Traffic Engineering Management

Traffic Engineering Management
(BEG469TE)
(Elective II)
Year: 4 Semester
Examination Scheme Total marks Remarks

Teaching Schedule Hours/week Final Internal Assessment
L T P Theory Practical Theory Practical
3 2 0 80 - 20 - 100
Course objectives:
The main objective of the course "Traffic Engineering Management" is to impart knowledge about
traffic management systematically and scientifically with the use of concept of engineering. Traffic
management as a burning issue and is of high importance for the developing cities, it should be
followed by the future traffic load analysis. Key topics of the course attempt to impart knowledge in
the following contemporary concepts:
Conceptual knowledge in traffic management system;
Issues, relative importance and methods of Transport Management;
This course may be good platform for the Graduate (Masters' degree) course in Traffic Engineering and
Management.
Course Contents:
1. Introduction 2 hrs.
1.1 Scope and significance of Traffic Engineering Management
1.2 Traffic planning and modeling using prototype
1.3 Traffic related problems in major cities
1.4 Transportation network and their characteristics
2. Urban Traffic Planning 3 hrs.

2.1 Introduction to urban traffic planning
2.2 Calculation of traffic volume
2.3 Travel demand forecasting
3 .Traffic Characteristics 3 hrs.

3.1 Basic traffic characteristics - Speed, volume and concentration.
3.2Relationship between Flow, Speed and Concentration
Traffic Engineering and Management /snlkhyaju@gmail.com
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4. Traffic Measureme nt And Analysis: 5 hrs.
4.1Volume Studies - Objectives, Methods;
4.2 Speed studies - Objectives: Definition of Spot Speed, time mean speed and space mean
speed;
4.3Methods of conducting speed studies;
5. Speed Studies: 5 hrs.

5.2Presentation of speed study data;
5.3Head ways and Gaps;
5.4Critical Gap;
5.5 Gap acceptance studies.
6. Highway Capacity And Level Of Service: 5 hrs.

6.1Basic definitions related to capacity
6.2 Level of service concept
6.3 Factors affecting capacity and level of service
6.4 Computation of capacity and level of service for two lane highways Multilane
highways and free ways.
7. Parking Studies And Analysis : 5 hrs.

7.1Types of parking facilities - on street parking and off street Parking facilities;
7.2Parking studies and analysis.
8 Traffic Safety: 7 hrs.

8.1Accident studies and analysis;
8.2Causes of accidents - The Road, The vehicle, The road user and the Environment;
8.3Engineering, Enforcement and Education measures for the prevention of accidents.
9 Traffic Control And Regulation: 5 hrs.

9.1Traffic Signals - Design of Isolated Traffic Signal by Webster method,
9.2Warrants for signalisation, Signal Co-ordination methods, Simultaneous, Alternate,
Simple progressic and Flexible progression Systems.
10. Traffic And Environment: 3 hrs.

10.1 Detrimental effects of Traffic on Environment;
10.2 Air pollution; Noise Pollution;
10.3 Measures to curtail environmental degradation due to traffic.
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11. Traffic Management in Nepal 2 hrs.
11.1 Overview of existing system and future trend
11.2 National Transport Policy, Five Year Plans
11.3 Existing planning process
Tutorials:
1. A case study on traffic measurement and analysis
References
1. Traffic Engineering and Transportation Planning - L.R. Kadiyali, Khanna Publishers.
2. Traffic Engineering - Theory & Practice - Louis J. Pignataro, Prentice Hall Publication.
3. Principles of Highways Engineering and Traffic Analysis - Fred Mannering & Walter
P. Kilareski, John Wiley & 50ns Publication.
4. Transportation Engineering - An introduction - C. Jotin Khistry, Prentice Hall
Publication.
5. Fundamentals of Transportation Engineering - C.S.Papacostas, Prentice Hall India.
Question Pattern:
Chapter Marks allocated Remarks
1 4
2 4
3 4
4 10
5 10
6 10
7 10
8 10
9 10
10 4
11 4
Total 80
***Above mentioned marks can be with minor variations.
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Contents
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................... 1
1.1 Scope and significance of Traffic Engineering and Management .................................................. 1
1.2 Traffic planning and modeling using prototype............................................................................ 2
1.3 Traffic related problems in major cities ....................................................................................... 3
1.4 Transportation network and their characteristics .......................................................................... 6
CHAPTER TWO: URBAN TRAFFIC PLANNING ............................................................................. 8
2.1 Introduction to urban traffic planning.......................................................................................... 8
2.2 Calculation of traffic volume .................................................................................................... 10
CHAPTER THREE: TRAFFIC CHARACTERISTICS....................................................................... 16
3.1 Basic traffic characteristics - Speed, volume and concentration................................................... 16
3.2Relationship between Flow, Speed and Concentration ................................................................ 17
CHAPTER FOUR: TRAFFIC MEASUREMENT AND ANALYSIS .................................................. 21
4.1 Volume Studies ....................................................................................................................... 21
4.2 Speed studies .......................................................................................................................... 26
4.3Methods of conducting speed studies; ........................................................................................ 27
CHAPTER FIVE: SPEED STUDIES................................................................................................. 32
5.1Head ways and Gaps ................................................................................................................ 32
5.2 Uncontrolled Intersection ......................................................................................................... 33
5.3 Gap acceptance studies ............................................................................................................ 37
CHAPTER SIX: HIGHWAY CAPACITY AND LEVEL OF SERVICE .............................................. 45
6.1Basic definitions related to capacity........................................................................................... 45
6.2 Factors affecting capacity and LOS .......................................................................................... 47
6.3 Level of Service concept.......................................................................................................... 49
6.3 Computation of capacity and level of service for two lane highways, multilane highways and
freeways....................................................................................................................................... 50
CHAPTER SEVEN: PARKING STUDIES AND ANALYSIS ............................................................ 70
7.1Types of parking facilities - on street parking and off street Parking facilities ............................... 70
7.2Parking studies and analysis ...................................................................................................... 73
CHAPTER EIGHT: TRAFFIC SAFETY ........................................................................................... 78

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8.1Accident studies and analysis .................................................................................................... 78
8.2Causes of accidents - The Road, The vehicle, the road user and the Environment ......................... 80
8.3 Accident studies, records and analysis ...................................................................................... 81
8.3Engineering, Enforcement and Education measures for the prevention of accidents. ..................... 86
CHAPTER NINE: TRAFFIC CONTROL AND REGULATION......................................................... 90
9.1Warrants for traffic control signal system................................................................................... 90
9.2 Design Principles of Traffic Signal ........................................................................................... 90
9.3 Signal Co-ordination methods, Simultaneous, Alternate, Simple progression and Flexible
progression Systems...................................................................................................................... 99
CHAPