when the driver jams

on his brakes and goes mto a skid in the direction of motion The car
weighs 4000 lb and the toefficienl of friction between his rubber tires
andtheconcreteroadisOCO How far f will the car move before stopping
Tl ere a constant friction force acting which from Coulomb s law

is
13 fiN = (0 s= 2400 lb This a the only force performing work

COK40001
and it IS it is changing the kinetic energy of the vehicle from
clear that
that corresponding to the speed of CO mi/hr (or 88 ft/sec) to zero (k ou
will learn in thermodynamics that this work facilitates a transfer of
kinetic energy of the vehicle to an increase of internal energy of the
vehicle the road and the air) The worfc-energj Eq 15 2 then gives us
-2J00(-J^(0-88>)
Hence I - 200 ft
(Perhaps every driver should do this problem periodically )

15.2 CONSERVATIVE SYSTEMS
Energy methods are particularly useful with conservative force

systems. You will recall from Chapter 10 that a conservative force field is
distinguished by the following criteria:
a. It is a function of spatial coordinates only. Mathematically this means

that:
F= F(x,y,z) 15.4
b. It is expressible as the gradient of a scalar function called the force

potential. That is:
F= grad 15.5
Itwas shown in Chapter 10 that the work done by such a force on a particle
moving from position (1) to position (2) is independent of the path and de-
pends only on the end points. Thus:
Wi-2 = F dr = (grad 4>) dr 4>i 15.6
If the path issuch that the particle is brought back to its starting position,
it is clear from the above equation that the work done is zero. This may
be written in the following manner:
=
^F - dr Q 15.7
where the circle on the integral sign indicates a closed path.

The change of potential energy, PE* of a particle between positions (1)
and (2) was defined as a quantity that is minus the work done by the
conservative force field as the particle moves from position (1) to (2).
From Eq. 15.G, it is apparent that relative to an arbitrary reference:
PE = 4) 15.8
Two conservative force systems have been employed in studying the

method of virtual work. They are:
1. Constant gravitational force F = mgk (a)
= mgz
4> (b)
PE = +nigz (c)
2. Linear restoring force F = -Kxi^ (a)
= -Kxy2
4> (b)
PE = +Kxy2 (c)
* PE is used instead of V, as in Chapter 10, since we are using V for velocity,
t Be sure to choose a reference so that when a: = 0, = 0. F
430 ENERGY METHODS S15 2
In previous chapters, several additional lorce fields were introduced the

gravitational central force field, the electrostatic field and the magnetic
field Let us sec which v.e can add to
our list of conservative force fields
Consider first thecentral gravitational
force field where particle m, shown in
Fig 15 3 experiences a force given by
the equation
Clearly, this force distribution is a

function of spatial coordinates as de
manded by Eq 15 4, and it can
easily bo expressed as the gradient
of a scalar
F=gr.d(2)
and so 0 KMm/r
Hence this is a conservative force field The potential energy is then
PE - -KMm/r 15 13
The force on a particle of unit positive charge from a particle of charge

IS given by Coulomb's law and appeared in the previous chapter as
15 U
Since this equation has the same form as Eq 15 11, we see immediately
that the force field from gi is conservative The potential energy per unit
charge, then, is
IS 15
4oJ'
In this form (i e with a zero additive constant), the coulombic potential

,
energy is zero at infinity and thus infinity is the datum for this energy
Equation 15 15, then, gives the negative of the work required to bring a
unit charge from infimty to a position r from charge gi
Since any electrostatic field E can be considered as the superposition of
the simple fields dênbed above, is obviously conservative, thus a scalar
function V exists and'
:
E= grad V
where V, in electrical terminology, is known as the electric potential.*
The remaining field introduced was the magnetic field. In it, the force
on a charged particle depends on the velocity of the particle. The condition
in Eq. 15.4 is not satisfied, therefore, and the magnetic field does not form
a conservative force field.
15.3 CONSERVATION OF MECHANICAL ENERGY
Let us now consider the motion of a particle acted upon only by a

conservative force field. We start with Eq. 15.2:
F dr = 15.16
Jn
Using the definition of potential energy, we replace the left side of the
equation in the following manner
iPE)x - iPE)2 = - imF? 15.17
Rearranging terms, we reach the following useful relation:
15.18
Since positions (1) and (2) are arbitrary, it is obvious from the above
equation that the sum of the 'potential energy and the kinetic energy of a parti-
cle remains constant at times during the motion of the particle. This state-
all
ment is sometimes termed the conservation law of mechanical energy for
conservative systems. The usefulness of this relation can be demonstrated
by the following examples.
Example 1 : A particle is dropped with zero initial velocity down a fric-

tionless chute (Fig. 15.4). What is the magnitude of its velocity if the
vertical drop during the motion is h ft?
For small trajectories, we can assume a uniform force field mgj.
Since this is the only force that can perform work on the particle (the
normal force from the chute does no work), we can employ the conserva-
tion of mechanical energy expression. If we take position
(2) as a datum,
we then have:
y2
mgh 4- 0 = 0 -}- m
_
function corresponding to of Eq. 15.5 is V. The minus sign is intro-

<#i
duced
1
because a function F that decreases in value in a certain direction
will yield a
component of the- gradient in that direction, which will be negative.
To associate, for
physical reasons, a positive value of the gradient
in that direction requires the
wolusion of the minus sign. In this way, a decreasing
potential along some direction will
mean a positive electric force component in that direction.

432 ENERGY METHODS 5153
Solving for Vj we get
I , =
The advantages
of the cnciyr considerations for conservative fields
becomes apparent from this problem That is not all the forces need be
considered m
computing velocities and the path howeier complicated
isof DO concern If friction ncre pr^nt a non-conservative force would
perform nork and we nould I axe logo bock to the general relation gi\cn
by Eq 15 2 for the analj sis
Example 2 A mass is dropped onto a spring tliat lias a spring constant A
and a negligible mass What is the maxuDum defection? See Fig 15 5
for further data ll e have indicated S as the maximum deflection
Figure 15 5
From the previous examp le w e see that on first contact with tlie spring
tl e mass has a velocity of V2gh For the motion from this initial condition
to the maximum deflection position only conscrv atu e forces are acting
that of gravitj and that of the spring
and we can thus use the conserva
tion equal on between tl ese two positions From Eq 15 10(c) weknoi
that the potential eiiergj of the spring force is Kx^/2 wl ere z is Ihedeflec
ton of the spring from the unextended cond tion Using the maximum
deflection as a datum for the graiity force we have
mgh + TigS + 0 = 0 -h 0 + iA 5
Kr PH PC kE PE PE
due to due to due to due to
gravity spring gravaty spring
Rearranging terms, we have:

2mgh
- = 0
K
Solving for the positive value of 5, we get the desired result.
Example 3 Formulate an expression for the speed of an outer-space

:
meteor relative to a fixed star, using methods of energy.
Figure 15.6
This problemis identical in nature to the central-force problem studied
in Chapter 13. The force field acting on the meteor is the gravitational
field from the fixed star. Thus:
The potential energy is:
PE = KmM/r (a)
Note that r = oo is the datum for this energy. The kinetic energy of the
motion can be given as:
KE = (b)
Since only a conservative force is present, we can use the conservation

law:
KmM ,
m
const.

= E
h (c)
r 2
Let us consider the special case where E, the total mechanical energy, is
given as zero. This means that the velocity is zero at infinity, and at any
other position we see from Eq. (c) that:
F = V2KM/r (d)
But this is the escape velocity

formulated in Chapter 13 in the discussion
of satellites. What
the connection between our present energy formula-
is
tions and the results stemming from the direct use of Newtons law?t
434 ENERGY METHODS S154
You will rccill that in measunng ^ from the axis of symmetry of the come
we formulated for the traêctotj
\It K V//C* + 2) cos ^ (e)
The criteria for the parabolic path is that 25CVA V 1 By replacing

KM bj Z3C* in (c) wc thus haê the equation
1/r * 2>(1 + cos 4>) (0
for the mm mum escape cond tion As r it is clear from this equation
that * 7-
Now differentiate the above equation to form the velocity V,
Vr *= sm ^ (g)
Replace r0 bj C
Vt = DC sin ^ (W
Since *T when r*oa I , is plainl) aero at infinity and from the
constant C = r*^ it is apparent that since r o ,
which equals 1 *
must go to zero Thus we have shown that for a parabolic trajectory a
particle just escaping from the earth has zero velocity at which is
just the condition that the energj considerations generated for the escape
condition (d)
The constant * m Eq (c) is evaluated for a general trajectory from a
known speed at some given position At any other radial distance ae

can then ascertain the proper speed by using Eq (c) H we obtain an
imaginary value m solving for the velocity this indicates that the value
of r substituted into Eq (c) cannot be reached
15 4 ALTERNATE FORM OF WORK ENERGY EQUATION
W 1th the aid of the material lo the previous section we shall now
set forth an alternate energy equation which has much physical appeal
and which resembles the first law of thermodynanucs that will be em
ployed in other courses Let us assume that certain of the forces acting
on a particle are conservative while others are not If we remember that
for the conservative forces the negative of the change m potential energy
between positions (I) and (2) equals the work done by these forces as the
particle goes from position (1) to position (2) along any path we can restate
Eq 15 2 in the following way
J^F dr - = A(.KC)it IS 19
where the integral represents the work of the non conservative forces
Calling this integral 11 * we then have on rearranging the equation
A(;iE + PE) = n 15 20
Since potential energies of such common forcra as linear restoring forces

coulombic forces and gravitational forces are so well known the above
formulation is useful in solving problems if it is understood thoroughly and
applied properly
Example; A constant force F is applied to a body of weight 17 resting

on an inclined surface for which the coefficient of friction is p (Fig. 15.7)
The body is restrained by a spring having a spring constant K. Compute
the velocity of the body in terms of F and the other parameters that
are given when the body has moved from rest a distance up the incline
of |5. Initially the spring is compressed a distance 5.
The non-conservative forces are F and a friction force, so the expression

Wi, becomes:
17, = (F) (^5) - (17 n cos a) (|5)
The change in potential energy of the system is:
iPP-|lFa8in-|K(')
Substituting into Eq. 15.20, we then get:
-jV^ + -W5sma--Ki^-j=-F5--Wd^cosa
We can then solve for the velocity 7 from this equation:
A W'
^ = 1(
/ F
- M cos a - sin a + 5
jI
PART B . Systems of Particles
15.5 WORK-ENERGY EQUATIONS
We shall now examine a system of particles from an energy view

point. Shown in Fig. 15.8 is a general aggregate of n particles. Considering
the ith particle, we can say, by employing Eq. 15.2:
436 ENERGY METHODS 115 5
F, dr, + ** "" ~ (lffV?)i IS 21
where, as in the pre\ lous chapter,/ , is the force from the jth particle onto
the ith particle, as js illustrated in the diagram, and is thus an internal
force m contrast to F, which represents the total evternal force on the
Figure 15 Q
1 th particle In words, the abo\c equation says that for a displacement

between r\ andrj along some path, the energy relations for the tth particle
are
external work 4- internal work =

\cnergy relative to wy)
A YZ/
On the other hand, we can adopt the point of view set forth in Section
15 4 and identify conservative forces, both external ond internal, and utilize
potential energies for these forces in the energy equation To qualify as
would have to be functions of only the spatial
conserx ative, internal forces
configuration of the system and expressible os the gradient of a scalar
Clearly, forces arising from the gravitational attraction between the
particles and irom the eêctrostotic iotces ^rom any eêctnc charges on
the particles are conservative internal forces, and elastic connectors be-
tween the particles with linear characteristics, such as springs, arc con
servativ e internal forces By summing Eq 15 21 for all particles we can
say for the aggregate
A(.KE + FF) = Wt 15 23
where 11 1 work done by internal and external non

represents the net
conservative forces on the system, and PE represents the total potential
energj of the conservativ c internal and external forces acting on and in the
system Since we are taking the dtange m potential energy, the datum
chosen for measuring PE is of little significance here.* For instance, any

convenient datum for measuring the potential energy due to gravity of the
earth yields the same result for the term APE.
Figure 15.9
Example! In Fig. 15.9 arc two blocks having weights Wi and Wi, respec-
tively. They are connected by a flexible, elastic cable of negligible mass
which has an equivalent spring constant of Ku Body (1) is connected
to the wall by a spring having a spring constant Kt and slides along a
horizontal surface for which the coefficient of friction with the body is n.
Body (2) is supported initially by some external agent so that at the out-
set of the problem the spring and cable are unstretched. What is the total
kinetic energy of the system when, after release, body (2) has moved a
distance dj and body (1) has moved a smaller distance dj? Assume that
di and are less than the maximum displacements of the respective
bodies.
Use Eq. 15.23. There is only one non-conservative force present in the
system and this is the external friction force on body (1). Therefore, the
work term of the equation becomes:
W, = -lU.Mdi (a)
There are three conservative forces present; the spring force and the
pavitational force are external and the force from the elastic cable is
internal. (We neglect mutual gravitational forces between the bodies.)
Using the initial position of as the datum for gravitational potential
energy, we have, for the total change in potential energy:
.
ape = [^Tjd? -f |E,(d2 - d.)2 -b (- Wid2 - 0)]
one precaution regard that must be brought to your attention at
in this
til'
that in the spring force formula, -Kx, the teim a- repie-
sent 1
elongation or contraction of the spring from the
mi, St
t
undeformed condition. Tliis
not be violated in the potential
energy expression
438 ENERGY METHODS 5156
and BO we can compute the desired change m kinetic enei^ from Eq

1523 os
iKE -Wtudi - - JX,(?j - <i,)* 4- (b)
As an additional exercise, }ou should amve at this result by using the

basic Eq 15 21, where you cannot rely on familiar formulae for potential
energies
15 6 KINCTIC tNEReV EXrilESSiON BASEP ON CENTER OF MASS
In this and the next section, we shall introduce the center of mass
into our discussion m
order to develop useful expressions for the kinetic
energy of an aggregate and to de\ elop another work energy equation These
formulations are helpful at present, but they will be of greatest value in
later discussions of rigid-body
motion
Consider a system of n par-
0 tides, shown m
Fig 15 10
^ M The total kinetic energy of a

system of particles can be
given as
i
^ KE^'^ imM 15 24
I
.-I
We shall now express Eq
Figure IS 10 15 24 in another way by in-
troducing the mass center
First, note that m the dia-
gram we have indicated the vector p, from the center of mass to the tth
particle, and we can say
r< = re-fp, 15 25
Consequently
= f\ = F, 4- p. IS 26
That 13, the velocity of a particle as described above is the velocity of the
mass center plus the velocity of the particle relative to the mass center
Substituting the above relation into the expression for kinetic energy,
Eq 15 24, we get
ifB - 2 M'- + fi) - E (' +

Carrying out the dot product, we have
xr - } 2 />. +1 E "f 15 27
Since Vc is common for all values of the summation index, we can extract
it from the summation operation, and this leaves:
7n,pf 15.28
1=1 1 =1
n n n
Replace: ^ m, by M and ^ m,p, by-v^ ^ m,P,

1^1 t =1 t = 1
and we then have:
KE = Um + K .
t =i
+ 1 ;^m.p
= 1 1
Pi 15.29
n
But the expression ^ 1 =1
m,p, represents the first mass moment of the system
of masses about the center of mass for the system. Clearly, this quantity
must be zero. The expression for kinetic energy becomes:
KE= + 15.30
1 =1
Thus we see that the kinetic energy relative to some reference can be
considered to be composed of two parts: the kinetic energy of the total mass
moving relative to the reference with the velocity of the mass center, plus the
kinetic energy of the motion of the particles relative to the mass center as seen
from the reference. To compute p? we may employ Eq. 11.61 in the form:
where xyz is usually a reference moving with the center of mass.
Example; A pair of particles approximating some apparatus moves

radially outward along bar EE at equal speeds 7i relative to the bar
(Fig. 15.11). Bar EE, meanwhile, rotates with angular velocity on about
440 ENERGY METHODS {157
axis CC which is fixed to the airplane The airplane moving with a

is
constant \ elocity Vt and has a roll about its center! ne of wj rad/sec The
bar 13 at a fixed distance h from the centerline of the airplane If each
part cle has a mass m what is the total kinetic energy of the particles
relative to the ground when they are at a distance d from CC?
M e can empio} Eq 15 30 for this calculat on and so ne must find the
veloc t> of the center of mass of the particles rclat ve to the ground
The center of mass is clearly at a the intersection of the bar and the EE
axis CC Fixing an xyz reference to the airplane at 0 as is shown Fig m
15 11 ne can say for the mass center
+ft + <Xp
(Fe)Yir ~ 0 + Vj + (u}j X hk ~ Vo
Since p =* [0 ij + w k X dj) + (-w )/ X dj]* = 1 ? + (w d)*
the kmctic energy is
,
KE
= 2m Vl + (uA)* + 2m
^ l?4-fd)
.
Collecting terms nenrite
KE - mtV3 + + V? + (w d)]
15 7 WORK KIHCTie CNCROY CXPRCSStONS

OASCD OH eCNTCR Of MASS
The work kmctic energy expressions of Section 15 5 were de-

veloped for a system of particles without regard to the mass center We
shall non introduce this point into the work kinetic energy formulations
"iou mil recall that Newtons law for the mass center of any system of
particles is
F= 15 31
e can immediately formulate an energy equation for the center of mass

from the results of Section 15 1 That is
15 32
where the work is that of the total external force moving with the mass
center Note from Eq 15 30 that this expression for work is related to only
part of the kmctic energy of the system of particles
The remnining part of the kinetic energy change is shown m the ap-
pendix to he related to the forces by this rather cumbersome equation
* +g(/;|:/ ip,)
Equation 15 32 relates the motion of the mass center to the external forces
the
but the above equation relates the motion of the particles relative* to
mass center with the work done by external and internal forces as they
undergo motions relative to the mass center as seen from the inertial
reference. We shall use the above equation only for qualitative discussions
later.
1.
PROBLEMS
In Fig. 15.12, what constant force P is required to bring the 100-lb body,
which starts from rest, to a velocity of 30 ft/sec in 20 ft? Neglect friction.
2. A light cable passes over a frictionless pulley (Fig. 15.13). Determine the veloc-
ity of the 100-lb block after it has moved 30 ft from rest. Neglect the inertia
of the pulley.
3. Show that a couple rotating in its plane through an angle A6 does work in the
amount |M|A0 where 1M| is the magnitude of the couple-moment. Show that
the sign is positive if the twist of the couple is in the same direction as the
direction of rotation.
4. In problem 2, the pulley has a radius of 1 ft and has a resisting torque at the
bearing of 10 Ib-ft. Neglecting the inertia of the pulley and the mass of the cable,
compute the kinetic energy of the 100-lb block after it has moved 30 ft from
rest.
5. In Fig. 15.14, a light cable is wrapped around two drums fi.ved between a pair
of blocks. The system weighs 100 lb if a 50-lb tension is exerted on the free end
of the cable. What is the velocity change of the system after 10 ft of travel
down the incline if the body starts from rest? Take fi for all surfaces as 0.05.
6. Explain qualitatively what effects would be present if the mass of the cable
were not neglected in problem 5.
* The
reader is reminded that relative motion means here the difference between the
motion of a particle as seen from the inertial reference and the motion of the center of
mass as^ seen from the inertial reference. Since the equation requires that the forces
have this motion, it is not one that is easily used.
442 ENERGY METHODS
Figure 15 14
7 Compute the done by a cprnpressor piston dunng a compression stroke

A\orJv
A diagram an indicator diagram) of the pressure-versus piston position
(called
l3aho^vn in Fig 1515 At A the beginning of the compression stroke there are
I 7 ft* of air The outlet \alve is then closed and ne shall consider that an
isothermal compression takes place so that pu const where v is the specific
volume (ft* Ibm) \Mieii a 40-p3ig pressure is reached, the outlet \alve opens
and the pressure remama constant during the remainder of the stroke while air
la pumped into the storage tank IDunng the compression stroke, the pitssure
on the rear face of the piston is 1 psig (The remainder of the cjde consists
of the return stroke shown as a dotted line where the exhaust valve is closed
as the piston goes back and the inlet valve opens at D)
Figure 15 15
a. Att air gunused to teat (he ability of small devices to wrilhstatid high ac
is
cclcralions A
fioating piston A on which the device to be tested is mounted
13 held at position D
C while region is filled w ith highly compreased air (Hg
1516) Region is initialli at atmospheric pressure but is entirel> sealed from
W- -1
^ i
C E
Ll ^
the outside WTicti "fired " a qtitcL release mechanism releases the iiistoiv an I it
accelerates rapidl> toward the other end of the gun where the trapped air in F
"cushions the motion so that the piston will begin cvcntualli to return How
ENERGY METHODS 443
ever, as it starts back, the high pressure developed in E is released and the
piston only moves a short distance. Suppose the piston and its test specimen
have a mass of 2 Ibm and the pressure initially in the ehamber D is 1000 psig.
Compute the kinetic energy of the piston at the halfway point of the air gun
if we make the simple assumption that the air in D expands according to
9.
fv = const, and the air in E is compressed also according to pv = const.

Take v of this fluid at D to be initially 0.207 ff/lbm and a in to be initially
10.
13.10 ft/lbm. Neglect the inertia of the air.
In the above problem, develop an equation giving information as to how elose
to the end of the air gun the piston will reach.
In Fig. 15.17, a block weighing 10 lb is released from rest, where the springs
acting on the body are horizontal and have a tension of 10 Ib each. What is
the velocity of the block after it has descended 4 in. if each spring has a spring
constant K= 5 Ib/in.
"
-
10 - 10
a|v\AAMA^ 10 lb HVVVWA^,' B
1 .w'
" I 4".J'=
I
- >
L'l
*"1
Figure 15.17
11. In Fig. 15.17, the walls at A and B are each moved in 4 in. If the weight is again
released from the horizontal position, what will be the velocity after it descends
4 in.? Formulate the equation giving the maximum distance the block descends.
12. A railroad car traveling 20 mi/hr runs into a stop at a railroad terminal (Fig.
15.18). A vehicle weighing 2600 lb is held by a linear-restoring system that has
an equivalent spring constant of 100 Ib/in. If the railroad car is assumed to
stop suddenly and if the wheels in the vehicle are free to turn, what is the
maximum force developed by the equivalent spring system? Neglect friction
13. and the inertia of the wheels.
20 mi/hr
K = 20lb/in I
100 lb v\AA/VVWî
<i = 03
In Fig. 15.19, a mass on a spring is moved so that it extends the spring

4 in
from its unextended position. If there is a coefficient of friction of 0.3 between
the mass and the supporting surface:
(a) What is the velocity
of the mass as it returns to the undeformed position
of the spring?
(b) How far will the spring be compressed when the mass stops instantaneously
before starting to the left?
444 ENERGY METHODS
11 A 30-lb weight falls on the phtform as shown in Fjg 1520 When the Ic^ are
at a 60 inclination the pnng is unstretched hat is the maximum elongation
of the spnng Neglect friction and the mass of the support
15 In Fig 1521 t\%o bodies arc connected b> an incxtcnsible cord over a fne-
tionle5 pulley If released from rest nhat velocitjwill the} reach when the
500-lb body has dropped S ft
17
16 A mass of one slug is moving at a speed of BO ft/sec along a frictiooless surface,
nhichlaterinclmosiipnardatanangleof45(iug 15 22} \ spring of constant
A 5 !b/ln IS present along the intlme lion high does the mass moxe
Figure 15 22
A chain of total length L. is released from rest on a smooth support as shown in

Fig 1523 Dclennine the \elocily of thecham when the last link mo\cso5 the
horizontal surface
Figure 15.23 Figure lS.2t

ENERGY METHODS 445
18. In Fig. 15.24, a ski jumper moves down the ramp aided only by gravity. If
'
the skier moves 100 ft in the horizontal direction and lands
very smoothly,
what must be the angle 6 for the landing incline? Neglect friction.
19. Weights A and B (both are 150 lb) are constrained to move in frictionless slots
(Fig. 15.25). They are connected by a light bar of length 1 ft, and weight B is
connected by two springs of equal spring constant K = 5 Ib/in. The springs
are unstretched when the connecting bar is vertical. What is the velocity of B
when A descends a distance of 1 in.?
r K 10 rad/sec
each mass = 0.1 slug

Figure 15.26
20. In Fig. 15.26, a device is mounted on a platform that is rotating with an angular
speed of 10 rad/sec. It consists of two masses (each is 0.1 slug) rotating on
a spindle, with an angular speed of 5 rad/sec. The masses are moving radially
outward with a speed of 10 ft/sec, and the entire platform is being raised
at a speed of 5 ft/sec. Compute the kinetic energy of the system of particles
when they are 1 ft from the spindle.
21. Do problem 20 ifthe masses are moving in the sa?ne direction at the instant
of interest. At that instant they are in the plane of the paper and moving to
the right.
22. In Fig. 15.27, a 30*lb vehicle has two
bodies (each weighing 2 lb) mounted
on it, and these bodies rotate at an -I'-i
angular speed of 50 rad/sec relative
9 21b
to the vehicle. If a lOO-lb force acts 50 rad/sec CIS

301b
on the vehicle for a distance of 50
1001b.
ft, what is the kinetic energy
of the
system, assuming that the vehicle
starts from rest and the bodies in
Figure 15.27
the vehicle have constant rotational
speed? Neglect friction and the in-
ertia of the wheels.
23. Show that the work-energy equation for a particle may be expressed in the
following way:
JjPdx^ fJvd{7nV)
Integrating the right side by parts, and using relativistic mass,
show that
a relativistic form of this equation can
be given as:
446 ENERGV METHODS
JO VT - y*/c*
ene^ is
BO that the relativistic kinetic
KB = me* Trtoc*
24. By combining the kinetic energy and Woc* to form E, the total energy, we get
the famoi^ formula of Emstein
which equates energy with mass How much energy is equivalent to an ounce
of matter?How high could a weight of 100 lb be lifted with such energy ^
Methods
of Momentum
PART A. Linear Momentum
16.1 INTRODUCTION
In Section 12.3, we integrated differential equa-

tions ofmotion for particles that are acted upon by forces
which are functions of time. In this chapter, we shall
again consider such problems and shall present alternative
formulations, called methods of momentum, for the handling
of certain of these problems in a convenient and straight-
forward manner. We start by considering Newtons law
for a particle:
447
448 METHODS OF MOMENTUM 161
r. dr
r=* m-rr 16 I
at
Multiply both sides by dt and inlegnte from ti to /i
16 2
Note first that this is a vector equation in contrast to the work kinetic
energy Eq 15 2 of the last chapter The integral ^*Fd< is called the
impulse of the force F during the time interval tj while mV is called

the linear momenlum leclor of the particle The ahoie equation then states
that the impulse I oier a time tnlcmal cgiiols the change in momenlum of a
parltele during that time intcnal As we will demonstrate later the impulse
of a force may be known even though the force itself is not known
Finally, you must remember that to produce an impulse a force need
only exist !or a time interval Sometimes we use the work integral so much
that we tend
to thinkerroneously that a stationary force does not
produce an impulse
Example I A particle initially at rest is acted on by a force whose

variation with time is shown graphically m Fig 16 I If the mass of the
particle IS one slug and it is constrained to move rectihnearly in the

direction of the force what the speed after fifteen seconds?
It IS from the definition of the impulse that the area under the
clear
force-time cur%e nilf m
the one-dimensional example equal the impulse
nulgmtude so that we need simply to compute this area between the
times ( 0 and t )5 seconds
impulse = |(10)(10) + (5)(IS) = 13o Ib-sec

area 1 ares 2
The final \clocitj then tsgiienas
125 (I)fT 0-0 T , = 125 ft/6tc

A
16.2 \
METHODS OF MOMENTUM 449
Note that the impulse-momentum equation is useful when the force
variation during a time interval not a curve that can be conveniently

is
expressed mathematically. The impulse can then be found with the help
of a planimeter, thus permitting a quick solution of the velocity change
during the interval.
Example 2 A particle A with a mass of one slug has an initial velocity

:
Vo= lOi -h Qj. After the particle strikes a particle B, the velocity becomes
E = 16i 3j -f 4fc. If the time of encounter is 10 milliseconds, what
average force was exerted on the particle A? What is the change of mo-
mentum of the particle B?
The impulse I acting on A is immediately determined by computing
the change in momentum during the encounter:
I = (l)(16i - 3j + 4fe) - (l)(10i -h 6j)
/a = 6i -f 4fc lb-sec
Fa dl = (Fav)A At, the average force {F^v)a becomes;
(F.v)x(O.OlO) = 6i - 9j -f 4k
(Fav)^ = 600i - 900j -h 400fe lb
Owing to the principle that action equals reaction, an equal but opposite
average force must act on the object B during the 10-millisecond time
interval. Thus the impulse on particle B is Ia. Equating this impulse
to the change in linear momentum, we get:
A(mF)fl = Ia 6i -f 9j 4k lb-sec
It is during impacts where the exact force variation is unknown that

the impulse-momentum principle is very useful. We shall examine this
in more detail in a later section.
16 2 LINEAR MOMENTUM OF A SYSTEM OF PARTICLES

Let us now consider a system of n particles. We may start with
Newtons law that was developed previously for a system of particles:
m, 16.3
dt
Sincewe know that the internal forces cancel, F is the total external force
on the system of n particles. Multiplying by dt as before and integrating
between h and <2, we write:
16.4
Thus we see that the impulse total externalforee on the system of particles
of the
during a time interval
equals the sum of the changes of the linear momentum
vectors of the
particles during the time interval.
We now introduce the mass center is we did in the other considerations

of aggregates of particles You will remember that
-I
Differentiating with rc'spccl to time we get the result
Mft ~ 16 6
*1
Thus we see from this equation that fAe Mai momenium o/ a siisfem of parli-
cks equals the momentum of a parlicte that has the loial mass of the system
and that motes mlK the veloaiy of the mass center Using Eq 16 6 to replace
the right side of Eq 16 4 we can say
F<!i - f. = - wji 167

f
Thus the change tn momentum of an an ex
aggregate of particles acted on by
ternal impulse is the same as the change tn momentum of a hypolheHeal parhde
tAflt Aos <Ae entire moss of ike aggregate and ike mohon of tAe center of moss
of the ajsiem
Example Two bod es 1 and 2 are connected by an inextensible and

weightless cord Initially the bodies ore at rest If the coefficient of Inc
tion IS p tor body I on a surface inclmed at angle a compute the velocity
^giire 16 2
16.3 METHODS OF MOMENTUM 451
t
.T
'W2
Figure 16.3
in Fig. 16.3. Equilibrium considerations dictate that Ni = TFi cos a, so
the friction force fi is;
fi - fiNi = tiWi cos a
Also for body 1 take the component of the impulse-momentum equation

along the incline:
Jo
(
'
ulFi cos a -f IFi sin a -h jT) dt = y
g
0
Integrating, we have:
( iuiyi cos a -f TFi sin a + T)t = V

TFi
9
(a)
For body 2 we have for the momentum equation in the vertical direction:
[
JO
(W2
'
- F) d( = y-
g
0
where, because of the inextensible property of the cable and the friction-
less condition ofthe pulley, the magnitudes of the velocity V and the
force T are the same for bodies 1 and 2. Integrating in the above equa-
tion, we write:
Wi
(lyj -T)t = V
9
(b)
Eqs. (a) and (b) are simultaneous equations for unknowns F and T,
and they can readily be solved to give us the desired information.
You may be tempted to use Eq. 16.7 for the system in the hope of short-
ening the amount of labor. In doing so, you must remember that must F
be the total external force on the system, which means that the force
from the pulley onto the cable is external and must be included. This
brings the force T back into the calculations. Also one must determine
the velocity of the center of mass, with the result that no gain has been
made.
16.3 CONSERVATION OF LINEAR MOMENTUMIMPACT

If the total external force on a system of particles is zero, it is clear
from the previous section that there can be no change in the linear mo-
mentum of the system This is the pnnciple of conservation of momentum

It means, furthermore, that mth a gero total tjupulse on an aggregate of
particles, Oiere can be no change tn the iclocity of the mass center
Let us now examine the action involved in the explosion of a bomb that
IS initially suspended from a wre, as shown m
Fig 16 4 First consider the
situation directly after the explosion has been set off Since very large
forces are present from expanding gases, a fragment of the bomb receives an
appreciable impulse during this short time interval ALo, directly after the
explosion, the gravitational forces are no longer counteracted by the sup
porting wire, so there is an additional impulse acting on the fragments, but
since the gravitational force is
small compared to forces from

the explosion, the gravitational
impulse can be considered negli-
gibly small for the period of
time under discussion Andsince
the explosive action is internal
to the bomb, it causes impulses
that for any direction have
equal and opposite counter-
Before Directly parts, and thus the total impulse
explosion after
on the bomb due to the explo
explosion
Sion IS effectively zeroWe can
Figure 16 4 thus conclude that directly after
the explosion the center of mass
of the bomb has not moved ap-
preciably despite the high velocity of the fragments in all directions, as is
illustrated in Fig 16 4
As time progresses beyond the short time interval, the gravitational
impulse increases and has sigmficant effect Were there no friction the
center of mass would descend from the position of support as a freely fall-
ing. body under this axitmu of gavity
There will be other situations in which the time interval of interest is
so small that only extremely large forces acting during the interval will
have impulses which are not negligibly small For instance, two bodies
usually collide during a very short time interval, and comparatively
large forces are developed on the bodies This action is called an impact
The time interval for such actions is usually small enough so that the forces
of gravity cause a The impact forces
negligible impulse during the action
on the bodies are always equiJ and opposite to each other, so the net
unpulse on the pair of bodies is zero This means that the total momentum
directly after impact equals the total momentum directly before impact
We shall consider two types of imj^t at this time We will call the com-
line of impact.
mon normal to the plane of contact during the collision the
If the centers of mass of the two colliding
bodies lie along the line of im-
impact, and is shown for the case of two
pact, the action is called central
spheres in Fig. 16.5. If, in addition, the velocities approaching the collision
Figure 16.5 Central impact
are colinear with the line of impact, the action is called direct central impact.
This is illustrated by Vi and in the diagram. For velocities other than

these approach velocities say, for example,
Vi and Vi the action is
termed oblique central impact.
In either case, there is conservation of momentum during the short time
interval, from directly before the collision (indicated with subscript i) to
directly after the collision (indicated with subscript/), which is given by
the equation:
{miVi)i + im2V2)i = (wiFi)/ + (mjFz)/ 16.8
In the direct central impact case, we intuitively know that for smooth
bodies this equation becomes a single scalar equation, since (Fi)/ and
(F2 )/ will be colinear with the line of impact. Usually the initial velocities
are known and the final values are desired, which means that we have for
one scalar equation involving two unknowns. Clearly, we must
this case
know more about the manner of interaction of the bodies, since Eq. 16.8
as it stands is valid for materials of any consistency (for example, putty
or hardened steel) and takes no account of such important considerations.
For the oblique case, we can write components of the equation along the
line of impact and along two other directions at right angles to the line
of impact. If we know the initial velocities, we have six unknown final
velocity components and only three equations, so we need even more in-
formation to establish fully the final velocities after this more general type
of impact. We now consider each case in more detail in order to establish
these additional relations.
Casel. Direct Central Impact. Let us first examine the direct central impact
case. We vill consider the period of collision to be made up of two sub-
intervals of time. The period of deformation refers to the duration of the
6
454 METHODS OF MOMENTUM S163
collision, starting from the first initial contact of the bodies and ending
with the time of maximum deformation During this period ne shall con-
sider that impulse /O dt acts oppositely on each of the bodies The second
period, covering the time from the maximum deformation condition to
the condition m \%hich the bodies just separate, uc shall terra the period
of reilitutioh The impulse acting oppositely on each bodj during this penod
i\c shall indicate as flidt If the bodies arc ptrfecihj elasftc, they will
resume their initial shapes during the penod of restitution (neglect the
internal vibrations of the bodies), ns is shown m Fig ICO hen the bodiw
CpQOOD I
deformation ]
restitution
Perfectly elastic cel) sion
Figure 16 Inelastic coll sion
do not resume their initial shapes we say that pfosfic deformaiion has taken
place The ratio of the impulse during the restitution penod fR dl to the
impulse during the deformation penod fD dt is a number t, xvhich depends
mainly on the phj steal properties of the bodies in collision TVe call this
number the eocffictcnl of reshluhon, and it is defined as
impulse dunng restitution

16 9
impulse dunng deformation
We must strongly point out that the coefficient of restitution depends also
on the size, shape, and velocities of the bodies before impact These factors
result from the fact that plastic deformation depends on the magnitude
and nature of the stress distributions and also on the rate of loading How-
ever, approximate values of < have been established for different materials
and can be used for approximate results m the computations to follow
We will now formulate the relation between the coefficient of restitution
and the imtial and final velocities of the bodies undergoing impact
:
Let us consider one of the bodies during the two phases of the collision.
If we call the velocity at the maximum deformation condition (7)z), we
can say for mass (1)
Ddt=^ - imiVi)D 16.10

J
During the period of restitution, the statement becomes:
Rdt== (miVi)D - (miVOf I6.ll

j
Dividing Eq. 16.11 by Eq. 16.10, cancelling out mi, and noting the defi-
nition, Eq. 16.9, we can say:
_ (Flip - (7i)/
16.12
"
(Vi), - (FOp
A similar analysis for the other mass (2) gives this result:
(F.)p - (F,)/ (F,)/ - iV,)n

'
(F^).- - (Fa)p {V,)n - {V,)i
In the last expression, we have changed the sign of numerator and denom-
inator. At the intermediate position between deformation and restitution,
there is no further deformation and the masses have essentially the same
velocity. Thus, {Vi)d = (F2)p.
and 16.13 are equal to each other,
Since the quotients in Eqs. 16.12
we can add numerators and denominators to form another equal quotient.
Noting the above-mentioned equality of the Vt> terms, we have:
_
~ (F2)/ (Fi)/ velocity of separation
^
(F2 ),- (Fi)i velocity of approach
This equation involves the coefficient e, which is presumably known or

estimated, and the initial and final velocities of the bodies undergoing
impact. Thus it is this equation that enables us to solve the final velocities
of the bodies after collision when it is used with the momentum Eq. 16.8
for the case of direct central impact.
During a perfectly elastic collision, the impulses for both the period of
restitution and of deformation are equal, so the coefficient of restitution
is unity. For non-elastic collisions, the coefficient of restitution is less than
unity, since the impulse is diminished on restitution because of the failure
of the bodies to resume their original geometries. For a perfectly plastic
impact, e = 0, i.e., (F2 )/ = (Fi)/, and the bodies remain in contact.
Case 2. now consider the case of oblique

Oblique Central Impact. Let us
central impact. The
velocity components along the line of impact may be
related by the scalar component of the momentum Eq. 16.8 in this
direc-
tion and also by Eq. 16.14 where velocity components along
the line of
A56 METHODS OF MOMENTUM 163
impact are used and \shere the coefBaent of restitution may be considered
(for smooth bodies) to be the same as for the direct central impact case
If ue know the initial conditions, we can solve the velocity components
after impact m the direction of the line of impact As for the other com-
ponents of velocity, we can say that for smooth bodies these \ elocity com-
ponents are unaffected by the collision, since no impulses act in these
directions That is, the velocity components normal to the line of impact
for each body are the same immediately after impact as before Thus the
final \ elocity components of both bodies can be established and the mo-
tions of the bodies can be determined within the limits of the discussion
The following examples illustrate the use of the preceding formulations
Example J > To check the muzzle velocity of a nfie, we shoot a bullet
into a block of wood suspended from a light flexible wire The bullet
lodges iQ the nood and causes it to swing to some maximum angle fl,
m
Figure 16-7
which we then measure Kooning the distance I from the center of wood
to the support, show that we can ascertain the velocity of the bullet
just before it hits the wood This may be taken as the muzzle velocity if
the gun is reasonably close to the block
Since the action of the bullet in imbedding itself in the block is an
impact that has only a penod of deformsbon, the velnwties of both bodies
are the same after impact We can assume that the action takes place
80 rapidly that the block Mdoes not move appreciably dunng the deforma-
tion penod but nevertheless acquires a velocity Fi, in accordance with
themomentum considerations discussed earlier The conservation of the
momentum components of the two particles in the x direction just before
and just after the penod of deformation then gives us
mra-t-il/(0) = (ta + M)Vi (a)
This IS an equation with the two unknowns Ft and Fi

WTiat about the remaining motion? The bullet and the wood block may
be considered a single particle that is constrained to move m
a circular
path Note that after impact only the force of gravity ~mgj, a conserva-
tive force, performs work on the particle and therefore we may use the
conservation of energy equation as presented in the previous chapter.

Using the lowest position of the masses as the reference, we thus have:
{m + i!/)
F?
=
A
(771 + M)g {I I cos 0) (b)
We can now determine Fi from this equation, since 0 is known. Finally,

if we we can evaluate Tô.
return to Eq. (a)
Example 2; Two billiard balls (of same sizeand mass) collide with the
velocities of approach shown in Fig. 16.8. For a coefficient of restitution
Figure 16.8
of 0.90, what are the final velocities of the balls directly after they part?
What is the loss in kinetic energy?
A reference is established so that the x axis is along line of centers
and the y axis is in the plane of contact. The reference plane is parallel
to the billiard table. The approach velocities have been broken up into
components along these references. The velocity components
Fly and are unchanged during the action. Along the line of impact,
momentum considerations give:
5m 7.07771 = 7n(Fii)/ + m{Vix)f (a)
Using the coefficient of restitution relation in Eq. 16.14, we have:
= (F^x)/ - (Fi.),
= 0.90 (b)
-7.07 - 5
We thus have two equations, (a) and (b), for the unknown components
in the x direction. Simplifying these equations, we have:
(Fi,)/ + (Fj.)/ = -2.07 (c)
(Fix)/ - (F^/ = -10.86 (d)

Adding, we get:
(Fix)/ = 6.46 ft/sec
Solving for F2x in Eq. (c), we write:
(F2x)/ - 6.46 = -2.07
(F21)/ = 4.39 ft/sec

The final velocities after coUisioa are Uien
(li)/ -64C
(IO/ = 439 + 7 07i

The loss m kinetic energy is given aa
{hf) - (hE), = (4m5* + imtO*) - [im6 46* + |m(7 07* + 4 39*)]
AhE = M25 + 100- (417 + 500 + 193)3 70ffi ft-lb
If < IS unity 1 e a perfectly elastic impact the
cne^ is lero as you can readily compute
loss of
Example 3 A ball is dropped onto a concrete

T floor from height A (Fig 16 9) If there is a
coefficient of restitution of 0 90 for the action to
what height niU the ball rise on the rebound
ihe concrete has a very large mass în fact for
the purposes of computation it can be considered
mfiiMlc Thus the veiocit> associated with the con
Crete body can be considered to be eero after the
impact In this case we need to use only the coe/Ii
Figure 16 9 cicnt of restitution for the desired result as can
be seen in the equation
' "(n.-o'
- (1 )/ 0 v'sr
Solving for Aj the height of rebound we get
h o. *A 0 81A
164 a note om energy loss
In Example 2 of the last section our computations indicated

that there is a loss of kinetic energy in an inelastic collision despite the fact
that the momentum of the system is conserved This may seem strange
and should be examined further We will first prove that kinetic energy
must be conserved for a perfectly elastic collision For simplicity, we con
aider a direct central impact With e *= 1, Eq 16 14 becomes
(V*)i-(F,),-(y,)/-(F0r
Rearranging terms, we have
(n), + (r0/=(n),+ (F,), 1615
Next we WTite the momentum equation

nii(yi)i + =* mifVi)/ + mi(l j)/ 16 16
'earranging this equation we write
- (KO/] =- mti(V,)f ~ (y,)d 16 17

16.4
Now multiply the corresponding sides of Eqs. 16.17 and 16.15:
- (Ei)/][(yi). + (70/] = - (y,)MV2)f +

Multiplying through, we get:
Wii[(y0f - iVdf] = - (Fa)?] 16.18
Dividing through by 2 and rearranging, we have:
16.19
This clearly shows that there is no loss in kinetic energy during an elastic
impact.
During an inelastic impact, the momentum is conserved but there is a
loss ofmechanical energy, as was demonstrated in the example. The mo-
mentum conservation results from the fact that on each mass there is a
contact force at all times equal and opposite to the corresponding contact
forceon the other mass. By integrating these forces with time and adding
the results,we get impulses that must cancel.
For energy considerations during an inelastic impact, we shall consider
the bodies to be a system of sub-particles whose energy we showed in the
last chapter to be (see Eq. 15.30):
KE = i X) 16.20
1=1
Also Eq. 14.46 is applicable;
F= 16.21
Since the resultant external force is zero during the collision of the two
bodies, Eq. 16.21 clearly indicates that thereno change in the velocity
is
of the mass center and thus the term \MV\ in Eq. 16.20 remains constant
during the collision. The remaining term on the right side of Eq. 16.20 is
equal to the work done by the forces of the system as the particles move
relative to the mass center (see Eq. 15.33). During the deformation period,
the sub-particles of the bodies have a general decelerating motion toward
the center of mass. Hence, there is a net amount of negative work done
oy the internal forces as they resist this motion. This decreases the term
iSm.p? and thus, according to Eq. 16.20, reduces the kinetic energy of the
bodies. If the bodies are perfectly elastic, the forces perform
an equal
amount of positive work during the period of restitution (Fig. 16.10), with
the result that there is no net
change in kinetic energy after impact.
However, in the extreme case of a perfectly plastic impact, there will be
no period of restitution and consequently only the
negative work per-
formed during the period of deformation present. It
is is then possible for
460 METHODS OF MOMENTUM 516 5
Period of restitution
for elastic body
Equal positive work
Pertod of deformafion
Negattve work
Perfect plastic deformation

No period of restitution
Figure 16 10 Zero work
the impact to cause a considerable decrease m

kinetic energy Between
the extreme ranges of a perfectly plastic and a perfectly clastic impact is
the range of partially plastic impact in which the loss of kinetic energy
19 dependent on the degree of permanent deformation developed
PART B Moment of Momentum
*16 5 MOMENT OF MOMENTUM EQUATION

FOR A SINGLE PARTICLE
At this time we shall introduce another auxiliary statement that

follows from Newtons laiv and that will have great value when extended
to the case of a rigid body We start wth Neivtons law in the following
form
r-|(mr) = P 1622
where it is apparent that the symbol P represents the linear momentum

of the particle We next take the moment of each side of the equation about
a point Q in space
r, X F= r, X 16 23
If tlie aforementioned point a is positioned at a fixed point m the same

inertial reference relatn e to winch ^ is measured, we can simplifj the right
: :
side of the above equation. Let us examine first the expression {d/df)
{ra X P). Thus:
fl(r.xP)=r.x( + f.xP 16.24
But the expression fa X P can be written as fa X mf. The vectors Va and r

are measured in the same reference from a fixed point a to the particle,
and from the origin to the particle, respectively. They are thus different
at all times to the extent of a constant vector. Therefore, fa = f and the
expression fa X mf is zero. Thus Eq. 16.24 becomes
jîraX P) = raX P 16.25
and Eq. 16.23 can be written in the form:
X F = Ma = ^ Ha
I {ra X
r P) 16.26
where Ha is the a of the momentum vector. Sometimes

moment about -point H
is termed, less concisely, the angular momentum vector. The above equa-
tion, then, states that the moment of the residtant force on a particle about a
point a, fixed in an inertial reference, equals the time rate of change of moment
about point a of the momentum relative to the inertial reference. This is the
desired alternate form of Newtons law.
You that the moment of momentum concept was used (al-
will recall
though not formally) in connection wdth the central-force problem in
Chapter 13.
166 MOMENT OF MOMENTUM EQUATION

FOR A SYSTEM OF PARTICLES
Showm
in Fig. 16.11 is an aggregate of n particles and an inertial
reference.For convenience, the momentum equation for the ith particle is
now written about the origin of this reference
r. X F. -f r, X "" ^
I
where, as usual, is the internal force from the jth particle on the z'th
particle. We now sum this equation for all n particles:
^ r. X F. -f
^^ (r. x/) = 4 (T, X P.)l = iitotai 16.28
where the summation operation has

been put before the differentiation on
the right side, a step
that is permissible because of the distributive property
of differentiation
with respect to addition. For any pair of particles, the
462 METHODS OF MOMENTUM |166
internal forces be equal and oppi^te, and if each pair is cohnear*

ivill
it Tvill have a zero moment about the ongin This is illustrated in Fig 16 12,
>. X/., + r, X/
- (r. - r,) X/ = 0
Pi^re 16 11 Figure 16 12
which will be tnearuQgful if the reader keeps m mmd that for the purpose
of taking a moment about a point, forces are transmissible Thus the term
X] S above equation is zero, and we have as a result
16 29
Ths slalement means that the total moment oj external Jorces acltng on on
aggregate of parttcles about a point fixed tn an tnerhal reference (tAe point n
the development was picked as the origin merely for convenience) equals ike
moment of the momentum relative to the ineriial
time rate of change of the total
reference, this moment is taken aboiit the aforementioned point
uhere
kk e wU now show that an equation having the same form as Eq 16 29
can be written with respect to other points that are not fixed m the mertui
reference Let us, then, consider any point A moving relative to the mertui
reference A, Y, Z (Fig 16 13) and see what restrictions must be placed
on this point if wc arc properly to apply Cq 16 29 to this point The
position lector to the th particle can then be given as
n= Ta + PAi 16 30
TVe substitute for r, in Cq 10 28, using the above relation Dropping the
second expression m Eq 16 28, which we have shown to be zero, wc get
1 ou will recall thatmagnetic forces between particles are not necessarily colinear
TV e shall not consider such forces here
1
16.6
Figure 16.13
^ (rA + Pax) ^ Pi - Tt + F>X.) X P 16.31
But, from previous work we know that;
^ + PAt) X P,]
is equal to (r,! + pA,) x P, and so the above equation becomes, after we

carry out the cross products and extract ta from summations;
rA X
$=l
F. + 2pa.
\al
X F. = ta X 2
t
Pi +'pmX P, 16.32
We know from Newtons law for a system of particles, however, that;
so the first expressions on each side of the equation clearly cancel out,
leaving this equation;
n n
2
tî
PM ^F, = J2 PM ^
t=i
16.33
The left side is the total moment Ma of the forces about point A To . evalu-
ate the right side, rewrite P,- in the following manner.
Pi = m,r, = m,{rA + Pax) 16.34
Substituting into Eq. 16.33 and extracting ta from the summation sign,
we can then write, using Ma
for the left side;
X
m,pA,J ta
+ ^^PM X m,pA, 16.35
Since pA,- is the same as Fa the last term on the right-hand side becomes
2 PAt X my Ax, which you can readily demonstrate to be represented as;
(2 Pvi.xti, r )
This expression can be interpreted as the time rate of change of the total
moment about point A of the iDomcntum relative to A, as seen from the
inertial reference \YZ e call this rate 11^ The above equation becomes
16 36
term on the right side is zero the resulting equation is of the

If the first
form of Eq 16 29 There are two situations where this is possible
Case 1 If point A is the center of moss of the system then
which IS the first mass moment about A must be zero The resulting equa
tion IS then gi\ en as
Me * Ho 16 37
CaseS Let us rev. rite the expression
in the following manner using the definition of the center of mass
^
*
7nj>4( = MD 16 38
where D is the position vector from the point A to the center of nuiss of
the system as is shown in Fig 16 14 IVe now have for Eq 16 36
= MiD X r^) + Ua 16 39
If the acceleration of point 4, le o is in the same direction as D we
Figure 16 1-4
again reduce to the simple form. This means that 'point A is accelerating
toward or away from the 7nass center. We then have;
Ma = Ha 16*40
Thus besides the points fixed in the inertial reference, there are two other
kinds of non-inertial points for which Eq. 16.29 is valid. They are: the
mass center and any point accelerating toward the mass center. By far
the most useful of the two is the mass center. However, we shall examine
applications in which we use the other point in a later chapter when we
study rigid bodies that roll without slipping.
Example 1: A device consisting of a connecting bar and two bodies

which may be considered particles, each with a mass of 0.1 slug, rotates
freely about the axis AA, i.e., there is no external applied torque about
this axis (Fig. 16.15). If the masses are drawn toward the center B by a
X A X
0
Figure 16.15
screw arrangement (not shown) at a constant speed of 5 ft/sec, what must

be the angular acceleration of the connecting bar DC at the time when
the masses are 3 ft from the center? The angular speed of the bar DC at
this instant is 10 rad/scc. Neglect the masses of bar DC and shaft AA in
this calculation.
Point B is clearly the center of mass, and we can say for this point:
Me = He (a)
But there is a zero moment of the external forces about the mass center,
since the force drawing the masses together goes through the point B;
the force of gravity on the particles develops equal but opposite moments
about the center of mass, as we can readily establish by inspection, and
the weightless bar and shaft A A turn freely in frictionless bearings.
We
can then conclude that; ^
He = constant vector = 2(p x mV) (h)
Thus the moment of momentum (or angular momentum) is conserved.

The velocity of each particle relative to the mass center is:
466 METHODS OF MOMENTUM
I p4 + P (c)
Substituting into Cq (b) we get

lie 2n[p X + (0 X p)) 2m[p X X p)] (d)
Since p and u are at right angles to each other, Eq (d) becomes in

scalar form
2mfi*b> = const (e)
BifFerentiating nith respect to time, nc get
imppo + 2mp 0 (f)
SoKnngforw nchave
Substituting numerical values we write
, _2 fcSQW , 33J d/jec>
Example 2 A clockmse couple acts on the particles 4 and B fixed to

the nm of a wheel of diameter which rotatesD the plane of the paper m
(Fig 10 16) The forces F of the couple alwaj-s remain equal in magni-
tude and have a direction always tangent to the rim of the wheel Thus
the couple-moment is a constant vector having a magnitude ol ID On
spokes of the wheel two particles G and H, initially at distance d from
the center, are acted on by constant forces P radially inward Take each
of the four bodies to ha\c a mass m and neglect the mass of the wheel
S.t up the differential equation of motion of the particles G and H along
the spoke
Let us first consider the question of rotation of the wheel If we take
moments of external forces about the center of mass we have
+n X [( mw)fe X ri] + (-r)i X [( ma))fe X (-r)i] j-

(a)
where r used to position the masses along the spoke. Carrying out the
is
cross products and collecting terms, we have:
FDk =
^
(^mu 2r*mco^ k (b)
The scalar equation then becomes;
FD VI 6y 2rh7iu + irfinu (c)
We have two unknowns, r and o>, in this equation. Next let us consider
the particle H
sliding along the bar. The total force on the particle in-
cludes the radial force P and, neglecting friction, a force normal to the
spoke, which we shall call force N. We
shall now employ Newtons law,
using cylindrical coordinates and components aswelearnedinSectionll.lO.
Thus;
Ne^ Per = m(f ru)e, -f- (rd) -j- 2fcS)e^ (d)
Consequently: P = m(f ru^) (e)
Solving for w, we have:
And: (f)
2 \rvi r) \ T-m
Substituting into Eq. (c), we get:
F
FD
mi
irfm I h
\rm 9 (g)
This is the desired differential equation for r. It is clearly an extremely

complex non-linear differential equation and would have to be solved by
numerical or machine methods. Our main purpose here was to set up the
equation. The given distances d (Fig. 16.16) enter as initial conditions.
16.7 SUMMARY
One of the topics studied in this chapter was the impact of bodies
under certain restricted conditions. For such problems, we can consider

468 METHODS OF MOMENTUM S167
the bodies as particles before and after impact, but dunng impact the
bodies act as deformable media for which a particle model is not mean
mgful By making an elementary picture of the action, we introduced the

we needed to detej
coefficient of restitution to yield additional information
mine impact This is an empirical approach and it limits
velocities after
our analysis to simple problems To handle more complex problems or to
do the simple ones more precisely we would have to make a more rational
investigation of tlic deformation actions taking place during impact
that a continuum approach to part of the problem would be required

IS,
This chapter, therefore appropriately marks the end of our formal stud
les of particle dynamics From now on, we shall study the motion of con
tinuous media In particular, we shall examine the motion of rigid bodies
and then conclude with a chapter on simple deformable systems Unfor
tunately,we will not he able to return to the impact problem for a more
rigorous study, since the subject of high speed deformations of solids is a
difficult one thatunder intense analysis by engineers and physicists
is still
In statics, wo learned
that all continuous media have stress distributions
In the following chapter, wc shall study another tensor quantity that is
associated wth contmua, the inertia tensor, which, we shall see, gives
information about the disposition of mass relative to a reference This
information is vital in studying the motion of rigid bodies
PROBLEMS
1 A body neighing 100 lb reaches an incline of 30" uhileit is moving at SO ft/sec
(Fig 1017) If the coefficient of friction 13 0 3 how long is It before the body
stops
Figure 16 17
2 A particle of mass one slug is initially stationary at the origin of a reference

A force having a known variation with time acts on the particle That is
1(1) = (t*)i + ( + IO)j + I Ot'k
After 10 see wlut is the velocity of the body

3 A unidirectional force acting on a particle of mass one slug is plotted la Fig
16 18 TVhat is the velocity of the particle at 40 sec? Initially the particle is
at rest
4 A body 13 dropped from rest (a) Determine the time required for it to acquire
a velocity of 50 ft/scc (b) Determine the time needed to increase its velocity
from SO to 70 ft/sec
5 A commuter tram made up of 2 cars a
moving at a speed of 50 mi/hr The
Brst car weighs 20 tons and the eecond 15 tons (a) If the brakes are applied
Figure 16.18
simultaneously to both care, determine the minimum time the cars travel
before stopping. Take the coefficient of friction to be 0.3 between wheels and
rail, (b) If the brakes on the first car only are applied, determine the time
the cars travel before stopping and the force transmitted between the cars.
6. From fluid mechanics we know that for small velocities the drag on a small
sphere moving through a fluid is;
D= OirtiRV
where D is the drag
, Ai is the coefficient of viscositj'
R is the radius of the sphere
V is the velocity of the sphere
If a sphere of weight IF is dropped in a fluid, it will approach a constant veloc-

ity called the terminal velocity, (a) What is this velocity? (b) How long will
it take to reach one-half the terminal velocity?
7. A hockey puck moves at 30 ft/sec from goal A to 5 in Fig. 16.19. It is inter-
cepted by a player who whisks it at 80 ft/sec toward goal A, as shown. The
puck is also rising from the ice at a rate of 10 ft/sec. What is the impulse on
8.
the puck, whose weight is 5 oz?
0
30 ft/sec
*^0 ft/sec
w
-
mm 1
I 1
A plunger is down a pipe from a position of rest (Fig. 16.20).

allowed to slide
The annular region between the plunger and pipe is lubricated by a fluid hav-
ing a viscosity p = 0.020 lb sec/ft. The diameter D
= 6 in., e = 0.02 in.,
and the plunger weighs 100 lb. (a) Determine the terminal velocity and the
time required to reach one-half the terminal velocity, (b) What is the impulse
on the pipe during this time? (c) What distance does it drop before reaching
half the terminal velocity?
9 In Fig 16 21 compute the velocity of the bodies after 10 sec if they start from
rest The cable is inextensibJe and the pullej s are fnctionlcss
10 Neglecting friction and the inertia of the pullejs determine the velocity of
body A and body B after 3 sec if the fi>8tem m
Fig 16 22 is released from rest
W, An anti tank airplane hres trro 20 lb projectiles at a tank The muzzle velocity
of the guns is 3000 tt/sec relative to the plane If the plane vieighs 15000 Ib
and IS moving with a velocity of 200 mi/hr, compute the change in its speed
"when it fires the two projectiles
12 A torpedo boat weighing 100 000 lb moves at 40 knots (I knot 60S0 ft/hr)
away from an engagement To go even faster all four 50-cahber machine guns
are ordered to fire simultaneously toward the rear Each weapon fires at a
muzzle velocity of 3000 ft/sec and fires 3000 rounds per minute Each slug
weighs 2 oz How much is the average force on the boat increased by this
action? Neglect rate of cliange of total mass of boat
13 A young mama standing in a canoe awaiting a young lady (Fig 1623) The
man weighs 200 Ib and is at the far end of the canoe which also weighs 200 lb
Wien the young lady appears he scrambles fonvard to greet her but when
he has moved tlic 20 ft to the forward end of the canoe to his surprise he finds
that he cannot reach her. How far is the tip of the canoe from the dock when
our gallant has made the 20-ft dash? The canoe is in no way tied to the pier,
and there are no currents in the water.
li. A 2000-lb cannon with recoil spring K = 200 Ib/ft fires a 10-lb projectile with
15. a muzzle velocity of 2000 ft/sec at an angle of 50 (Fig. 16.24). Assuming the
recoil velocity of the cannon is instantaneously achieved, determine the maxi-
mum compression of the spring.
In Fig. 16.25, if the coefficient of restitution is 0.8, what are the maximum
angles from the vertical that bodies will reach after the first impact? Neglect
the mass of the cable.
Figure 16.25
16. Assuming that the spheres in the above problem always move in the plane of
the paper, determine the maximum elevations of the bodies after the second
impact.
17. A ball is thrown against a wall at an angle of 60 with a speed at impact of
50 ft/sec (Fig. 16.26). What is the angle of rebound, a, if e = 0.7?
10 lb
'
i 51b
IK=10lb/in
Figure 16.27
18. In Fig. 16.27, assume a perfectlyplastic impact as the 10-lb body falls from
a height of 8 onto a plate of weight 5 lb. This plate is mounted on a spring
ft
haA'ing a spring constant of 10 Ib/in. Neglecting the mass of the spring and
friction, compute the maximum deflection of the spring after impact.
19. Several identical spheres B, C, and D lie along a straight line on a frictionlcss
surface. Body A, which is identical to the others, moves at a speed of Fa in
a direction colinear with the centers of the spheres, (a) For perfectly elastic
collisions, what are the final velocities of the bodies? (b) What is
the final
velocity of sphere D if e = 0.80 for all spheres and V a 50 ft/sec? (c) Set
20. up a formula for the velocity of additional identical billiard balls placed after
Z) for < > 0 80 and =* SO ft/sec
A body etnkes the xy plane in Rg IG 23 at a comer of smooth surfaces at

r * 3i -f 7^ ft It has a velocity !'= lOi 10/ 151. ft/sec The coeffi
dent of restitution is OS determine the Gnal velocity after it bounds ofi
the xy, yt, and xt planes once Neglect gravity
Figure 16 28
21. In the above problem, dotemune where the body strikes the yz and sz planes
22. In problem 18, if 0 8 for the I0*lb weight and plate determine the speed
of both bodies 0 05 seconds after impact

23. A chain of wrought iron with a length of 20 ft and a wciglit of 200 lb is held
EO that It just touches the support Ali (Fig 16 20) If the chain is released,
determine tho total impulse during 2 seconds in the vertical direction expert'
enced by the support if the impact is plastic and if we move the support so
that the links land on the platform ond not on each other
Fifiurc 16 30
21 In Fig 16 30, a particle rotates at 30 rad/sec along a fnctionless surface, at a

distance 2 ft from the center A
flenble cord restrains the particle If this cord
IS pulled so that the particle moves inward at a velocity of 5 ft/sec, what is
the magmtude of the total vdoatj when the particle is I ft from the center?
23. Two masses slide along bar AB at a constant speed of S ft/sec (Fig 1631)
Bar AB rotates freely about axis CD Coiîdenng only the mass of the sliding
bodies, determine the angular acceleration of AB when the bodies are 5 ft
from CD if the angular velocity at that instant is 10 rad/sec.
26. In Fig. 16.32, a set of particles, each having a mass of one-half slug, rotates
about axis A A. The masses are moving out radially at a constant speed of
5 ft/sec at the same time that they are rotating about the AA axis. When
they are 1 ft from A A, the angular velocity is 6 rad/sec and at that instant a
torque is applied in the direction of motion which varies with time as;
torque = (6<- -f 10/) Ib-ft
What is when the masses have moved out radially to 2 ft?

the angular velocity
27. In Fig. 16.33, two sets of particles a,b and c,d (each particle of mass m) are
moving along two shafts AB and CD, which are in turn rigidly attached to a
crossbar EF. All particles are moving at a constant speed 7i away from EF,
and their positions at the moment of interest are as shown. The system is
rotating about G, and a constant torque of magnitude T is acting in the plane
Figure 16.33
An METHODS OF MOMENTUM
of the ajstom Assurmag that all masses other than the concentrated masses
are negligible, and that the angular velocity of the sistem at the instant of
discussion IS w, determine the instantaneous angular acceleration in terms of
m, T, u, Si, and St
The Inertia Tensor
17.1 INTRODUCTION
In Chapter 9 we found that the two-dimensional

plane stress components transform at a point in the same
way as do the secondmoments and the products of inertia
of a plane area. In other words, the inherent similarity
of these quantities lies in the manner in which their com-
ponents change as the reference, relative to which the com-
ponents are measured, is rotated about a point. We will
475
476 THE INERTIA TENSOR 5172
show in this chapter that the second moments and products of inertia
(which describe m
a certain way the disposition of area rclati\e to a refer-
ence in the ptane of the area) are special cases of the inertia tensor (which
describes m a certain
way the disposition of mass relative to a three dimen-
sional reference)Thus there is clearly a rel ition between the stress com
ponents and the inertia components based on the way the quantities
transform at a point for a rotation of axes and it is for this reason that
ne identify them as tensor quantities In this chapter, ne shall develop
the transformation that distinguishes tensor quantitica, and we shall intro-
duce a powerful notation called tensor notation Any general conclusions
ne make for the inertia tensor will be valid for the stress tensor
We shall need an understanding of the inertia tensor, since it will appear
in the evaluation of H, which, when related to ilf becomes one of the
fundamental equations of ngid body djuamics
17 2 Fonwiat definition of ihertia quantities
We shall now formally put forth a et of quantities that give ui

formation about the distribution of mass of a rigid body rclatiie to an
orthogonal reference A rigid body and a reference arc presented Fig m
17 I This reference and the body may have any motion nhateier relative
to each other The ensuing discussion then holds for the instantaneous
orientation hown at time i The particles compo'îng the rigid body in the
discussion have a mass gii en by p de, where p is the mass density and dv
IS the element of volume We define the inas:> inertia components of the
bodj M
about the reference xtjz at time t m the following manner
= (y' -h 2^)pdv (a) /. =* xijpdv (iH

jfj^
= (-r* + z')p dv (b) / = xzp dv (e) 17 1

jff^
= ///,
(a:* + j/*)p di? (e) / = yjj, I/P df' (0
17.3 THE INERTIA TENSOR 477
The terms Ixx, the above set are called the mass moments of
hu, and Izz in
inertia of the body about the x, y, and z axes, respectively. Note that in
each such case, we are in effect integrating the mass elements, p dv, times
the 'perpendicular distance squared from the corresponding axis. Each of the
terms with mixed indices is called the mass product of inertia about the pair
of a.xes given by the indices. It is clear from the definition of the product
of inertia that we could reverse indices and thereby form a total of nine
.such quantities for a reference; the additional three quantities formed in
this way, however, are equal to the original set. Thus;
I zy ~ I yx ^ xz ~ i ZX J ys " ^ zy 17.2
The set of six independent quantities will, for a given body, depend on the
position and inclination of the reference. You should also understand that
the reference may be established anywhere in space and need not be situ-
ated in the rigid body of interest.
There an important invariance, which we mentioned in Chapter 9 but
is
did not prove for the stress components at a point, that we can now easily
demonstrate for the inertia components. We shall show that the sum of the
mass moments of inertia for a set of orthogonal axes is independent of the
orientation of the axes, and depends only on the position of the origin.
Examine the sum of such a set of terms:
Lx + lyy + Izz = + z^)pdv+Jj + z^)pdv+fl (x + y2)p dv

Combining the integrals and rearranging, we get:
Lx -h lyy + / = jj 2(x* -h if- + z^)p dv = 2lrl-p dv 17.3
But the position vector from the origin to a particle is independent of the
inclination of the reference at that point. Thus the sum of the moments of
inertia at a point in space for a given body clearly is an invariant. This sum
may then be considered to form a scalar field in space and to correspond
to the bulk stress associated with a stress field for elastic bodies or to the
pressure field associated with fluids.
17.3 TRANSFORMATION PROPERTIES OF THE INERTIA TERMS
Let us assume that the six inertia terms are known for a given
reference. What must be the mass moment of inertia for
axis going some
through the origin of the reference and having the direction cosines I,
m,
and n relative to the axes of the reference? This axis is designated
as kk
in Pig. 17.2. From previous conclusions, we can say:
Lk = Irp (sin )=p dv 17.4

478 THE INERTIA TENSOR 817 3
where t is the angle between Vc and r Now jr'j = z* + 4* and sin e
may be put into more useful form by considering the right triangle formed
by the position vector r and Lk shown in Fig 17 3 The side a of the tri-
angle has a magnitude that can be given by the dot product of r ond the
unit vector along kk, denoted as *. Thus:
a * r * (if -f 57 + zk) + (ft + nk) 17.S
Hence: o fi + my + ni
Using the Pythagorean theorem, we can now give side 6 as:
6* Iri* - a* = (i* + y* + z*)

(Pi* + m*y* + n** -f 2lmxy -h 2far2 -f- 2mnys) IT.6
Thus the sm* may be given as:
h
sm* * pi
^ (g* + 7/* -f g*) (Pi* + m*y* -f n*z* 4- 2fmry -b 2fftiz -f 2mnyg)

(*'*4y*4-2*)
17.7
Substituting back into Eq. 17.4, we get:
Ilk = tCi* 4* y* 4- 2*) (Pi* 4- m*;/* 4- n*i*
4- 2lmxy -h 2/nxi -f- 2mn}jz)'\p do
Since P 4* m* 4 n* <= 1, we can muUipIy the first bracketed expression in

the integral by this sum:
/u -///,, tfr +>J + :KP + ' + n)

(1*1* 4 m*y 4 n*2* 4 2lmzy 4 2lnxz 4 2mnyz)']pdv
Carrying out the multiplication and collecting terms, we get the relation:
iy' + 2)p dv + 1
+ z)p dv + n^J^ {x + y'^)p dv
2lm {xy)p dv 2ln (xz)p dv 2mn {yz)p dv

///. ///v ///v
Keferring back to the definitions presented by relations 17.1, we reach the

desired transformation equation:
17.8
Note that if we replace Ixu, /, and lut wth shear stresses Tiv, r,
and Ty,, respectively, and replace /, Jyy, and 7 with tr**, ffyy, and <r,
respectively, the above equation
becomes identical to the transfor-
mation Eq. 9.2 for normal stress
that we developed in statics.
Let us next compute the prod-
uct of inertia for a pair of mutu-
ally perpendicular axes, kq, as
shown in Fig. 17.4, The direction
cosines of k we will take as I, m,
and n, while the direction cosines
'
of q we will take as V, m', and n\ x
Since the axes are at right angles
to each other, it must be the case
that;
e* Cj = 0 Figure 17.4
W + mm' -f- rm' = 0 17,9
Noting that the coordinates of the mass element p dv along the axes k and
g are r e* and r e respectively, we have for 7*,:

hq = (r e/i)(r e,)p dv 17.10
Using the components in the xyz directions, we have:
[v + nk)]
[(xi + yj -1- zk) (I'i -f 7Ti'j + n'k)]p dv 17.11
Carrying out the dot products in the above integrand, we get the follow-
ing result;
Ikq = llh (xl 4- 7jm 4- zn)(xl' 4- ym' 4- zn')p dv

480 THE JNERUA TENSOR 117 3
Hence
/*, {x*lV + y*nim' + z*nn' + xylm' 4* izfn' + yimV

+ yzmn^ + zmV + zynm)p dv 17 12
Noting from Eq 17 9 that (W' + mm' + nn')

is zero, \\c may for
con-
venience add the term, ( x* y" z*)(U' + mm' -f nn), to the inte-
grand m
the above equation After canceHmg some terms we have
{x^mm zHn' yVt i/*nn' zVl' z^mm*
+ xylm' + xzln' + yxmV + yzmn' + zxnV + zijnm')p dv 17 13
Collecting terms and bringing the various direction cosines outside the
integration, we get
- 1' (y' + IlorfK + (/m' + mV) xyp di

///,
+ (In + nV) xtpdi + (mn + nm') yxpdv 17 11
Noting the definitions m Eq 1 1, nc can stoic the desired transformition
7i, W7 mm1 nn*J + Qm' + mV)I,
4- {In' + nl)l + (mn' -f

Thus wc see from Eqs 17 8 and 17 15 thot if wc know the six inertia com-
ponents at a point for an orthogonal reference, wo can, by using these
transformation formulae, compute moments and products of inertia for
any reference at the point Again, by replacing the negative of the products
of inertia (i c / etc ) bj the corresponding shear stresses and the mo-
,
ments of inertia b> the coiresponding normal stresses the above equation
becomes identical to the transformation equation for shear stress Thus
the nrmj of terms
transforms at a point exactly as do the stress terms, and so it is this ar-

rangement of terms that Ls considered to be the inertia tensor In the next
section, using tensor notation wc liall present the transformation equation
to identifj second order tensor quantities
17.4 tensor NOTATION FOR TRANSFORMATIONS
We shall utilize a more compact notation that is almost univer-

sally used in defining the transformation relations at a point characterizing
tensor quantities. Instead of using I, m, and n as the direction cosines of
any line k going through the origin of the xyz reference, we shall simply
use the letter o with two subscripts. The first subscript identifies the line
itself (in this case k), and the second subscript identifies the axis of the
reference. Thus for line k, we have;
I = akz m= atu n = 17.17
Equation 17.8 then can be given as:
Ikk ~ O-kxlxx d 0,ki/îiv d (i.kilxx
d" ^0>kxO>Ku(^ ^xy) d Ô.kxQkx(^ ^ d ^^kzO^kui. ^tv) 17.18
This equation can then be written in the following compact form:
^kk ^ ] (^kiP'kj^ \i 17.19

1
where iand j are summed over x, y, and z, respectively; Avhen i 5^ j, we

must inserta minus sign for 7,7 Carry out this operation yourself to make
.
sure you fully grasp the notation, which you will see quite frequently in
more advanced courses.
If the k axis is that of an x' axis of a new reference, we would replace k
by x'. A direction cosine such as a^-x is, then, the direction cosine between
this x' axis and the x axis. Similarly, for a y' axis, we would replace k by
y' etc. The term a>z would then represent the direction cosine between
the y' axis and the z axis. Thus, knowing the direction cosines, we can
compute the various moments of inertia for the axes of a new reference
by using Eq. 17.19 in the folloAving forms:
I X'X' ^ ^ Ox'iar ';/ tj

}
ly'y' = ^ ^ \ ] Oy'tOy'Jij
} t
Iz't' ~ ^ ] Ctr'iar'j7,y 17.20

J
In a similar manner, Eq. 17,15 can first be given as: ''
^kx^qxJ XX d (^ky^qy^ vy d ^kzO^qzJ zz d is^kx^qy d f^ky(^qx')(^ 7*y)
d {P'kxdqZ d ^kzf^qî^ 7xr) d (ô^kydqz d" ^kz^^qjî. ^ y^ 17.21

and, using summation symbols as before, we can write:
1! k and q are the x' and y' axes we need only replace A. by z* and q by y
Thus for a new reference x'yV at the point of consideration, we have for
the products of inertia
= EZI-
EE*'- i
ActuaUy, Eqs 17 20 and 17 23 give the moments and products o! inertia

for the new reference xy'z' in terms of the moments and products of inertia
for reference ryt and the direction coswiea between the various axes of the
two reference systems IVe can simplify further by using notation that
will represent all siv of these equations If in Eq 17 22 we let A and q
assume every combination of a:' y', z', wo see that all possible inertia
terms for the x'yV reference are represented and, remembering to use
minus signs for inertia terms with mixed indices, we can then express all
8K Eqs 17 20 and 17 23 as
17 21
Second order tensor quantities must satisfy transformation equations of this
form Higher order tensors, which we will not discuss, are quantities that
transform in the following way
The addition takes place oxer s3Tnbol3 t,j and s, which are called dummy
indices Notice that they appear tviice m
the above equations We can
makd, a further simplification by agreeing to sum over any repeated set of
indices The above equations then become
I%t - OHasjfti
hpp = Okihjaul,,, (b) 26
For more'^Îaborate studies beyond the lex el of this course you would
learn tensor algebra and tensor calculus, which are generalizations of the
vector algebra and vector calculiw introduced this course m
17,5 THE INERTIA ELLIPSOID AND PRINCIPAL MOMENTS OF INERTIA
Equation 17.8 gives the moment of inertia of a body about an

axis k in terms of the direction cosines of that axis relative to an orthogonal
reference with an origin 0 on the axis, and in terms of six inertia quantities
for this reference. We wish to explore the nature of the variation of hi. at
a point 0 in space (Fig. 17.5).
To do this we will employ a geo-
metric representation of ineitia
at a point that is developed in
the following manner. Along the
axis kk we lay off as a distance the
quantity OA given by the relation:
OA = :> y
^lu/M
d
- = 17,27
where d is any arbitrary constant

that has a dimension of length
that will render OA dimensionless,
as the reader may himself verify. Figure 17.5
The term is called the
radivs of gyration and is a general-
ization of the radius of gyration for areas studied in statics. To avoid con-
fusion, this operation is shown inanother diagram (Fig. 17.6), where the
new r\,
f axes are -parallel to the x, y, z axes of the physical diagram.
For all possible directions of kk, some surface will be formed about the
point O' and this surface is body through Eq.
related to the shape of the
17.8. We can express the equation of this surface quite readily. Suppose
Figure 17.6 '
7
A
THE INERTIA TENSOR 517 5
^\ccan {, v, t the coordinatca of point A. Since O' is parallel to the
hne kk and thus lias the direction cosmos I, m, and n that are associated
v.ith this Imc, ue can saj
o'/i tiVy/it,
O'A d'JMIh,
'< d\/SI/Iu
Now replace the direction cosines in Kq 17 8, ii-iiig the above relations
M<rjlL
fn + MiP/Iu
Wc can cc that / cancels out of the prccwlmg ciiuation, leaving an

equation involving the coordinates E, n. and f of the geometrical surface
and the inertia terms of the bod> itelf Ucirringing the terms, we then
have
r ,
. , r X . glf
17 30
Considering analytic gconittr), nc know (lut the surface is tiiat of an

ellipsoid, and it is thus called the eUipsmd oj tnerlia ^\ e can conclude that
the inertia tensor for any point of a body can be rcpreîntcd gcometncally
by such a second order surface, and tins surface maj be thought of as
atvalogovis. to the arrow used to represent a \ector graphveaUy For a given
value of d, the size, shape, and incUnation of the ellipsoid will vary for each
point m space for a given body Since all second order tensors may be rep-
resented by ellipsoidal surfaces, you will, if you study elasticity, al&o
encounter the ellipsoids of stress and strum
An ellipsoid has three orthogonal arcs of symmetry, which have a com-
mon point at the center, O' In the diagram, these are showm as O' 0'2 I
ind 0'3 It has been pointed out that the shape and inclination of the
ellipsoid of inertiadepend on the mass distribution of the body about the
origin of the xyz reference, and they have nothing to do with the choice of
Ike onenlahon o/ the xyz (and hence, the fvf) reference at the point We can
therefore imagine that the xyz reference (and hence the Etj? reference) can
be chosen so has directions that coincide with the aforementioned sym-

it
metric axes, O'l, 0'2, and 0'3. If we call such references x'y'z' and
respectively, we know from analytic geometry that Eq. 17.30 becomes:
aoi, ^ ,
(V)i -^ .
- 17.31
MdV/x-x'
where i?', and f' are the coordinates of the ellipsoidal surface relative to
the new and Jx-*-, I^'v', and
reference, are mass moments of inertia
of the body about the new axes. We can now draw several important con-
clusions from this geometrical construction and the accompanying equa-
tions. One of the above symmetrical axes of the ellipsoid is the longest dis-
tance from the origin to the surface of the ellipsoid, and another axis is
the smallest distance from the origin to the ellipsoidal surface. Examining
the definition in Eq. 17.27, we must conclude that the minimum moment
of inertia for the point 0 must correspond to the axis for the maximum
length, and the maximum moment of inertia must correspond to the axis
for minimum length. The third axis has some intermediate value that makes
the sum of the moment of inertia terms equal the sum of the moment of
inertia terms for all orthogonal axes at point 0, in accordance with Eq.
17.3. In addition, Eq. 17.31 leads us to conclude that = ly't' = Ixu'
= 0. That is, the products of inertia of the mass about these axes must be
zero. You probably have already realized that these axes are the principal
axes of inertia at the point 0.
Since the preceding operations could be carried out at any point in space
for the body, we can conclude that at each point there is a set of principal
axes having the extreme values of moments of inertia for that point and having
zero products of inertia. The orientation of these axes mil vary continuously
from point to point throughout space for the given body.
All second-order tensor quantities have the properties discussed above
for the inertia tensor. By transforming from the original reference to the
principal reference, we change the inertia tensor representation from:
/ J xy -/xA 0
1 H I yy -ivA to 0 ly'v
I 0 )
I XU ij \0 0
In mathematical parlance, we have diagonalized the tensor by the pre-

ceding operations.
17.6 COMPUTATION OF PRINCIPAL MOMENTS OF INERTIA
Assume that a set of inertia terms is known for a reference xyz

some body. How do we ascertain the principal mo-
at a point in space for
ments of inertia? In doing this, we must first find the direction cosines
of each principal a'cis relative to the given reference This mvolv es mac
unknoivn quantities The three principal inertia terms then bring the num-
ber of unkno^\Tis to twelve We therefore require tweh e independent equa-
tions for the solutions Let us wc the notation of Section 17 4 for this
purpose Each unit vector for the principal axes x't/z* may be expressed
in terms of the desired direction cosines relative to the axes ar, y, and z
' = o* -h Ox o* /L+
= 0 *1 4- Oy yj d- Oy ,k 17 S3
fj ~ a* i + a, yj + u
The unit vectors satisfy the relations,*' l,j' l,andL'
*' = 1, j = fe'
and because of the orthogonality condition they have the further relations,
' j' *=
0, i' A' = 0, and j' K = 0 Carrying these steps out using the
formulations of Eq 17 33, ue get six of the necessary equations
ot, + aV, + al, 1 (8)
uJ-j + U* + *t <J* * = 1 (b)
ah 4- ah + o?., e 1 (c)
a, tOy t + Ot ifiy y a, ,0, , 0 (d)
Uf * 4- a* 4- a. 0 Cel
*0* * 4- a, , 4- o, iCi *0 (0
To find the remaining equations, we use Eq 17 24
^^ a* flr 17 35
where combinations of k and g that represent x', y', and a', we sum
for all
t and J over the indices x, y, and z All terms 7,/ are known, and since we
are computing the principal inertia expressions, we set It, = 0 when

k ^ q, that is, we !et all products of inertia equal to zero in the new
Têrence Tb giaes us the additional six equations necessary to solve
the problem
You wiU probably shudder at the prospect of carrying out such a compu-
tation Actually, there are elegant ways of proceeding which make use of
the notations and concepts we have already presented In matrix algebra,
methods for the handling of an array of nine or more quantities, such as the
inertia tensor components 7<, or the set of direction cosines a,/, are de-
\ eloped through methods that are analogous to the methods of handling
the three scalar components of a vector quantity we employed in statics
And there are graphical methods such as the three-dimensional Mohrs
Circle that we can also use in such computations
Fortunately, in many problems of practical interest the body has two
orthogonal planes of symmetry that is, planes in which the configuration

on one side is the mirror image of the configuration on the other side. The
intersection of these planes, then, is an axis of symmetry for the whole
body, as shown in Fig. 17.7,
is where the z axis coincides with this line.
Axes X and y have been placed in the
planes of symmetry, and four quad-
rants are formed by the symmetric z
planes. For each element of mass, such
as m, the mirror image of the particle
is on the other side of the plane and
has the same z but a negative value

of X. If the mass density is homo-
geneous, the contribution of this pair
of elements to the product of inertia
is zero. Since the entire mass can be
considered as a such
distribution of
pairs of particles, it becomes apparent
that I 0. Similarly, we can show
that Jvi = Iii, 0. Thm the axis of
symmetry and the two axes in the syrn- Figure 17.7
metric planes are principal axes for

points along the axis of symmetry.
If the shape of the body is that of a body of revolution, all planes through
the axis of symmetry are symmetric planes, and the axis of symmetry and
any pair of mutually perpendicular axes at right angles to the axis of sym-
metry form the principal axes for their common origin.
17.7 TRANSLATION OF COORDINATE AXES
We have investigated in the previous section the variation of in-

ertia quantities when the origin is kept
caused by the rotation of the axes,
the same. In this section, we will compute inertia quantities for a reference
xyz that is displaced under a translation from a reference x'y'z' at the center
of mass, for which the inertia terms are presumed known (Fig. 17.8).
Let us first compute the moment of inertia Noting that = xd -t-
yej + Zck, we can formulate I in the following way:
^ fffv ^ Iljv
Carrying out the squares and rearranging, we have:
[y
(4 + i/c)p dv + 2 Xcx'p dv-\-2 y^y'p dv
+ jjjy + y'-)p dv 17.37

the inertia tensor
1177
Hgure 17 8
Note that the quantities

heanne the snl.^ ,
era ion and may
be extracted from
under the inteâlC
Th'ns
;r.:irTvaru^raa'TI
ongin of the primed >''> That the
rofereneetheceter I?'
!!!v'dm . /;;,.<( . Wit' dm -

preasion and ne '"P
rccoginro th
desired formula '''Pfession to be
is /. , Thus the
remember^t7tllT â^^w the e and e axes You

may
un generalize
from the aboie het
ody about an> slntemTnt
axis equals "lonient of inertia of some
the mnm
parallel axis that mert.a of the body about
goes a
the perpendicular
distance betne^n ihl
tion can be
reached For/,, forexample**i'i!!fj^'^^^
*y / , +-^Tx,yr~|
Ij
jj
from the
"mibrnnÊquMiom,
Paralld-Qxta theorems
of simple
\ ou can imo
familiar shapes
V '^'"Pnse the well
aJ'antage for bodies composed
known
17 8 THE IHERTIA TENSOR 489
17 8 THE RELATION OF MASS INERTIA TERMS

TO AREA INERTIA TERMS
As \Ye pointed out in statics, and as may be apparent from the

previous sections,we can derive the second moment and the 'product of inertia
of areas from the mass inertia tensor in such a manner as to retain the
essential transformational properties, which gives rise to the principal sec-
ond moment of inertia for areas, etc.
To do this, consider a plate of constant thickness i and uniform density p
(Fig. 17.9). A reference is picked so that the xy plane is one of the faces
Figure 17.9
of this plate. The components of the inertia tensor are rewritten for con-
venience;
= p JJ[y
+ 2^) dv hv = P
f[Jy
xy dv
= P
Jlfy
('C* + 2*) dv hz = P jfjyXz dv 17.41
fv
hz = P IjjyV^ *
Now let us decrease t without limit and at the same time increase p without
limit. The on the rate at which
limiting value of the product pt depends
t-> 0 and p 00 we shall imagine here that the limit is approached
; so
that this product becomes unity. The maximum value of z in the above

equations is t, so that as < > 0 then z -^0. Next, replacing p dv by pt dA
and observing the results of the above limiting process, we get:
^
= xy dA
-!h y" dA (a) /xy (d)
= dA (b) / = 0 (e)
//.
= //.
(x= -t- 7f) dA (c) lyz = 0 (f)
Clearly, Eq (c) is not an independent quantity but the sum Eqs (a)
of
and (b) It is the polar moment of inertia of the area as described in Chap-
ter 8 We thus have the independent quantities // y*dA, // x*d4, and
//ly d t, which are the second moments and products of inertia of the
area of the face of the slab We have succeeded, therefore, in deriving the
familiar area quantities from the inertia tensor This explains why the two-
dimensional stress relations considered in Chapter 9 behave in the same
manner as the area momenta and product of inertia They are each derived
from a three-dimensional second-order tensor
X! P SUMMARY
If quantities transform (i e , change values when the reference is
changed) in the same way, we may find certain common features of the
quantities which are useful and physically meaningful In this chapter,
ne have presented the inertia terms, and, by taking the negatives of cer-
tain of these quantities, we have shown that they transform, by a rotation
of reference, m exactly the same way that the stress terms do We next
presented this transformation equation in tensor notation and defined
tensor quantities as those which satisfy such a transformation equation
Some of the useful common properties of tensor quantities that we then
Set forth are as follows
1 The sum of the diagonal terms of the tensor (called the trace) is
constant at a point for all orientations of the reference This gives

nse to such physically meaningful quantities as pressure (in Quid
dynamics) and bulk stress (m elasticity)
2 While a vector can be represented graphically at a point by a directed
Ime segment, a second-order tensor is representable at a point by an
ellipsoidal surface
3 There are three mutually orthogonal directions at a point for which
the non-diagonal terras of the tensor (shear stress, products of inertia,
etc ) are zero, and the diagonal terms have their extreme values along
two of these directions These are the principal axes at the point
There are other properties that we shall not discus in this text As you
proceed m your studies of strength of materials and fluid mechanics, you
will dev elop an increasingly stronger physical feel for many of the seemingly
abstract concepts presented in this chapter Meanwhile, you mil find the
inertia terms appearing continually as we study the motion of a rigid body
in the naxt chapter
THE INERTIA TENSOR 491
1.
PROBLEMS
Compute hi, hv> hz, and hv for the homogeneous rectangular parallelepiped
in Fig. 17.10.
2. Shown in Fig. 17.11 is a uniform homogeneous slender rod of mass M. Compute

hi and /I'j'.
3. Find and hz for the homogeneous right circular cylinder of mass M in
Fig. 17.12.
4. Compute 7 for the homogeneous sphere of radius r and mass M

in Fig. 17.13.
5. Compute hz for the homogeneous right circular cone in Fig. 17.14.
6. Compute hv for the thin homogeneous hoop of mass M
in Fig. 17.15.
492 THE INERTIA TENSOR
7. In problem I, the following data apply 6in,6 =a = 20in and 8m,Z

the mass M
== 20 Ibm Compute the mass moment of inertia about a mam
diagonal of the block, using the results of the computations of problem I for
this problem
8. Using the data of problem 7, compute the product of inertia about xy when /
at an angle of 30 to y and normal to x Use formulations from problem 1
IS
9. The following array of numbers is a 3 X 3 matrix representing all the direc-

tion cosines between tno sets of orthogonal axes xyz and x''^^ The position
of the number m
the matrix gives the subscripts to the term Thus the partic-
ular row gives the first sub^ript, while the particular column gives the second
subscript If the subscript refers to the sequence x, y, r, and the second sub-
first
script refers to the sequence (a) what is the direction cosine between the
y and z' axes (b) what is the direction cosine between the z and x' axes
(c) TVhal relation roust each row satisfy ?
10. In a matrix representing direction cosines lor two sets of orthogonal axes
such as the one given m problem 9, why must the inner product between col-
umns be lero That is, Z)5 -b OU - 0, AC
+ DF -k- OJ 0, and
BC + -h /// - 0
11. By expanding Eq 17 24. show how we may arrive at Eqs 17 8 and 17 15
12. From the transformation Eq 17 24, which is \alid for oil second order tensors,
develop Eq d 2 for normal stress at a point
13. In Fig 17 16, give the matrix of direction cosines between the xyz and *Vs'
axes
figure 17.16
14. If in the above problem we have the follownng stresses
= 1000 psi T = 500 pai

Cft = 1000 psi T = 1000 psi
<r 0 pa Tg, = 800 pm
compute T* , by using the general tensor transformation 17.24
15, Show that if the z axis at a pomi is a prmapal axis, then / = /., => 0 for all
positions of the x and y axes at the pomt (Examme the compulation of /,, or
using data from a reference z, Xi, yu where Xi and yi as well as 2 , arc prin-
16. J,y,
cipal axes at the point.)
In the development of the inertia ellipsoid, what is the effect of the arbitrary
constant d in our results?
Figure 17.17
17. What is the only case where a homogeneous body will have the same shape and
orientation as the ellipsoid of inertia for some point in the body?
18. In problem 30 of Chapter you were asked to prove certain relations for
8,
principal moments As was pointed out at that time,
of inertia for plane areas.
two-dimensional stresses have the same relations as moments of inertia for
areas, and so we rewrite the relations of the aforementioned problems in the
following way for stresses:
. . _ ffix ri* O'vv

, // (^xx I 2
(ir)mai ~ 2 ^ \\ 2 J
<
/ \ (Tyi, -E CTxz // Vxx , 2

2 \\ 2 /
'
For given (intiSiF. Cxx 1| Tiy Ij COmputrO ((rnn^max mid. (onn}min*

Next, simplify the general formulations for principal terms, 17.34 and 17.35,
to apply to the two-dimensional stress case. Develop expressions for the prin-
cipal stresses in terms of (Th, and Tiy from these equations. Compute the
principal stresses for the above data.
19. In Fig. 17.18, what are the moments and products of inertia for the zyz axes?
Use formulae in appendix when possible.
Figure 17.18
X- y
M
494 THE INERTIA TENSOR
20 In Fig 1719 compute and for the nght circular cylinder which weighs
1001b and the square rod which weighs 20 lb when the two are joined together
so that the rod is radial to the cylinder
21 Find the moment of inertia about the nterline m Fig 17 20 The specific
weight of the material (steel) n 490 Ib/ft* What is the radius of gyration?
He-5
22
Fl^rel7 19 Figure 17 20
Compute the moments and products of inertia for the xj axes as shown in
Fig 17 21 The specific weight 18 490 Ib/ft* throughout
Figure 17.21
23. Determine + / as a function of x, y, and s for all points in space

(Fig. 17.22). Note that xyz has its origin at the center of mass and is parallel
to the sides.
X
Figure 17.22
Eulers Equations
of Motion
181 INTRODUCTION
In kinematics e learned that the motion of a
rigid body at any time ( can be considered to be a super
position of a translation and a rotation The translation
niaj be taken as the actual instantaneous velocity of some
point of the body, and the angular velocity of the rota-
tion, , then has a bne of action through the chosen point
A convenient point is of course, the center of mass of the
496
18.2 EULERS EQUATIONS OF MOTION 497
rigid body. The translatory motion can then be found from particle dy-
namics. You will recall that the motion of the center of mass of any
aggregate of particles (this includes a rigid body) is related to the total
external force by the relation;
F Mlf'c .
18.1
where M is the total mass of the aggregate. Integrating this equation, we

get the motion of the center of mass. To ascertain fully the motion of the
body, we must next find w. As we saw in Chapter 16:
M=H 18,2
for any system of particles where the point about which moments are to
be taken may be (a) the mass center, (b) a point fixed in an inertial refer-
ence, or (c) a point accelerating toward the mass center. For any of these
points, it will later be shown that the angular velocity vector w is in-
volved in the above equation when it is worked out for rigid bodies
as is the inertia tensor. After we find the motion of the mass center
from Eq. 18.1 and the angular velocity to from Eq, 18.2, we get the in-
stantaneous motion by letting the entire body have the velocity Vc plus
a rotation to, whose axis of rotation goes through the center of mass,
18.2 DEVELOPMENT OF EULERS EQUATIONS

FOR THE CENTER OF MASS
Shown in Fig. 18.1 is a rigid body moving in a general manner

relative to an inertial reference X, Y, Z. The body has an angular velocity
Figure 18.1
<0 which, for present purposes, is shown going through the center of mass.
The velocities of elements of the rigid body relative to the mass center,
as seen from the inertial reference, are denoted by primes. The moment
about the center of mass, of momentum relative
to the center of mass, for
a particle of mass
dm is then given as:
498 EULER S EQUATIONS OF MOTfON !18S
dllt = p X I" dm 18^
Since the body the only motion possible, relative to the center of
is rigid,
mass IS that of a rotation of angular velocity u Thus ne can say for the
abo\e equation
dllt pX (rf X p) dm 18 1
It mil be convenient to express this \ector equation in terms of a set of

orthogonal components For this purpose, a second reference xyz has been
placed at the mass center of the body, as is shonn in Fig 18 2, to give us
a con\ eiuent set of directions for these components Since the above compu-
tation IS at time I, this new reference need only be at the mass center with
the desired orientation instantaneously at the time t Thus, it may, for
our purposes, be moving in any manner relative to the body Keeping this
in mind, c ehall proceed by first decomposing the vectors m Eq 18 4
into components m the direction of this reference at time t Thus
(llf. - (d/E)p + + (d//r).fc ()
p xt + yj + zk lb)
a -V + Wih tt) WS
\\ e then ha\e for Eq 18 4
(dl/.U + (d/l.U + (d/r.U dm (zi + vj + 2.)
X [(u, -b + u,k) X (xi + jy +

186
Carrying out the cross products and collecting terms, uc Iiuvc
(dl/,)t 4* s*) dm dm dm (a)
{dll,)p = u,yz dm -b ,(x* -b 2*) dm u,yz dm (b)
{dll,), * wjsi dm dm + ,(!* + y*) dm (e) 187

If we above relation for all the mass elements dm of the rigid

integrate the
body, we see that the components of the inertia tensor appear. This gives
us:
(iJc)x = 0)xlxx ^ylxy 0)Jzz (a)
{H^y t ^yjyy ^tlyz (b)
WxjTzx 1 (c) 18.8
and we thus have a set of components of the moment of momentum vector

He for a rigid body about the mass center.
We shall now turn our attention to the time rate of change of the mo-
ment of momentum vector He, so we can relate it to the moment of e.xternal
forces about the center of mass. This equation in terms of components
parallel to the xyz reference is:
MA -h Myj + M^k = d/dt[{He).i -j- {He)yj ^ {Hc)ek'\ 18.9
Carrying out the differentiation on the right-hand side,* we get:
MJ. + Myj -t- MJt = (ficU ++ 0c\k

{Ac)yj
+ (Hc).i + (H.) J + 18.10
To simplify the above equation w'e usually employ one of the following
two restrictions on the motion of the xyz reference at time t (up to this
point, only its position at time t has been involved). We may have
elect to
the origin of the xyz reference fixed to the mass center with the axes moving
in such a way as to remain parallel to the reference. XYZ This means that
^=J k = 0 in the above equation, since the direction of these unit
vectors will not change under such an arrangement. However, the inertia
tensor components will vary with time, because, in the general case, the
body will be rotating and changing its orientation with respect to the xyz
reference, about which these components are computed. Another alterna-
tive is to fix the xyz reference entirely to the body. In this case, inertia
terms are constant with time, but the unit vectors i,
j, and k (fixed to the
xyz reference) are now functions of time. Since the vectors are fixed in a
rigid system, we know from Chapter 11 that their time variation is given
as wX
etc. We shall choose this latter procedure for our present dis-
i,
cussion.! Carrying out the time differentiation in the preceding equation

and using Eq. 18.8 for the components of the moment of momentum terms,
we have:
You will recall that the time derivative is, for this equation, taken for the inertial
reference XYZ.
Sometimes the data available make it desirable to use an xyz reference which is in
ei her of the cases described. An
example is the gyro-compass, covered in Chapter 20.
G must proceed from Eq. 18.10 in such situations.
500 EULER S EQUATIONS OF MOTION 5182
+ M^) + J) + + ,r,,
- + {-,!,. - + /.)/
+ (w*/ f>>ihg W /r,)(w X t) in II
+ ( w,/^ + w,fv X j)
+ ( " /* + w,/,,)(w X A)
Canying out the cross products collecting terms and expressing the
vector Eq 18 11 as scalar equations tveget
18 12
These are indeed a formidable set of equations They have these restne
tiODS the point about which moments are taken is the moss center,
and the coordinate axes having this point as an ongin is fixed in the
body If lie choose this reference so it coincides mtb the prtnetpal axes
of the bodj at the center of mass it is clear that the products of inertia
are all zero mthe above system of equations nhich enables us to simplify
considerably The resulting equations given belon are the famous Euler
cjuafions of motion ôlc that these equations relate the angular vdocity
and the angular acceleration to the moment of tlic external forces about
the center of mass
18 13
In both sets of Eqs 18 12 and 18 13 we ha\e three simultaneous first-

order differential equations II the motion of the body about the mass
center is known it is a simple matter to compute the required moments
about the mass center On the other hand if the moments are known func
tions of time and the angular velocity is desired we have the difficult prob-
lem of solving simultaneous non linear differential equations for the un
knowns w, u, and w. However m
practical problems we often know
some of the angular v elocity and acceleration components from constraints
or given data so we can sometimes integrate tne equations readily At
other times we uê them to solve for certain desired insfantaacous cofucs of
.
the unknowns. In contrast to the equations to be developed in the next

section, for these equations it should be clear that it is only the mathematical
complexity that limits their integrahility, and not some other inherent limita-
tion.
18.3 EULER'S EQUATIONS FOR POINTS

OTHER THAN THE MASS CENTER
We shall now investigate the other points for which the equation
M-H is valid in the case of a rigid body. In Fig. 18.3 is shown a rigid
body and a point A in space (not necessarily in the body) that is either
fixed in the XYZ reference or is accelerating toward the center of mass.
Using a prime to denote velocity relative to point H as seen from the
inertial reference, we find that the momentum of the element dm relative
to point A has a moment about A which is given as:
dHA = p X F' dm = p x
^ dm'* 18.14
If the motion of the body relative to point A

is that of pure rotation at time t,
then dp/dt can be given as w X p, and the above equation becomes:
dHA " p X (tt) X p) dm I

at, time t 18.15
and thus has the same form as Eq. 18.4. If we choose a set of axes xyz
fixed to the body so that at time t the origin coincides with point A, we
can, as we did in the previous section, develop the equations in 18.12 for
point A. These equations, however, are only valid at the time t when the
aforementioned conditions prevail. Clearly, by choosing xyz to be principal
axes, we arrive at the Euler equations applicable at time t for the point A
Assume that point A is fixed in the inertial reference. It is clear that if
Eulers equations are to be instantaneously valid, say at time t, the
axis
The velocity r equals (J) - (~) = (f)

\dt /xrz \ at /xyz Jxyz \dt Jxyz
502 EULER 5 EQUATIONS OF MOTION 184
of rolalion of Ike hodj paw through ike fixed potni A at time t For the
Euler equations to be generalbj applteable for all lime (and thus inlegrahh]
for point A the axis of rotation of the body must always pass through
point A We may dii ide the latter problems into tu o classes
1) The axis of rotation goes through A and
has a fixed orientation in
inertial space An example would
be a rotating shaft that is con
strained by bearings so that the centerline is fixed an inertial refm
erence
2) The axis of rotation always goes through Abat does not have a fixed
orientation m inertial space An elementary example of this would
be the simple gyroscope shoun in
Fig 18-1 where body B is spin
ning about axis MM
This axis is
pivoted about point A but beyond
this IS free to move in any nay
Clearly Fuler s equations may be
employed here and except for
difficulties in the mathematics
may be integrated for point A
The moment of momentuin
equations for the problems of
category 1 tan usually be inte-
grated in a slraigbtfjrward manner to give the rotation of the body as we
mil see in later examples However the integration for the problems of
category 2 while possible is not a simple direct procedure even elemen m
tary problems and so in this chapter we shall be restricted to computing
instantaneous values for this category (Examples 3 4 and o below) and
mil leave the more complex task of integration as a separate study to
be undertaken in Chapter 20 (Motion of a Body about a Fixed Point)
Next consider the other non inertial point A which has the restriction
that It must have an acceleration towcutl the mass center Luler s equations
may also be formulated for this point at time t if the body is then moving
so that it has an axis of rotation going through the point A and if the
axes xyz which have their ongin at 1 at time t are fixed to the body and
are principal axes In Example 1 of the next section we shall examine all
three situations for the same problem
18 4 APPLICATION OF EULER S EQUATIONS
In this section we shall apply the Euler equations to a number of

problems that illustrate the preceding remarks Before taking up these
problems, let us first carefully consider how to express the angular velocity
18.4 EULER'S EQUATIONS OF MOTION 503
components w*, and Wr and their time derivatives for use in Eulers
equations. To illustrate the trouble we can get into in this regard, con-
sider the case of a block rotating about AB as shown in Fig. 18.5. When
the block is vertical as shown, the angular speed and rate of change of
speed relative to AB have given values (012)0 and (^ 2 ) 0 respectively. At ,
that instant, the support AB has an angular speed and rate of change of
speed about axes CD of known values ( 0 1)0 and (wi)o, respectively. A
)
reference xyz is shown at the center ofmass of the block fixed to the body.
What do you think Wx, o)*, w*, and are at the specified configura-
tion? Little difficulty is encountered in giving the angular speeds as;
3N 11 0 3 II
0 Wj (wi)o 18.16
But there may be a temptation to give:

tl)x = 0 = (w2)o Wj = (wi)o 18,17
as the rates of change of angular speed. We shall now show that ci* 0
and will later set forth straightforward procedures for finding the rates of
change of angular speed generally.
Figure 18.5
Note first that o)* = 0 only at the instant that the x axis is horizontal.
Before this, there is a positive component in the x direction stemming
from the angular motion about CD, giving w* a positive value, and after
this there is
a negative cornponent in the x direction, making wi negative.
We should then expect that Wx 0 when x is horizontal.
To study this situation more carefully, let us first express the angular
velocity components at any arbitrary position in the motion as shown in
504 EULER S EQUATIONS OF MOTiON 5104
Fig 18 6 To indicate that we are denoting general values of the angular

speeds and rates of change of speed we drop the zero subscript used for
instantaneous values at the configuration illustrated in Fig 18 5 The x
axis IS at an angle & from the horizontal When ^ becomes zero, we arrive
Figure 18 6
back at the configuration of interest, and Wi and wj become known

values (i) (s). and (ti>t)o The angular velocity components are
ut sin S Up a <>] w, B vi cos /9 i^ 1^
Since these relations are sen^ralli/ vabd we can differentiate them with
respect to time and get
w, *= w, sm fi + cos /3 0
o), = wi cos 0 ~ oil Bin 00 18 15
upon inspecting the diagram that 0

It should be clear = and so
the above terms become
Us wi sin 0 aoii cos 0

= U2
u, = o>i cos 0 -J- UiUt sm 0 1 20
If we now let 0 become reach the configuration of interest and

zero, we
i\e get from Eqs 18 18 and 18^0 the proper values of the angular velocity
corn^nenls and their time den\atives
u, *= 0 , (wOo(t-?j)o
Uf = iuz)9 Ug = (w*)l)
W, = 18 21
We clearly ree that Uf 0

184 EULERS EQUATIONS OT MOTION 505
Actually, we do not have to go through such a procedure for the evalua-

tion of these quantities. There is a simple direct approach that can be
used, but we must preface the discussion of this method by some general
remarks about time derivatives of vectors and their components. Consider
now the time derivative of a vector A, as seen from the XYZ axes, ex-
pressed in terms of components always parallel to the xyz reference, which
moves relative to XYZ (Fig. 18.7). We can then say:

aixYz
{Axi d- Ayj + Axk)
= Axi -(- Ayj d- Axk d* Ax(<a X i) d" Ai,(to X j) -j- X k)
18.22
Figure 18.7
If Avedecompose the vector (,dAfdt)xYZ into components parallel to the

xyz axes at timet and carry out the cross products on the right side in
terms of xyz components, we get, after collecting terms and equating

components:
(a)
[{^)xYz\
= ~ (b) 18.23
[("^Xyzl
(c)
We can learn an important lesson from these equations. If you take the
derivative of a vector with respect to a reference XYZ and express the
A
components of this vector parallel to the axes of a reference xyz rotating
relative to XYZ
(these are the terms on the left side of the above equa-
tions), the results
are in general not the same as first taking the components
0 the vector A along
the directions xyz and then taking time derivatives
of these scalars.
Thus:
'
r/^\ cljAxY
etc.
L\ dl JxYZjx dl xyz
506 EULER S EQUATIONS Of MOTION 5184
Or, using the more usual notation, we get
[(fU--
How does this relate to our problem where we are considering w u,,
and ,? Clearly, these are time derivatives of the components of the vec-
tor u along the moving xijt axes, and so they correspond to the terms on
the right side of the above ine(]\>ahty Let us then consider vector A to
be u and examine 18 23
[(wXvzl
We see that terms on the right side cancel for the case, leaving us
[(fXJ-
We see that for the vector i e , the angular velocity of the zyz refer-
ence relative to the XT 2 we have an exception to the rule

reference,
stated carher Here is the one
where the derivative of a vector for
ca*e
one set of axes KYZ has components along the directions of another set
of axes xyz rotating relative to AJX which are equal to the simple time
derivatives of the scalar components of the vector along the xyz directions
Iw other words, you can take the denvwtwe of ftrat for XVZ axes and
then take components along xyzy or you can take components along xyz
first and then take simple time derivatives of the components, and the
results ore thesame

If wc understand the exceptional nature of Eqs 18 2G, we can
fully
compute and u, in a straightforward manner by simply determining
tf
{du/dt)xYz and taking the components This is a step which we have

practiced a great deal in kinematics For instance, for the problem intro-
duced at the outset of this discussion, we see by inspecting Fig 18 5 that
() *= X (-)a/ J8.2T
The last term,* you will recall, results from the change of direction of
(W 2 ) as a result of the rotation wi. Carrying out the cross product and
rearranging the terms, we get:
(w)o = (wi)o(w2)oi + (" 2)07 + (wi)ofe 18.28
We see that the components are the same as our results in Eq. 18.21.
A more formal piocedure is to first express w as:
w = W2J + uiki 18.29
where ki is the unit vector in the fixed Z direction. Now differentiate

with respect to time for the XYZ reference:
to = 02
j W2j "h tbjfci 18.30
But j is fixed in a rigid body that is rotating with angular velocity wifei -j-
Uij. We then get;
to = U 2J "i" t02 (toifci h W2j) ^ j "Y toifei 18.31
BTien the xyz axes are parallel to the XYZ axes, the unit vector k becomes
the same as the unit vector ki, and wi, C02 , etc., become knowm values
( 0) 1 ) 0 , ( 0) 2 ) 0 , etc. We then get for that configuration;
too = {o}i)oj
~ (toi)o(t02 )oi I (wi)ofe 18.32
Clearly, this again gives the same results.

We shall in general follow the former procedure in the following prob-
lems, which you are urged to study carefully.
Example 1: A cylinder rolls without slipping down an inclined plane

(Fig. 18.8). What will be its angular velocity at any time t, assuming it
starts from rest at < = 0?
Intuitively we know that not only the mass of the body but also its
d^ribution will be significant in affecting the motion of the body, and
Since ve have accounted
for the rate of change of magnitude of 02 in the first
consider that for the third term, coj is fixed in the block
ana has a time
derivative of (co)Mock (See Seetion 11.9.) X
EULER S EQUATIONS OF MOTION 5184
thus we cannot employ a particle model in the computations as we did

for many other types of problems in earlier chapters Instead, ne must
use the available equations for rigid body motion
Taking the ground as an inertial reference we have indicated an XiZ
reference fixed to the incline \\c shall now solve the problem from three
different viewpoints
Vitvpoinl 1 We may readily establish a set of axes with an origin fixed

at the mass center of the cybtider The principal axes are composed of an
axis along the longitudinal axis of symmetry of the cylinder and any pair
of orthogonal fines in the center plane of the cylinder at right angles to
the centerline For convenience, we choose the directions jyj parallel to
the inertial reference at I = 0, as shown in Fig 18 8 We can now employ
Euler's equation about the mass center To compute the components of M,
we draw the free-body diagram in Fig 18 9 Note that the friction force/is
not knouTi in terms of N
since wo cannot assume that slippage is impend
ing and thus use Coulomba law of friction The only non lero moment
component is Af, whichisequallo/a The Euler equations then become
Q + ,fwXr fwl
0 f*>)
-fa * r,iU, + I,t) (a)
It IS apparent that w, bV * 0 at all times Thus only Eq (a) is useful
-fa = (b)
We see that in this case the Euler equations have degenerated to the famil
lar T /(j of elementary physics In this equation we have two un
knowns / and . We may wnte another equation for the translation of
the mass center
-f+ IFsina = MX (c)
This however, introduces another unknonm A, the acceleration of the

mass center relative to the inertial reference
We may find a third equation without mtroducing further unknowns
by using the condition of no slippage, which means that the point of con
tact B of the cybnder has a *ero velocity relative to the inertial reference
From our knowledge of kinematics (Eq 11 66), we can then say
lVji)xri =0=^ + (F, + X p
where the velocity vector of tbexyaongm relative to the XYZ refer
li is
ence, and p is the position vector of the point in the xyz reference B
Since xyz is fixed to the body, is *ero Thus we have
(Fs)xr = X (aj) = (X + /*) *= 0
We therefore have A = um
Differentiating with respect to time, we get the desired equation
X ~ iD,a (**)
NowsubstituteforAand/inEq (c), using Eq (d)snd{b) Thisbecoraes

-
+ IF sin a = Muâ
a
Solving for w,, we write:
+ Ma-) IFa sin a

Wa sin a
(e)
Iiz AIol^
Note that on the right side we have all constants. Thus in this simple
problem we can integrate directly:
IFa sin a
+ Ma^ +
C, t
L.
Since w, = 0 for I = 0, then Ci = 0. The desired result is:
TFa sin a
(f)
+ ilfa^
Viewpoint 2. Let us now consider as our point of interest a point on the

incline at the point of contact (Fig. 18.10). It is clearly a point fixed in
Figure 18.10
an inertial reference. Note that the a.xis of rotation for the rolling cylinder
coincides at all times with the line of contact between the cylinder and
incline, since at any time the points on the cylinder at this contact have
zero velocity. The moves down the incline with the
axis of rotation thus
cylinder. At time the axis passes through the stationary point B'.
I',
We can write Euler's equations for point B' at time t', according to our
previous discussion. As before, only one component of tTO Euler equations
is non-trivial ^the z component. Observing Fig. 18.11, we can then say
for time I'-.
IFa sin a = dij- (g)
Solving for we get:
IFa sin a.
Wz- z (h)
An e.xamination of the right side of this equation reveals that no matter

where B' is chosen along the incline we will find the same terms for this
510 eUieR S EQUATIONS OF MOTION 184
Figure JO 11
equation W e can tondadc that the acceleration of the cylinder w constant

at all posit ona along the incl ne and so v>e can integrate the above ex
presaion under these special circumstances We get
II a am g
Uf
Ir
t + Cl (I)
When 0 .
< - < 0 80 He see that C * 0 Thus the angular veloaty
at aaj time is
Wo sin a .
w**
i
1 0 >
We would expect the same angular velocity for either analj sis since there
ISonly one angular velocity at a given time associated with a body for a
given reference Actually t, and ta/ are the same os we can see if ne
compare i-qs {]) and (f) since by the paralhl avis theorem for moments
of inertia
/r'z' = / + /l/o* (k)
Vifirpornl 5 Consider now a point B on the cylinder surface Since it is

a point in a rigid body the motion of the body relative to B can only be
that of pure rotation at all times and when the point is just touching the
incline it has an acceleration normal to the incline (This will be left for
you to prov e in an everc se ) For a uniform cylinder such as ours S can
be cons dered to be accelerating toward the mass center at this instant
We can'then use Eulers equations for this instant Using Fig 1811
we get
llo8ina=/ (1)
But this IS the same result we obtained in the previous paragraph desp te
the difference m viewpoint
Equations (i) an 1 (j) and the remarks accom
panj mg them are applicable here
Example bar of metal is pinned to an evtens on of a shaft at A

2; A
(Fig 18 12) This shaft noted os C? rotates at s uniform speed of
ft radians per second TVhafc must the angle ^ be for the bar the steady m
state when all oscillations have ceased? Also determine the fortes at A
for this condition
18.4 EULERS EQUATIONS OF MOTION '511
Let us consider Eulers equations for the center of mass of the bar,
where we liave set up the principal axes xyz. To determine the mo-
ments about the center of mass, we next draw a free-body diagram of
the bar (Fig. 18.13). The pin connector at A permits free rotation of the
bar in the xy plane only, and thus couple components can be trans-
mitted along the x and y directions. They are denoted as Cx and Cfi, as
shown in the free-body diagram. The angular speed of the bar about
the center of mass, as seen from an inertial reference, is R, and we can
say for the components along the principal axes:
u = fl cos j3i + R sin = 0

.'.
Wi = R cos a) = R sin /?, Wi = 0 * = coy = Wj = 0
Thus Eulers equations become;
M, = 0
iify = 0
Mt = (/yy Ixx)(i3z<j3^ (Itv .rii)R* sin /3 cos /3
From the free-body diagram, we see that since Jlf* = Av{l/2), Mx = Cx,
Mv Az{l/2) -f- Cyj the fl.bov0 cQuS't'ions b6cornG.
a = 0 (a)
A.--\-Cv = Q (b)
/ly = (/yy /ir)R= sin /3 COS /3 (c)

^
From a consideration of the z component of Newtons law for the mass
center, it is clear that Ax is zero, and so from Eqs. (a) and (b) we see that
I
51S EULER S EQUATIONS OF MOTION 184
C, (7 = 0 Equation (c) mvol^ca two unknowns A, and the angle /S
Consider next the component of Newton s law for the mass center in
the serlical directum
/i, cos^ yf,8in /S H 0 (,dj
S nee this introdiie&s another unknown A, \\c now have two equations
(c) and (d) with three unknowns The center of mass is moving in a circle
with a constant speed so ne know tl at it has an acceleration ton ard the
CD axis of [e + (f/2)Bmf5]R* Therefore emplojnng Nenton s Ian in the
radial direction neha\e
A, sm 0 A- Af ctw j9 = 3/ sm 11* (e)

0^
We thus have three equations for three unknowns If we multiply Eq (d)
bysinândEq (e) bj cos ^ and subtract Eq (e) from Eq (d) we get
after replacing 1/ by M /q
( I \ irn*
-4, If sm^ / ecos^ + sin ^cos ^ If)
2
Now replace m Eq (c) using Eq (0
gîrsinfS êcos^ + |sinjSco30^^^J - fîflsmiScoslS
Next divide through by cos^ On rearranging the equation we get
-J-
tw ^ + (/ - /)
J
n-tm 0--^
We may solve such an equation by trial and error for 0 when the values
of the \anaus constants are known and from Eqs (0 and (e) we can
determine the forces 4, and t.
Figure IS U Figure 18 I?
184 EULER'S EQUATIONS OF MOTION 513
In a later section, a more direct approach will be presented for such

problems where the nature of the motion of the center of mass ean be
ascertained by inspection, as was the case in this problem. This is the
method of DAlembert applied to rigid bodies.
Example 3: In an apparatus similar to that of the preceding e.xample,

the metal bar is swung around A by an internal mechanism at A so that
when /3 = 0, /3 and /3 are known. If the speed of the shaft CT> is to remain
compute the required torque about CB and the forces trans-
constant,
mitted at A at the instant when the bar is passing through its vertical
position, as shown in Fig. 18.14.
We again examine the free-body diagram (Fig. 18.15) of the bar to
study the forces and couple components at point A. After computing
these forces and we can compute the desired torque about CD
couples,
by using Note that since we no longer have a free hinge
their reactions.
at A, we now have the possibility of a couple component C,. The angular
velocities and accelerations for Eulers equations applied to the center
of mass of the above body are:
w = fli Pk w = ( S2i) X ( jSfe) /3fc

.'.
Wi = fl, Wy = 0, CO, = (3 o>i = 0, co = Dp, CO, = p
r
Thus Eulers equations become:
Cx = 0
C'y -b A, - = Qpiyy -j- DP(Ixx I) (b)
C, -b A - = LzP (c)
We see that Cx is zero, and we now have two equations with four un-
knowns, C'v, C A and Ay. We must next employ Newtons laws for
the center of mass. We will need the acceleration of the mass center
Figure 18.16 X
5U EULER S EQUATIONS Of MOTION 1184
relatuc to an inertial reference To express this it mil be helpful to

establish a reference at 4 and fixed to the shaft CD For con
lenience x'yt is chosen parallel to tlie xyz reference corresponding to
the instant of interest asshoaninFtg 1816 where a convenient mertial
reference XYZ has also been shown Going back to early lessons in
kinematics nehaic
A Jl/oti>n o/ mass center refotive ioxyz'

I
a, i * PU " 2 ^-^ (using formulae for plane circular motion)
B Motion of z'lj t' rehtivo to \ 1 Z

R Oi X ej cflk
R ef?V (usingformulacforplanecircularmotioa)
w ffi
w< 0
Hence
0X1/ "O/,. 4-/^ + 2xl,,, + wXp + wX(wXp)

Qxrz - ~~0 -rflV +2(-ni) X
*
(~2 ')
Collecting terms weget
.. t - - ' |S'. - S + el!'^ j + aifk

Isott we can usoNenlonalaw on the center of tnasa
(d)
(e)
A. - MPJS (0
It ISa simple matter to return to Eqs (b) and (c) to evaluate C, and C,
allthe forces and couples on the block are now determined at the instant
of interest Using the reactions to these fortes and couples and taking
moments about the SMS <7i? we can by equating to zero find the required
torque, F, at this instant for uniform motion
T=
Example 4: A cylinder AB is rotating in bearings mounted on a plat-
form (Fig. 18.17). It has an angular speed <02 and a rate of change of
Figure 18.17
speed W 2 both
,
quantities being relative to the platform. The platform
rotates with an angular speed and has a rate of change of speed Wi,
both quantities being relative to the ground. Compute the moment of
the supporting forces of the cylinder AB about the center of mass of the
cylinder in terms of the above-mentioned quantities and the moments of
inertia of the cylinder.
We shall do this problem by two methods, one by using a.xes fixed to
the body and using Eulers equations, and the other using axes fixed to
the platform and using Eq. 18.10.
Method I: Reference fixed to cylinder. In Fig. 18.17, we have fixed axes

xyz to the cylinder at the mass center. To get components of parallel M
to the inertial reference, we consider the problem when the xyz reference
is parallel to the XYZ reference. The angular velocity vector <0 for the
body is then:
w = Ujj -f wifc (a)
and, by inspecting Fig. 18.17, we see that the angular acceleration of

the body is;
(0 = Wife -h W 2J -f Wife X W 2J
w = Wife -|- Ciij wiW:! (b)
Thus the angular velocity components and their time rates of change
needed for Eulers equation are:
W, = 0 Wx = W1W2
COy CO2 cijy Wg
oiz = coi = cbi

The Euler equations then become
ilf* = In) (c)
+0 (1)
M, = +0 (e)
Since l = / see that /( cancels in Eq (c) and

we then hav e the desired result
M= W taJn* + I* (0
Method II Reference fixed to platform We
shall now do this problem
by havmg xyx at the mass center of the c>linder again but now fixed
to the platform In other words the cylinder rotates relative to the xyz
reference with angular speed w* Keeping this nund we can still refer m
to Fig 1817
Obviously we cannot use Eulers equations here and must return to
Eq 1810
M i/.i + + H,i + II^ + H.k ()
Because the cylinder a body of revolution about the y axis the prod
is
acts of inertia /< and /, are alna>s zero and In l and lu are
constants. Were these conditions not present this method of approach
would be very difficult emce we would have to ascertain the time ^n\a
itvee of these inertia terms Also since the angular velocity componenta in
this aoal> sis aficoys point in the direction of the y and z axes we can eimply
differentiate the compoDeots of tl to get H, H, and H, Thus
/f. - Q 0
lit

=
W
/iW|
lie
//, =
-
luUi (b)
hezt consider the tune derivatives of the unit vectors i and j {k - 0)

wl iih are chang ng direition as a result of u Hence
t = (uk)Xt=ti>j
j = (w h) X j w t ()
Substituting the results from Eqs (b) and (c) into Eq (a) we can WTite
M= + /**> k + f *)
Rearranging tenns we gel

HI >= ~~U + /n<OtJ + 7 /*
which IS identical to the result we obtained by using method 1
Example St A thin disc is mounted on a shaft so that its normal A. A forms

the angle with the centerline of the shaft (Fig 1818) The sliaft rotates
<a
with a uniform angular veloa^ of N

rpm Neglecting the mass of the
shaft compute the forces on the bearings at the time that the nornisl
to the disc IS m
the plane of the paper
In this problem, the center of mass of the body of interest "happens to

be a fi-ved point in an inertial reference. A set of principal axes, x]jz, is
chosen so that the x axis corresponds to the normal AA\ the y axis is
chosen as the intersection of the plane formed by the line and the AA
centerline of the shaft and the plane of the disc; the z axis must then
be in the plane of the disc, with a sense in accordance with the right-
hand screw rule, and is by this construction parallel to the horizontal in-
Z axis (Fig. 18.19). We can decompose the angular velocity of the

ertial
body into the following components that are parallel to these axes:
irA k'N
W =
, .
~ to 0
lo"
(a)
= -kN
irAT
^ = = =
.
" cos a, sin a, w, 0 .% coi Wj, = coj 0

/
Eulers equations of motion then become:
ilf, = 0
= 0 fb)
/irN \ /ttN .
'
\
M. ^ (I,, - J)

- 1
518 E.UURS EQUMIONS OF MOTION 1184
It shown m the appendix that 7 =

IS and for a thin disc
that In {(H /ff)o* The last of the abo\c equat ons then becomes
1 W 0*JrNy
( C(
. z:r 1
4 ff VÔ/
If a IS ver> small cos a ma> lie : m
taken ns unity and sin a may be taken
os a Then ne can saj
jf
M,
I
/i^y W)
4 i\3S!)
Thus as a result Euler s equations nc know that the bearing reactions
of
must exert onlythis moment component about the center of mass Next
examine Nen-too a laiv for the mass center Since the center of mass is
stationary ne can say
A + Gc = II (1) A H - Cl (4)
Ii + C, 0 (2) A= -C, (51
r. + G, Q (3) A> -G, (6) (0
In considenng tiie moments of external forces about the x axis ne clearly

see that only Ft and Gi can contribute (since aJl other forces intersect
the X s>3s) 13ut Ft and Gt form a couple according to Eq (0 (5) Since
Mt * Ofrom Euler s equations it is clear that Ef Gj * 0 ê\t taking
moments about the r ax s and substituting into Euler s equation we get
1 ll /tVV
-f.l+c' ~4 Asoj" (g)
Bearranging wchave
1 u /ifVV ,
Fx-Gx ' (h)
2gl \30
Wc also 1 axe Eq (0 (1)
/. +G - ,
Adding Eqs (h) and (i) we ha\c
2 1,^.
Subtracting Eq (h) from Eq (i) we write
w
Gi 2 _ 4 jl \ 30 /

above fonns as being composed of a static part

It IS useful to consider the
ir/2 due to the weight audadjnamtc part (H /450(irW3Q)Q:a* due to
the motion The forces ffi and / remam undetermined from th s anal j s s
although we know they are equal and opposite The reactions to the
solved forces are then the desired results
Note that the dynamic fere components form a couple which hes m
the plane of the A A axis and the axis of the shaft at all times. Thus, as the
shaft rotates, the couple also rotates at the same angular speed. canWe
best represent the dynamic force at the bearing G by using the phasor
diagram shown in Fig. 18.20 as seen along the shaft.
Figure 18.20
18.5 BALANCING
In the last sample problem, we found that rotating forces are de-
veloped on the bearings because of the misalignment of the disc as it is
incorporated in the angle a. From Fig. 18.20 it is clear that in any fixed
directionnormal to the shaft centerline, this misalignment results in a
forceon the bearing that varies harmonically with time at a frequency
corresponding to the angular rotation of the shaft. Such forces may induce
large vibrations in the structure or support a natural frequency or mul-
if
tiple of the natural frequency is reached in these bodies. When a shaft

creates rotating forces on the bearings by virtue of its own rotation, the
shaft is said to be imbalanced.
We shall now set forth the criteria for the condition of balance in a
shaft, as well as the computations for achieving balance in a shaft under
certain circumstances. Consider some arbitrary rigid body rotating Avith
angular speed w and a rate of change of speed w about axis AB (Fig.
18.21). The center of mass is a distance r from the axis. We shall set up
equations for determining the supporting forces at the bearings. Consider
point a on the axis of rotation at the bearing A and establish a set of
axes xyz (not necessarily principal axes) fixed to the rotating body, with
the 2 axis corresponding to the axis of rotation. The x and may
y axes
be chosen for convenience. Using the general moment of momentum equa-
tions (a) and Eq. 18.12 and including only dynamic
(b) in forces, we get:
B^ "* ^ xz^z (a)
Bxl ~ ZX^Z (b) 18.33

Figure 18 21
We have shown in Exercise 15 of Chapter 17 that with as a principal

axis at a point, all products of inertia involving the z axis are zero at this
point From the above equations, we can therefore conclude that if the
axis of rotation is a principal axis at bei^mg A, the dynamic forces at
bearing B are zero
Next ne ivill show that if in addition the center of mass lies along the
axis of rotation, this axis is a pnocipal axis for all points along its line of
action In Fig 18 22, a set of axes z'yV parallel to the zijz axes has
Figure 18 22
been set up at an arbitrary point E

along the axis of rotation We can see
from the arrangement of the axes that for any element of the body dm
y'y if =X + 18 3t
where D may be any distance Also ive know for the xijz reference that
If, = j xzdm ~ 0 fw
^
0 18 13
and if the center of mass is along the centerline, ne can say
i/JI ~ j yim = j y* dm = 0
18 36
dm ^ 0
J X dm
ZjAf =* if
^
5
We will now show that products of inertia involving the z' axis at E are
zero under these conditions, and consequently that the z' axis is a principal
axis at E. Substituting from Eqs. 18.34 into 18.35, we get:
t'{z' D) dm = 0 - (a)
j
y'{z' D) dm = 0 (b)
j
If we carry out the multiplication in the integrand of Eqs. (a) and (b), we
get: ,
x'z' dm D x' dm = 0 (c)

j j
y'z' dm D j y' dm = 0 (d)
j
Since, as a result of Eq. 18.36, the second integral of each of the above
equations is zero, we conclude that the products of inertia for 7j-,< and
ly>i' and that the axis of rotation must be a principal axis at E.

are zero
With this in mind, let us return to the problem of balancing and express
the moment of momentum equations for a point along the axis of rotation
at bearing B. For dynamic forces, we get:
Ayl = /y'i'wf /x'l'Ci* (a)
Aji = /j'i'wf ly'i'Ut (b) 18.37
If the z axis is a principal axis at bearing A (or, for that matter, along any
point of the axis of rotation) and if the center of mass is on the axis of rota-
tion, it is clear from the preceding discussion that Iy>z> and Iz'z are zero.
The dynamic A, therefore, are zero. The rotating system
forces at bearing
is thus balanced.
We can now conclude that /or a rotating system to be dynamically balanced,
it is necessary and sufficient (a) that at some point along the axis of rotation
this axis is a principal axis and (b) that the center of mass is along the axis
of rotation.
Example; A rotating two weights, Wi = 5 lb and

member carries
Wj = 8 lb, at radial distances and rj = 1 ft, respectively.
n = 1 ft
The weights and a reference xijz are shown in Fig. 18.23. I'liey are to be
balanced by two other weights IF3 and IF 4 which are to be placed in the
,
balancing planes A and B, respectively. If the weights are added in these

planes at a distance of 1 ft from the axis of rotation, determine the value
of these weights and their position relative to the xyz reference.
We therefore have two unknown weights and two unknown angles, i.e.,
four unknowns, to evaluate in this problem. The condition that the mass
center be on the centerline yields the following relations:
522 EULER S EQUATIONS OF MOTION {185
fj stB 20* + r* sm 45* + ~ r, em fi - BiQ 8* 0

^ 9 S 9
^Vhea the numerical \alues of rj tj etc are inserted these equations

become
fK,co3d,+ fK<c03^,- 1316 (a)
IFt sm fti IV4 sm 6t 6 75 (b)
Now consider the products of inertia J,, and /, to be sero for the xijz
reference which is positioned so that yx 13 m the balancing plane B
(6)(-r.sin 20") + (2)(r,8in') + (9)(r.sin9,) =0 (c)

9 9 9
^9
(6)(r, cos 20*) + 5* (2){r,co8 45*) +
9
m-r
0
cos 8,) = 0 {<3)
It will be simplest to consider first Ekjs (c) and (d) which may be put
in the form
9)r,sm e, * -6 74 (e)
911, cos, = 452 (f)
Dividing Eq (f) into Eq (e) we get
tan ?, = 0 149o
$t = 171 5" or 351 5*
and so from Eq. (e)
1
5.06 lb
sin 03
In order to have a positive weight lEs, we chose 63 to be 351.5, and now

we return to Bqs. (a) and (b). We can then say, on substituting known
values of TF3 and 63 :
W 4 cos 9, = 13.16 - 5.00 = 8.16 (g)
W, sin 0, = 6.75 - 0.75 = 6.00 (b) ,
Dividing Eq. (g) into Eq. (h), we get;
tan 04 = 0.735
04 = 36.3 or 216.3
Hence from Eq. (g), we have:
IF4 = 8.16/cos 04 = 10.1 lb
if we use 04 = 36.3 to prevent a negative IF 4 . The final orientation of the

balanced system is shown in Fig. 18.24.
Figure 18.24
18.6 SIMPLIFICATIONS OF EULERS EQUATIONS
You may have noticed that the components of Eulers equations

in Eq. 18.13 or the more general form in Eq. 18.12 frequently degenerate
to the form T = lu, which you know from elementary courses in physics.
We shall now point out three important classes of problems where this
takes place.
Case 1 Rotation about a Stationary Axis. Shown in Fig. 18.25 is any rigid
.
body rotating about an axis that is fixed in an inertial reference. We may

use any point along this axis to employ the relation
we have
= H. In this case, M
set up an xyz reference fixed to the body at 0 with the,
2 axis
Figure 18 25
coinciding with the axis of rotation These need not be principal axes for
our purposes
Owng to the constraints of the shaft by bearings the angular velocity
u has only one non zero component u, Now
examine Eq IS 12 (b) You
immediately see that all terms but the first are zero on the right hand side
of the equation Thus this equation becomes il/, = which is the simple
familiar form
Example! Toraional 1 stratum Cons der a citculaT disc attached to the

end of a abaft that la at nght angles to the plane of the disc (Rg 15 26)
Figure 18 26
Note that the other end of tlie shaft is fixed in the upper wall If the d sc
13 tnisted by an external agent about the centerline of the shaft denoted
as AA the d sc mil rotate essentially as a rigid body wh le tl e shaft
since It IS so much thinner and longer will twist and supply a restoring
torque that tries to bring the disc back to its initial position In cons der
mg this torsional motion we idealize the problem by lumping all elastic
action into the shaft and all the inertial effects into the disc We have
:
analogous to the mass and spring studied

for rotation a situation that is
in Chapter 12 for the case of rectilinear translation. We know from
strength of materials that for a circular shaft of constant cross section
the amount of twist 6 induced by torque Mz is, in the elastic range,
given as:
e = MJi/GJ (18.38)
where Gthe shear modulus of the shaft, J is the polar moment of

is
inertia of the cross section about the center, and I is the length of the
shaft. Notice that since the external torque is proportional to d, the shaft
acts as a linear restoring torsional system. Thus it is natural to intro-
duce the concept of a torsional spring constant, Ki, which in general
terms is given as:
Ki = torque/angle of twist
and for the case of a circular shaft of constant cross section:
K. = GJ/l (a)
We now wish to investigate for this problem the possible rotational

motions of the disc about axis A A after external torques have been re-
moved. The motion clearly is one of rotation about the axis AA, so
the component of Eulers equation for the z axis is the simplified rela-
tion:
,
Mz = IzzOiz (b)
The only moment about the r axis will be the linear restoring couple due
to the shaft, which, if we use the definition of the torsional spring con-
stant, is KiO, Using S instead of u,, we can then say for Eq. (b)
Kfi = IzzS (c)
Rearranging this differential equation to standard form, we get:
S + j^0 = O (d)
This equation is in exactly the same form as Eq. 12.13 for the mass and
spring; the solution is that of harmonic variation of 9 with time and has
the natural oscillation frequency of V Ki/Uz radians per unit time. That is:
9 = G\ cos VKi/Jzz t -f C2 sin VW^/lZ t (e)
where Ci and Cs are determined from the initial conditions, i.e., the angle
60 at f = 0 and the angular velocity 6oa.tt 0. You can readily demon-
strate that subjecting solution (e) to these conditions results in the

equation;
For our problem, Ki = GJ/l and = ^Ma^, where is the mkss of theM
disc and o is its radius. The possible torsional motions of the disc thus are;
5S6 EULER S EQUATIONS OF MOTJON 5186
r7-;;t+ .==== : si
Wrt*/ V2GJ/Ma}L
By appl}^ng torques that \ary with time about the z axis and by includ
ing torsional mscous damping etc we can re-examme for torsional
motion the entire senes of situations ne studied in Chapter 12 for the
mass and linear restoring aj-stem tte ould then get torsional concepts
of resonance phase angle critical damping etc You will have an oppor
tunity to consider torsional vibration problems as these are called in
the examples at the end of the chapter %
e must point out terminatingm
restonng torque need not alwa>8 come from
this rhscussion that the linear
a shaft as nas the rase here so jou may have to formulate ejimafenl
torsional spring constants for some of the problems just as you had to
formulate equivalent spring constants in the rectilinear vibration prob-
lems of Chapter 12
Case 2 Pfanc ilfolton Consider a body that is moving so that each particle
of the body forms trajectories parallel to a common plane (Fig 18 27)
Figure 18 27
This means that the rotation vector <> for the body must be perpendicular
to this common plane For the desired simplification, choose a reference
that IS fixed to the body at the mass center in such a nay that the z axis
IS normal Vo the plane of motion and thus in the direction of w This refer
cnce need not be the principal reference at the mass center Examining
Eq 18 12(c) and noting tha-t and * are zero by the constcaimng action
of the plane i\e clearly see that this equation again degenerates to the
famihnr form ilf* =
Ftample 1 A rigid rod AB slides against a fnctionless wall and floor
(Rg 18 28) The rod has a weight H and is made to move to the right
m the plane of the paper bj a force P os shown at B What is the initial
angular acceleration of the rod if the initial inclination of the rod is flof
Since tl IS IS a ca^c of plane mot on we can use the eimplificd relation
about an axis normal to the plane at tl c center of mass
= fa)
Cutting m the proper moments and using ( V/12)2* as /. we have for this
equation
P sin 6 Fb^-cosB + Fa ^2

(b)
^
We have here three unknowns, Fs, Fa, and 6, so we must consider other
Figure 18.28
possible equations. The motion of the center of mass may be used for this
purpose:
P- Fa =
W {a.)x
~ (c)
g
Fb-W (d)
g
Two more equations have been set forth, but we do not know (ac).Y and
the acceleration components of the center of mass. Let us next
((ic)r, i.e.,
turn to kinematical considerations. The velocity of the mass center can

be given in terms of the velocity of point B, using Chasles theorem:
Vc = Vb + 10 Xp (e)
Using the stationary reference XYZ to establish components, we have

for the velocity of the center of mass:
Vc = (Fslxi + ^kx(^ sin dj -f | cos ei\ (f)
Carrying out the cross product and expressing the scalar equation in the
Y direction, we have (Fc)i' at any time t as:
(Uc)k = ^|cos 0 (g)
Since only one reference, XYZ, is involved in (g), we may say (see 11.8):
(ac)y = 0 cos e sin 0 (h)

1 I
5SB EULER S EQUATIONS OF MOTION $186
The component of acceleration of the mass center in the X direction can

be found by using Chasle s theorem for point A Thus
I. = + X ^Binff^ ^cosff
Hence the \ component of at all tunes is
(V'.Tr = ^ am ff
and so the acceleration (a )j: is
(n )x =2 ^ + '
2
^
Substituting tl e acceleration components from Eqs (i) and (h) into

Eqs (c) and (d) respectively we get with Eq (b) a system of three
simultaneous equations m three unknowns They are
P- ha - ^ (Ssin 8 + ^*cos^) (j)
Ea If (8 cos 8 - 8 Bin 6) (k)
PsinS - Fscosfl + faBinfl - ^8 (ra)
Id Cq (m) note that we have cancelled out 1/2 Solviog for Fa and F$ in
Eqs (]) and (k) respectively and substitut ng mto Eq (m) we then get
the equation
+ ^( 80038 - ânffjJcosS
+ (5 Bin 8 + 8* C03 8) Bin 8 = ^ fl
J
Collecting and rearranging the terms we have
(cos 8 +8 i** 8) + 8 = 2P Bin 8 If cos 8
Noting that (cos + am* 8) is unity and replacing M by W/q we have

finally
Substituting the initial Value of 8 we have the initial accclerat on

8s ->
2 ^ (2P Bin 80 IV cos 85) (oj
Note from Eq not depend on the

(n) that the angular acceleration does
angolaf velocity (the 8 terms cancelled) and so we did cot have to specify
ê initial angular velocity of the bar S ace the integration of 8 as a func*
tion of time from Eq. (n) is difficult and involves elliptic integrals, we
have restricted ourselves to instantaneous values of acceleration.
Example 2: Body B is a homogeneous block of weight W

that is carried
by a cart whose mass we shall neglect (Fig. 18.29). Find the value of the
a
;
'W
Ax
/ ^ Ay
Figure 18.30
force P
needed to bring the box to the condition of impending tipping,
and, with double this value for P, determine the angular acceleration of
the block at the instant when it is tipped an angle do and has an angular
velocity do.
To P needed to tip the box, we show the block as a

establish the force
free-body diagram, with the supporting force concentrated at the edge A
as a consequence of the condition of impending tipping (Fig. 18.30).
In this limiting condition, there is a zero angular velocity and a zero
angular acceleration. Employing Eulers equation at the mass center in
a direction normal to the plane of motion, we have for the condition:
Since the cart has negligible mass, that =P

it is clear and so the
above equation then becomes:
P= (a)
And, since there is no acceleration of the mass center in the vertical

direc-
tion, we have from ITewton's law:
A^-~ W= 0 (b)
The required force P is then
P= (c)
Ne.xt consider the second part of the problem,

is to be taken as 2(a/6)lF. The free-body diagram
for which the value of P
for this case is shown

530 EULERS EQUATIONS OF MOTION 5186
mFig 18 31 Euler 6 equation in the ; direction for the mass center DOW
becomes
^cosOn^ + oU coafio
+Û BinSg * I, So (d)
There are two unkoowos Ir and So, m this equation Newton s law for
the mass center m
the 1 direction is
Ar-W-~Mr M
Since thu introduces a further unknown we shall use kinematics to relate
(a )y and S Using Chasle s theorem we can give the velocity of the center
of mass in terms of the velocity of po nt A the following manner m
> . - + dfc X [cos (9 + ffli + Bin (8 + fflj] (f)
where sui (S *= bfVb* 4- a* The occeieratioa la the vertical dicectioa is
(di)!- = [gcOT(g + g) - Bin (5 + ^)1 Cg)
Now substitute for (at)r >a Cq (e) and solve for the force At-
Ar = ir5^î^t9K>s(9 +B -9<sin(6 + ] (h)
^ Taking the above relation for position 6t, and substituting for Ay ta
Eq (d) we get
+ (+ ffl -^ ( + i j(9 i . - cosOo)

{f
+ olK coa + T0 ^
flo ^
^187 EULERS EQUATIONS OF MOTION 531
Solving for we get the desired result:
IF
-f- 6o sin (6n + ^)[b sin 6o a cos Bo]
&o =
\/W -1- fji
W : cos (8n + /?)[b sin n cos ô] /
W/ . 2a^+b^
cos Oo +
,
;
sin
in 00
^
W Vy + cos {9o + P)[b sin 6o a cos 6o] h.
(i)
Case 3. Body in Space with Zero Angular Velocity. Suppose we now con-
sider a body in space that is acted on by forces at a time when it has
zero angular velocity relative to an inertial reference (Fig. 18.32). We
Figure 18.32
set up any reference fixed at the mass center and, with w* = = u* = 0

at the time t, Eq. 18.12 becomes;

flf X ^xd XX dxyû * dxz^z
My (jydyy ~ Iyx^z dyÛx (18.40)
Mz ^zdxz dZX^X dxy(j3y

If we restrict this xrjz reference to the principal axes, we see that the result-
ing Eulers equations all attain the simple form:
d^dx 7llW* My ~ dyyCOy Mg = 7Wi

which are applicable only at the instant that corresponds
to the time
when = 0.
18.7 D'ALEMBER-PS principle for rigid bodies

In Chapter 12 we employed the DAlembert
principle and the
method work to solve problems involving simply interconnected
of virtual
bodies having additional constraints that
Hmited the motion of each body
to that of rectilinear translation The rules of particle dynamics were ap-

plied since the bodies had no rotation At this time, we shall extend the
method to interconnected bodies which may rotate and require the use of
rigid body dynamics It should be understood that the procedures of this
section are an alternative to what wc have presented thus far an altema
tive nhicli for some problems is a quicker and more direct method of
approach
Let us then reformulate the D'Alembert principle You will recall from
our nork on a particle that essentially ive reduce a dynamics problem to a
statics problem by considering the term ~ma of the particle to be a force
Thus
F ~ ma == 0 18 U
In the case of a rigid body, we may say in a similar manner that
F - Mac = 0 18
where F js the total force acting on the body, M is the total mass of the
body and a< is the acceleration of the center of mass relative to an inertial
reference Thus using the DAlembert tnerlta force, Mat, we have, m
effect, a convenient force system in equilibrium, and we can express three
scalar equations of equilibrium
Can we profitably reformulate Eulers equations of motion in a similar
manner and thus bring m the angular motion and acceleration of the body
Actually, only when the motion is such that one or more components of
Eulers equations simplifies to the form Af, Iu, (le, the cases we
considered in the previous section) is this move worthwhile, for we may
then consider this equation to have the form
M, Iu, =0 18 13
The DAlembert
has only a twisting effect about the z axis
term,
and can therefore be termed as the DAlembert laerfio couple component
TVe shall now consider the case of a body m
plane motion (which includes
the ca'ic of a bodj rotating about an inertial axis), to see how these con-
cepts may be employed to advantage Examine a body moving under the
action of external forces m the xy plane, as 8ho%vn in Fig 18 33 We shall
put in the DAlembert force and the DAlembert couple and consider the
problem as one in statics Tlie senses of the linear acceleration and angular
acceleration vectors may he chosen orbitranly The DAlembert force and
couple are then gi%en opposite corresponding senses to the'Ki vectors as is
shown in Fig 18 33 \\e then ha\e, on summing forces
-f Ft -f Fa - ilfa 0 ISM
which corresponds to our Eq 18 42 Taking moments about the center of
mass, we get for the configuration ^lonn
( Fidi + Ftdj -b Ftdi + Ci) /Wi = 0 18 4S
where di, dj etc ,

are the perpendicular distances from the normal to the
respective forces.
xy plane at the center of mass to the lines of action of the
The last equation then corresponds to Eq. 18.43. By employing this view-
dynamical equations gov-
point, we thus arrive by statical methods at the
You are urged to do problems in Section 18.6
erning the motion of the body.
Figure 18.33
by employing the DAlembert viewpoint. If the solution of any of the

quantities Ui, a^, or wj is negative, it means that you have incorrectly chosen
the sense of the particular component at the outset.
Actually, this method is most helpful when applied to a system of rigid
bodies, each of which moves in plane motion when the constraints limit
the number freedom
of degrees of
to one or a very few. For such
problems, we can use the method
of virtual work to advantage.
Let us first consider the simple
problem shown in Fig. 18.34.
A cylinder is connected to the
weight by an inextensible cord
that runs over a tiny pulley,
whose mass we can neglect. As the
weight falls, it causes the cylinder
to rotate about its axis. When the
weight is released from rest, what
is the angular acceleration of the
cylinder and the linear accelera-
tion of the weight? We will first
use the DAlembert piinciple for each of the bodies separately, and then
we will show how we can, with the aid of virtual work, handle the whole
system. The free-body diagrams of both bodies are shown in Fig. 18.35.
The senses of and are assumed as shown and the DAlembert force
and the DAlembert couple included. To find the desired unknowns and
4 quickly, we shall take the moments about the centerline for the cylinder,
and for the weight w'e shall sum the forces. We get:
Multiplying Eq (b) by r and replacing Tr using Eq (a), vre can eliminate

the nnknoivn force T and gel the resulting equation
ll if + ~ ro, + *0 18 47
9
Although v.e can now relate a, and , by kinematics and solve both quanti-
ties, we shall instead shon how we may reach this equation by a more
direct approach In Fjg 18 36 ue shall consider the system of bodies and
include in the free-body diagram only external forces and the DAlembert
forces Note thjt the force P from the small pulley acting on the cord is
external to the sj stem and must be included 1 his system of bodies clearly
has one degree of freedom Since the forces shown arc equilibrium, we m
can give the system a virtual displacement and equate the virtual work
to zero Thus ne give body (1) a displacement iy downward Body (2)
must rotate an angle Sff, which is equal to Sy/r Hence ne have
figure IS 36
i
188 EULERS EQUATIONS OF MOTION 535
-
17,5!/ - (y
by (/...w,)
^=0
With no friction, it is clear that P cannot do work. Cancelling 5y and multi-
plying by r, we have:
WiT ajr JjjUj = 0 (c)

y
which is precisely the same equation that we developed earlier by consider-
ing the separate free bodies. If friction forces are present, they are to be
considered as active forces, as you will recall from Chapter 10.
18.8 SUMMARY
Eqnaiinn M=H
This equation is valid for the mo-
tion ofany system of particles. H is
the moment, about any of the fol-
lowing points, of the momentum rel- Eulers equations of motion

ative to any of these points, as seen
Mx = IxxOix + OlyUi (I IX lyf)
from an inertial reference, and M is
My = IyyO)y -}- UxOSx {I xx !)
the total moment of all external
forces about any of these points: Mx /jjCOj -{- {lyy Jxx)
1 . A point fixed in the inertial ref-< These are a specific form of the
erence. relation M=H applicable for a
2. The mass center of the system^ rigid body in which the directions
of particles. components are fixed
of the vector
3. A point having an acceleration'*- to the rigid body and are principal
that is directed toward or away axes for the three points mentioned
from the mass center. in the more general relation. For
Eulers equations, these points have
the added restrictions:
1 . The body has, at time t, a pure

rotation about the point fixed
in an inertial reference,
k 2. No further restrictions for the
center of mass.
^ 3. The body a pure
has, at time t,
rotation about the point, which

has an acceleration toward or
awaj'^ from the center of mass.
The moment of momentum equations simplify to the elementary form

T = /w (which we learned in physics) for:
536 EULER S EQUATIONS OF MOTION
a Pure rotation about an axis fixed m inertial space if momenta are

taken about the vxis of rotation
b Plane motion if moments are taken about the normal to the plane
1
of motion at the mass center
c Motion for which u is zero
PROBLEMS
What 13 the moment of momentum about any point along the mam diagonal
of ahomogeneous rectangular parallelopiped rotating with an angular velocity

of 10 rad/seo about a main diagonal The sid of the rectangular parallelo-
piped are 1 ft 2 ft and 4 ft as shown m Fig 18 36 and the weight is 4000 lb
2 A platform rotates at an angular speed of while mounted on the platform

isa cylinder of radius r and length o which rotates relative to the platform at
an angular speed of uj (Fig 18 37) When the axis of the cylinder is cohnear
with the stationary F axis what la the angular momentum lector of the
cylinder about the AVZ axes The mass of the cylinder is M
3 In Fig 18 38 a slender rod pinned to a shaft rotating at an angular speed
is
cej of 10 rad/gec The rod weighs 50 Ib tVhat is the tension m
the cord AD
whose tna&s we can. neglect?
Figure IK^ Figure 18 Zfi

EULERS EQUATIONS OF MOTION 537
4. In Fig. 18.39, a thin rectangular plate weighing 25 lb rotates at a uniform speed

of 20 rad/sec about axis AB. What are the dynamic loads on the bearings when
the plate is in the XY plane of the inertial reference? The plate is restrained
in the Y direction at bearing A only. (Hint: use components of the forces at
A and B parallel to the XYZ reference.)
5. If a torque of 30 Ib-ft in the direction of rotation applied to the shaft on
is
which the plate in the above problem rotates, what the angular acceleration
is
at the instant of application of the torque? What are the bearing reactions at
this instant? The plate is in the XY
plane when the torque is applied and has
an angular velocity of 20 rad/sec.
6. In Fig. 18.40, a thin disc weighing 322 lb rotates at a speed wj of 100 rad/sec.
It ismounted on a platform which rotates at osi of 20 rad/sec. The radius R of
the disc is 4 ft. Compute the bearing reactions at A and B. Neglect the mass
of the shaft supporting the disc and assume that bearing A retains the system
in the radial direction.
Figure 18.40
7. Consider the above problem, (a) If a torque of 50 Ib-ft is applied to the shaft
AB when it is colinear with the Y axis, what is the angular acceleration of
the disc at that position? (b) Does this torque affect the bearing reactions at
the instant of application?
8. The thin disc in Fig. 18.41 rotates with an angular speed of wi = 10 rad/sec
and has a rateôf change of speed relative to the bearings AB (bearing A
holds the shaft in the direction AB). These bearings are mounted on plat-
form DE, which swings downward with an angular speed of wj = 5 rad/sec
CO3
Figure 18.41
about connector D Connector D is held on a shaft FO which rotates at an

angular speed of wj = 2 rad/sec What is the moment from the bearings
about the center of the disc at the instant that DB makes a right angle mth
GF and what is the value of Wt at this instant^ The disc has a radius of 1 ft
weighs 32 2 Ib and rotates freely in the bearings
9. If the disc in the preceding problem has the given velocities when is per DE
pendicular to / 0 and has at that position the following angular accelerations
(a) arm DE accelerates at 3 rad/sec* relative to shaft FG,
(b) shaft FG accelerates at 10 rad/scc*
compute the moment of the bearings at this position about the center of the
disc and determine <di
10 A propeller-driven airplane is at the bottom a loop of radius 2000 ft and

traveling at 3o0 mi/hr The propeller conists of 2 identical blades at right
angles weighs 322 lb, has a radius of gyTation of 2 ft about its axis of rota
tioo and is rotating at 1300 rpm If the propeller rotates counterclockwise
as viewed from the rear of the plane, compute the torques coming onto the
propeller at the bearings from the motion if one blade is vertical and the
other IS horizontal at the time of mlcrcst
U A thin disc weighing 322 lb rotates on rod AB
at a speed of 100 rad/sec a m
clockwise direction looking from to B A
<Fig 18 42) The radius of the disc
is 1 ft and it 13 located 10 ft from the centerline of the shaft CD to which
rod ABIS fixed Shaft CD rotates at 30 rad/sec in a counterclockwise direc
tion as one looks from C to D

Find the tensile force, bending moment and
shear force on rod AB at the end A due to the disc
lOOrsd/sec
EULER'S EQUATIONS OF MOTION 539
fl = 0 3 sin radians
Figure 18.43 lo
The amplitude of the pitching is thus 0.3 rad and the period is 15 sec. Deter-
mine the moment as a function of time coming onto the bearings of the ship,
resulting from the motion of the turbine, using axes fixed to the shij) at the
center of mass of the turbine.
13. Do the above problem using Eulers equations.
14. Explain how the roll of a ship can bfe stabilized by the action of a rapidly spin-
ning gyroscope (Fig. 18.44).
15. In Fig. 18.45, a thin disc has its axis inclined to the vertical by an angle B
and rolls without slipping with an angular velocity Wi. If f = 10 ft, r = 2 ft,
B = 45, and wi = 10 rad/sec, compute the angular velocity of the rod BC
about 00. If the disc weighs 40 lb, what is the total moment about point B
from all forces acting on the system? Neglect the mass of the rod 00. Hint;
17. use a reference xyz at B when two of the axes are in the plane of 00 and 00.
16. Balance the system in planes A and B in Fig. 18.46 at a distance 1 ft from
centerline. Use two weights.
y y

!
5 >
9î = llb I ^ WiO
r-vU- '
<:
?W2=2Ib
"
i. IB
Figure 18.46
Using Fig. 18.46, balance the system by using a weight in plane A of

1 J Ib and
a weight in plane B of 1 lb. You may choose suitable radii
in these planes.
540 EULt S EQUATIONS Of MOTION
18 In Fig 18 47, a disc and a cylinder are mounted on a shaft The disc has been
mounted eccentrically so that the center of mass is i in from the ccnterhne of
the shaft If the shaft rotates at 1750 rpm compute the static and the dynamic
loads on the supports
Figure 18 47
19. What 13 the natural frequency in torsion of the system in Fig 18 48? Neglect
the mass of the shafts
20 In Fig 18 49, what is the cquuaicnt torsional spring constant on tho disc from
the shafts? nie modulus of elasticity G
for the shafts is IS X 10* psi TVhat
IS the natural frequency of the sjstem? If the disc is twist^ 10* and then
released what will its angular position be in 1 scc'^ Neglect the mass of the
shafts The disc weighs 32 2 lb
21. What the equivalent spring constant for small oscillations about the shaft
IS
AB in Fig 18 50^ Neglect all ma'is except the block at B, which weighs 100 lb
The shear modulus for the shaft is 15 X10* psi IVhat is the natural frequency
of the system for torsional oscillation of small amplitude'
Figure IB 50
22. Determine the natural frequency of the pendulum in Fig 18 51, using 5 as a
coordmate for small vibrations
EULERS EQUATIONS OF MOTION 541
Figure 18.51 M Figure 18.52
23. What is the natural frequency for small oscillations of the compound pen-
dulum shown in Fig. 18.52?
24. In Fig. 18.53, a slender rod weighing 32.2 lb is held by a frictionless pin at A
and by a spring having a spring constant of 50 Ib/in. at B. (a) What is the
natural frequency of oscillation for small vibrations? (b) If point B of the
rod is depressed 1 in. at < = 0 from the static equilibrium position, what
will its position be when t = 0.02 sec?
25. In Fig. 18.54, a cylinder of mass M

and radius R is connected to identical
springsand fotates without friction about 0. For small oscillations, what is the
natural frequency? The cord supporting TFi is wrapped around the cylinder.
26. The moment of inertia of the stepped cylinder in Fig. 18.55 is I about the axis
of rotation. What is the natural frequency for small oscillations?

54J EULER S EQUATIONS OF MOTION
27 In Fig 18 56 two identical discs are mtwmted on a shaft of uniform diameter

Express the equations of motion for torsional vibration of the ^j'Stem WTiat
are the natural frequencies? What are the mode shapes?
28 In Fig 18 57 a uniform bar of length L and weight If is suspended by strings
What IS the differential equation of motion for small torsional oscillation
about the center of mass at C? What is the natural frequency?
Torque = As n
Figure 18 57 Ftgure 18 58
29 A torque F A sin uf is applied to the disc as shown in Fig 18 58 Express

the solution for the transient torsional motion and the steady state torsional
motion using arbitrary constants of integration Take the shear modulus of
elasticity of the shaft as Q
30 The pendulum in Fig 18 59 is suspended from a support which is given a
harmonic oscillation * A sin ut W hat is the differential equation of motion
a
of the system? Consider the rod to be weightless and the bob to he a sphere
of radius r and mass m
r
.
60lb .
31 In Rg 18 60 a constant force of 100 lb is exerted on a rope wrapped around a

50-Ib cylinder What is the motion of the cylinder^ Neglect initial fnctional
effects on the support
32 In Fig 18 61 a cylinder 2 ft in diameter and weighing 200 lb is made to roll
up an incbned surface so that the center has an acceleration of 15 ft sec* What
force P applied to a ring of negligible mass fastened to the cylinder and having
a diameter of 1 ft is required for this acceleration^
33 A cylinder of radius R and mass if is released from a position where a spring
EULER'S EQUATIONS OF MOTION 543
34.
with a spring constant K is unstrctched. What is the frequency of oscillation

of the system along the incline if there is no slipping?
The cart in Fig. 18.63 is moving at 15 ft/sec and is accelerating at a rate of
30 ft/sec. A thin rod weighing 30 lb and having a length of 10 ft is swinging

about pin A. What must its angular acceleration be if it has an angular velocity
of 10 rad/sec and is at a position of 0 = 30 when the cart has the data given?
35. A cylinder weighing 100 lb with a radius of 1 ft moving on a conveyor is

allowed to roll down the conveyor, which is mo\dng with a uniform speed of
10 ft/sec (Fig. 18.64). (a) How far down will the cylinder descend in 2 sec?
(b) If the conveyor belt is given a constant acceleration of 2 ft/sec/sec at the
instant the cylinder is released, how far will it move in 3 sec? (c) What acceler-
ation is required of the belt to keep the cylinder at a constant elevation?
36. In Fig. 18.65, a cylinder weighing 100 lb with a radius of 1 ft rests on an incline,
which is rotating at | rad/sec. It is released when the incline is at position 30
Figure 18.65
If the cylinder is 20 ft from the bottom X, at the instant of release, what Is

the initial acceleration of the center of the cylinder along the mchne?
37 In problem 35 the cylinder is 20 ft from A
and the conveyor is increasing its
inclination at Vir rad/sec The conveyor belt is moving at 2 ft/sec along tl e
conveyor frame If the cylinder is released when the inclination is 30, what
IS the initial acceleration of 0 along the conveyor (a) if the belt has a nni
form speed along the conveyor frame of 2 ft/scc? (b) if the belt has a rate
of change of speed of 4 ft/setf and a speed of 2 ft/scc along the conveyor
frame at the instant of interest
38 A solid semicylmder of weight IV and ladms R is rclea'scd from rest from the
position shown in Fig 18 GG What is the friction force at that instant
S9 In Fig 18 67, two identical bars each weighing 20 lb hang freely from the
vertical A force of 10 lb is applied at the center of the upper bar TVhat AB
are the angular accelerations of the bars?
40 IdenticalbarsABandSCarepionedtogetherby fnctionlcsspmsfFig 1868)
Each IS 5 ft in length and weighs 20 lb A force of 100 lb is everted at C when
the bars are inclined at 60* What is the angular acceleration of the bars?
Figure 18 68
Energy Considerations
for Rigid Bodies
19.1 KINETIC ENERGY OF A RIGID BODY
In the last chapter, we studied Newtons law and

Eulers equations for a rigid body. We will now consider
how to use energy methods as an alternative in handling
rigid-body dynamics problems. First, it is necessary to
devise an expression for the kinetic energy of a rigid body.
We have already found (Section 15.6) that the kinetic
energy of an aggregate of particles relative to any refer-
545
544 ENERGY CONSIDERATIONS FOR RIGID BODIES 1191
ence is the sum of two parts, which we will here list again
1 The kinetic enei^ mass equal
of a hypothetical particle that has a
mass of the system and a motion corresponding to that
to the total
mass center of the qrstem plus
of the
b The kinetic energy of the particles relative to the mass center as
seen from the reference
Mathematically, this was given as
A'=.iJ/|r.| + 5|]ra,|pl' 191
where p, is the displacement vector from the mass center to the ith particle
Let us now consider the above equation as applied to a rigid body which
Figure 19 1
IS a special "aggregate of particles" (Fig 19 I) In such a case, the velocity

of any particle relative to the moss center becomes
^ X p, 19 2
where is the angular velocitj of the body relative to the reference The
mass mt become a continuum of infinitesimal particles
discrete particles of
ofmass dm, and the summation m Eq 19 1 then becomes an integration
Thus we maj ay for the rigid body replacing |r,I* by I'J
hE = + i /// l X p|' dm 19 3
where p represents the displacement vector from the center of mass to

any element of mass dm Let us now choo a set of orthogonal directions
xyz at the center of mass, so we can cany out the above integration in
terms of the scalar components of wandp 1 his has been illustrated inFig
19 2 Wemaj first express the integnlmEq I9 3 m the following manner
I X i>\* dm = ( X p) * (w X p) dm 19 *
Jjj jjj
19.1 ENERCy CONSIDERATIONS FOR RIGID BODIES 547
Figure 19.2 X
Inserting the scalar components, we get:
jw X p1* dyn = jjj [(toji + u>uj + Wjfc) X (xi + J/J +2 fc)]

jjj
[(wii + + Wjfc) X (xi + yj + zfc)] dm
Carrying out first the cross products and then the dot product in the inte-
grand and collecting terms, we may form the following relation;
jw X p|2 dm =
jjj
-f y^) dm (4 jjj
(.x^ + z^) dm
jjj
-h Wj {x- -h 2/*) dm 2coxW. xzdm

jjj jjj
yz dm 2wiw xy dm 19.5
jjj j^j
You will recognize that the integrals are the components of the inertia
tensor for the xyz reference. Thus;
^ p\^ dm fjiWx h I "i I zz^z

jjj
2(iJx^zfxz 2o}yCJz^ yz xy 19.6
We can now give the kinetic energy of a rigid body in the following
form;
19.7
Since the dot product w He equals the large bracketed set of terms, as
you can readily demonstrate using Eq. 18.8, a more simple form for the
kinetic energy of a rigid body is:
19.8
548 ENERGY CONSIDERATIONS FOR RIGID BODIES {192
Finally, if principal axes are chosen at the mass center, Eq 19 7 becomes
KE = him + W9
Note that for this condition the energy terms for rotation have the same
form as the kinetic energy term that is due to translation, wtb the moment
of inertia corresponding to ma^ and angular velocity corresponding to

linear velocity
T9 2 KiNmc CKCRGY or a eoov tu rune rotation
In the last section, we computed the kinetic entigy of a rigid body

that has any motion in terms of the motion of and about the mass center
and the inertia tensor at the mass center We will now consider the special
case of a body that has at time t a pure rotation m some reference XYZ
about an instantaneous axis of rotation We will compute the kinetic energy
at time t for the reference, using the inertia tensor components of the body
at any position 0 along the axis of rotation, as is shown m Fig 193
Figure 19 3
The kinetic energy of the body at this instant relative to XYZ can then
be evaluated as
19 10
By any reference xyz that has its ongm at 0 at time t, we can

selecting
evaluate the above integral m terms of components along these axes to get
KE =
- 2u^ylrv - 2<a,uJ~2uyu./y.) = WJ 19 n
wheie if. 18 the moment of momentum about
0, as seen from XYZ
If the xyz axes coincide with the principal axes of the body at 0, we
have
19.3 ENERGY CONSIDERATIONS FOR RIGID BODIES 549
KE = I + lyA + 19-12
We thus have similar expressions for the kinetic energy of a body under-
going pure rotation and for the general motion in which we have involved
the mass center as you probably expected.
In freshman physics we learned that the kinetic energy of a body rotat-
ing about a fixed axis, as shown in Fig. 19.4, is given as:
KE = /wV2 19.13
Let us see how the general equation for kinetic energy of rotation degen-
erates to this result. Consider any point A along the axis of rotation and
set up a reference xyz so that the z axis coincides with the axis of rotation.
Clearly, wj = = 0. Thus, going to Eq. 19.1 1, we have:
KE = 19.14
which corresponds to the formula from physics.
19 3 ENERGY FORMULATIONS FOR CONSERVATIVE SYSTEMS
The preceding formulations may be used most effectively in prob-

lems involving only conservative forces. You will recall from Chapter 15
that under such conditions the law of conservation of mechanical energy
is valid for motion relative to an inertial reference for any aggregate
of
particles.
Having computed the kinetic energy of a rigid body, we will next com-
pute the potential energy of a rigid body due to gravity so that we will be
able toemploy the conservation of mechanical energy equation effectively
for rigid bodies.
Using some arbitrary datum plane parallel to the ground
and denoting the elevation to 'the particles from the datum plane with the
symbol z, as shown in Fig. 19.5,' we can then say for any aggregate of
particles:
PE = ^ m,gz. 19.15
6
Fgre 19 5
and for a ngid body, this becomes
PC = 19 W
Taking g as constant, ^ e see that the potential energy of the ngid body can
be given as
PE = g = gMz^ = If'r, 19 17
and thus no need only consider the position of the mass center m computing
potential energies due to gravity We shall now consider several examples
that illustrate the rule of conservation of mechaTiical energy in the case
of ngid bodies
Example 1 1 A c> Itndcr of radius a rolls v> ilh no slipping from a positioa
of rest do7.n an incline of angle $ (Fig 106) After the center has de-
scended a height of h nhat is the angular v eloeitj of the c> Imder
Figure 19
A)thougW a friction force is present it does no worV at anj time since

ne\ CT movinE as a result iA the no slipping requirement The normal
il IS
forcesfrom the plane also do no work, leaving only the action of gravitj,
which we know is a conservative force field t\c maj clearly apply the
conservation of mechanical cnergj pnnciple
A pnnnpal set of axes fixed to the body at the moss center has been
shonm Using the final position of the mass center os the datum for poten
tml energy and noting tbit and Wf arc sero, we have for the conserva-
tion of mechanic'll energy
0 4- Îgh - [JJ/t* -f +0 (n)
Here wc have two unknowns in the equation u, and ^ By emplojing

the DO slipping condition at the point of contact, B, we will introduce a sec-
ond equation. For pure rotation about point B, we can say:

Xi = (osjfc) X (aj)
X = WrO
Substituting into Eq. (a) and solving for os,, we get:
_ / Mgh
~ + J))
(c)
We could have chosen the line of contact on the incline at the initial
and computing kinetic energies, since the body is
final positions for
instantaneously in rotation about these lines. Consequently, by choosing
Figure 19.7
principal axes as shown in Fig. 19.7, we can compute the kinetic energies
from Eq, 19.12. We can then say:
0 h Mgh ~ -|- 0
Using the transfer theorem for moments of inertia, we see that the angular
velocities co, and w,- are equal, as was to be e.xpected.
In the previous problem we

considered a single rigid body. Clearly, we
may also consider the conservation theorem for a system of rigid bodies if
the connections beUveen these bodies are frictionless and if only conserva-
tive external and internal forces perform work on the bodies. The next
example illustrates such a case.
Example 2: Two rods AB and BD are of equal length I and are connected
by a frictionless pin at B (Fig. 19.8). Rod AB is held to the vertical wall
by a frictionlcss pin connection at A, and BD rides in a frictionless slot
at D. The rods each have a weight W
and are connected at their midpoints
by a spring having a spring constant K. When the bars make an angle ft
with the vertical wall, the spring is unsti etched. If the system is released
from such a configuration, what will be the angular velocity of the bars
when the bars have reached an angle with the vertical?
Since only conservative forces are acting on this system, we can use
the conservation of mechanical energy theorem. Furthermore, the motion
552 ENERGY CONSIDERATIONS FOR RIGID BODIES 519 3
IS confined to pUne AKA quick observation reveals that since pm D

movea along a Imc
straight AD
and since the bars are of equal length
an alna>s mamtained and both bars have the same
isosceles triangle is
angular \anation dS/dl Let us compute the kinetic energy of the bars m
terms of 0 and 0 liar {B is at all times in pure rotation about an axis
parallel to Z ut fixed point A, so we maj say
ihV)^, - UI..)a /3> t)
Since bar BD is in plane motion e slrnU consider its (.enter of mass and
can say
(A)- jjIf + |(U.|J> (b!
e shall next determine m tenns of 0 and 0 by kinematical considera-

tions Tsotc first that the velocity of point B is easily computed m terms
of 0 and 0 by considering the rotation of bar AB The angular velocity
of body BD is known, and thus we ma> employ Chaslea theorem to get
F'. Fa + wXp (c)
If the angular variation ^ is a negative number (as it oill be for this prob-
lem), the proper angular velocity vector for AB
is 0k and the correct
angular velocity vector for BD is
The same formulations will
result if a positive 0 u considered, as you can readily reason out yourself
by using the prev lous diagram Equation (c) thus bwomes for this prob-
lem
} t = 0k X (Isin 0t t CW0JD + (~0k) X |bid^ i
W)
Carrying out the computation^ we have
r. - sm d i ^ cos 3 i -f 1
Hence:
Fc = sin 0J -h cos Pi
And Vl is:
Y? = ^4
(9 sin= /J + cos^ y3) = ^4
(1 +8 sin== (e)
The kinetic energy for bar BD is then:
(KE)bd = (I
+ sin= + (/). (f)
You can readily show that the stretch in the spring, 5, for an angle /3 is:
5 = (|1 cos p cos /3o) (|l cos ^ il cos /So) = l(cos /3 cos /So)
and thus the potential energy of the spring is:
(PÔapring = = |Ki*(cOS jS - COS /So)* (h)
Finally, we must compute the potential energy change due to gravity.

Using the position of the center of mass of A B at /So as the datum, we
have for the bar AB:
iPEeT^vhy)AD = w(^- cos (So - cos S (i)

^ ^
Also for bar BD we have, using the position of its center of mass at So
as the datum:
(,PE)bd = W (if cos So |f cos S) (j)
The conservation of mechanical energy can now be employed. At posi-

tion So, we have no kinetic and no potential energy of the system and
thus can say:
-b
=^
is
{I.r)A /3^ -b
W - (cos So -
Collecting terms
^Q
cos S)
-f sin*
+ 2Wf(cos
and rearranging, we have:
s)
j9o
+ ^ (/)c S*
cos S)
1
+ g Af*(cos S cos So)*
j^21Ff Af*(cos S cos So) (cos S cos So) (k)

I J
Solving for S and taking the negative root as pointed out earlier, wc get:
A _ _ r [2TFf iAf*(cosS cos/?o)](cos/3 co3So) ~|'^~

L (/)V2-b(/)/2-b(Tff*//7)(i-bsin*S) J
554 ENERGY CONSIDERATIONS FOR RIGID BODIES |194
19 A WORK EHERGY RELATIONS
We can extend the \%ork*energy relation for a single particle to a

rigid body bj summing these relations for all elements the rigid bodym
In this nay, ne mil be able to formulate energy relations for rigid bodies
that are valid for conservative as well as for non-conscrvative forces In
Section 10 3ne saw that the virtual work of internal forces is zero for
and you should be able to show as an exercise by a similar
rigid bodies,
argument that the work done by internal forces is always zero for ngid-
body motion if Newton's third law is to be satisfied We then compute the
work done on a rigid body in moving from configuration I to configuration
II by summing the work terms for all the external forces Thus for the
Configuration I
body shown in Fig 19 Owe can express the work between I and II in the
maimer
following
,ii -II
(Work)in
" F* dsj 4-
' /. /
Jl p*H J Jl path s
4- }
Fn' ds, 19 la
Jl path n
iihere, we must remember, the non-consenalue forces are to be integrated

over the actual paths over which the points applicalton on the rigid body
mote And the vanation of direction or magnitude of these forces along
the path must be accounted for in the integrations
Although we can handle couples as sets of discrete forces in the above
manner, it is often useful to take adiantage of the special properties of
couples and to handle them separately We have already shown exam- m
pies that a torque rotating through an angle A0 about its work

axis does
in the amount TAB. Consider the more general case of the work done by a
couple-moment M
acting on the rigid body we discussed in the previous
paragraph that moves from configuration I to II. Shown in Fig. 19.10 is the
body at configuration I at time t. Using Ghasle's theorem, we choose some
point 0 along the line of action of
either force of the couple and assume
that the body has at the time t a Axis of rotation
velocity of translation Vo And the axis using Chasles theorem
of rotation of the body, then, must

go through point 0, as shown. The
angular velocity vector w for time t
is shown along this axis of rotation.
Using this description of the motion
we can say that the differential change
in configuration during an elapse of
time dt isa translational displacement
Vo dt and a rotation dt. Clearly, we
need only consider the rotation in
order to evaluate the work done by
the couple during this interval. The
perpendicular to the line of action of F
is drawn from 0 and is shown as d. Figure 19.10
It is plain that with this viewpoint
only force F does work. We compute
the work by first multiplying the component of the angular velocity in
the direction normal to the plane of the couple by dt to get the differential
rotation of the force F in the plane of the couple during the time inter-
val dt. Thus:
dd = CO Cndt
where the unit vector normal to the plane of the couple. The rotations
e is
of the forcestemming from the other orthogonal components of the angular
velocity give the force no displacement whatsoever in the direction of
the
force; thus there is no work produced by the force from these rotations.
By multiplying dd by d, therefore, we get the only displacement in the di-
rection of the force, and by multiplying by IF] we get the work during the
time interval dt. Thus;
dWK = [F] d e dt
Since variations of the magnitude and direction of F and w during dt

only bring in second-order terms, they are neglected in
the above formula-
tion. But jFj d is the magnitude of the couple-moment, that is, \M\, and
556 ENERGV CONSIDERATIONS FOR RIGID BODIES 5194
u e can be given as Iwl cos ( e,)f or, since Af and e are colinear, as
|wl cos Thus we can rewrite Uie aboi^ equation as
dlFs = |^/(Im( cos dt
and from the definition of the dot product ive then have the result
d)K/f A/ sadt 1919
In going from configuration I to II we can integrate the above e\:pres-

sion
M w dt 19 20
The couple-moment Af and w may have variation* in going from I to II

that must be accounted for during integration \ ou should be able to see
how the simpler relation TA8 is formulated from the more general Eq 19 20
We thus have formulations for ascertaining the work, done by forces
and couples For the conservative forces we know from Chapter 15 that
we can use a quantity that is minus the change m potential energy from
1 lo \\ as the work done by ibe conservative force from I to II mtbout
having to specify the path taken
Using this inform itirm for computing work, we can then say for any
rigid body
Work done by forces and
coupless fioni I to 11 ** Change in hC from I to II 19 21
where we employ on the right side of the equation the formulations 19 7,
19 11, or any of the appropriate simplifications In addition we can extend

this equation to include systems of ngid bodies
Example A constant forte P is exerted on a rod of wtightlVIHg 19 U)

The rod is supported by fnctionless nails If the rod starts from a posi
Figure 19 11
tion of rest when /3 = 45, as shown in the diagram, what is its angular
speed when the end A has moved a distance d = 5 ft?
/3
Here we have a rigid body undergoing plane motion. By considering

a set of axes at the center of mass where the z axis corresponds to the direc-
tion normal to the plane, we see tliat the expression for kinetic energy,
Eq. 19.7, becomes;
KE - p/y? -f (a)
since Ux = 0. For a zero initial kinetic energy, the work-energy

relation then becomes:
work of forces P and W= -}- (b)
We must determine the distance that the weight is raised and use W
kinematical relations to determine in terms of /3 at the configuration
corresponding to d = 5 ft. To find how far IF is raised, we utilize the fact
that the rod has a constant length, and from the previous diagram it is
clear that;
(10 - d)- + (10 + AynV = 200

Substituting for d = 5 ft and solving for Aj/b, we get:
Ai/b = 3.25 ft (c)
Consequently, IF rises 2 this value, i.e., 1 .625 ft. Next, consider the rod
in the configuration of interest shown in Fig. 19.12. We see by inspection
that the velocity of the mass center can be given in terms of the velocity
of the ends A and B:
V,.,Vh.
,,
> c I + J (d)
Using Chasles theorem to relate the velocity of the mass center and
point A, we get;
Y ^
+ yi = X + 6.62j) (e)
Solving, we find that yn/2 = 2.5^ and Y aI2 = 6.62/3. From Eq. (d) we
then have;
Y\ = (
2.52 -f 6.622)13= = 50/3= (f)
Using results (c) and (f), we can now reconsider Eq. (b)
5P - 1 .625 IF =I (50^2) -i- {hW (g)

y \
i-
With (/)c = 16.7(lF/ff) we can solve for d in the following manneil;
^
" O' f ')
Before leaving this problem, we should point out that the angulaêloc-
ity of the rod can be related to the velocity of the mass center in
.Mother
effective manner. By extending perpendicular lines from the' velocity
F}r: 19 12 Figtire 19 13
vectors at X and B, as shoMi m

Hg 19 13, v.c locate the instantaneous
venter ol rotation for the motion II is then immediately apparent that
r 50 and Vi 13 250
and thus vre say.
(^y + (^y (2 5' + 6 62>)^> - 50|3'
19 5 SUMMAHY
TVe have covered in the last two chapters the salient features of
Nentons Ian and its derived concepts of linear momentum, moment of
momentum, and energy, as they pertain to ngid bodies You will recall
that in Chapter 18, for cases where the axis of rotation of a body goes
through a fixed point at all times but docs not have a fixed orientation m
inertial space, we used Euler's equations The mathematieal difFiculties
of the problem, however, prevented us from intcgnting those equations,
although vve employed them at times to determine forcas, angular accelera-
tions, and certain instantaneous values of angular velocity In the next
chapter, vve sliall examine this problem again and shall set forth further
concepts and definitions that are helpful in the analysis of the general
nature of this complex motion
ENERGY CONSIDERATIONS FOR RIGID BODIES 559
PROBLEMS
1. What is the kinetic energy of a propeller having a radius of gyration of 2 ft
and weighing 40 lb, when it is rotating at 500 rpm relative to the airplane,
which moves at a speed of 200 mi/hr?
2. In Fig. 19.14, a homogeneous rectangular parallelopiped weighing 200 lb ro-
tates at 20 rad/sec about a main diagonal about bearings A and B, which are
mounted on a vehicle moving at a speed of 50 ft/sec. What is the kinetic energy
of the rectangular parallopiped?
Figure 19.14
3. A thin disc weigliing 100 lb is suspended from a vehicle moving at a speed of

30 ft/sec (Fig. 19.15). If the disc and its support rotate in the plane of the
page (i.e., ZY plane) at an angular speed of 5 rad/sec, compute the kinetic
energy of the disc.
4. Find the kinetic energy of the cylinder in Example 4, Chapter 18.
5. Find the kinetic energy of the thin disc in problem 8, Chapter 18.
6. Considering the connecting rod AB to be a slender rod weighing 2 lb, compute
itskinetic energy for the data given in Fig. 19.16.
560 ENERGV CONSIDERATIONS FOR RIGID BODIES
7 At time I the body B has an

instantaneous axis of rotation going through point
P as shown m Fig 19 17 At pmnt P
this axis has the foHoiving set of direc-
tion cosines relative to the principal axes of the body at that point 1*04
jn = 0 3 and n = 0 886 Furthermore it is knomr at that point that the prin
cipal moments of inertia arc
* 100 slugs ft*
/ = 300 slugs ft*

/ * SO slugs ft*
Compute the kinetic energy of the body if it is rotating at an angular speed

of 20 rad/sec
8 Using energy methodx determine the natural frequency of the compound pen
dulum in problem 23 Chapter 18 for small vibrations
9 Using energy methods determine the natural frequency of oscillation of the
cylinder m problem 25 Chapter 18
lO Using energy methods set up the differential equation of motion for the thin
rod which is constrained m Fig 19 18 to move m the plane of the page The
rod has a length I and a weight IF and is connected at A to a spnng haiing
spring constant A Neglect friction at the hinge Limit the analvsis to small
vibrations
Figure 19 18
11 Four identical rods each of length f = 4 ft and weight 20 lb are connected

at the frictionless pins A B C and Dm
Fig 1919 A
spring of spring constant
A * 30 Ib/in connects pins and C and a weight IF* of 100 lb is supported
B
at pm D The sjstem is released from a conffguration where B = 45 If the
spring is not compressed at tliat conffguration compute the maximum deflec
tion of the weight U*
12 A uniform cylinder of radius r and weight It ) 13 shown in Fi^ 1920 Aweight
Wi which we shall consider a irtitle because of its small physical dimensions
is placed ate a distance a fnnuD the center of the disc such that 0(7 is vertical
What 13 the angular velocity of the cylinder when after it is released from
rest the point G reaches its lowest deration as shown at the nght? The
cylinder rolls without slipping
13. A homogeneous shown in Pig. 19.21 with a fine

solid cylinder of radius 1 ft is
wire held fixed at A and wrapped around the cylinder. If the cylinder is released
from rest, what will its velocity be when it has dropped 10 ft?
14. In Pig. 19.22, three identical bars, each of length / and weight W, are connected
to each other and a wall by smooth pins at A, B, C, and D. A spring having
spring constant K
is connected to the center of bar BC at E
and to a pin at F,
which is free to slide in the slot. Compute the angular speed ^ as a function of
time if the system is released from rest when AB and DC are at right angles to
the wall. The spring is unstretched at the outset of the motion. Neglect friction.
15. A 15-lb weight is suspended from a light cord wrapped around a cylinder of
radius 2 ft and weight 100 lb (Pig. 19.23). What is the angular velocity of the
cylinder after it has started from rest and rolled without slipping a distance
of 10 ft?
16. In Pig. 19.24, a right circular cone of weight 32,2 lb, height 4 ft, and cone
angle 20 is allowed to roll without slipping on a plane surface inclined at an
angle of 30 to the horizontal. The cone is started from rest when the line of
contact is parallel to the X
axis. What is the angular speed of the centerline
of the cone when it has its maximum kinetic energy?
17. A \yindlass is shown in Pig. 19.25, The rotating part weighs 75 lb and has a
radius of gyration of 1 ft. When the suspended weight of 20 lb is dropping
at a speed of 20 ft/sec, a 100-lb force is applied to the lever at A. This applies
the brake shoe at B, where there is a coefficient of friction of 0.5. How far will
the 2Q-Ib weight drop before stopping?
562 ENERGV CONSIDERATIONS FOR RIGID BODIES
~{
I
201^
Fissure 19 23
18 Neglecting tlie weight of the cable m Tjg 10 2G, find the speed of the 100-lb
\\eight after it has moved S it along the inclipc irom a position of rest The
coefficient of friction along the incline is 0^
19. A belt neighing 10 lbis mounted oicr two pulleys of diameters 1 ft and 2 ft,
respectively, as isshown wFig 1927 The radius of gyration and weight for
pulley Aare 0 in and 50 lb, respects ely, and for pulley 5
are 9 in and 200 lb,
reapectivclj A constant torque of 20 Ib-in is applied to pulley A After 30
rc%olution3 of pulley A, what will its angular sp^ be if the sjatem starts
from rest? There is no slipping between belts and pullcjs. and pulley B turns
freely
20 In Fig. 19.23, two identical members, AU and BC, arc pinned together at B
Also member BC is pinned to Uie wall at C Each member weighs 325 Ib and
H 20 ft long A spring having a spnng Minstant K 20 Ib/ft is connected to
the centers of the members Aforcepa* 1001b is applied to member AB at A
If initially the members arc inclined 45* to the ground and the spnng is un
stretched, what is d after A has moiftl 2 ft?
21. In Fig. 19.29, a stepped cylinder weighing 30 lb with a radius of gyration of

1 ft isconnected to a 50-ft chain weighing 100 lb. The chain hangs down from
the horizontal surface a distance of 10 ft when the system is released. Determine
the speed of the chain when 30 additional feet of chain have come off the hori-
zontal surface. The coefficient of friction between the chain and the horizontal
surface is 0.2, and the smaller diameter of the stepped cylinder is 4 in.
Figure 19.30 mmmm.
22. A flexible cord of total length 50 ft and weighing 50 lb is pinned to a wall and is
wrapped around a cylinder having a radius of 4 ft and weighing 30 lb as shown
in Fig. 19.30, A 50-lb force is applied to the end of the cord. What is the speed
of the cylinder after the end of the cord has moved 10 ft? The system starts
from rest in the configuration shown in the diagram. Neglect potential energy
considerations arising from the sag of the upper cord.
\
Motion
of a Body
about a Fixed Point
20 1 INTRODUCTION
In Chapters 18 and 19, we developed equations

that permitted us to compute the linear and angular ac-
celeration of ngid body motions IVe examined a number
of classes of problems for which it is often possible, once
these accelerations arc expressed to describe the velocity
and po!ition variations vth time by pursuing rather
elraightforward integmtion procedures These problems
564
20.2 '
MOTION OF A BODY ABOUT A FIXED POINT 565
generally fell into three classes: pure translation, rotation about a fixed
axis, and plane motion. Cases of bodies rotating about a fixed point for
which the axis of rotation is not fixed have come up in the problems, but
you will recall that in these cases the motion was either known and you
had the relatively easy task of computing the reactions, or you computed
only certain instantaneous values. In this chapter, we will examine the
entire motion of a rotating rigid body which is acted on by certain forces
and which always has the same point fixed in an inertial reference. This
will lead to an examination of a very important device ^the gyroscope.
As a first step, we shall set forth an effective method of locating a rigid
body in space contrained so that one point is fixed.
20.2 EULER ANGLES
Shown in Fig. 20.1 is a rigid body spinning about the fixed point,
which serves as the origin of both the inertial reference XYZ and the refer-
Figure 20.1
ence xyz fixed to the body. It is clear that the position of xyz gives at any
instant the orientation of the body. Therefore, we
should like an effective
means of describing the position of xyz relative to a stationary reference
XYZ. We could give certain direction cosines, etc., but it is more common
and useful to employ the Eulerian angles for this purpose. We shall now
demonstrate that if we start with xyz in a position which coincides with
XYZ, we can, by specifying three successive rotations in a specific sequence,
arrive at any desired orientation of xyz. The three angles are the Eulerian
angles.
1. In Fig. 20.2, a rotation counterclockwise about the Z axis, as we

\}/
look toward the origin, brings us to an intermediate position x'y'z'.

Note that plane I has been formed by this step.
566 MOTION Of A BODY ABOUT A FIXED POINT {202
Figure 20 2
2 Using the x' axis in Fig 20 3 as an axis of rotation, w e rotate through

an angle 6 in the countercloclovise direction, looking toward the
origin *1116 axM I'yV become
, and plane
I rotates into
plane II by this step Note that the ij" axis represents the intersection
of the plane containing the z'* and Z axes (shomi as plane III) and
plane II
Figure 20 3 Figure 20 t
3 Finally, a third rotation ^ counterclockwise, looking ton ard the origin

about the z" axis brings us to the final x^z position (Fig 20 4)
A clockwise rotation about any of the above axes, when looking toward
the ongin, corresponds to a negative Euler angle
Note that angular displacements are not \ector quantities and thus
when we carry out the operations for a given 0, and 6 m a different se-
quenct. from that given the result maj be a different final position of the
aye reference Notice further that the rotations were taken about the
Z avis, then about an intermediate axis, x\ sometimes called the line of
nodes, and finally about the final body axis, z The line of nodes, it should
203 MOTION OF A BODY ABOUT A FIXED POINT 567
be noted, is the intersection of planes I and II, which we have identified

during the operation. These rotation axes are not orthogonal generally.
We also associate names with these angles:
^ is the angle of precession
9 is the angle of nutation
4> is the angle of spin
20.3 PHYSICAL INTERPRETATION OF THE EULER ANGLES
We have shown in the previous section that the position of a body

moving with a fixed point can be established by three rotations given in
a certain sequence. For an infinitesimal change in position, this would
mean a rotation d\l/ about the Z axis, d6 about the line of nodes, and d<j)
about the body axis z. Because these rotations are infinitesimal, they may
be construed as vectors, and the order mentioned above is no longer re-
quired. The limiting ratios of these changes in angles with respect to time
give rise to three angular velocity vectors, which we express in the fol-
lowing manner:
4>, directed along the Z axis

6, directed along the line of nodes
4i, directed along the z body axis
These vectors characterize the motion of the rigid body. Note that they are
not orthogonal to each other (see Fig. 20.5).
Z z Z
The usefulness of these velocitycomponents and consequently of the

Eulerian angles from which they were developed may be demonstrated if
we consider the simple situation shown in Fig. 20.6. A top is rotating
about a fixed point 0. You rvill probably intuitively consider three
angular
rotation vectors One is the spin about the body eenteriine. one the change
in inclination of this centerline with the and the third the manner
\ertical,
m -which the centerline rotates about the vertical axis These may be con-
sidered to be the spin velocity the nutation \eIocJty 0, and the pre-
cession velocity respectively
20 4 EULCR S EQUATIONS
Since one point in the body is fixed in an inertial reference, we

can write Eulers equations for a body reference with the origin at that
point, provided the body reference is coincident with the principal axes
We shall first relate the angular i elocity components w,, and a., which
are needed m Eulers equations, to the angular velocities described m the
previous section In Fig 207 we have shown the three vectors and^,
and have decomposed ^ into two orthogonal components in plane III along
the E direction and along they" direction By lospectingthediagram, ne can
express w and w, in terms of the time derivatives of the Euler angles
cos^ + ^Rin0Bm6 <a)
*= tfsin + sin 5 cos ^

<> if <h)
w* ^ -f" / cos 0 (c) 20
Note that the spin angular velocity appears only m the component
Eulers equations of motion then become
cos -b ^ sin 0 sin

^ ^
+ (/ /,)( 0sm + tf sin 0cos<^)((f -f ^cos 0)
20.5 MOTION OF A BODY ABOUT A FIXED POINT 569
Mu = lyy T,
at
(-^ sin 4) + i/' sin 0 cos <^)
20.2
+ (I XX Ixx)iO cos (f> + ^ sin 8 sin (^)(0 -j- ^ cos 8}
M, =
^
+ ihu cos 4> + ^}xsin8 sin <^)( ^ sin sin 6 cos 4)
Given a set of moments as functions of time, we would certainly have a

fearsome time integrating these equations to determine the Euler angles
as functions of time. Note further that the forces are usually known but
the moments about the fixed point depend on the motion
of these forces
which is being ascertained. Thus Af*, My, and Mz are usually functions
of the unknown angles. It may be apparent by this time why we could
not undertake problems in this class as straightforward applications of
Eulers equations. We shall now consider these equations for some very
simple, albeit significant, cases.
While we have developed Eq. 20.2 for a fixed point, it is also valid for
the motion of abody about the mass center, as you may yourself establish
by re-examining the development of this equation.
PART A. Torque-Free Motion
20.5 TORQUE-FREE MOTION OF A BODY OF REVOLUTION
We now consider the case where z is geometrically an axis of rev-

olution of the body (i.e., Ixx = !) and where M = 0 at times about a
all
stationary point or the center of mass. When M = we term the system

0,
torque-free. An example of such a system is the simple gyroscope shown
in Fig. 20.8. A heavy mass rotates about a shaft RR, which is held by a
igure 20.8
570 MOTION OF A BODV ABOUT A FIXED POINT SS0 5
gimbal that is free to rotate about 00 at right angles to RR The axis 00

IS raaintained by a second gunbal that is free to rotate about MM at right
angles to 00 The gimbals have very little friction and ive can for our pur
poses, consider them we have, in effect, three directions
fnctionless Thus,
in space along which no moment can be transmitted to the body from the
supporting system Thus if these axes are not all coplanar, no moment
can be transnutted to the body from the supports And since gravity can
not develop moment about the mass center m a uniform gravitational
field, the body is torque-free at the mass center, when the axes are in their
usual non-coplanar onentatmn
Let us now e'mmme the equations of torque-free motion and later we
will return to the gyroscope First consider the general relation
f = H
Since M is zero, H must be constant Thus
If Ha 20 3
where Ha is the initial moment of momentum either about a fixed point

or about the mass center, depending on the problem Let us arrange the
system so that the 2 axis coincides with the direction of Ho This simplifies
the problem and still does not detract from the generahty of our conclu
Bions Using Fig 20 7, we can express Ho in terms of its s, y, and z com
ponents in the following way
lU Hosm flain<^ -h sin 5 cos -h Hcos5 A. M4
Fur the principal axes we see from Eq 18 8 that
Ho = + /ovWfcl + 20 5
Companng Cqs 20 4 and 20 5, we then have

H sin B sin 4>
- j
**
(a)
Ho sin 6 cos 

(b)
i
Ho cos B
- /
<c) 294
By using the preceding formulations for and a we can write Euler s

equations in a form that includes the constant Ho m the following way
J
""
^] + -j ~ HI sm cos 8 cos - 0 (a)
dl[ / ]+ IJ,.
(b)
(c) 20 7
Since the body is a body of revolution about the s axis, the second expres-
sion of Eq. (c) is zero, and from this equation it is then clear that:

Ho cos 6
i zt
= const.
,
20.8
Thus, since Ho and hz are constant, we can conclude from this equation
that the nutation angle is a fixed angle 6o. Now consider Eq. (b), using the
fact that 6 = 6o. Cancelling Ho and carrying out the differentiation, we get:
- Lz
sin 9o sin (^) (^ -f- Ho sin 00 cos 00 sin ^ = 0
J-xx ^zz
0 = Ho cos 00
Integrating, we wite:
L Irxizz
Ho cos 00 i + (jio
Thus the spin speed, <^, is constant in accordance with Eq. 20.9, and the
spin angle changes linearly with time in accordance with Eq. 20.10.
To get the precession angle, we equate the right sides of Eqs. 20.1(c)
and 20.6(c), which are expressions for Uzi
-f tA cos 00 = I zz
20.11
Substituting for 4> from Eq. 20.9 and solving for we get:
Ho
Y~
7 tt Jz.
4' = J-zz * xxi zz
Collecting terms, we have:

7 Ho .. Ixx Izz Ho
L Ixx j~17x
Thus we see that the precession speed must also be constant. Integrating,
we then have for the final Euler angle,
lA =
^ XX
+ lAo 20.13
The results of the discussion for torque-free motion of the body of revolu-
tion may then be given as:
20.14

Hence, if a body of revolution is torque-free as, for example, in the
case illustrated in Fig 209, Txherc the center of mass is fixed and has
initially on angular momentum
vector Hz in the direction we
Z have chosen Z axis then
for the
the angular momentum H is
constant and equals Hj Further-
more, the body wll have a
motion that consists of a con-
stant angular velocity of the
centerline about the Z axis (pre-
cession) at a fixed inchnation
6g from Z, plus a constant spin
speed about the centerline
(}>
Thus two angular velocity vec-

tors, ^ and are present, and
the total angular velocity js
at an inclination of from the
Z axis (see Fig 20 10) and pre-

ecsscs tvilh angular speed ^ about the Z axis This must be true,
since the direction of one component, rotates m this manner while the
other component, 4'i is h-'ved m the Z direction The vector u, then, may
be considered to sweep out a cone, as is illustrated m Fig 20 10
Flpure 20 10
Upon further consideration, we can make a simple model of this motion

Imagine that we ha% c a fixed cone of the shape just described, and a second
cone of half angle p corresponding to the angle between the z and w direc-
tions (Fig 20 11) This second cone is rotated about its axis of symmetry
with the spin speed d, and the condition of no slipping is imposed between
the cones Tlie line of contact between the cones, then, forms the instan-
taneous axis of rotation for the moving cone and is thus the direction of the
resultant angular velocity of the moving cone, which includes as com-
ponents the spin, and vP, a processional
motion imposed by the no-slipping condition. ^
It would appear that the mechanical model
portrays the motion of the physical case.
We would be assured of this if we knew
that the magniiude of the resultant angu-
lar velocity of the cone corresponds to
that of the physical problem and that the
precession velocities are equal for both
systems. We know now that:
a. ^ is the same for both device and
physical case.
b. The direction of resultant w is the same for both cases.
c. The direction of ^ must be the same for both cases, i.e., the Z direction.
This is shown in Fig. 20.12. Since ^ is the same in both the physical case
and the mechanical model and since the directions of w (the resultant
angular velocity) and of ^ (the other component) are the same for both
Figure 20.12
diagrams, when Ave consider the construction of the parallelogram of

vectors, we see that the vectors ^ and 4' must necessarily be equal for both
the physical case and the model. We shall now investigate more carefully
the relation between the senses of rotation for corresponding angular
velocities between the model and the physical case for various classes of
geometries of the physical body.
1- Ixx> lit. From Eq. 20.14(c), ive see that when do is less than -H-/2
radians, 4> is positive for this case. This means that the spin must be
counterclockwise as one looks along the z axis toward the origin.
From Eq. 20.14(b), Ave see that 4 is positive and thus counterclock-
wise as one looks toAvard the origin along Z. It is clear from these
stipulations that the rolhng-cone model shown earlier gives the proper
motion for this case The motion is termed reptdar precession
2 / < I Here the spin ^ mil be negative for a nutation angle less
than 90' However, the precession ^ must still be positive according
to Eq 20 14(b) The rollmg-cone model as thus far presented clearly
cannot give these proper senses, but if the moving cone is inside
the stationary cone, v.e have motion that is consistent with the rela-
Figure 20 13
tiona in Eq 20 14 (Fig 20 13) Such motion is called retrograde

precession
3 / Here the spin velocity must be zero, leaving only one
angular motion 4'i
the precession This motion is about the Z axis,
so the direction of angular velocity corresponds to Hi Since this is a

bodi of revolution (/ ** J), the condition for this case (ht " /*)
means that the moments of inertia for the z, y, and s axes are mutu-
ally equal, and we can verify from Eq 17 8 that all axes inchned to
the xys referenco-have the same moment of inertia I (and are there-
fore all principal axes at the point) Thus the body, if homogeneous,
would be that of a sphere, a cube, any regular polyhedron, or, in
general, any body that possesses point symmetry No matter hew tcc
launch this body, the angular momenlum H
will be eqwd to ul and unU
thus aliiays coincide with the dtreclton of angular lelocily u The mo-
tion, therefore, roust always be a simple spm about this ayas This
may also be shown analytically as follows
IJ = //, + HJ + ff.A. 2015
For principal axes, we have

II~ uJui + 4- 20 16
1f J = J, we have for the above

H = /(<dii -!- Wgj -J- u,k) / 20 IT
indicating that ff and must be cohnear

There are two other situations in which the direction of If and the
w are cohnear Examining Eq 20 14 we thus see that if is
direction of
90, ^ is zero, leaving only \j/ ss & rotation about the Z axis, which for the
analysis corresponds to the direction of H. This case corresponds to a proper
drop kick or place kick of a football (Fig. 20.14).
Impulsive moment M
Top view of football
gives rise \oHo
Figure 20.14
The other case consists of 6o =

This means that and have the same
0. <j>
direction that is, along the Z which then means that u and
direction, H
again are colinear. This case corresponds to a good football pass (Fig.
20.15). For all other motions of bodies where hi ^ h^, the angular velocity
vector w will not have the direction of angular momentum Ho.
Impulsive A/
gives rise toHo
Figure 20.15
We can now draw these conclusions for torque-free motion. If a body of

vevolufion is given an initial motion that has a moment of momentum vector
ffo and the axis of symmetry is inclined at an angle 6o to the direction of this
57d MOTION OF A BODV ABOUT A FIXED POINT 5 206
ledor, the axis of symmetry of the body must precess aboid the fixed II direo-
iion and maintain the same ang?c 8p H
For an imiial % and Ho. the
spin leloaty aboal the axis of symmetry and the precession velocity aboui ike
direction II are then uniquely determined by the equations in 20 IJi
PART B The Sptnning Top
20 6 SYMMETRIC SPINNING TOP UNDER THE ACTION OF GRAVITY
We shall evaluate the motion of a bodj of reiolution moving

about a fixed pointwhen there is a moment due to gravity about that
point A spinning body of revolution is shown m Fig 20 16, where point 0
IS fixed and inll sene as an illustration of the problem to be studied
Let us first consider Eulers equations Since the gravity force goes
through the z axis, M, equals zero Also, since lu = In ^
ponent of Euler's equation (Eq 20 2) should pro\e relatively simple Thus
lie ha\e
^ ^ + 1 ^ cos ff) = 0 2018
Hence wo see that

ros B ~ Ut const = ^ 20 19
That is, the total angular velocity component along the body centerline
does not change and may be considered an initial condition of the motion
given as ^
Another Uêful relation may be dev eloped from the fact that the graiitj
force IS parallel to the Z axis and has therefore a zero moment about it
Thus
il/r = 0
Using the general relation M= //, we see immediately that the compo-
nent of H along the Z axis must be zero, and so:
Hz const. = K 20.21
This is another constant determined by initial conditions. To bring in

desirable variables, we shall express Hz in terms of the components of H
along the x, y, and z directions. From Fig. 20.7 we see that;
a. Projection of Hx along Z direction = Hx sin sin tj) B
b. Projection of Hy along Z direction = Hy cos ^ sin 9
c. Projection of Hz along Z direction = //. cos 6 20.22
The total component of H along Z is then
Hx sin ^ sin 0 -p Hy cos sin ^ + Hz cos 6 = K 20.23
Since xyz are principal axes, Hx, Hy, and Hz are /nWi, lyyiiiy, and Izt^z,
respectively. Using Eq. 20.1 for the angular velocity components, we then
have:
/(^ cos<f>-{- 4' sin 6 sin <#>) sin <f>

sin 6
+ + 4' sin 6 cos <f)) cos <#> sin 0 + Izi(4> + 4' cos 6) cos 6 = K
20.24
Since = lyy = I, the above equation simplifies to:
14/ sin* 6 -f- Izz{<j> + 4/ cos B) cos B K 20.25
Noting that (,4> +

4/ cos B) in this equation is the constant we then have
as a result of the two momentum considerations the following equations with
two unknowns, 4/ and 0:
14/ sin* 0 + Izz& COS0 = K 20.26
We may make good use now of energy considerations because we have

here a system for which the only work done is that by gravity a conserva-
tive force field. This provides the additional equation, since the potential en-
ergy) which is Mga cos B, with the fixed point as a datum, plus the kinetic
energy, (7/2) (wl wj) + iIzz/2) w?, must be conserved. Thus:
+ Mga cosB = E
I
((4 w*) -{-
Y w* -P 20.27
where E, the total energy, yet a third constant to be introduced. Again

is
replacing co o, and wj, using Eq. 20.1, we get:
2
[(^ cosrf) + 4/ sin 6 sin <^>)* -p ( ^ sin -p ^ sin 0 cos <^)*]
Mga cos =E
-P
^ /3* -p B 20.28
518 MOTION OF A BODY ABOUT A FIXED POINT |SQ6
Carrying out the algebra and canceling cro^s-products from squaring Tfe
ha\e
I
CO'S + -p' sin* 9 bin ^ +6 sin* ^ sin 9 c( s
+y^ + l/ffo cos 9 = 20 29
Simplifying the bracket by combining terms and multiplying through by ^

ne get the desired equation
sm* 8) + + 2Mga cos 6 = 2B 20 30
Notv tvc may combine Eqs 20 26 and 2030 by first solving for 4 ' m the
former That is
I cos 9
20 31
I sin* 6
Thus if we can determine 9 as a function of time we can integrate this

equation to get os a function of time Notv substitute into Eq 2030
/[<! + +2Vj<icosS = 2
Divide through by / multiply by sin* 9 and rearrange
S' sm> = ein'

9 (2C - I, S>) - cos
] - [7 -
[|
20 32
This equation is of the form
9 sm* 9 = sin* 9[Ci Ct cos 9] [(7, C\ cos 9]* 20 ^

where Cl C* Ci and C< are constants whose values are
C. - (2C - / 3) ()
^
(M
11 (e)
c -LS
C.-y m
To simplify the equation we introduce a new dependent variable w 1*0
that
tt cos 9 20 S'*
This means that u =* 9 sm 0 and 9* = n*/sm* 9 Thus the left side of

Eq 20^3 becomes u* Changing sin* 9 to I cos* 9 on the right side of
20 33 and then changing v anablee w e get the follow ing differential equa
tion which depicts the motion terms of m
20.7 MOTION OF A BODY ABOUT A FIXED POINT S79
)'
= (1 - u^KCt - C,u) ~ (Cz - C4ur 20.36
(f
Separating variables for this first-order differential equation in ti and
setting up the integration, we have the following quadrature:
fud) dll
[(1 - u^XCj - Con) - (C, - 20.37
'
20.7 AN EXAMINATION OF EXPECTED NUTATION VELOCITY
We could presumably integrate the above equation to determine

t u and then find 0 as a function of time (Eq. 20.35). From
as a function of
Eq. 20.31, we can also find as a function of time, and, finally, from Eq.
20.19 we can find 4>. For this case, therefore, we could determine the motion
fora given body of revolution, with initial conditions embodied in the
constants K, and E. However, the integral is not an easy one to evaluate
and results in so much mathematical complevity that the computations
obscure important general salient features of the motion. Thus, instead of
proceeding in the way we have just outlined, we shall use Eq, 20.36 to
deduce in a general way some important features of the motion.
Since the right side of Eq. 20.36 is a cubic, there are in general three
values of u, which reduce it to zero. This equation tells us that for those
values of , the time derivative of u and thus of 0 is zero except for the
special case where sin 0 = 0. At these values of u, the nutation velocity of
the centerline of the body is changing its sense. We shall therefore ex-
amine the roots of the right side of Eq. 20.36, which we will refer to as f(u)
That is:
^ ~
(fj 20.38
What approximately is The term of highest degree

the plot of /(w) vs. u?
in the function f(u) is Cû^, and this term will be dominant for the large
values of u. Thus for a large and positive u, CziC is positive,
and f(u) must
also be positive. For large negative values of u,
C%u^ is negative, and f{u),
too, is negative. Also, for the case of three real roots, the curve intersects
the u axis three times. With this information, we can thus' draw the pos-
sible cubic curve in Fig. 20.17.
The three rootsof /() have been shown as i, and Let us try to m
position these roots approximately. All physically
meaningful us must he
between d-l and 1, since cos 0 does not have a meaningful
value below
1 and above -f 1. Therefore, iio, which corresponds
to the initial condi-
tion, must lie within
these bounds. Also, since (du/dt)o, which corresponds
to the initial
nutation velocity, must be real, f(u)o must be equal to or
1
greater than zero (see Eq 20 38) This means that between u = +1 and
u 1, either positive curve-section 1 or positive curve-section 2 of/(u)
(seeFig 20 17) must be present Next examine /(u) for u = I This
becomes
/C)i-= -[Cz-C,ii)y 20 39
It \8 clear that /(u)*! must be negative or zero This fact eliminates the
possibiht> that curve-section 2 is in the region under consideration, since
it IS bordered only on one side by a negative region Thus it could not
satisfy the condition requiring it to have a negative or zero value at both
-fl and I and a positive value or zero value somewhere in
between these extremes Thus curve-section 1 is the correct curve-section
Figure 20 I8
betweenu -flandu 1, as has been ôwn in Fig 20 18 From this

curve, we may make the following deductions for the roots of /(u)
I < ^
< i <+
+1 < j <w 20 40
Wecan now make certain atatements about the behavior of nutation

for the spinning top Since Us m
general exceeds unity, it has no physical
meaning for us, so we drop it Thus i the general cai.e, there will be Itco
have physical meaning. Furthermore, for real values of

roots of /(m) tliat
(dv/dt) and thus for physically possible motions, it is necessary that/(w)
itself be positive. We see, then, that the possible values of u must lie be-
tween iti and Ui, as is shown in Fig. 20.18. This means that there mil be
two 6s6i and 62that corre-
spond to the roots Ui and U2,
between which the axis of the
top will be confined in its nuta-

tion. If there is only one root
in the region between 1,
the curve-section is tangent
to the u axis. The top Avill
not nutate but will remain

at a fixed angle Be, from the
vertical. This was the condi-
tion, you will remember, in
the torque-free body of revo-
lution we examined in the
previous section.
We can now prove, from
the equations thus far devel-
oped, that u(t) and conse-
quently B(t) is a periodic
function of time. To do this,
Ave examine u as plotted against time (Fig. 20.19). Note that we start
with an initial value, vo, in betwêen the extremes, Ui and 2(2, and that
the curAm, u(t), never exceeds the limitations, Mi and Uz, as developed
earlier. Since /() and hence {du/di) is zero at the extreme positions of
and the curAT u{i) mu.st bo tangent to the limiting lines at these ex-
Uj,
treme positions, as is shoAvu in Fig. 20.19. There can be no other positions

Avhere the slope is zero in the 21-t plane, since;
idu/dty- = m
du/dt dbv7(H.) 20.41
and we knoAv that /(m) can be zero only at the extremes Mi and mz, Avhere
limit lines haA'-e been established. Note also from the above equation that
for any given value of u in between the extremes there are tAvo slopes of
equal magnitude but of opposite signs. With this information, let us focus
our attention on the point a having coordinates {ui,tf). It is clear that du/dt
must be positive after passing fa and remain positive* until the other
* To become negative, dii/rli would have to be zero between 0 and h, which, as we

have shown, is not possible.
582 MOTION Of A BODY ABOUT A FIXED POINT $20 8
evtremc, Ut, is reached at b^ vvhere it hccooMss ngam zeio Tiic slope du/dl
IS on the other hand on approaching point (ui () For each value
negative,
of K, the curieson each side of the point a have slopes equal in magnilude
and opposite in sign, as we saw m
Tq 204! This means that the curve
section bejond fa is a mirror image about the horizontal axis I at a of the
cun e section before fa We can go through the same argument at point h
using axis II That is, section <7 is a mirfor image of section A about II
Thus, we can conclude that the curve is pcnodic the period t being the
time required to go from one extreme, ut, to the other extreme and back
to Ui
\ancs periodically, it can only mean that ff must vary periodi-
If cos ff
callyUsing the more familiar representation of the horizontal axis for f,

we can show fi(f) (Fig 2020) You should not make the mistake of con-
Fl^re20 20
eluding that this cunc is sinusoidal, it is periodic like the sine function
TAiw ue see that tn the general case of the spinning top, the azts of syrnmetri/
vnll penodtcally up and doten beltceen tuo hmUing angks
SO 8 THE PfIECCSSiOM AHD SeiH OF THE TO?
Now letus turn to the other aspects of the motion The precession
\eJocitj has been shown (Cq 2031) to be
,^h.:zAssiI
/ jjin*
Ku
Vi c can rew ntc the above equation as
The lanations of 0 and ^ give the motion of the sjmmctnc bodj axis s
Therefore, to help lUu-'tnle the nutation and precession, we mn> imagine
that the z axis is tracing out a path on a spherical surface whose center is
at the fixed point 'll ith this dev ice, let usexamine certain possible motions
of z m accordance with Cq 20 43 and the prev lous 'cctwm
Case 1.
a (cos 0)niax
iJ zzH
or
K
j ^
^ (cos ^)inin
We can see by inspecting Eq. 20.43 for this case that ^ cannot be zero
at any time. The precession angle, therefore, changes secularly in a sense
which depends on the geometry and initial conditions of the body. Fig-
ure 20.21 illustrates this case.
Case 2.
(cos 0)mtn ^ ^ (cos 0}inax
In this case, Eq. 20.43 indicates that can periodically have zero
velocity at one value of 0 within the extremes of nutation. This means that
there will be reversals of precessional motion, as is shown in Fig. 20.22.
Points on the curve shown at the same nutation angle, 0', represent posi-
tions of zero velocity of precession. It can be shown that despite this
icveisal effect, theie will always be a net precession per cycle of the
nutation angle.
Case S. We now consider the possibility that Kjht^ will equal one of the
extreme values of u. This would mean that

^ must be zero at that extreme.
584 MOnON OF A BODY ABOUT A FIXED POINT 5209
We could achieve this condition by imtiatmg the motion with a zero pre-
cession velocity and a zero nutation vdocitj Physically, the spinning top
isdropped at time / 0, and the z axis penodicallj returns to the ong
inal & where there exist zero nutation and precession The preces-iori must
according to Eq 20 43, aluajs be of one sign, and the motion will be that
in Fig 20 23
Thz etlreme at trhtch Ihz staliomry pointz occur must be the $2 ie,ihe
amalUr angle We can see this clearl> if we a\aTmne the energy Eq 20 SO,
which tsc shall consider in the following arrangement
-h it'* sill' 8] 4* 2 Uîo CoS 0 a* 2 I,
where the right side is obviously a constant. At the stationary point the
kinetic energy term on the left is zero but increases % alue directly there- m
after However, since the right 'ide of the above equation is a constant, the
potential energy term cosB, must decrease \alue This in turn m
means that fl is increasing in \ alue after the stationary point Thus Ihe azt5
m%isi begin to drop after being at the stationary position, and only the
smaller 8, which w e call 8t, can have the stationary points, os u as illustrated
in Fig 20 23
As for ihe spin 4>, loe simply note from Lq SO 19 that it mil not be unifom
tn speed if (here ts any molion present
niifationaf
209 APPROXIMATE ANALYSIS or A 'DMOerEb FAST TOP
IjCt US now analjze tn more di.lail the case of tlie lop lliit
started initially with zero precession zero nutation \clocitj as w ts

and
desenbed in case 3 of the last section '\\e will stipulate tliat the top under
consideration has a leryfast spin which giies it high kinttic energy coni
pared to the potential energj of gravitation
The basic equations that have been used to yield the motion of the top
are two components of the moment of momentum equation and an energy
equation. These are rewritten below:
<J!) + r/- cos 0 = P 20.19
I 4^ sin* 9 + IzzP cos 9 = K 20.26
I [0* + vi-* sin* 0] + Jjjj3* + 2Mga cos 9 = 2E 20.30
We can now determine the three constants for this motion, using initial
conditions i/- = 0, ^ = 0, ^ and u = 7^2, at ^ = 0. We have:
P = <j>o (a)
K Izzôth (b)
E= + Mgav2 (c) 20.44
For the instant / = 0, the motion is a pure rotation about the body axis 2,
and we can see the meaning of the constants. As you will recall from the
development of Eq. 20.19, p is the component of total angular velocity
in the z direction, and we see here that p equals the entire initial angular
velocity of the top. Also, K
is the component of angular momentum in
the vertical Z direction, 'and at the initial condition it equals the entire
angular momentum, projected by U2 onto the Z direction. Clearly,
E is the total mechanical energy relative to XFZ and is composed initially
only of spin kinetic energy and potential energy. It is clear that these
constants can readily be computed from kno\vn initial conditions.
1. Extent of nutation. Let us examine the extent of nutation, i.e., (712 iq).
We must find the other root, 77], of the equation /(77) = 0. For convenience,
we restate f(u )
/() = (I - - CiU) - (Cs - (7474)* 20.45
Using the equations in 20.34 for the constants Ci, C C 2, 3, and Ci and sub-
stituting from Eq. 20.44, we have;
(7i = j
Mo 4- 2 Mgau2 - Mo) = % (a)
2Mga
C2^-f~ (b)
C2 = HÛ2 (c)
I
c, (d) 20.46
Substituting into Eq.

20.45, we get:
586 MOTION OF A BODV ABOUT A FIXED POINT 5209
2Mga
J^) "" 1^
- *) l(-7^ 2Mfia \ f ltJm
// \
/() /I
(I
T j
Rearranging we base
2J\fga
/() (tti tt)(l - *) '
~ ^
(t')
Setting /() equal to zero, we replace u bj i the desired unknown and
get, after cancelling and rearranging terms
2^
"U ecan immediately soil, e Ml from the above equation However consider
the difference between the extreme cosines in the following form of the
above equation
<> - '> = (' -
// the, tinctic encrjfy ts large, tl t# cfcor that vnth a rcosona&ly small I the
nght tide of the equation mil be very small and thus the dtSerence between the
extreme portions (ti Ui) unK have to be tery small We ehsll confine the
problem to this case
^
Frequency of nutation may easily be ascertained when we utilize the fact
that (uj Ui) 13 \ ery small Since (1

can be approx-u*) equals sin* 9, it
imated during the nutational motion by sin* 9i, a constant which corre-
sponds to initial conditions Using Eq 20 47 for the desirable form of fly),
we can now say
Let
(f
)'
^ Mi
<"
~
~
U == p
- (^)'
20 51
dn/dl = dp/dt
Hence we have
Putting this equation in the form of a quadrature without limits (we shall
wc hav e for the positu e root
investigate the constant of integration later)
This integration may be earned out by first multiplying both sides by

Thus
dp
Using simple notation,

ft. I
we
r
LV
(2MgaI
get, in effect:
W sin^ gp 20.54
dp
Csf = / {C,p - 20.55
This integral is a standard form*' which may be integrated as:
Cd COS"' 20.56
Thus; COS Cd 20.57
Returning to the original notation, we get for this equation
lUl
(uo m) = 1 cos t 20.58
Algal sin- da
Solving for u, we write:
= (Algal
Z Algal
' sin^ eQ\
S\vd 6q { A , , n
20.59
where the constant of integration, C, has been introduced. When < = 0,

u = 2 and thus C = 0. We can see from this result that the nutational
,
frequency, in the case of the rapidly spinning top, is;
r ,
J_ (sjfo
llCQ.^di^tion 20.60
2^
Therefore, the frequency will be large since 0o is large. IFe thus conclude
that the hodty will nutate through a narrow range at high frequency for the
fast dropped top.
3. Speed of precession. The precession speed is given by Eq. 20.43, which

for the initial conditions of this case is:
- 7%-.
I sin** 6
fc - ) 20.61
Substituting for {u^ u) from Eq. 20.59 with C = 0, we get:
-
_ ( COS ~r~ A
1 1
1 hus we see that there is a regular precession, plus a high-speed harmonic

vaiiation in pieces.sion. The average precession velocity, then, is the con-
stant component:
See B. 0. Pierce, A Short Tabic oj Jnltgrals (Bo&loii Ginr>, 1929), Equation 215.
588 MOTION OF A BODV ABOUT A FIXED POINT 52010
_ Mss 20 62
Although it may
appear to an observer watching the top that a constant
precession exists -we know that high speed small amplitude variations are
superposed on an apparently regular motion For this reason this type of
motion IS called "pseudo r^lar** motion Note that with high kinetic
energy the average precession wll be slow
4 Speed of sptn We
can now find the variations in the speed of spin by
substituting previously obtained results into Eq 2019 Again we see that
there will be high frequency, smcdl amplitude vanations present
20 10 CASE OF CONSTAKT TORQUES
We found m the last section tlut a high speed spinning top under
the action of gravity mil remain essentially at the same angleSo from the
vertical when released and will precess in an apparently regular manner

about the vertical axis as is hown m Figs 20 24 and 20 16 You will note
that dunng this motion there is a moment \ ector M about point 0 acting on
the body in such a way that the magmtude of M constant,
is essentially
Mga sm 9a and the direction of M is continually changing so as always to

be perpendicular to the plane of the axes z and Z
We shall nou extend the results of this analysis to cover the motion of a
spmmng body of revolution supported at its mi-ss center when a couple
of constant migiutudc acts on t!e bodj such th t the couple-moment,
uhich we shall designate m
this discuv>ton as f is perpendicular at all
limes to the eeiiteilme of the body {Fig 20 25) bmee this couple has tlit
same properties is avenge gravitational moment of the preceding
the
analysis, we cau replace the term Mga an 6o by the couple-moment C m
certain of the fonnulatioiis of the preceding analj 'is to achieve valid results
for the case at hand. For instance, it is clear that the average precession
velocity for this problem can be given as;
'I'lV
20,63
7,50 sin 00
This question then arises: How do we measure Or, in other words,

which axis Z does the body precess about? In the gravitational case, it
was the axis directed toward the center of the earth, but this is not neces-
sarily the axis for our present problem, since there is no gravitational
influence associated with torque. We can conclude, however, by consider-
ing the gravitational problem that the Z axis, as in our case, is directed
so that at all times it must form TOth the axis of symmetry, z, a plane
perpendicular to the direction of the couple-moment C. Furthermore, the
Z axis is also the axis of rotation about w'hich the couple-moment C ro-
tates with the precession velocity of the system. Hence, if we know the
angular speed of the couple-moment, we are in effect specifying and
from Eq. 20.63 we can solve for 6o. The Z axis for this condition is then
in the plane that is perpendicular to the couple-moment C and that con-
tains the z axis; Z then forms an angle 6o with the z axis.* Thus for such
problems certain additional information is required if we are to establish
the precessional motion with the above formulations.
We now have the peculiar situation in which a torque about an axis
causes motion about another axis at right angles to it. Being contrary to
intuition, this should cause us to be more skeptical of intuition in areas
where little experience or Avork has been performed.
If the couple-moment C is not at right angles to the z axis, as has been
implied in these discussions, we can always break it up into two compo-

nents one along the z axis and one normal to it. With the component
normal to the z axis, we can proceed as described above to find the axis of
precession and determine the early precession speed. Since the component
of C along z will tend to change the spin speed, the average angular mo-
tions Avill not be uniform over a long period of time. You must remember
that the whole discussion is based on a very high spin speed, so the changes
in the speed of spin from
Cz will usually be small for some time in com-
parison to the initial spin speed. Thus Ci may usually be neglected for the
early part of the motion.
20 11 the GYRO-COMPASS
We
shall noiv examine the gyro-compass, a very interesting device
that gives the direction
to the geometric north pole (not the magnetic
Another possibilityis that the axis of rotation of the applied conple-moment is
_no\sn. In that case, the angle Bo is known and we can get the proper average preces-
swnal velocity
from Eq. 20.63.
north pole) EshentiaHy, it is a gyroscope whose symmetric axis {z axis)

lb confined to motion parallel to the surface of the earth (which we ehill
take as a sphere) by gravitational action on what wc call a pendulous
weight W
(soc Tig 20 2G) Note that we are observing the gyro-compasb
m this diagram at various portions m

the Southern Hemisphere from a
viewpoint above the north pole, thus exposing the pendulous weight to
view The compass is not necessarily pointing north in the figure
For simplicity, we shall consider a gyro-compass at a fixed position
on the earth's surface The Imdj axis z of the gyro compass can rotate
in plane T tangent to the earth s surface (Fig 20 27), where the z axis is
at an angle a with the tangent to the mcndian Une Since the angle a may
vary with time, vve have a possible angular velocity vector a with a
direction normal to the plane T The y axis has not been fixed to the
body of the disc* but is a radud hne from the center of the earth at 0
and therefore is at all times cohnear with a The x axis then is chosen to
form a right hand triad and is in plane T An inertial reference XYZ is
chosen at the center of the earth so that the Z axis is along the south-
north axis Clearly, the gyroscope in addition to its spin velocity along 2
and Its swinging motion a along y, also has a precession velocity ^ along
Z, where ^ is the angular velocity of the earUi, a constant vector of small
We
can do this successfully nnee we have a body of revolution like tbe one ex*
plained in Example 4 of Section 18 4 lo an exercise at tbe end of this chapter you
will be asked to work out the eqnatMms of notion using axes fixed to the rotating
disc Clearly, for such an undertaking you will use Euler s equations
Figure 20.27
magnitude. For convenience, another Z axis lias been set up at the gyro-
scope. The angle between Z and the tangent to the meridian designated
as X is just the latitude of the position of the gyro-compass.
Since we have chosen a set of axes xyz that is not fixed to the body,
we must return to the equation M
= H, which, when carried out in terms
of components parallel to xyz, becomes:
M,i -f Myj + M.k = (^c)xt + + {Hr)M

+ {Hc)xi + -j- 20.64
Note that xyz are principal axes at all times and that we have:
{Ji^x Ixz^x ^ 20.65
as we readily can seefrom Eq. 18.8. Considering the previous diagram, we

see that the angular velocity components of the disc are easily established
by inspection to be at all times:
o3x 'P cos X sin a (a)
o}y = a ^ sin X (b)
'uz =
cos X cos a
(i>
(c) 20.66
Thus we have for the components momentum
of the moments of
0
We)t I** (4' COS X sm a) ()
iHt)y JnU* i' 4' sin X) (b)
(Wt), I 4' cos X cos a) (e) 20 67
III order to find I j and k we must know the angular velocity of the xyz
reference Actually it is identical to the angular velocity of the disc except
for the spin velocity Using Q to represent the angular velocity of the
reference we have then
fl = ^coaXfiitia (a)
fl# + ^ sin X (b)
f> = cos X cos a (c) 20 68
Noting that i is f2 x i etc nc can write Eq 20 64 as
4- Myj + ( ((-cosXsin or) * + ( + 4'Siti X)y
4- 4- cos X cos a) K
^ it
1^,4 cos X sin a + îj)

4- /(a 4- 4' sn X)(S1A II
4* / W 4* cos X cos 20 69
Next consider tl e external moments acting on the disc Only a torque

keeping the z axis m the plane T is present and it is in the x direction
therefore M, = ilf 0 We bIuU thus consider the y and z components
of the above equation Substituting the results from Eq 20 68 in the
components of the above equation we gel after collecting terms
0 7a Jgt4 cos X 5in a{4' cos X cos a)
4- Jn(.4 4- 4 oos A cos a){_4' cos X sm a) (a)
0 = /(^ â cos X sm a) 4- lxt4 cos X sin a(a 4* 4 sm X)
^ sin X)(^ cos Asm a)

4* (b) 20 o
As haO een noted 4 is small and so we shall drop terms containing 4*

The abwi! equations then simplify to
4" / 44 CO'S X sm a = 0 (a)
4<* cos X sm a) 0 (b) 20 71
where m Eq (b) because /*, *= the last two expressions cancel

Equation (b) shows that ^ is a term of small vjue since iZ-a cos X s u c
will be small we can therefore consider 4 to be approximately constant
Looking at Eq (a) we see that the coefficient of sm a is then a constant
and that this equation is of the form
d + C sin a = 0 20.72
cos X
where: C =
You wall recognize this equation as the one we developed for the pendulum.
Thus the axis of the disc oscillates S5rmmetrically about the meridian. The
northerly direction is then one-half the angle of swing. Since is small,
it is necessary that the spin 4> be large so that the frequency of oscillation
is kept high enough to make the readings more readily usable. With small
initial values of ao and do, a (and d)
will remain small, and, replacing sin or
by a in Eq. 20.72, we can say for such a case that the frequency of oscilla-
tion of the z axis about the meridian is:
i zz j/oos X
4 20.73
PROBLEMS
1. In Fig. 20 28, the Z axis coincides initially with the centerline of the block.
The block is given the following rotations in the sequence listed: (a) =
30, (b) 0 = 45, (c) <f> 20. What are the projections of the centerline
along the XYZ
axes in the final position?
Figure 20.28
2-^
A body has the following components of angular velocity:
spin 0 =10 rad/sec

nutation 6=5 lad/sec
precession \p = 2 rad/sec
when the following Euler angles are known:
tj, = 45 e = 30
What is the magnitude of the total angular velocity?

3
594 MOTION OF A BODY ABOUT A FIXED POINT
A 20-11) C5 Under ha\ uig a radms of I and a length of J It is connected bj s

ft
2-It rod toa fi\cd point 0 nhere there is a ball joint connector (Fig 2029)
The cylinder spins about its own centeriine at a peed of 50 rad/sec t\Tiat
torque about 0 is required to cau^ tfie cjlmder to process uniformlj at a
rate of J Tad/ec about the Z axis at an inclination of 4o to the Z axis?
Compute the torque when the centerline of the cylinder is in the \Z plane
4 Id Fig 20 30 tno identical tlim discs each weighing 100 lb and having a
radius of 2 ft are connected to a light tod of length 8 ft The rod is free to
rotate m
a fnctionless bearing at its center and this bearing is mounted on
a fnctionless ball joint os shoan at 0 A set of principal axes xjf has been
fixed m
the body at 0 If the centerline of the sj-stem has an angular speed
of 10 rad/scc about the Z axis and remains at 45 from the Z axis at all
times nhat must the spin about the centerline be if no extcnul mflucnccs
other than grai ity and the supporting force at 0 are present?
5 A football IS thrown so it has an angular momentum of // /fg(fi + wj -f- nh)
and the axis of sjTnmelry has at some instant an onentation given as ,
1 1 + w'i + n'fc-The (cwUnUom*vroUjle*ajbQiAtmie axis of fixed direction
Wliat u this axis and at what angle will the centerline of the football move
about this axis?
6 In the above problem tahe f>=>0^ n ^ 04 m*0 7C6 and I = 0 m' = 0 6
n' = Oii If lit * 0 05 slugs ftVaec and the principal momenta of inertia are
I - i Ibm ft* and I In ** i Ibm ft* what a the rate of spin of the foot-
ball about its centerline and the rate of precession of the centerline about the
11 axis?
7 A projectile is shot out of a weapon in uch a manner that it lias an angular
velocity u at an angle a from the centerline as it leaves the weapon {Fig
20^1) Using (he cone model dratr a picture depicting the ensuing motion.
Denote 6 on this d agium and indicate the direction of II
MOTION OF A BODY ABOUT A FIXED POINT 595
8.
In the above problem, assume that the spin ^ about the axis of S 3 >-mmetry is
known. Set up formulations leading to the evaluation of the rate of precession
of 2 about 11 and the angle between z and H.
9.
Figure 20.31
10.
In Fig. 20.32, a disc is rotating at a speed Wi of 10,000 rpm about its centerline
Oz. Point 0 is held fixed in inertial space by a ball joint connection. The
S 3 stem is released from a horizontal position as shown. What is the extent of
nutation and its frequency? TWiat is the average rate of precession?
If the above S 3'stem is mounted in a rocket that is accelerating in the vertical
direction at a uniform rate of 100 ft/sec^, what is the a\'erage rate of preces-
sion of the system when released?
11.
Figure 20.32
In Fig. 20.33, a constant torque of 20 in.-lb is applied about 0 to a system

of two identical cylinders, each weighing 50 lb and with a radius of 1 ft and
each with centers 3 ft from 0. The discs rotate on a bar AB with a speed W:
12. of 5000 rpm. Bar AB is held at 0 by a ball joint connection. If the applied
torque is always perpendicular to AB and can only rotate about the vertical
axis, vhat is the average precession of the system?
Figure 20.33
(a) In the above problem, consider the disc at B to have an angular speed of
5000 rpm and the disc at A to have a speed of 2500 rpm. What is the average
precession? (b) If the disc at A and the disc at B have angular speeds of
5000 rpm in opposite directions, what is the initial motion of the system when
the torque is applied?
596 MOTION OF A BODV ABOUT A FIXED POINT
13 De\ elop Eqs 20 70(a) and 20 70(b) for the fgTO-cwnpasa, using Euler's equa-
tions for 0 convenient set of axes fixed in the disc
14 TYhat 13 the frequency of a gyro-compass having a disc of radius 3 in and
neight 5 lb nith s length of 1 in if it has a spin of 15 000 rpm, (a) nhco it is
at the equator (b) v^heti it is at Trfedo Spam (40* north latitude)
Momentum
Equations
for Deformable Media
21.1 INTRODUCTION
In this chapter, we shall study Newtons law,

the law of conservation of mass, and other concepts
IJertinent to the study of continuous media.* Although the
formulations we will develop may be applied to any con-
* Some is from the au-

of the material contained in this chapter
Mechanics of Fluids, published by McGraw-Hill Book
thors book,
- Company, and is used by permission.
597
) 1
598 EQUATIONS FOR DEFORMABLE MEDIA J212
tmuous medium, they are most profitably used m

the study of the motion
of fluids For this reason, the examples and many of the definitions mil
be from the field of fluid mechanics This chapter, then, is someivhat of a
continuation of Chapter 9, Introduction to Continuum Mechanics, and
IS the springboard for many advanced courses in mechanics
21 2 THE VELOCITV TIELD
In particle and rigid body dynamics, we are able to describe the

motion of each particle or body m
a separate and discrete manner For
instance, the \elocity of the nth particle of an aggregate moving in space
can be specified by the scalar equations
OM. = A(0
{V,). gS) 21
{VX - A-(0
and the nth body of a system of rigid bodies by the scalar equations
(1 0. = fm
(V,), - 0.(1) U, = 812
(V,). = H.) to,
nhere we have employed the mass center (\Ve could also have used
the angular velocities corresponding to the Euler angles, instead of u,, >
ond u, Ivote that the identification of a particle or body in the discrete
systems is easily facilitated with the use of a subscript In a continuous
deformable medium such as a fluid, however^ one can consider that there
are an infinite number of elements to be specified making this approach
unmanageable Instead, we employ spatial coordinates to help identify
particles in a flow The velocity of all particles in a flow therefore, can be
expressed in the following manner
r, = fix
V, gix, y, z, t) 21 3
V, h(x, y, z, t)
Thus, the spatial coordinates take the place of the subscript n of the
discrete sjrstems studied m
the previous chapters This is called the field
approach If properties and flow characteristics at each position in space
remain mvanant with time, the flow is called steady flow A tune-dependent
flow, on the other hand is designated xinsteady Jlaio The steady flow
velocity field would then be given as
W ~ fix,yyz)
V,~g{x,y,z) 214
V, = 6{x, y, z)
Often wemay derive a steady flow from an unsteady flow field by simply
21.2 EQUATIONS FOR DEFORMABLE MEDIA 599
changing the space reference. To illustrate this, examine the flow pattern
created by a torpedo moving at constant speed Vo through initially undis-
turbed water. With a stationary xy reference, as shown in Fig. 21,1, we
can see that there is an unsteady-flow field. At position .xo, i/o, for instance,
there will be at one instant a 2 ero velocity relative to xy and later, when
swept by the oncoming waves and wake of the torpedo, there will be a
complicated velocity variation at that position. To establish a steady-flow
field,we can fix the reference to the torpedo. The flow field corresponding
to such a moving reference, indicated as r\, is shown in Fig. 21.2. The
velocity at point ô, ijo clearly must be constant ivith time, since it is fixed
relative to the flow pattern. Note that the water ahead of the torpedo
now has a velocity, Fo, relative to the y axes. This transition from
unsteady to steady flow could have been accomplished by superposing a
velocity Vo on the entire flow field of Fig. 21.1 to arrive at the steady
field of Fig 21.2. This may be done any time a body is moving with constant
speed through an initially undisturbed fluid.
Figure 21.2
As we pointed out in Chapter 14, flows are usually described graphically

with the aid of streamlines, which, you will recall, are hypothetical lines
drawn so as to be tangent at all times to the velocity vectors of the flow.
For steady flow, the orientation of the streamlines will be fixed. Fluid
particles, m this case, will proceed along paths coincident with the stream-
600 EQUATIONS FOR DEFORMABLE MEDIA 5213
lines In unsteady flon, however, a set of streamlines mil afford only ati
instantaneous representation of the flow For such flops, there ttill no
longer be a *!imple correspon-
dence betlêen palhlmcs and
streamlines
Streamlines that proceed
through the periphery of an
infinitesimal area will form a
tube that is useful in discus-
sions of fluid phenomena
This IS called the slreamtube
and IS illustrated m Fig 21 3
From the definition of the
streamline, we see that there
can be no flow through the
lateral surface of the stream-
tube Inshort, thestreamtube
acts hke an impervious container of zero wall thickness and infinitesimal
cross section
21 3 TWO VICWfOIKTl
In the preceding section, ne discussed various aspects of the

velocity field V{x, y, z, 1) Now we present t o procedures by n hich the field
may be utilized to give information concerning the motion of fluid par-
ticlesmaking up the flow Tor instance, choosing a fixed position Xo, yo, Zo,
m the velocity field, we can express the velocity of particles moving
by this position at any time Mathematically, this is expressed by the

formulation J'(xo, y<j, Za, 0 By this technique ne specify, from a fixed sta
tion in space, the velocities of a continuous string" of fluid particles
moving by this position
On the other hand, to study any one particle in the flow, we must fol
\ovv the particte " This means that x, y, z in the expression y, z, t)
must not be fixed but must vary continuouslj m such a way that they
always locate any one particle Thus the coordinates xyz roust he con-
sidered as functions of time For instance the velocity of any one fluid
particle, whose motion is part of a velocity field, may be expressed in the
following manner
n- 215
y. =.h[x{0,y(/),W,t]
In fluid dynamics, we emplc^ both techniques

These considerations do not depend on whether the field is steady or

unsteady, and they should not be confused with the conclusions of the
previous section. You may note that the first viewpoint was utilized in
that discussion for both steady and unsteady flows around the torpedo.
21 .4 ACCELERATION OF A FLOW PARTICLE
We will soon develop Newton's law for any one" particlein a
flow and we will need the time rate of change of velocity of any one
particle in a flow. In using the velocity field for this purpose, we shall have
to employ the second viewpoint. Thus, noting that x, y, z are functions of
time, we may establish the acceleration field by employing the rules of
partial differentiation in the following way:
d ... dV dx dV dy dV dz dV
0 -
, ,, .. . .
,
a{x, y, z, T {x, y, z, t) - ^1 + Qy +32 dt^ at

21.6
If X, y, z are positions of any one particle, it is clear that dx/dt, dy/dt,

and dz/dl must be, respectively, the scalar velocity components
and Vi of the particle. Hence:
21.7
The three scalar equations corresponding to 21.7 are:
a^ Ii aVj dFx
Ox = 7x+^+
ax
7u'^+
dy dz
+ at
^ )
aVy
+ at
21.8
BF
Ox V,
^ +Vy^+
ax ay
Fx
dz
We may imagine that the acceleration of the fluid particle is the super-
position of two effects.
1. At a given time, t, the field is assumed to become and remain steady.

The particle, under such circumstances, is in the process of changing
position in this steady field and is thus undergoing a change in veloc-
ity because the velocity at each position in this field will, in general,
be different. The rate of change of this velocity with time is called
the acceleration of transport and is given by the first parentheses in
the above acceleration equations.
2. The second acceleration term does not arise from the change of parti-
cle position, but instead
is due solely to the rate of change of the
velocity field at the position occupied by the particle at time i Clearly,

this term is zero for steady flow
The differentmtions earned out m

Eq 21 7 are called subslanital or
totaldentatwes They are the outcome of expressing the \ elocity of a given
particle in terms of the flow field ofnhich it is a part The increased com
plexity of the acceleration formulation over what we have been accustomed
to m discrete-particle dynamics is the price we pay for having by necessity
brought in Spatial coordinates to identify particles a continuous distn m
bution of matter
Example Given the velocity field
K<x y * t) lOi* - 20yi j -h lOOf k
Determine the %eloctty and acceleratioa of a particle at position x *= 1
y *= 2 2 = 5 when f 0 1
The velocity of the particular particle is readily cstab! shed as
I <l0)(l)i - (20)(2)(iy + a00)(0 l)fc - lOt - 40/ + lOfc
To get the acceleration of the particle we must firet establish the occeler
ation field from the velocity field using the second viewpoint Thus
o(i y 1 1)
L 'ax
^ 'Sy ^
o(r ijtl)- [(10x>)(20i. -20iu) + (-20ji)(-20ij) + (100()(0)j] + 1004
For the particle of mterest the acceleration u
a [(10)(20i - 40/) + (-.40)(-20/)1 + lODL - 200. + 400/ + lOOL
In many ueful to think of a set of streamlines as part of
analyses it is
a coordinate system In such cases the term s indicates the position of a

particle alonga particular streamline and if we wish to give the accelera
tion of transport we would have K(df /ds) which clearly gives the occel
eration that results from the change of position along a streamline only
The complete acceleration is then
a 219
ds ^ df
This form of the acceleration of a particle m terms of the flow field ivill be
\ery useful in subsequent calculations
21 5 BASIC LAWS FOR CONTINUOUS MCPIA
Experience dictates that m

the range of our engineering interest
four basic law's must be satisfied in solving problems for continuous sys
tems
1. Conservation of matter (continuity equation).

2. Newtons laws.
3. Conservation of energy (first law of thermodynamics).
4. Second law of thermodynamics.
In addition to the general laws, subsidiary Imvs apply to specific types

of media. We have already discussed two subsidiary laws the equation
of state for the perfect gas and Newtons viscosity law for viscous fluids.
For elastic bodies, the well-known Hookes law applies.
In particle and rigid-body dynamics, by merely maintaining the term
that represents the mass of thebody as a constant, we automatically
satisfy the law of conservation of matter. However, the new methods that
are needed to deal effectively wth the more complex deformable media
require the satisfaction of certain equations (continuity equations) to
insure the conservation of matter.
We found in particle and rigid-body dynamics that Newtons law and
energy methqds were alternate bases for the solution of problems. With
the e.xception of certain highly simplified flows, however, Newtons law
and the law of thermodynamics form independent equations and must
first
we shall only
be separately satisfied for deformable continua. In this text,
concern ourselves with the conservation of mass and Newtons law as
applied to deformable media.
21 .6 SYSTEMS AND CONTROL VOLUMES
In employing the basic and subsidiary laws, either one of the fol-
lowing ways of formulating the laws is usually used.
1. The activities of a given mass must be such as to satisfy the basic

laws and the pertinent subsidiary laws.
2. The activities in each and every volume in space must be such that
the basic laws and the pertinent subsidiary laws are satisfied.
In the first an identified quantity of mat-
instance, the laws are applied to
ter called the system. A
system may change shape, position, and thermal
condition but must always entail the same matter. For example, suppose
we choose the steam in an engine cylinder after the cutoff* to be the sys-
tem (Fig. 21.4). As the piston moves, the volume of the system changes,
but there is no change in the quantity of mass. We
have invariably em-
ployed the system approach up to now, using the free-body diagram to
represent the system.
For the second case, a definite volume, called the control volume, is des-
ignated in spa ce. The boundary of the volume is known as the control
* No further addition of steam takes place after cutoff during the expansion stroke
of the steam engine.
d04 EQUATIONS FOR DEFORMABLE MEDIA 121 7
eur/acc The amount and identity of the matter in the control volume may
change with time, but the shape is invariant and the position of the con-
trol \ olume IS often fixed For instance m
order to study conditions in the
diverging section of a nozzle, ne could choose as a control volume the
Figure 21 4 Figure 21>5
interior of the nozzle as sho\\n in Fig 21 5 It is often advantageous to use

a control volume in computations for freely deformable continua, such as
fluids
21 7 ONE AHO TWO OIMZNStONAL FLOWS
In eiery analysis, a hypothetical substance or process is set forth

which lends ilseU to mathematical treatment while still yielding results of
practical value lie have already discussed the continuum concept the
ngid body, the wll now be set forth, which,
particle, etc Simplified flows
when ucd wnth discretion can often be computed with little, or an ac
ccptablc, loss of accuracy One-dimensioncf /ouj is a simplification where
all propertiesand flow characlcnstics are assumed to be expressible os
functions of one space coordinate and time The po'îtion is usually located
along some path or conduit A onc-dimcnstonal flow m the pipe shown in
Fig, 21 0, for instance, would require that the \elocity, pressure, etc , be
constant over any given cross section of the pipe at a given time
Figure 21 6
In rcaht), flow m pipes and conduits

never truly one dimcnional,
since the velocity wall vary at a Shown in Fig 21 7 arc the
cross ecction
rcpcctiv e v elocity profiles of a truly one-dimensional flow and of an actual
Figure 21.7 1-D flow Actual profile
case. If the departure is not too great or

average effects at a cross section
if
are of interest, nevertheless, one-dimensional flow may be assumed to exist.

In pipes and ducts, this assumption is quite acceptable where:
a. The variation of the cross section of the container is not too excessive.
b. The curvature of the streamlines is not excessive.
c. The velocity profile is known not to change appreciably along the
duct.
Two-dimensional flow is distinguished by the fact that its velocity field

is expressible as a function of only two and time.
spatial Cartesian variables
Thus there is a direction in space, usually designated the z direction,
along which the flow pattern does not change, and so all planes normal to
this direction have the same streamline pattern. The flow past an airfoil
of infinite-aspect ratio* or the flow over a dam of constant cross section and
infinite length are examples of two-dimensional flows. In real problems for
airfoils and dams, we may use the results of the simplified two-dimensional
analysis for flow over most of the airfoil or dam and with end corrections
make the results more accurate.
21.8 CONTINUITY EQUATION
In using the control voldme for the* handling of problems, it is

clear that
matter is not identified and that there is no simple and direct
manner for insuring the conservation of mass, as was the case for discrete
particles and rigid bodies. For any control volume chosen in any flow
(Fig. 21.8), conservation mass demands that the net rate of mass influx into
of
the control volume equal the rate of increase of mass inside the control volume.
To express this requirement mathematically, examine an infinitesimal

areadA on the control surface (Fig. 21.9). Clearly only the velocity com-
ponent normal to the area is involved in the evaluation of the flow through
dA. Noting that positive
dA points outward from the control surface
(according to the convention we accepted back
in Section 4.6), we can say
t at the rate of influx
through dA is pF dA. By
considering the entire
control surface, we find
that the total net influx rate is;
A \\ing of constant cross section and infinite length.

606 EQUATIONS FOR DEFORMABLE MEDIA Ssie
* pV dA
net influx rate
JL 21 10
where the symbol represents integration over the entire closed surface
Since the mass inside the control volume at any time t is gi\ en by the
volume integral /// pdv, sse can slate the law of conservation of mass for
a control volume in the following manner
Thu equation and the simplified forms of this equation are all called
equaUons of continutUj
If the flow IS steady relative to some reference, all fluid properties, in-
cluding the density at any fixed position m

the reference, must remain
invariant mth time, and if the control volume is also fixed in the reference,
the nght side of the above equation must be zero for such Dows For the
idealization of incompressible flow, p is constant, and if the control volume
contains onl> one kind of fluid, the nght ide of the above equation is
again zero Thus for all steady flows and for all such incompressible flows,
we have
You should not be frightened by the rather forbidding integration

operations given mthe preceding equations These equations should be
thought of as precise mathematical language for the conserv ation of mass
with the same meaning as the statement given m
words at the outset From
thce general formulations, we wiU now develop m^ful special equations
Let us, for example, consider the \erj common situation which fluid m
enters some dev ico through a pipe and leaves the dev ice through a second
21.8 EQUATIONS 'FOR DEFORMABLE MEDIA 607
pipe, shown diagrammatically in Fig. 21.10. The control surface is indi-

cated by a dotted line. We will assume that the flow is steady and that
Figure 21.10
the inlet and outlet flows are one dimensional. Applying Eq. 21.11 for
this case, we get:
JL. " = Um + IL -r =0 21.12
where Ai and As are the entrance and exit areas. Noting that the velocities
are normal to the control surfaces at these areas and employing the sign
convention for the vectorial representation of area, we see that the above
equation becomes:
IL JL PV iA + JL pVdAÔ 21.12
Finally, with p and V constant at each section as a result of the one-dimen-

sional restriction on the inlet and outlet flows, we get for the above equa-
tion:
~ P2F2
~ 0
JJai
Integrating, we get:
piAiFi = P2 A 2 F2 21.14
which is known by every high school physics student.

the simple relation
The main purpose through the above development was to see how
in going
a particular algebraic equation is fashioned from the very general formula-
tions given at the outset.
Next examine an infinitesimal control volume with rectangular sides
(Fig. 21.11) established in some general flow. In computing the net influx
rate for this control volume, we shall first consider
the flow through the
surfaces (1) and
(2) parallel to the yz plane. Note from the diagram that
the influx rate through
area (1) is pFi per unit area and that this varies
continuously in the x direction, so that the flow per unit area through
area (2) can be given
as [pF* -f- {dpVJdx) dx]. Clearly, the net influx
through these surfaces is then {dpVx/ dx )dx dy dz. Performing similar com-
putations for the other pairs of sides and adding the results, we get the net
influx rate:
608 EQUATIONS FOR DEFORMABLE MEDIA 21 9
Figure 21 II
Equating this to the rate of increase of mass inside the control volume
{dp/dl)dxd>/d2 iêget after we cancel dx dy dr
ax ^ dy
+
^ ar di
2115
For steady flow, we get
ejsn + ^.?iiLlô 21.6

dx dy Sz
^
These are differential forms of the continuity equation By using other
volumes you can develop
suitable infinitesimal control m
o manner an
alagous to what ivc have done here, corresponding differential equations
for cylindrical and spherical coordinates
S1 9 mOMCNTUM CaUATIONS FOR A CONTROL VOLUME
To reach the desired momentum equation for control volumes,

ue shall now perform spatial integration of Newtons law to include all
volume at time t In Fig 21 12 we have
particles of fluid inside the control
shown a control volume m a perfectly general flow A streamtube has been
selected,and we shall consider that at this instant there are an infinite
number of infinitesimal right-ended cylindrical fluid elements filling the
Figure 21 12
streamtube. We have shown these elements in the enlarged view of the
streamtube in Fig. 21.13. Notice that the elements are of length ds and
have a position along the streamtube given by the coordinate s. At the

ends, where the control surface need not be normal to the streamtube
periphery, the truncated elements that would normally be formed there
have been replaced by right-ended elements having equivalent mass. An
enlargement of such a region is shown in Fig. 21,14.
Figure 21.14
We may express Newtons law for an element of fluid, using streamlined

coordinates in the following manner:
df + B dm = dm ( V
\
^
as at /
21.17
where df is the total surface force on the element and B dm* is the total
body force. We shall next rewrite the above equation in a more con-
venient form. Thus:
df + Bdm=- (pVdA
where we have replaced dm on the right side by p dA ds and p dv and
have regrouped some of the terms. Next we replace (pV dA){dV/ds) by
[(a/es)(p7 dA V) - V(d/ds)(pVdA)] and also p(dV/di) by [(d/dt)(pV) -
F{ap/5<)]. You may easily check these steps by carrying out the differ-
entiations. Th e above equation may then be written as:
* A body force B is distributed throughout a material and is expressed per unit of mass
(see Section 4.6,
STATICS).
610 EQUATIONS FOR DEFORMABLE MEDIA 121.9
Figure 21.1S
df+Bdm~^^(pVU V) d, + f^(fV)du- IpVdA) * + |j*]

In Fig. 21.15 vre see that the term (^/ds){pV dA) ds is the net rate of
efflux of mass from the volume occupied by the system at time t and it
must be equal to (flp/flt) du in accordance mth the conservation of mass.
Clearly the last bracketed quantity is zero and so we then have:
dS+Bdm ^~(pVdA r)* + f,(pn*
We shall now integrate the terms of this equation for all systems in the
Etreamtube. The integration of each term will now be discussed.
a. Surface forces df inside the strcamtube periphery will cancel, since

they wll appear there in equal and opposite pairs (action and reao-
tion). This leaves only surface forces on the streamtube boundary,
os shown in Fig. 21. IG. The end forces are indicated as ifi and 4ft,
while the resultant force acting on the lateral surface of the stream-
tube is indicated as dfp.
Figure 21.1$
b- Hody forces B dm. amply integrate over the streamtube volume to give
///s.r.'*-
c. Inerlia Com-ponent {B/ds)[pV dd F) ds is integrated over the length
of the streamtube to give \J3:
r#
Jtas
(pF JT A = (pF dA V), - (pF dA Vji
From Fig. 21.14, it is clear that dA on the right side of this equation
may be replaced by dAc cos and so we can say;
0>F dA V) ds = (pF dAcs. cos F). - (pF dAcs coa ct F).

f
Using the definition of a scalar product, we may next replace

(7 dAcs cos a) by (F dAcs), and, using the convention for the

direction dA, we get for the above equation:
rf
JuS
(pV dA V) ds =
1
[(pF . dAc.s.) V]2 + [(pF dAc.s.) F]i
The results are shown in Fig. 21.17. These quantities are flows of
momentum that have the direction of the vectors Fj and Fi, respec-
tively.
d. The remaining acceleration term (d/dt)(pV) dv may be integrated over
the streamtube to give dv. Since the volume of the

^
streamtube has been fixed to correspond to that at time t, the limits
in the preceding integration are constant. Thus we can extract the
derivative from under the integral sign to give the expression
(d/dt) fff pV dv, which may be interpreted to be the time rate of
change of momentum inside the streamtube at time t.
The results of these integrations are now assembled in the equation:
+ <^2 + dfp -f jjj^ ^

B dm
= [(pF .
dAcs.) V], + [(pF dAcs.) F]i d-
ST
Vdm
Next, we integrate the preceding equation over all the streamtubes
comprising the control volume at time t. Note that the surface force com-
ponents dfp on the lateral surfaces of the streamtubes will cancel be-
cause of action and reaction, except when they form the outer periphery
of the controlvolume. The resultant of all uncanceled surface forces will
then be indicated as F. The volume integrals, on the other hand, simply
are extended to include the entire control volume. Finally, the terms
(pF
dAcs) V appear at the end surfaces of all the streamtubes. Thus
summation of these quantities results in a surface integration over the
control surface. The final result may now be stated:
^+ B (Pf' W) + I F fc 21.18
JIJc r.
612 EQUATIONS FOR DEFORMABLE MEDIA 821 10
Tins IS the momentum equation for a control volume in full generality.

In words, the above equation rules that, at any time, the resuHanl force
on the surface qf ajlutd unthxn a conirol volume plus veclonally the total body
force on the material tnside the control volume equals the net elux rate of
momentum from the control volume plus veciorially the time rate of change of
momentum tnstde the control tKdume For steady flow and no body forces,
as IS often the cose, the above equation becomes
ff^^V(pr-d4) 21X9
Keep m mind that the momentum equationa vector equation The

is
scalar component equations in the orthogonal x, y, and z directions can

then be written by simply taking the components of the vectors V, F,
and B
F.+
fg^ B.<bn^fgv.(pV.dA) + l-Jg, V.dm (a)
F. + ///, jg VM-dA, + f, jg , V. dm (b) 2: 20
F. + gg B.dm.fg V.(pr.dA)+fJg^^ V.dm (0)
In using the above scalar equations, you must remember that there are
two different sign conventions involved in the handling of the velocities
The signs of Vt, Vy, and V, depend on the positive senses chosen for the
X, y, and z axes, respectively, while the sign for V dA depends on the
local onentation of the control surface relative to the velocity vector at
that point
2 T 10 AMALVSIS OF FROBI.EMS
In the preceding sections, we have presented very general formula-

tions for the law of conservation of mass and Newton's law as applied to
control volumes From the general continuity equation, we developed
simpler speciahred equations, one of which was most likely quite famihar
to you For most problems, it is advisable to go directly to the proper con-
tinuity equation unless for instructional purposes you wish to begin with
the general case However, m the case of momentum we have not developed
any of the common momentumspecialized equations, such as the thrust
formula of a nozzle, etc since we feel
, m
light of the complexity of the
momentum equation that you should develop the ampler equations your-
self as they are needed for particular problems Doing this will give you a
greater awareness of the limitations on your results that are imposed by
the simplifications and idealizations emplojed in reaching the working
equations. It the experience of the author that over-reliance on specialized

is
formulas in this area, coupled with unclear specifications of selected control

volumes, is often the source of serious errors for engineering students.
Since the momentum equation is primarily a relation between forces
and you should choose a control volume that mil involve in an
velocities,
economical manner those forces and velocities that will contribute to the
solution of the problem. Just as when you select free-body diagrams,
you may be required to select several different control volumes to achieve
enough information to carry out the solution. It is extremely important to
designate the control volume carefully and to denote clearly the particular
control volume for which an equation is written. In certain of the more
sophisticated problems that you will study in fluid mechanics, in addition
to the several control volumes that are chosen for analysis, certain systems
that sometimes move in a particular control volume may also be em-
ployed.
Finally, one must be reminded that the momentum Eq. 21.18 was de-
veloped from F = ma and so has the limitation that the motion of the
fluid must be measured relative to some inertial reference. Furthermore,
you will recall that in the development of Eq. 21.18, the control volume
had no velocity and so Ave have the additional restriction that the control
volume must be fi.xed in the chosen inertial reference if we are to expect
valid results from In an assignment at the end of this
this equation.
chapter, you will be asked to formulate a general momentum equation
for a control volume which is accelerating along a straight line relative
to an inertial reference.
With these thoughts in mind, let us examine a number of sample
problems.
Example 1; We wish now to evaluate the force on the reducing elbow,

shown in Fig. 21.18, by an The flow may be
internal steady flow of fluid.
Figure 21.18
6U EQUATIONS FOR DEFORMABLE MEDIA I5J110
assumed to be one dimensional The a^ enge v alues of the Don character-

istics at the inlet and outlet are known, as is the geometrj of the reducer
A control volume chosen as the interior of the reducer will enable us
to relate known quantities at the inlet and outlet with the force on the
fluid from the reducer wall The readton to this latter force is the quan-
tity to be computed This is dioirn m Fig 2l 18, where the control %ol
ume has been separately lUustrated All the forces acting on the fluid
in the control volume at time t have been designated The surface forces
include the effects of pressure pt and p* at the entrance and exit of the
reducer, as well as norma! and shear stresses p and t, respectivelj, from
the mside wall of the reducer The body force is simply the weight of
the fluid inside the control volume at time t and is indicated in the dia-
gram as ir The x and y components of the Tesidlant force on the fluid
may be expressed as
(F,)a pid j p tj cos 6 + /?*
(a>
(F*)js *= pit- Sind ll H- ff.
where fl, and Ry arc the net force components of the reducer wall on the
fluid
Examine the momentum flow through the control surface The surface
integration need onl^ be earned out at the inlet and outlet surfaces of
the control volume The efflux rate of momentum may then be expressed
as
He s
The scalar components of the above relation in the f and y directions arc
given as
Hes (c>
// W'-d4).(l *Sl d)(p*l t ll)
The continuity equation for this control volume meanwhile leads to

the relation
Piril*Pin4*
Now combine the preceding results into the momentum equations in
the * and y directions Noting that tlie time derivative of the volume
integral is zero because of steady flow, e get
PiAi - pjdjcosd -b if, = (V,pi liXr* cosd - Ti)
-pidieind - ll + = (f jpi ti){l ssmd)
We cah now solve for Rs and R, Changing the sign of these results will
then givp the force components on the elboio from the fluid Using the sj m-
bols A, as^ A, for these components, we hav e
K* PiAi piîcoad FipjAiCrjcosd TO

A, = Pjp4i siq d it Y\piAi{Vt sm d) (g)
As an you will be asked to show that by using gage pres-

exercise,
sures in the above equations you can get the total force components on
the reducer from water flowing inside and the atmospheric pressure act-
ing outside for the case of a thin-walled reducer.
Example 2; Shown in Fig. 21.19 is a stream of water directed against a

stationary flat plate. We shall determine the force on the plate from the
Figure 21.19
water. A convenient control volume is chosen so as to include the sur-

face of the flat plate. Momentum considerations in the horizontal direction
taken as x for steady flow lead to the equation:*
PatniAp + ffij = (pFiAto)(Fi)

Hence; Kx = Rx = p(Fi)Mb 4- Patm.Tp
Note that the efflux of momentum does not have a component in the x
direction. The on the reverse side of
inclusion of the atmospheric force
the plate will give the resultant force on the plate. Thus:
(Kx), = p(V,yA^
As anexercise, you will be asked to reach the above result using a control
volume that includes the plate.
Example 3 Let us examine the case where the plate of the previous prob-
:
lem is moving with a constant velocity of magnitude Fo to the right. For

a ground reference, xijz, this is an unsteady flow. As described earlier,
we can make a steady flow for this problem by choosing a reference fixed
to the plate. This may be carried out by simply superposing a velocity Vo
to the left on the entire flow. Such a procedure has been indicated in Fig.
21.20. The reference moves uniformly with the plate and is thus an in-
ertial reference, so we can employ the momentum equation for this refer-
* The pressure in a free (unenclosed) uniform jet can be taken as that

of the
surroundings. Tliis fact will be used in this and succeeding problems.
616 EQUATIONS FOR DEFORMABLE MEDIA 9 21 10
ence Choosing a control volume similar to that in the previous problem

can arrive at the total force on the plate in a manner parallelmg that
of the previous problem Thus
- (t(y, -
Example 4 W e now
wish to evaluate the thrust of a jet engine moving
through the atmophere at a velocity of Vi Fuel is fed into the engine
in the amount l/N slugs of fuel per slug of incoming sir The eMt velocity
relative to the engine la known from other computations and la given
as Vi The exhaust pressure is at atmospheric pressure A rough sketch
la shown m Fig 21 21
Figure 21 21
Since all parts internal to the engme arc fixed axiallj to the engine sup-
ports the thrust will be the resultant axial force from tl e normal and
shear stresses exerted b> the working fluid on the interior pnrts of tlic
engine TJicrefore we choose as a control volume the enfire interior lol
ume that is occupied by the fluid This is then a complicated volume
because it must fit around compressor and turbine blades shafts com
1
bustion-chamber walls, etc. With coordinates fixed to the engine, we can

assume that there is a steady flow that has an entrance velocity of Tl
at atmospheric pressure.
Let us first express the continuity equation for this control volume.
Knowing pi and N, we get the rate of efflux of mass from the control
volume by the equation;
piFiA, + l/iV{piFiAi) = P 2 V2 A, (a)
The momentum equation in the x direction for the control volume is:
PatmAi p.tmAj + i?i = (P2V2A2) (piTfAi) (b)
Solving for Rx using the above equations and taking the reaction to this
force, we get the thrust from the working fluid:
Kx = PlKiAi[Fi (1 + 1/JV)F2] + PatmAi PatmAa (c)
Note that the incoming momentum flow of the fuel has no component
in thex direction and thus does not appear in Eqs. (b) and (c).
Example 5 A rocket is fired along a straight line in outer space where

:
we can neglect friction and gravitational influence. The rocket burns

d slugs of fuel per unit time and has initially a total mass mo. The mass m
at any time t after firing is thus m
= nti, fit, and for this reason prob-
lems such as this are called variable mass problems. The exhaust velocity
relative to the rocket and the pressure at exit are known from other in-
ternal calculations and are given as F, and pe, respectively. The exit area
of the nozzle is At, and we shall denote the velocity of the rocket relative
to an inertial reference as Vr.
We are to evaluate the motion of this rocket,and we shall do this by
employing a stationary control volume in inertial space as shown in
Fig. 21.22 where the positive sense is shown toward the right.
Figure 21.22
We start with the general momentum equation for the control volume:
+ IIL. =
fL .
+ !JU <>
The total surface force is pcAt at the jet; in the absence of gravity the
total body force is zero. Assuming one-dimensional flow in the jet and
noting that the velocity of exhaust fluid is (Fe Fb) relative to the
control surface, we find that the momentum efflux integral becomes
6t8 EQUATIONS FOR DEFORMABLE MEDIA 521 10
p{Vt Va)M, (Can you fully establish theminus sign) The time
rate of change of the momentum of the rocket vehicle and unhurried
fuel inside the controlvolume is {d/dl)(mVji) nhich becomes mla-f-
1 fl(dm/d0 Also there is a rate of increase m the amount of fluid in the
jet inside the control volume which u equal to l/pl and since the
added fluid m the jet has a velocity (V, V#) we have also the rate
of change of momentum (t." V*)pl/l, inside the control volume
Substituting into Eq (a) we get
M. = - + mVt +
P(r.
^ Vk)VupA, <L)
Nevt we employ the equation of continuity for the control volume inside
the rocket Starting from the general case we tiave
-//cs"' '"-al/Z/cv'''
M c then get for our problem
-pUA. 3m/dl (d>
^ê shall substitute for dm/dfinto Cq (b) Also replacing by m

and (dW)/(dl) bj (dl a)/{dO since I is the onlj independent variable we
get
-Ptn- W)M.
Canning out
+ 0 - 0
the square
^ -fV.l
and caocelling terms we get
- (I ,
- 1 .)I'p d. (e>
p.A( * -plj I, + (mo (f>
thus have a first-order differential equation for V* Separating the

we have
variables
(p l.+ pK1,)rft
(g)
Integrating we obtain
If when t * 0 F# = 0 and
and we thus can give the result as
p A, + pVÂ, , / mo \ <w
\Tno ^l)
In an evercise w e shall return to Una problem and shall formulate it in
termsofacontrolvolumemovmgwiUitherocket le accelerating control
volume
21.11 MOMENT OF MOMENTUM FOR A CONTROL VOLUME

We have derived in Chapter 16 the moment of momentum relation
for a particle, Eq. 16.26, which for an infinitesimal particle of mass dm
becomes:
dM = y. V dm) 21.21
where dM is taken about a point in an inertial reference and r is measured

from this point. We can extend the equation to apply to the control
volume in the same manner, as was done for Newtons law in the previous
relation (see Fig. 21.23). Thus by integrating Eq. 21.21 first for all in-
finitesimalsystems in the streamtube and then for all the streamtubes in
the control volume, we can arrive at the following equation:
Ms -h Mb = (r X F)(pF dA) + | ///^.,, (r X V) dm 21.22
where Ms is the total moment about the chosen point a from surface forces
at the control surface and Mb is the total moment about point o from
body forces throughout the control
volume. In words, this equation
states that the total moment of
surface and body forces about
some point equals the rate of efflux
through the control surface of
moment of momentum (or angu-
lar momentum) about this point,
plus the rate of change about the

point of moment of momentum
inside control volume. We
the
usuallyemploy only a single scalar
component of this equation at any
Figure 21.23
time, which means that we are
takingmoments of forces and
moments about an axis rather than about a point. It will then be easiest
to use cylindrical coordinates with the Z direction taken along the axis.
Instead of using Ms and Mb as moments about a point, we shall use Ts
and Tb, respectively, as torques about an axis going through the point.
The term r x V may be replaced by fV^ where f is the radial distance
from the axis and is the transverse component of the velocity (see
Fig. 21.24). The moment of momentum equation then becomes:
= IL. dA) +I r-7, dm 21.23

Figure 21 21
Vi e shall now illustrate the use of this equation m a simple example

Example T The lawn spnnlcler s rotor in Fig 21 25 is held m
a sta-
tionary position r.hilc water is flowing through it tVhat the torque
on the rotor from water and atmosphere if q cubic feet per second flow
through the apparatus^ Consider water as incompressible
Figure 21 25
e choose as the control viJume the interior of the rotating arm of

the sprinkler and for the axis we select Mil, the axis of rotation From
continuity the eillux velocity is V, = The rate of cfBux of mass
per unit tune is then pg/2 Also the transverse component of the efflux
velocity relative to the axis of rotation can be seen to be F*coso( and
the arm is 1/2 The moment of momentum becomes since q 2/t.F.
2P.i./l.|cos<<+r,- (o)
where Tm is tl from the trail of the rotor to llie nater

e torque deliiercd
^ otc that the entering water which has zero arm about the rotation axis
docs not appear in the above eqiiafaon Considering the outside surface
of tlie rotor, we see that forces caused by atmospheric pressure there will
cancel eve^y^vheê except for two forces which are equal and opposite
to the two forces acting on the control surface at the jets. Since the latter
forces give rise to the first term in Eq. (a), we get for the torque on the
rotor Tk from water and air;
Tk = Tr= E^pMjCOsa = qpl cos a (b)
Weshall now discuss an important unsteady-flow application, that of

fluidmoving in a container which itself is rotating about some axis. A
simple illustration is given in Fig. 21.26. Steam turbines, gas turbines, and
Figure 21.26
centrifugal pumps, as well as many types of fluid couplings, are examples

of turbo-machines that come under this discussion.
Intuitively, you may feel that it would be wise to establish the rotating
member and then attach a suitable control volume for the
as the reference
possible application of moment of momentum equations. However, such a
reference would no longer be an inertial reference, and consequently the
moment of momentum equations are not applicable in their present form.
Fortunately, it is not overly difficult to modify them so they are valid for
such an approach.
Consider a reference xyz fixed to the rotating system of vanes that has
an angular velocity and an angular acceleration w. The acceleration of
a fluid particle moving within the vanes relative to the inertial XYZ is
given in terms of the moving reference by Eq. 11.71, which we restate;
^XYZ ~ "F "b 2w X Vry, + 21.24
+
Since the origins of xy and \ YZ coincide it is clear that /I *= 0 W c shall

next e^pre^ p and )t
xy using i^lindncal coordinates FromEqs II 48 and
11 50 ive thus have for the motion of the particle in the xyz reference
p r + Zt (a)
21 25
In, rtf + (h)
Noting that w and w are in the #, direction we get on substituting the

above lelations into Eq 21 24
Oxrz Oxy, + 2cij, X (?? + r<iirst<* + + ae) X (r + ze,)
4- ost, X [e, X (r/ + z<.)]
Carrying out the cross products we have
O XYS Otui 4* (fi>r 4* 2w?) (2/iJryi 4*
"We can then express Newtons law for the fluid psrticle in the following
way
F* 4- 2wf)e* 4" u*r)t + Oxu] 21 26
All momentum equations we have developed so far are for control volumes
fixed in an inertial reference and the equation generating these momentum
equations is Newton's law m the simple form F ^ ma Ue can put the
above equation m this form by bringing over to the left side of the equa
tion all terms except motyi Thus
F~ m{ur 4* 2wf)* 4 m(2tfr^, 4* *f)* * mont 21JW
If we are to employ the results developed for the inertial reference we must
obviously consider each particle to be under the action of a total force
that consists of the actual force plus the hypothetical forces that are pres-
ent as a result of not having an inertial reference * Tliat is we can employ
the moment of momentum equations for the rotating control volume
provided we include these hypothetical forces Since they act on each
particle these forces will appear in the moment of momentum equation
as body force distributions And since we shall invariably use the axis of
rotation of the device m these problems as the axis about which we take
moments only the hypothetical forces m the direction of will contribute
torque Thus the moment of momentum equation for a rotating control
volume can be written as
Ts+T,- r(7.)(p( dA)

+s///c,
We
have discussed Ihc use of such hypothetuud forces for nomnertial references
in Chapter 11 Part
-
where w and w refer to the angular motion of the rotor relative to the
ground, and f, and are measured relative to the rotor. We
shall now illustrate the use of the above equation.
Example 2: Let the sprinkler of the preceding example rotate with con-
stant angular velocity w (Fig. 21.27). Compute the torque on the rotor
from the water moving through inside and the air pressure outside.
We shall now employ a control volume consisting of the interior of the
rotor and, consequently, one that rotates in inertial space. If we take
moments about the is clear that we can employ Eq.

axis of rotation Z, it
21.28 for this problem. The steady relative to the rotating refer-
flow is
ence, so the last term on the right side of this equation is zero. There is a
zero torque from real body-forces and w is zero, which gives us the follow-
ing form of the equation to work with:
Ts- xyt (pVxvi dA) (a)

///c. V.
The torque acting on the water in the control volume consists of the
torque from the rotor wall, which we shall denote as Trotor, and the torque
from the atmospheric pressure in contact with the fluid inside the control
surface at the rotor outlets. Denoting the latter as T^tm, we have for the
total real torque;
Ts = Trotor + Tatm (b)
Let us neglect the hypothetical force on the water in the two short nozzles.
Then the torque from the remaining hypothetical force is easily evaluated
in the following manner, since f = ql2AB from continuity;
///ay. f, iiic.v.*'
=
where Mz is the first moment of mass of the water inside the straight
portion of the rotor about the axis of rotation. Hence, we have:
2^"
///c V. 2
1; ir
Finallj% we have for the flow of moment ofmomentum through the con-
trol surface since f = 1/2 and = {q/2At) cos a at the nozzles:

EQUATIONS FOR DEFORMABLE MEDIA 52112
(e)
Equation (a) Uiea becomes
r,etor + 7 h 74 4>pP = 7 cos ff (f)

44 ,
The torque from the water on the rotor, then is the reaction to Tnu>r
Thus
Tw.ut = Tiato = Tiui. igwpf* + ^cQsa (e)
Since the atmosphere develops a torque on the outside surface of the

rotor equal to Tm, as explained m
the previous example the total
torque on the rotor from uater and air is
= jgwpf +
r,j, ,,ur
^ cos a (h)
S1 1S SUMMARY
lo preceding chapters, we have considered the kinematics and

dynamics of particles and rigid bodies The tools used were Neuton's laiis
and the derived concepts of energy and momentum These i\ere applied
to free bodies Another approach was introduced in statics the idea of
Virtual displacement and stationary potential energy
When we studied a deformable body, w-e had to adopt other methods

of approach mainly, the use of the field with its different viewpoints
and we applied Newtons law^s of earlier mechanics to systems (same as
free bodies) and control volumes ns well Also we had to bring in equations
of conservation of mass And, as we have pointed out, while Newtons
laws are sufficient for particle dynamics and rigid body dynamics m con-
sidering deformable media we must employ the first law of thermodynamics
(which, m the usual case, is independent of Newtons laws), the second
law of thermodynamics, and such additional subsidiary laws as are perti-
nent to the behavior of the particular continuum involved
In this chapter, therefore, we get a glimpse of the nature of future studira
in the general realm of mechanics which involves continuous media such
as strength of materials, fluid mechanics, elasticity, and plasticity Al
though much of what we have studied is fairlj self contained for particles
and rigid bodies, it actually becomes part of a more general fabric in these
cnginecnng sciences This docs not imply by any means that we have said
the last word on particle and rigid-body dynamics. More advanced studies
in this area will emphasize the variational methods that were introduced
in statics, and these will be carried over to dynamics. Lagranges equations
and the Hamilton- Jacobi theory are some of the topics that would be
covered in such courses. Of course, more sophisticated mathematics such
as matrix algebra, tensor calculus, and variational calculus may be intro-
duced to enable you to generalize further and to strengthen your under-
standing of particle and rigid-body motion.
Finally, in your advanced physics courses you will come to realize more
clearly the limitations placed on these areas of macroscopic classical theory
by revelations of the past 50 years in relativity and in the past 25 years
in quantum mechanics.
PROBLEMS
1. Given the velocity field:
V= 20xi 20yxj -f lOOi/c ft/sec
(a) WTiat is the velocity of a particle at a: = 10 ft, ?/ = 5 ft, and t = 10 sec?

(b) What is the acceleration field associated with this velocity field?
(c) What is the acceleration of a particle at the position and time given
in (a)?
2. A flow in a conduitis expressible as a function of the position s along the

conduit centerline and a function of the radial distance from the centerline.
Is this a one-dimensional flow, a two-dimensional flow, or neither? Why?
3. In incompressible two-dimensional flow, state by considering continuity the

significance of the spacing of a pair of streamlines as to velocity of flow.
4. Derive the continuity equation in differential form for cylindrical coordinates.
Use an infinitesimal control volume as shown in Fig. 21.28.
porous pipe having an inside diameter of 12 in. and a length of

10 ft (Fig. 21.29). Water enters at an average speed of 10 ft/sec. Also water
626 EQUATIONS FOR DEFORMABLE MEDIA
6 IS forced m through the porous ftftlls Iêt us assume that decreasing pressure
inside the pipe causes more water to be brought m Uirough the wall as one
moM^ along the direction of flow >Ve shall imagine that the radial velocity
of influx increases linearly from eero at end d to 6 ft/soc at end B as shown
m the diagram \\T5at then is the average velocity of water coming out of
the pipe?
Water is forced into the device shown in Fig 21 30 at a rate of 10 ft/sec
Also oil of specific gravitj 08 is forced into the device at a rate of 5 ft/sec If
we assume that both liquids arc incompressible and form a fairly homogeneous
sjstem of small oil globules m
the water what is the average velocity and
what IS the density of the mixture leaving the device? Assume steady flow
OIL
S
Sp
AiI
10 ft/sec
Figure 21 30 HjO
7 Examine the velocity fields representing an incompressible flow

<1) r, * 20yx; + mtk
(2) Vt = ISi + 6yy + lOcA
Do they satisfy the condition of continuity everywhere in the flow?
8 Id Fig 21 31 water is flowing into a device at 20 ft/sec through an inlet pipe
having a cross-sectional area of 2 sq m
A piston meanwhile is moving at
the rate of 1 ft/see against the water m
the dev ice ^\hat is the average velocity
of efflux through the pipe having a cross-sectional area of 6 sq ^ m
Fifoure21 31
9.
In problem 6 the pressure of the entering water is known to be 60 Ib/in.^,

the oil pressure 40 Ib/in.^, and the exit pressure of the fluid leaving the device
10.
to be 30 Ib/in.-. What force is developed on the device ip the horizontal direc-
tion as a result of the fluid flow within the device?
A curved stationarj^ blade deflects a jet of water as indicated in Fig. 21.32.
If weneglect friction, neglect gravitational influence, and assume one-dimen-
sional flow, what is the resultant force on the blade caused by water and air?
Give the direction of this force.
Figure 21.32
11. In the above problem, the blade is made to move at a speed of Vi in the
direction of the jet. Compute the resultant force on the blade from air and
water. Assume that the velocity of the water exceeds the velocity of the blade.
12. What is the relation between the jet velocity Fo and the blade velocity Vz
for maximum power to be developed by the jet force on the blade in the
above problem?
13. Show in sample problem 1 of Section 21.10 that if gage pressures are used
for Piand pi we would get the total force on the reducer from the water moving
inside and the air outside, provided the reducer walls are thin.
14. Get the result of Example 2, Section 21.10 by using a control volume that
completely encloses the plate.
15. A jet of watermoving with a speed of 50 ft per sec delivering 500 gallons per
min shown in Fig. 21.33. If the divider in the
strikes the inclined trough
trough causes the water to diverge in two equal flows in the same plane,
compute the force on the trough from air and water.
16 If there ISno dnider jn the above problem and the water is msintamed in
one plane what is the force on the trough from water and air? Neglect fnc
tion Jltni Consider momentum in directions normal to the trough x and
tangent to the trough y' (?ee Fig 21 34 )
n A pipe discharges water mto a lank as shown m Fig 21,35 The lelocity of
the jet js 30 ft/sec re!ati%e to the ground and its cross-section A/ is 2 in*
If the cart is mov ing w ith a constant speed of 20 ft/sec, what is the horizontal
thrust developed bj the jet on the tank^
Figure 21 35
12 A jet piano moves at a speed ot 700 im/br and takes va 1 Ibm of fuel per 13 Ibm
of air The exhaust gas issues out at a speed of 4500 ft/sec relative to the plane
If the exhaust pressure is atmospheric, what is the thrust of the engine per Ibm
of fuel?
19 Water is flowing over a dam as shown in Fig 21 36 Upstream the elevation
13 uniform given as yt and the average velocitj is Vt, while downstream
the e1e\attoa becomes uniform at B, with an elevation of yi The height of
the dam is k Determine the horizontal force from the water on the dam per
unit width List all assumptions made to carry out your analysis
Figure 21 36
20 In Fig 21,37, a senes of curved blades of the type discussed m

problem 10 is
mounted on the periphery of a wheel This is called a water turbine A jet
of water is directed with vek>t> F# onto the blades inducing a rotation
whose rate depends on the load on the turbine Although the fluid motion is
actually unsteady as the ecnw of blades passes by, we may, for purposes of
calculation, assume that the inan> blades coming m contact with the jet give
it some average deflection This has been shown m
the diagram To ascertain
this average deflection, we may consider the blade in its mid position during
the time that the jet impinges on that blade translating with speed icr Neg
Icct faction and gravity Once this average deflection of the jet has been
determined {a problem simply of kinematics), determine the torque develojved
on the turbine wheel by this average jet impute the power developed on
the wheeL
Figure 21.37
21. What is the relation between the velocity Vo in the above problem and the
angular velocity w for maximum power to be developed?
22. We are to consider a ram-jet test stand. Air enters during a test at a speed
of 500 ft/sec, as shown in Fig. 21.38. The temperature of the air is 100F
and the pressure is 100 psia as it enters through the inlet area of 50 ft*. Fuel
is fed to the ram-jet, as shown, at the rate of 1 Ibm per 15 Ibm of incoming
air. The exhaust of the jet may be considered to mix thoroughly with the
main air stream, and it leaves the apparatus as a free jet through area At = 40
ft*. The gas constant for incoming air is 53.3 ft-lb/lbm F.
(a) What is the mass flow leaving the apparatus?

(b) If the velocity on exit is 1000 ft/sec, what is the total thrust coming
onto the entire test apparatus from fluid flow?
Ai=50ft* Test apparatus A,= 40ft*

I>1^
500 ft/sec - -1000 ft/sec
II '^ Ram jet H '
Subsonic flow
Fuel
Figure 21.38
23. In Fig. 21.39, find the twisting effect on the pipe AB from the water flowing
through the system by using: (1) a linear momentum equation, (2) a moment
of momentum equation.
24. In problem 23, what is the bending moment at B of pipe AB as a result of the
flow of water through the system?
25. In Fig. 21.40, find the twisting action about the centerline AB from the flow
of water inside the system. A slit of thickness i in. in pipe CD is so shaped
on the inside that a sheet of water of uniform thickness j in. issues radially
from the pipe. The velocity varies linearly along the pipe as shown, and 2 cfs
of water enter at the bottom.
26. In problem 25, what is the bending moment of B of pipe AJ5 as a result of- the
flow of water through the system?
27. Using Fig. 21.39, suppose the pipe AB is not fixed at the bottom but can
rotate about its centerline.
(a) Neglecting friction at the base and also windage effects, find what
Figure 21.39
torque must be applied to keep the angular speed at a value of \ md/sec

floekwisc looking from A toS
(b) \\ liat torque must be applied to maiotam an angular speed of $ rad/sec
counterclocLivtse looking from X to iff
28. Do problem 27 when there is an angular speed of | rod/scc and a into
(a) of
of change of angular speed of 2 nd/aoc* ta the direction of rotation
(Tgurc 21 (0 Topv.ew
29. Using yjg 2J 40, assume lliat pipe AB

oin rotate about its centerlme \Muit
torque is required to give U a tale of tfiangu of angular speoil of 2 rad/wc
when It w routing at 1 nul/sec Both quantities are measured clockwise looking
from A to li
30. Develop an equation for linear momentum for a control volume which accel-
erates relative to an inertial reference along a straight line. The control volume
only translates relative to the inertial reference.
31, The German V-2 rocket in Fig. 21.41 weighs 28,200 lb, including the propel-
lant,which weighs 19,300 lb. The firing duration is 65 sec. If the exhaust
from the nozzle has a speed of 6000 ft/sec relative to the nozzle and it is at
atmospheric pressure, what is the acceleration on take-off? Assume the fuel
burns at a uniform rate during the firing period.
(X
Nozzle
Figure 21.41
32. The maximum flight speed of the V-2 rocket described in problem 31 is 5000
ft/sec. This occurs as the last of the fuel is burned. What is the acceleration
at this condition? Air friction can be neglected, since the rocket is almost out
of the atmosphere at this speed. Take p = 30 ft/sec^
33. Using the results of problem 30, compute the horizontal force on the trough
on which a jet of water impinges (Fig. 21.42). The trough accelerates uni-
formly in the horizontal direction at the rate of 10 ft/sec^, and at the instant
of interest the trough has a speed of 20 ft/sec. The length of the trough is
18 in., and the jet has a speed of 50 ft/sec.
34.
1
"T 10 ft/sec*
50 ft/sec
Ji
T
'
A = 2in.2 -20 ft/sec
Figure 21.42
Do Example 5, Section 21.10, using the results of problem 30. Also do problem
31 by this method.
Appendix
THAMSFORMATION Of HORMAi. ITRCIt AT A TOtKT
Con*t(ir ti > infimttiKnkt

prisRiAlK* firmfnt of fluit down )n
the iStacTAm At ri|;) t are to folvv
for th noTtiAl *trrM # on the Uet-
ABC The dirrclMn wine* of
(n 1 eoiMe<tueiitl5 the normAl ta AIIC)

are ! m anrl we ran tte lhe*e dirrr*

Iwn eoeine* to Ute the areu of the
face* of the r>rim Jn the fQllowtn*
manner
AOr - ABCn
OltiÂBCn (a)
OCB - ABC I
Exprewtinc Newton law m the reetmn of r*, ani) droppinjt cnvitr and Snertu term*
f]
iinee lhe> are ne|-t((-ihle In the limit we then have
Af{C-0AOCn-
- e
V - *
OCB t - rOt/t n - r OCB m

I
-fuOBAn^tÔBH~r,OBAnm<^ (b)
Beplaee area* AOC OCB and .d/tOtun* E| (a) CaneellnR ABC wr (ret upon
tearranRinR
e,P + *i* + + etn 4- f, inf Jn + Tfn + Tnf + r^nei (e)
Since the atreu tenaor i* tynimetne tM Irar (formation equatron becomes
evif* + e,*M + #*.* + 2(r, mn + r^n + tt.f'i) (d)
TABLE or (ÔPtRTIES Or PLANE ARCAT
631
APPENDIX 633
A = a& sin a
ic = ^ (6 + o cos a)
2/e
= - (a sin a)
r'
Ixc =
a?b
1A
sin or
lyt = ~A sin a'(b + a cos a)

J.
r = ~
0^6
Xm
Bin^
. .
a cos a
4 APPENDIX
TABLC or rdoriMTm or vanious homooincdus ouoi

A
A
EtS^t clrojlaf cyl nder
lu - Mf
Slender rod
APPENDIX 635
Iaa =
4
Ibb = 0.430ilfr*
GENERAL PROOF OF CHASLE'S THEOREM

In Chapter 11 we have shown, for plane motion, how a rigid body could be considered
at any time to have a translating and a rotational motion, which, when superposed,
give the actual motion of the body.
Let us now turn to the general Ihree-dimensional case. We shall follow an argument
that is similar to the one we used for the coplanar case. That is, a rigid body is shown
at two positions At apart during a general motion. A point C is chosen in the body and
636 APPENDIX
A tron*hlion aRc romrd out eo ns to bnnf( C into the correct position C, ns is shown
in Fig A-1 c mast next prove that Atinplc rolntion about some axis going through
Figure A-1
point C wi}} bnng the bod; tntn the eorrret position (sho7i t>) solid lines) at time /t
To do so, corutruct alnut C' a eptimeal surface of any convenient radius emaU enough
to cut a portion of tlie body On the region cut out by this spherical surface, select two
convenient points o' and b' when the body is at (he orientation corresponding to time ft
The corrcs^nding positions for the intermediate position (dashed lines) have been
designated with double primes Since the motion of the set of points, o', b, C, ill rep-
resent the motion of (he rigid bod>, considerations after Ibis ail) be restricted to these
points
In l-ig A-2 note points a b", a', b', and O' 3\c now draw peat circles, using solid
lines, from a" to b and from a' to b', and, uung dashed lines, we draw great circles
from *" to o' and from 6 ' to b' \te now pas* separate planes through point C so that
they are perpendicular bisectors of great-cirele ares o'o' and b"b', respeclivclj The
great-circle traces of these planes have been desig-
nated as I and i in the diagram Consuler plane 1,
winch forms the pcrpendirular biector of arc a"o'
Any line in that plane would be equidistant from
the point* n" and o' and, consequently, could serve
as an axis of rotation so as to rotate pomt a ' to o'
It should be noted that the arc of motion of the
point a" OR ita way to a' w ill not, in the usual case,
lie on the sphewral surface we have chwen as a
convenient reference The same argument applies
to lines in plane 2 serving as possible axes of rota-
tion for the motion of point b going to b Planes
] and 2 intersect and form a straight line from C
to a point ^signaled m the diagram as E Thus,

the line EC* can serve as an axis of rotation for
point o' going to a" and b going to b If we can
now show that the rotation about EC required to
gel o" to o' and the rotation about EC required
to gel b" to b are the same, we w ill have demonstrated, in effect that a pure rotation
about some axis EC will bring the body mto lU ffnal position at time (i
To do this, connect point E w ith the pomt o", b", a', and b', respectively, along great
circles forming two spherical triangles, as shown in Fig A 2 Since plane 1 is the per
pendicular bisector of the great circle between a" and o', it must be true (hat arcs a"E
and a'B are equal Similarly , arcs Fb" and are equal Noting that a"b' and a 6 are
also the same, owing to the rigidity of the body, weean then see that the two spherical
triangles must be congruent The angles J^.o'Fb" and 2ô'F6 ' are then equal and have
>
APPENDIX 637
been denoted as a. Another angle 2^b"Ea' has been denoted as The angle of rotation
about EC needed to get o" into its final position at time t 2 is then a +
13. To get h"
to b also involves a rotation about EC

of the angle /3 +
or, as can be readily seen in the
diagram. We have thus shown that a single rotation will take the body from the inter-
mediate position, arrived at by translation, to the final position.
We then have associated with point C'& displacement ARc and a rotation A0 about
an axis going through C. The choice of a point other than C, such as D, would mean a
different displacement, ARn, but the same rotation A<#> about a parallel axis going
through point D' rather than C. The latter fact is true because the only difference
between the intermediate positions for points C and D is a simple translation, and this
would not affect in any way the angle of rotation or the direction of the axis needed to
reach the same final position.
As we let the time interval approach zero, we end up with an infinitesimal displace-
ment associated with point C and an infinitesimal rotation. Note that point C undergoes
no further motion beyond that incurred during translation in the movement of the body
to the final position. Therefore, we can say:
where Vc is the instantaneous velocity of point C of the body. We can also say:
lim (~\ =
a(-*o \A</
where u may be considered a free vector, since it is the instantaneous angular velocity
vector of the body for all reference points C.
From this discussion, we can conclude that the motion of a rigid body relative to a
reference at any time I can be described in the following manner:
a. Choose any point C in the body.

b. Assume that the entire rigid body has the velocity Vc.
c. Superpose the proper angular rotation o about an axis going through point C.
The vector o> at time t is independent of the reference point C.
CENTROIDS AND CENTERS OF MASS
We shall here show how we can arrive at the centroid of an area from the definition
of a center of mass. Consider a plate of uniform thick-
ness t and constant density
p (Fig. A-3). A reference
xyz has been selected so that x and y are in the face of
the plate A. The first moment of mass about the
origin 0 is given as:
M dA (a)
The X and y components of the vector M are moments

about the y and x axes, respectively, which we shall
designate as and Mi.* Thus:
Mi = pi
ff^ydA M. X dA
Now let p + 0 and t > 0, so that

hat the
th( product pt is
nit. We then
unity in the limit. th get:
Mi fl^ydA il/. xdA (b)

/X
* This notation is contrary
to what we have used for moments of forces and couples
about orthogonal axes.
8 APPENDIX
v.hich are the first momeata of areas set forth in Chapter 8 These concepts for areas
therefore are related to and can be derived from the concepts of mais distributions
WORK KitiETIC ENERGY RELATION

Itclear that the right side of Eq IS 32 represents a change of part of the kinetic
IS
energy of the aggregate of particles This part of the kinetic energy is rented to the
work of the eitcrnal forces on a hypothetical particle having the motion of the mass
center To find the relation betiveen the remaining part of the kinetic energ> and the
forces we shall examine the energy equation for thetth particle Starting with Newtons
law we have
where/ is an internal force from the /Ih particle onto the tth particle Next we express
the infinitesimal displacement of the tth particle in the following manner
dn = rfr + dp (b)
wherep is the displacement vector from the center of mass to the tth particle Now ne
lake the dot product of Eq (a) using drj for the right side and noting Eq (b) using
dr, +
dp lot the left side of the equation Integrating from position I to position 2
we get
(^' + %/') (*. + <*(-/(- * (0

jl
It has already een shown in Section 15 1 that the right side of the above equation
I
is simpl> the change in kinetic energj of the rtb particle Hence on summing for all n
particles we see that the right side ticcomes the total change of kinetic energy for the
aggregate of particles Thus
(*. + ),)- (AE),- (f.E), - W)

^
Utilizing Eq 15 30 to replace the right side we can express this equation as follows
Carrying out the dot product on the left side we get
-f-'Ejy- >1
-i(' (f)
It has already been si own (Eq 1532) that the first terms on each side of the above
equation are equal to eacl other Furthermore tl e term
may be written as
APPENDIX 639
and since we have already shown in Chapter 14 that:

n n
EEa-"
as a result of Newtons third law, it is clear that we can drop this integral. However,
the integral;
n r2 n r2 i n
i;
t
/
= l./l3 = l ./ll=l3 = l
is not necessarily zero, since you are here summing over the dot product of/., and rfp.
and not simply over/,, as was the case for the previous integral. Now dPi can be different
for each particle, and even though the condition of action equaling reaction is present,
it cannot be said for the general deformable case that the work:
n n
is identically zero. Thus the above equation can be written as:
(g)
motion of the center of mass in terms of the external

TlTiereas Eq. 15.32 describes the
forces, theabove equation is concerned with the motion of the particles relative to the
center of mass in terms of both the external and internal forces.
*
Answers
to Problems
0 NOTE IJ no Ttference tnu pfo/Ud tn Vie fwoÊejn (Ae folhvnng

anmera are eii'en tn terns of Ouse rtfereneea
TvxhdxmensvonaX eases
CHAPTM ONC
1 (8 ) W - (W/W
0S15 gm/cm*
4 CffU dimeoaionlesa
(b)
6 (K) - dVJlfV)
0162 gta/cm*
15 145XV0hV8ec*
2 earth 25 000 nu/hr
moon S360 mi/b 1 12281b
3 (a) (k) - tot fit 17 12 20ft/ec*

W (Af/U)
(b) 1 slug/ft-sec
forAfLt
480 gm/cm see 16 ttL >= OOtZQ
480 po se 19 r = 197 200 mi
CHArrCR TWO
1 F- 637 Ib@ 2^ 325 ' U F>=70i-2Q/-f68 6A.

2 f = 385lb@ 41134* 12 257+24 7y + l6 fe
4 S* 17^ lb 460* 15 42 1 lb (using positive value of n)

5 iO - 22 9 Ib @ 66 4* above
16 (a) -6i + 48^ + I0&
6 14 14 lb each. (b) 3S0j
7 732 lb and 516 lb n 48 nib

8 5001b 18 -44ft-lb
9 (a) 37 4 lb
(b) / * 0 267 m 0.335 20 (a) -75 ff =. 95 9*
n = -0 804 (b) 625 6 21 6*
640
ANSWERS TO PROBLEMS 641
CHAPTER THREE
1. r = 3i + 4j + 5k 11. 600 Ib-ft
= 0.425, in = 0.566, n = 0.706
M=
I
12. (7.26F.6 + 8.56Fcd - 10,000)!
2. 4i 3fc -f (2.91Fi, - 5.14Fcj)J

16J
-(2.91F - 5.14Fcd)7c
3. M= -42i + lOOj + 307c 1.3. M = -36! + 4I7 + 387c
4. -84i + 947 - 46fe I= -0.541, OT = 0.616, n = 0.572
M. = -36
9. (a) Jl/r
5. = -42, il/y = 100, M, = 30
(b) 8 14. 5.52 units
(c) -6.6
15. (a) -50! (b) -50! (c) 0 (d) 0
10.
6. M = 11.86i + 9.OO7 + 23.27c 16. (a) M = 21.27 + 21.27c lb-in.
7. M = F(2.5i - 4.337 - l-57c)

(b) 24.5 lb-in.
31 n = 1.33F 17. 35 Ib-ft, e = 36.9, 7 ft
2820 Ib-ft 18. C= 35.4! -f 22.37 -f 807c
149,000 Ib-ft 19. 1150 Ib-ft
CHAPTER FOUR
1. (a) F = 5J (c) F= 57 12. Fr = 250J 23007' lb at position

9. C = 5i C= -57c 15.66 ft from base
(b) F = 57 (d) F= 57

C=0 C = 5i 57c 13. Fr = 2100! 5OO7' lb through a hori-
zontal diameter at a point 0.05 ft to
2. To intercept s axis at x = 0.834 left of center
3. C= 13t - 227 + 327c
Fb = + 14. Fr = 0
5. 9i IO7 + 97c Cr = 1000!
Cfi = 6i + IO7 + 6k Ib-ft
6. (a) 50! 507c Ib-ft 15. X = -12.5 ft

(b) 5OO7 Ib-ft y = 7.5 ft
(c) -50! + 5OO7 -f 507c Ib-ft
16. 200 lb passing 10 ft to left of
(d) -50 Ib-ft beam
7. F= 10! 67'
-f 47c 17. Fr = -31.87 - 2387c
C|i = -2.63! -f 1.5757 1.050/c - Cr = -1298! - 6897 + 775/c
Intercepts xy plane at x = 14.11,
y = 14.16 18. Fo = 5! -1- 157t
= 35.4! -f IOO7 + 35.47c lb

F - Fo = 30! -f 1587
(a) Fr
Cr = -247! + 1477c Ib-ft 19. 50,600 ounces
(b) Fr = 35.4! -I- IOO7 -t- 35.4A- lb
= -100! - 1777 -f 5007c Ib-ft 20. 51,200 ounces
Cr
(c) Fr = 35.4! -f IOO7 + 35.47c lb 21. Jo at depth of 5!
Cl, = -10! - 28.37 - 107c Ib-ft
Intercepts xy plane at x = 0.8 ft,
22. Fr = poba/2
y = -6.69 ft X = 6/2
y - la
10. F= 22! -f i7j Intercepts x axis at
X = 15/17 23. Fr = -6330 lb
11. (a) Fr = -100k lb
X = 14.5 ft
X = 2,5 ft 24. (a) Fr = 20 jir at center
y = 2.2 ft (b) Fr = 20/t
(b) Cr = 280! + 45O7 Ib-ft C = +100/7r
V
6Ai ANSWERS TO PROBLEMS
CHAITER FIVE
7 fi 734 H 20 B,^0 /t. - 28 lb

^ 923 lb B. = 701b A, - 981b
a = -700 lb 23 F, 1) Fx -0
12
Cs = -8670 IWt E, = 31 700 lb F, = 18 300 Ib
10 a = 5015 lb A = 260 (ons />* =0
= if 276 tons Dy = 2d0 tons
C, 2500 lb
nr* (vT/a)!! 23 Cx*=0 D* 1032 Ib along BC

= 3Ulbalongi4B
-337 * 244 lb C,* -6001b /I
At =* lb
C. - -3201b
16 C. = 337 lb C, * 206 lb
13 X*3l2lb 21 ft* 66 700 lb

FE 527 lb 8061b * 8061b
BE 312 lb 25 A, ft
A, SOO lb f * 500 lb
14 v4 * 250 lb
F > SOO lb 26 A, = -64 61b
D * 250 lb A, * -218 lb
B, - -17251b
15 3 ft
B, * -89 lb
G. - 7a0 lb
400 ib U lsm
r, 27 C
4(A +Bem*/2) *
IT EF - 4940 lb
CD * 1700 lb H >/tanw If /tan a
28 tan^
1C C, - UOO IWt 111 + lit
Ct -650 IWt
2200 Ib-fl
29 F-4990 lb
C, -2180
B, - 403 lb B, Ib
19 CD ta tti compfcaswn 600 lb Ax *2086 lb Ax* -21401b
Spring ts in compression 1620 Ib Sum o! vertical components 30 Ib
CHAPTER SIX
J CF * 1414 lb compression 4 AB * DE = 5 84 Kips compre'^sion

EF lOOO lb tension AH * EF * 4 67 kips tension
EC = 866 lb compre''îon Hll * DF * 1 kip tension
DC * G12 lb tension liG = DG 1 667 kips compression
DB * 1433 lb tension BC * CD * 4 16 kips compression
2670 lb compression
HG FG * 4 67 kips tension
2 AJi C77 * 5 kips tension
BC * 2670 lb compression
CD 3610 lb compression 5 (a) 1200 lb tension
DB * 2000 Ib tension (b) 0
EF * 2000 lb tension
AF = 4820 lb tension 6 CB = 250 Ib compression
BF *0 BE * 500 lb compression
CF = 1200 lb tension
CE * 2000 lb tension f F/ * 707 Ib compression
3 AB * 1985 lb tension
BC 2590 lb compression 8 BC = 707 lb compression
CD * 5360 lb compcesion AC * SOO lb tension
AD * 9C lb tension AB * 707 lb tension
AC * 1740 lb compression AD = BD * 0
9. AB G40 lb tension (b) M = 125 Ib-ft

BC = 902 lb tension H = 950 lb
BE 1490 lb compression F = 01b
10. A = 0 14. (a) V = 737 lb, M = 3690 Ib-ft
B^ = -10001b (b) V = -262 lb, M = 6850 Ib-ft
V = -262 lb, M = 1300 Ib-ft
i? = 0
(c)
71. = -583 lb 15. 0 < < 10

j
O = 583 lb V = 737 lb
AB AC ^ AD = BC ==0 11/ = 737* Ib-ft
BD = 1160 lb tension
CD = 583 lb compression 10 < g < 25
11. DE = DA = 1030 lb compression V = -263 lb
il7 = -263i + 10,000 Ib-ft
AE 1250 lb tension
CA = CE = 1060 lb compression 25 <J < 40
CD = 1500 lb tension V = -263 lb
il7 = -263z + 10,500 Ib-ft
12. GB ^ GD ^ GF ^ CD = DF = 0;
DE = 1000 lb compression 16. 10 < a: < 20
BF = 3650 lb compression F= 0
BA 3470 lb tension M= -1000 Ib-ft
A^ = 667 lb; = -667 1b A
A, = -3330 lb 24. 230 ft
77, = = He = 0 25. T = 400 lb
E, = 1000 lb; E,,= Ey = 0 Length = 230 ft
F, 667 lb; = -1334 lb
Fe = 3330 lb 26. (a) y = Vs'' +
(.Tu/w,y Tu/w, -
(b) y = {Tu/w,)(co3'h w,x/Tu 1)
13. (a) JR = 900 lb tension = 430 ft
27.
AD = 141.4 lb compression I
= 53 ft
CD = 50 lb tension /
DE 50 lb compression 28. 2/ = /(I
cos -n-x/l)
CHAPTER SEVEN
1. 0 = 16.7 8. 15001b
2. (a) F = 150.5 lb 9. TV = 1667 lb, / = 100 lb

(b) F = 139.5 lb
10. P = 200 lb
17.
3. F = 128 lb
11. a = 21.8,
= h = 0.144 ft from bottom,

5. n, 0.226
u = 6.33 rad/sec
6. X = 15.80 in.
12. IF =/ = 115.5 lb, = 0.578
7. 13201b 14. 6.8 ft off center

t
15. (a) IFo = cos a sin a) sin a cos a
(b) = (l/2d)(ai cos a sin a)

(ac/c + l/2</) cos a -f (fn/2d 1/c) sin a
^ 0.483a + 0.1295d -d
0.966 m. + 0.259
tan or = + 19. (PAtZ)/(3 sin )
(jA tan" p) 22. 153 Ib-ft
644 ANSWERS TO PROBLEMS
23 For impending motion on one of the 27 r = 621 lb

21 wheela torque on large wbwl 312
Ilj-ft torque On small wheel = 156 28 >. = 0 048
IWt
36 (a) M. - 133 Ib-m
r, 130 21b (b) 15o Ib-im
T, = 60 8 lb
torque = 6081b-ft 32 rS876Ib
25 Ti 5550 lb
33 a != tan * 0 05/r r = radius of cyltn
26 n 267 lb dct
CHAPTER EIGHT
2 y. 4a/3r 19 7, - 7, = C6/3)(a + aW - 6*)
3 Xe = }(i 7^ - ot/a - b'/i

y,
4 2. f/2 y, - /8 20 /. *110ft*
6 = fa - 270 li
2. 10 25 ft, y. 4 20 ft
7 (a) 2, = l/2n
21 7, 2800 ft*
J6 (b) 2,
V 0 3a4* y. 2/5a 7,- 12 850 ft*
/ 5030 ft*
8 1/^-0 612 ft>
22 7. - 16 45 ft*
9 x,2fy a 7, - 10 14 ft*
y, - 3iV ft - -12 04
7 ft*
11 2a/ir, - jft 2a/r
23 7, - 1728a*
12 V* " !*, X, a/2^ z, - f/3 7, - l/20u*
13 z. - }f> / - l/24a*
14 2,- 0 37-4 ft y, -2 00 ft, 21 J, - 341 ft*
2, - 0 187 ft / - 430 ft
- 213 ft*
15 2, - y, - 0
2rirt -4-3/?) 25 /, - out' J, -HJSU*

j -f-
/ -96 - 1546
4{r? + T,r, + r?) (/,} - 1540
ft*, (7,).
ft*
ft*
16 /, -0 141/
7,-0 180/* 26 /, - â* + a*[y(y - a) +x(x ~ a)]
- 0 1251*
27 a r/4 nnd ir/4
17 /, - 32r ft*
7, - 32r ft 28 a, - 44*12
7^-0 St - 134* 12
18 7, oc*/12 29 7,- 70 ft*
7, - (ac/12)(a* + c6 + 5) /, - 1300 ft*
CHAPTER NINE
5 r 346 p8l 13 (a) /- ~~2si ~l*k

340 psi (b) 17 10 Ib/unit volume
7 (b)
10 375 psi 15 p*.e -212 lb/1 1*

T - 217 psi
16 pt lOl 3 pîa
n fa) a - 46 4* and 130 5*
(b) cr, - -420 pi
IT p .,((1 _j,)
tfi - 576 psi
18. (a) 35,300 ft 25. P = 36,400 lb

(b) 490 Ib/ft" y = 4.89 ft
19. P = 15.6 lb 26. 2500 Ib horizontal
393 lb vertical
20. F = 436,000 lb at 5.19 ft below top
Fr goes through center of curvature
of door
at an angle 8.9 down from horizontal
21. F = 244,000 lb at 5.3 ft below top of
door
27. Fr = k,000i - 5360i lb
C = 416,000fc Ib-ft
23.
30. F= 9450 lb at a distance 0.06 ft down
from center of door 28. 5.89 lb
24. 64,300 lb acting at a point 4.78 ft from 29. F= 1120i + I050j Ib/unit width
31. top of door; Pa = 33,300 lb a = 43.2
32. Pi/unit width = + ('yo/2)(d| d^) + {y^fl2h){dB d\)

(v./2)(cPr - di) + (yo/3)(dl - d\) + (yjm)(d% - d\)
,,
^
Voids dA) + (70/2) (dj dA) + (yo/12h)idB d^)
Pi/unit width = 1500 lb 35. a = 34.8
9.
F/unit width = 36. Tbefore = 1196 lb
-f'+l*-'- Paftcr = 698 lb
33. 1.6 ft 38. P = 104.6 lb
34. (a) 33,200 lb

M= 1.310 Ib-ft
(b) 2000 lb 39. Drag = 150.7 lb
CHAPTER TEN
4. e = 8.5 20.
4. 13301b
6. 9.4 ft 21. 11.14 ft
Q=3P 22. sin a cos a =

no
10. Q = (TFs sin e - ^
11 2 ) /2 (72) (1 +a=)
11. P = (1172) cot e 23. 0.3 ft
12. a = 29.8 + aF,) -f IT^

28. cos B =
13. tan/3 = (1/V3)[(a - 3b)/(a + 6)j aKs + aKi
15. T = 316 lb 29. 0 = 25.9
16. CD = P/V3 31. e = 27.7
18. JR = 900 lb 32. B = 16.6
CHAPTER ELEVEN
2. (a) 1280// + 600/j - 640/fc -

(b) 64/i + 50lj - 106.7//c + C (C + ) = (10 6/) - 6/y
I
3. 192/ + 30
(60 - 9G/)fc [C- D)dl = (5/ + /)
32/ + 15(2 -{- C J
-48/i + 96/j + (30/ - 16/)/( +C -(/V2 + 3l)J -Glk +C
-
646 ANSWERS TO PROBLEMS
29 J = -17 3'>J - lOy - 504 ft/aee

(C D) =. -O0t
- _
^ a = 2eO0i 173 1730;^ ft/aec*
30 = 2680i - 183 Zj - 17274 ft/aec*

~ (C X ) - -); - (30/* + 7804
31 I -5 41 -ISSyft/acc
3Gfi
32 a =12 57 ft/aec*
{C X>)dl - -\llJ2-yC = 21 7i 12 57 ft/aec*
j i
oj = 0
(CXD)dt^ ~(3l* + I8/)i o = + 2157 ft/s*
J 33 103 51

Oi = 1416i 59I7 ft/sec
-30iV - (i* + 3)fe + C o> = 273/ ft/ecc*
5 = USi +24fe = -0 0222
34 o 4- 0 000747
6 P - 222j + 324 dA/dl *= J20^
35 o * -10 O61 - 2O7 - 0 484 ft/aec*
9 - 141V + 212j - 504 (t/swi

36 e. = -0 437i + 0 2197 + 0 8'34
10 -245i + 210; + 254 37 T = 2 93e + 4 05<, ft/sec
11 -'381 - 7bj + 2504 It/sec
38 J'> - 314e* +294e. ft/aec
12 a - -9880 ft/aec*
13 (a) 200 ft/see 89 f?- 13520ft

(b) 400 ft/8M
(c) 200 !t/aw for either iwis 40 7 74fl/eec
14 85 4/ - 35 4j ft/eec 41 (a) J 5e + 30* ft/aec

o -300e/ + 1 ISea ft/aec*
15 - 2504 + 433j rad/aec (b) o - -115i - 3OO7
16 0 41r&d/8ec< 42 fa - -1732i - IO7 -504 ft/aec
17 -8i - 47j - 17 14 fc/eec
48 Jjfra * 477 1T4 5i ft/aec
18 50j rsd/aec*
44 I jra * -14V - 174 ft/sec
19 -20 3j - 174 ft/sec*
45 I xTi = 75 3i 24 ft/aeo
20 -251 + S004 ft/sec*
46 Jxra = 75 3t + lOy - 24 ft/sec
21 Jo* 20^ ft/sec
Ji. * 20y +
20* ft/aec 47 Jjrra = Sy 30i ft/aec
oarz = ll5i 3OO7 ft/ec*
22 J * 5 5y ft/aec
48 I xrz 50i -57 -204 ft/sec
23 le - 11 30j ft/sec
0 4i
* -91 7i - 154 3y ft/aec* axrx = lOOi SOOy 354 ft/aec*
ac
= -41 49 xrz = -50i - 30oi - 354 ft/aec*
24 ij - 23 84 ft/aec
a 10 3Si rad/aec 50 axn 3 Ml + 50 47 - 4 134 ft/aec*
25 f'A = 80j ft/sec |irz| = 1 58 g 8

OAB = 54 94rad/8ec wa = 7 3 rad/sec
52 (a)
26 Ja =34 Hi 14 147 ft/aec (b) ea = 3 48 rad/aec
uis = 2 244 rad/sec Axial force oa rod =
53 4 77 lb teasioa
27 oa = -141 4i - 141 4j ft/aec* Shear force 1494 0 25k Ib
Be&diog moment 1 5954 -h 0 251 Ib-ft
2Z Ja = 30 5 - lO^lt/aec
b>AB * 2 04 rad/sec 54 FndAl => 4 82 Ib
55. T = 4.86 lb 59. u = 9.64 rad/sec

Bending moment = 20 Ib-ft
56. (axyz)coriolia = 4.18Fivti ft/seo*

60. K ~ 68.2///(?/ - ya)
58. T = {W/gW 61. X 0.403 ft and x = 7.66 ft are limits

d = for no slipping
CHAPTER TWELVE
1. 30.6 ft 22. 0.269 X 10-< ft
2. 3063 ft
24. 0.221 sec
3. 99.5 ft
25. 2.58 X 10-5 ft
4. X = 96.7 ft/scc
X = 64.1 ft 26. 0.00212 ft
5. 153.9 ft 27. Oo = 34.3 ft/sec*

Qi = 32.7 ft/sec*
6. X = 73,800 ft
X = 464 ft/sec 28. ) = 1.615 rad /sec
li = 1.348 rad/sec*
0. &) = 13.9 rad/sec 02 = 17.51 ft/sec5
9. Amplitude = 1/2 in. 29. (a) 02 = 25.5 ft/sec*

fa) = 27.7 rad/sec 01 = 24.3 ft/sec
= 1.275 rad/sec*
10. wn =
21 rad/sec (b) oi = 40.4 ft/sec*
Total distance = 80.03 in. 02 = 14.6 ft/sec*
ci = 1.185 rad/seo^
11 . rad/sec 30. 4.96 in.

V WlP
12. rad/sec
13. Un rad/sec
cycles/sec
1
15. ci) = 24.5 rad/sec 4M ( 9A:i + 2KK2 +
16. 1/8 ft
35. j=2 + \wi
_ C.A n +
mi
(n - rj)
17. 0.005 ft /
IC2
10. 0.0481 ft = ,
(rio ,
r2o)
19. 0.0264 ft
*2 = co^rs ^ (n Ti)
20. 0.0885 in. m>
21. -0.0210 ft
(no - rco)
mi
6Ai ANSWERS TO PROBLEMS
CHAPTER THIRTEEN
5 e <= -0 594i +03907 +0701fe 12 lllOOmi/hr
6 I 2 700mi/hr 13 (a) 0450 mi/lir

(b) 5 35 hr
7 273 X IQ*tVsec (<r) 6980 mi
a 1/r = 02o3 X 10 * +0389
11
X lO * C09 {* + 132*) mi * 14 sV <= 2000 ft/sec
44 mm
9 4 13 X 10 slugs
15 Satellite does not orbit
Radius vector
swings around 243* before satellite
crashes
To(J #)o
16 For horizontal firing
(a) e 0 209 tm*t at north pole = 17 700 roi
(b) <ma* 2420 m\ rnux at equator 33 200 nu
(c) 1 hr, 5 mm
(d) 24 SOO mi/hr 18 50 mi
8
CHAPTER FOURTEEN
16 T 239 X 10 cm
17 Motion IS cirrubr motion in xii plana
nith radius 5 68 X 10 * meters
2 142 000 ft
18 Speed of electron " 1 s/Syf
3 d 13 ft
c 2tb8
4 equation for a .

12 4 sin 2a 2 73 sin a + 3 m "jiVdO + 21)
B> trial and error 19 0 637 cm above x axi
a -.6 3*
5 Equation for a (incjmatioo above
ground)
0124 sin a [4 X 10* cos* a VCf)*
- 1936)* * - 2 73 BID er 3
Equation for0 (inclination from AB)
8in/S = 44/(200 cos a)
a 83*
^ = 12 9*
yjmat 292 ft
a (on hitting ground) 9 5*
(by trial and error solution) Em
X - 9890ft eil'
23 1 48 cm
24 r 3 70i +4 7y + 4 35A ft
yna* = - '-In-
25 I, 4 87i + 1 3057 + 435A
1 fl/set
K* g+Alw 27 OOOAft
13 F= (27 Si - 2 94y + 06i) X 10*
1
28 r, * 1 6i3 + 1 6137 + Ok ft
newtons
29 F SSlOAlb
14 F= (22 3i - 9 fiy + 1 602A} X 10 >
neistona 30 f= 5 08A - 0 OOj

9.
CHAPTER FIFTEEN
1. P= 41.2 lb s 8 - 50a;= S
-f- 356 = 0
2. 7= 34.8 ft/sec 10. 7 = 3.40 ft/sec

4. 1581 fWb 11. (a) 7 = 5.53 ft/sec
(b) -4x^ - 60x - 384 = 0
5. 13.23 ft/sec
12. 9130 lb
7. During isothermal compression,
work done by left face of piston 13. (a) 1.465 ft/sec
= 4730 ft-lb (b) a: = 1 in.
During constant pressure,
\vork done by left face of piston 15. 7 == 15.5 ft/sec
= 7750 ft-lb
16. 17.5 ft above ground
During entire stroke,
work done by right face _
= -2840 fUb
of piston 17. 7= V'(p/L)(L= a=)
Total work = 9640 ft-lb 18. e = 45
8. 4140 ft/sec 20. 285 ftrlb
CHAPTER SIXTEEN
1. 2 04 sec 17. 50.5
2. y= 333i + mj -t- 4000fe ft/sec 18. 1.031 ft
3. 178 5 ft/sec 19. (a) 50 ft/sec

(b) 36.4 ft/sec
4. (a) 1.55 sec
10. (b) 0.622 sec 20. Fz = -lOi - lo; -f- 12fe
5. (a) 7.58 sec

V, =8i~ lOJ -f 12fe
Fi = 81 -j- -j- 12fc
(b) 13.3 sec
5140 lb 21. For yz plane, y = 4, z = 3.6
= - For xz plane, x = 3.2, z = 8.4
7. / -0.964i 0.388j + 0.097fc
22. For 5 lb wt y = 0.96 ft
8. (a) V = 20/x ft/sec
= 0.137 sec For 10 lb w't y = 0.495 ft
t
(b) 9.89 lb-sec

y is measured from equilibrium posi-
tion of 5 lb wt
9. 7 = 185 ft/sec
23. 400 lb-sec
3.11 ft/sec up incline
24. 7= 120.1 ft/sec
12. 2330 lb
25. 20 rad/sec
13. 10 ft
14. 3.61 ft 26. u = 1.304 rad/sec
15. 51b wtSO

27 ^~ 8wi6)So7 i
3 lb wt 5.5 dt im{si s?)

-f-
CHAPTER SEVENTEEN
1 . lyy = -îil (a^ -|- 6)

Izx = -f I)
-f 1=) = 0
650 ANSWERS 70 PROBLEMS
2 7 = -hMl* 19 / = lS65eIug9-ft
106 3 alug-ft

i 1.. = iW 7,,
-0
119 slugvft*
/ = -31 1 slugs ft*
4 / = {Vr* 20 7 = 1328 slugs-itt*

I 6661 slugs-ui
5 ,SMr*
6 / = A/r* 21 7 133 500 Ibm in*
Rndius of gyration = 15 65 in.
*
7 8 76 alugs-w
8 0
22 * 1610 Ibtn in *
/n^
7 8100 jbm m*
li 1118 pai 7^ 1280 Ihmm*
CHAFTCR eiCHTCEH
1 77 - -4511 + 768j 16 9, a 192 2* 94 * 249*

+ 452/c (slug fl*)/ec ir, 1 0921b 7l4lS921b
17 64* 249* fa - I 260 ft
#a-I92 2* rs-IOfJift
+ ( + )]<:
[Af 4- fA.r>Ar.)/fAri +/fri)
3 r- ^
4 /lx
390
- ~Ax -27 9
lb
1b
4 jv;?*
-0 20 u. - 181 rad/sec
12 5 lb 0 0 0539 rail
5 72 5rad/c 21 483 rad/sec
J3i 7 45 lb
Az 17 50 lb 23 0554 cydes/sec
Ax = -Bx - -2701b 24 w. 7 77 cycles/sec
6 - -32 0001b 0 = 0 382*
Ax'-BxÔ
Bj 20 160 lb 25 -L
Az = -19 840 ib 2rV*'(^/Z + */?)
7 (a) 0 625 rad/'ec*
- 2A 1 /
8 Af 10 2SJ. Ib-ft
2r\7 + ftW/ff)
ui 10 rad/sec*
A7 = 9 - 27^*
9 25
wv 10 rad/e*
28 ^ cyc\es/BEC
10 17 = -1296*lb-ft
29 Transient 8 C, sm t
11 17 * 2178ll>-ft
r 25QQ01b
I ==322 lb
12 1/ * (-1470 ein 0 41901

4- <32 600co3 0 4l9l)ilb-fl
Steady state 8 ul
15 -3^2L rad/sec Ar 7*
700 IWt noriflal to plane of OB and
BC 32 13881b
36.
33. l/2xV'(2/T)/(3if) 7.4 ft/sec^ down incline
34. 6.46 rad/sec 39. Lower rod d 6.9 rad/sec*

35. (a) 1.4 ft down the conveyor Upper rod = 4.6 rad/sec*
(b) 15.2 ft down the conve 3 'or
(c) 32.2ft/sec2 40. 27.2 rad/sec^
CHAPTER NINETEEN
1. 60,000 ft-lb 13. 20.7 St/sec
r4H" sin - KKl - cos elH 1/2

2.
3.
10,350 ft-lb
3900 fUb
^
' ==
L
fl
wm J
15. 01 = 3.66 rad/sec
6. 185.9 fUb
16. 2.64 rad/sec
7. 16,100 ft-lb
17. 2.11 ft
18. 6.48 ft/sec
19. o>A = 20 rad/sec

11. Final 6 = 38.5 by trial and error solu- oiB = 10 rad/sec
tion of equation
Max. deflection = 0.616 ft 20. 0.862 rad/sec
21. 8.05 ft/seo

12 r____2Es2___T'
" Lsirir^ + 2Wi(r - a)*_
.
22. V = 11.72 ft/sec
CHAPTER TWENTY
1. lx = 0.354f 6. ^ 2.52 rad/sec

Iy = -0.6131 ^ = 3,22 rad/sec
Iz = 0.7071
9. Frequency of nutation 56.6 rad/sec
2. 12.80 rad/sec Extent of nutation 11
0.552 rad/sec
3. M= 5.2 cos 5.2 sin <fij
\âv
lM| = 5.2 Ib-ft 11. âv = 0.00205 rad/sec
4. 53.1 rad/sec 12. (a) vâv = 0.00274 rad/sec
CHAPTER TWENTY-ONE
11. {Kx)r = (Fo ViYpAw{l cos 50)

4. "(r-pFf) -ti(pF.^)
r dr r d4>
12. Vo = V2 for minimum power
= Fo = 3 F2 for maximum power
+ f>Fa)
az dt
15. Kt = 108r lb
5. 110 ft/sec
16. Wi = 52.2 Ibm/sec
6. P 3 = 1.9 slugs /ft Wz = 17.4 Ibm/seo
Fj = 110 ft/sec
{Kx')t = 93.5 lb
(.Ky')f = 0
8. 25.5 ft/sec
17. K. = .690 lb
10. (A'i)r = Fopi4)r(l cos 50) 25. 349 Ib-ft

1
Index
A Beams: Concurrent force system, 89-90

axial forces, 130, 133 Conic sections, review of, 393-396
bending moment, 130-131, 132- Conservation of energy, for rigid
Acceleration in a field, 601-602
133 bodies, 549-553
Acceleration of a particle:
bending-moment diagrams, 133- Conservation of mass, G05-608
Cartesian components, 297
142 Conservation of mechanical energy,
cylindrical coordinates, 304-308
definition. 129 431-434
motion and elongation of position
loading-shear relation for, 137- Conservative force fields, 258-259,
vector, 297-300
138 429-431
path variables, 300-304
shear, 130-132 Constraint of a rigid body, 106-110
relation for different references.
shear diagrams, 133-142 Continuous media, basic laws of, 603
319-327
sliear-moment relation for, 138- Continuum, 10
Acceleration of gravity, 9
139 Continuum mechanics, 203, 207
Acceleration of transport, 601
Belt friction, 168-172 Control surface, 604
Active forces, 214
Bending moment, 130-131, 132-133 Control volume, C03-C04
Addition of couples, 49-51
Bending-moment diagrams, 133- Conversion of units, 4
Addition of vectors, 24-25
142 Coplanar force system, 06-08, 90-9
Aerostatics, 214
Biot-Savart law, 409-410 Coriolis* acceleration vector, 320
Aggregate of particles {see System
Body force, 70 Coriolis* force, 332-336
of particles)
Body, rigid, 10-11 Coulomb friction (see Friction
Air gun, 442
Buoyancy, 228-229 (coulomb))
Amplitude, 345
Burnout velocity, 380 Coulomb's law, 408
Analogue of mechanical systems,
307 Couple:
Analysis of trusses: addition. 49, 50, 51
method of joints, 122-128
c as a free vector, 48, 49
method of sections, 122, 124-125
definition, 46, 47
virtual work, 25G-258 work performed by, 655, 556
Cables, 144-1-19
Angle, 13 Couple-moment, 47
Catenary, 148-149
Angle of nutation, 567 free vector, 48-49
Cathode, 412
Angle of precession, 567 scalar components, 52-53
Cathode ray tube, 412-415
Angle of repose, 177 Cramers rule, 363-364
Center of gravity, 72, 73
Angle of rotation, 280-281 Critical damping constant, 356
Center of mass:
Angle of spin, 567 Cross product, 32-34
definition of, 418
Angular momentum (see Moment of Cycle, 345
energy considerations, 438-440
momentum) motion of, 417-419
Angular velocity: Center of pressure, 73, 74, 226-227 D
as a free vector, 286 Central force, 377
definition of, 281 Central impact, 453 D'Alembert inertia couple, 53
Anode, 412 Centroid: DAlembert inertia force,' 361, 532
Apogee, 386 curved surface, 18G D'Alemberts principle, 360-362
Archimedes. 2 line. 186-187 for rigid bodies,531-535
Archimedes principle, 228-229 plane area, 185-186 Damping 354
coefficient,
Area moments of inertia (see Mo- table of. 27G-277 Damping, critical, 356
ments of inertia of areas) volume, 187 Damping, viscous, 354-358
Areal velocity, 380 Cliains, 144-149 Degrees of freedom, 249-251, 360
Aspect ratio, 605
Charged particles, motion of, 407- Determinant, cross product, 34
Associative Ian, 24
417 Diagram:
Average speed of precession of top, Chaslc's theorem. 228 bending-moment, 133-142
587-588 general proof, in appendix, G32 shear, 133-14^
Axial direction, 305
Axis of rotation, definition of, 280
Circular trajector>% 3^ Dielectric constant, 408
Coefficient of damping, 354 Differential manometer, 219
Coefficient of friction, 159 Differentiation of a vector, 275-277
Coefficient of restitution, 454-455 Cartesian components, 297
B Coefficient of rolling friction, 175 fixed in a rigid body with general
Coefficient of viscosity. 231-232 motion, 287-288
Commutative law, 13, 20 fixed in rotating rigid body, 282-
Balancing, 519-520 Complementary solution, 349 287
Ballistics of shells, 400-407 Components of a vector, 20 fixed in translating rigid body
Basic laws for continuous media, orthogonal components. 27, 28 281-282
603 Compression member, 101 for different references, 312-314
653
8
54 index
^*a (eonl)
"or a-2io
bic 2 3 Fteefall 334
KHor 70 F"* 335
fcoDcUrj- 5 vector
6
frequency
Ss.':''"''"
wnoocomej ** ''fintmn of 34.
27
"Ural 351
J^neare. I85
voluiue 187 ^"'KEoTr: 580
'S'r.S'Srw"'
'orriifferetHigf
product 30 31
on 979 gr-"Y.V'
Unft 417 ^PrtM We 214
'aaaof'?57\'Bi
*"
^hiution 200 thread 172 71
^><ns function 350 1
Dropped tftionleaa 208

Dummy *oipreAgWe 214
Dummy vgriBbie *"' "5
342 nSti*"" r,S 'r
ynara eg definition Friction 230
of 273 'nction, 403
Darth gaubitej
pss:vr.% Preaaure 21
off*
:; contiant
unehia*of 334 220
perfect
217 2t#
dffin tion
of 394 tneamtme 399
|:ras
treamtube 5eo
eootrol volume*
"MHo icnpget 4M
te""'"*"'
wûnengK OIS
CjToaeope 5
CmV
gj.d " puaJine*
irwr'."o"'
410
"' x-fi's
">** 389 Hamilton Vf

'5 Force T r
Hymoiue motion 2
aetive 244 345
Wi*ntiil Mere- butânt 228-229 iJo-oâncou.
different aleq.,
Virtual worfc
Wfl 377
24 v. 2 ,a cenCnrunl
ssrg-K
Wi'Wrvgt.vegy,,^^'
^^^265
tooeerv..,,,
3.t3
ooipoien*of 2-2b
2^
ssTirs"*'"
3,3
'oaalrajmn, loe.,,^
SSLSVT ^'ofw 33i>
youlorabic 408
SS oimping 334
PrtituHig 333
table 204
mtemsl 249-947
"tonne 259-2G0
l 'I 2
uiutable 204 *anet c 409 34,
"ect ceniml 453 ^
tutroeirtof
Dquivaienoe 14
15 40HS
on Buid element
'atc 4a4
fot ruid enetsyjoeg -tW-tfO
bchJie, 55 215-247
Polyeon 25
^ P'S or Plaatie
oWâcentml 453 455
tant.S26 Pen^ of deformatioo
P teeolutioq of
20 27 period of real, , 45W
"ultaol 59 61-99 tut on 4 V"'*'
'ear 130-132 I'SS'f.r"' '5s
"*'** 505-367
Fê,'
tû'ereequatjong tmngUtionof 50 67 50 fnebned a
497_en, Fore* d gtnbiitroiii
maboit
nenta of m
ooy force 70 Inertia 1S4
I lane 72 >f (lee Mo.
urfaee force
71
vorced vibmUoBg
ttamped,
357-3o*
undamped 340-333
Potential 259 439 proper! ei 477-
Fleldg 480
Free-body dig*nin,
eonaectori 83
freedom deireearf
249-231 ^ oowtioiu.
501 5M
INDEX 655
Moment of momentum: Plane of contact, 453

for an aggregate. 461-467 Plane truss, 119
for a single particle, 460-461 Plastic impact. 455
Jacobi, C. G. J.. 244 for central-force motion, 379 Polar moment of inertia, 195
Jet GIG Moment di momentum for control Potential energy, 259, 429
Jet, free. 615 volume, 619-624 Pound force. 8-9
Joints, metliod of. 122-128 Moments of inertia of areas: Pound mass, 8-9
definition. 187. 188 Precession angle, 567
K principal axes, 195-197 Precession velocity, 567
rotation of reference, 193, 194 Pressure, 71
Ivepler*8 6rst law, 386 center of, 220-227
transfer theorems, 188-190
Keplers second law, 380 differential variation, 217
Momentuni, linear. 448
Kinematics; gage. 218
Chasles theorem, 287-288
Momentum equations for control
volume, 608-612 variation for incompressible fluid.
dednition of. 273 217-218
Motion of particle in rigid b<?<ly*
motion of a particle in a rigid variation for isothermal gas. 221
288-292
body. 289 variation for linear temperature
relative motion, 312-316
rotation. 280-281
N variation. 222
Principal axes. 485
translation, 280 Principal axes, of area, 195-197
Kinetic energy; Natural frequency, 345
Principal moments of inertia. 485
of a particle, 427 Natural mode, 305
Principal normal vector. 301
of a rigid body, 545-549 Neutral equilibrium, 264
Principal stresses, 214
system of particles, 438-439 Newton, Isaac, 2
Products of inertia of areas:
Kirchhoffs second law, 367 Newtonian fluid, 232-233
computations, 191-193
Newtons laws:
definition, 188
u firstlaw^ 16s 17
second law. 10, 17
relation to inertia tensor, 489
transfer theorem, 189-190
Lagrange, J. L., 244 third law. 17, 418
laminar how, 233 New tons viscosity law, 231 R
T-aw of gravitation, 18 limitations of, 233, 234
Laws of motion (see Newton's laws) Non-homogeneous differential eflua* Hadial direction. 305
Length: tion, 349 Kadius of gyration, 188. 483
centroid of, 186-187 Normal stress. 203-204 nationalized M.K,S.C. units, 40$
definition, 2 Norzle for jet engine, 616 Kectangular components. 27, 28
Line, centroid of, 186-187 Nutation angle, 567 Rectilinear translation:
Linear momentum. 448 Nutation velocity, 507 constant force, 341-342
conservation of, 451-452 definition of. 340
force a function of time, 342
for an aggregate, 449-450
Linear restoring force, 259-200, 343
O linear restoring force, 343-348
Line of impact, 453 linear restoring force, damping,
Oblique ccutral impact, 453-456 and sinusoidal disUirbanee,
Linkage diagrams, 106, 107
One-dimensional flow, 604-005 357-358
Lissfljous figures, 415
Orbit, for satellites. 384-380 linear restoring plus sinusoidal
Loading-shear relation for beams,
Oscilloscope, cathode ray, 414 force, 354
137-138
Osculating plane, .300-^01 linear restoring force with viscous
Ix)garithmic decrement, 373
Overdamped system, 355 damping. 354-357
Lubrication, problems of, 233-235
Lumped systems, 359-300 several interacting particles, 359-
P 3G7
M Parabolic trajectorj', 382
Reference:
inertial. 10
Magnetic field, 409-411 Parallel axis tlieorcins: left- and right-hand, 32
Magnetic flux density, 409 for moments of inertia, 488 Regular precession, ,574
Magneto-hydrodynamics, 408 for products of inertia, 488 Relative velocity, definition of, 248
Manometry, 218-219 for areas, 188-190 Relativistic kinetic energy, 446
Mass; i Parallel flow. 232 Relativistic mass, 407
definition. 3. 4 Parallelogram law, 12, 13, 18 RelatiWty, 2, 10
units, 4, 8. 9 Partial constraint, 107-109 Repose, angle of, 177
Mass center (aee Center of mass) Particle. 11 Resolution of vectors, 20-27
Mas8-encrg>^ equivalence. 44G Particular solution. 349 Resonance, 351
Maas moment of inertia, 470-477 COO
Patliliiies, 599, Rest mass, 407
Mass product of inertia, 476-477 Pendulum. 372 Resultant force:
Maxunvm\ mon\cntof inertia, 196 Perfect gas, 219 coplanar force system. CG-G8
Mechanics, definition, 1 Perigee, 386 definition, 56
jVIethod; Period, 345 general force system, 64-05
of joints, 122-128 Period of deformation. 453-454 parallel force system, 68-70
of sections, 122, 124-125 Period of restitution, 453-455 Retrograde precession, 674
of stationary potential energy, Permeability, 409 Right-hand rule (sec Screw rule)
260-262 Phase angle, 346 Rigid body, 10, 11
Minimum moment of inertia, 196 Phaser, 344 Rocket, 617-618
Mode, natural, 365 Piezo-electric crystal, 415 Rolling friction, 174, 175
Moment: Pipe friction, 232-233 Rotation about a stationary axis
of couple, 40-49 Pitch of screw thread, 172 523-520
of force, 40-46 Plane motion. 526-530 Rotation of a rigid body, 280-281
0
656 INDEX
S T Varintmna} mechaniea 243-244

Varlgntm a theorem 40
tettor calculus 275-2*9
Sawtooth voUue 415 Tena te member 101 lectors
ScaUf W 13 addilioa. 24 25
Sctlu (itoduet 30 31 atreaa 200-210 bound, 15
StViilAitiMt t<i\ia\TOn YS atmmetry <5 210-3)1 croaa product 22 33 31
Screw rule 40 Tenao' nolalion 481-483 definition 12 13
Screw thresd 172 174 Termisa] velocity 4G0 dot product 30 31
Second moment o(uM relation to Tm charge 408-400 equality of 14 15
inertia leour Thiee-totteayatctna tot 102 equivalence of 14 15
Second moment of inertia of arena Thruat of }et entitle 610 free 15
Uet Momenta of Inertia of Time eonatant 376 magnitude 23
Time deSn toA 3 position 39 40
Second-order lenaor 482 Top (pinniQg 576-579 rcaoiutioo e> 20 37 28
Beetiona method of ]23 124 125 Torqu^ree moiton 5dO-S74 acato product 30 31
SeUdoekio; 183 Toramnal apnng eonatant. 525 aubtraetioi) of 25 20
Semi major diameter 295 Tore onal vibration 524-^6 transmiaaible 15
Semi m nor d ameier 265 Total dertvatiee C03 unit, 28. 29
Shear d aframa t33-|42 Tranafer theoten \eloeity field S98-COO
Shear force 13{V-132 znomcDtof loertia/orarea* 188- Veto ty of a particle
Shear loadinjt relation ior beama 189 Cartes an eomponenta 29?
137-138 product <4 inerlM 190 Olindricil eoSrd natca S04-30S
Shear ttreta 203 304 TraDafonnat oo motion and elongation of position
Slue 8 ol foomenta o( inerlia lot trraa vector 297-300
space mecbaaiea 384-^63 193-194 path variablea 300-304
Space truaa 119 of produeta of Inertia to areaa relation for diflerenl referenees
Special theory of relatieitr 497 194 315-319
Spin angle 567 o(tceatat.aoomt.200 tt3 275 Vibrations
Soisning lop 575-988 TranatomatMQ equationi for ten- amplitude 3l5
Spin vcloeitr 567 Mre <83 eycU iii
Boring cenauat 3G0 5<3 TrsftaentMiution 331 definition of 858-359
8 ubil ty 2S3-S84 Tranrlanooefarigidbody 370-280 forced 349-353
emeria. 284-2(15 TranaAiMble vector IS forced, damped 337 3 >8
mblttni 28S-S07 Tra(iarer*edtf(tion 303 free damped 354-35?
Stablo oouil brium 384 Tnira frequency 345
Stotieat deternlaacy truaaea. defloitioo 110 period 345
119 m
SUiieal indetannmae}' 104-106
idealiaationa 1(0
}u*t-ng>d ItO
VbtomeUr
Viewpoints
373
to fields COO-601
Statie OQuilibriuia, 347 iMthed <4 tool* 123 128 Virtual ditplaecment 214
Stotiea deSnitlon 17 method of acctlona 123 134-125 Virtual work with fnelion 35^250
Steady flow 598-590 method of vittual vroik 25&-258 Virtual work with Ideal constraints
Steadywtate aolptioo 291 ovc-rtf d. IW a part cle 344 346
Stenniu.. 8 18 piano I to a ngid hedy 346-348
EtraJn-gage 419 aimpfe 131 ayatetn of bodies 348-349
Etreamlinea. 410 590-600 apace 119 victual work with violation of con-
Sueamliae eoSrdinaCef uae of 003 aUticai detemdoacr 119-120 attaints 256-258
Streamtu^ COO Turbulent flow 233 Vlscoaity 230
Strength tA materlola 200 TVo-body probicot 978 383 molecular attraction 231
Streaa Two degreea of toeiton eitlrm momentum transfer 231
deSsulba 203 204 962-368 Viscosity law S3i
nmatton 20V305 Two-diraeuon^ Bow rot-605 Viscous friction 230
relation to t>ropettt<> d arena Twp-fotte mciDbere 100 101 Voltigs 430-431
313-314
In eoUTentiaB 209
Btreia cHiMoId. 484
u w
Streaa nlatlona at a ptnnt
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ENGINEERING

PRENTia-HALL OF INDIA (PRIVATE) LIMITED

This book a vector treatment of mechanics. I

have endeavored to vTite a fundamental and rigorous text

of natural modes of motion, resonances, etc The central force problem is

rigid bodies, introduce the inertia tensor so we can effectively develop

Clearly, this text encompasses more than can be thoroughly covered by

Michael S. Batch Dim N. Lee Robert J. Ravera

They have been a continual source of amazement and gratification to their

1 \ Inlroduetum, 1 12 Bane I}tmens\on$ and Vmls i>f Mechames, 13

Elements of Vector Algebra, ss

2 X IntToduetum, St 2 2 Magnitude and ^/utttphnzfion a Vector by a

Important Vector Quantities, so

3 1 PosfftoM Vector, SO 3 2 ^Ifoment of a Force about a Point, 40 3 3 Sfo~

Equivalent Force Systems, 55

Inlroduclion, 56. 4.2 Translation of a Force to a Parallel Position, 56.

Introduction to Structural Mechanics, 1I8

Frictional Forces, I66

Introduction, 156. 7.2 Laws of Coulomb Friction, 157. 7.3 Problems

Properties of Surfaces^ ISA

Inlrodueiton, i84 First Moment oj an Area and the Centroid, 183

Introduction to Continuum Mechanics, sos

pjrt A. BASIC DEFINITIONS, S02

r<t 8. STRCSS RCkATtONS, 07

S/o/ic Compejtl*i Fluid, 2/9 9 10 Examples of Pressure Vanations for

Firt D. VISCOUS FRICTION, 80

Introduction to Variational Mechanics, S4S

10.1 Introduction, 545.

Fart A. METHOD OF VIRTVAt WORK, 244

Part B. METHOD OF MINIMUM POTENTIAL ENERGY, 258

10.8 Conservative Systems, 258. 10.9 Condition of Equilibrium, for a Con-

Elements of Kinematics, 273

Part A. ELEMENTS OF VECTOR CALCULUS, 274

11.2 Differentiation of a Vector with Respect to Time, 274- 11.3 Integration

of a Vector with Respect to Time, 277.

Part B. DERIVATIVES OF VECTORS FIXED IN RIGID BODIES, 279

Part C. GENERAL EVALUATION OF DERIVATIVES, 297

Part D. THE RELATIONSHIP OF MOTIONS FOR DIFFERENT REFERENCES, 312

Part E. SOLUTION OF FORCES ON A PARTICLE HAVING

Intesration of Newton s Law for Rectilinear Translation, S40

Central-Force Motion, srr

Part A. CENERAL THEORY, 377

part B SPACE MECHANICS. SS4

General Motion of a Particle, $99

1-1 1 Intfodiiclton, 509

2 Introduetum ta PaHulJcS fl/ Shells, 400

Parte A SYSTEM OF PARTICLES. 417

Energy Methods, 4%9

Part A ANALYSIS FOR A SINGLE PARTICLE, iS8

Methods of Momentum, 447

16.3 Conservation of Linear Momentum-Impact, 451. 16.4 A Note on Energy

Part B. MOMENT OF MOMENTUM, 460

The Inertia Tensor, 475

Eulers Equations of Motion, 496

Energy Considerations for Rigid Bodies, S4S

19 1 Krnelic Energn t>J o Rigul Body, S4^ 19 2 Jitneltc Energy of a Body in

Motion of d Body about a Fixed Point, 664

201 /fllro^turtioM,564 20 2 Euler Angles, S85 20 3 Physical Inlerprela-

Momentum Equations for Deformable Media, 597

21 1 Introduction, 69721 2 The leloaty Field, S9S 21 3 TivoVieicpoints

Answers to Problems, 640

Mechanics is the physical science concerned with

200 D c Our modern knoviledge of gravity and motion v.as established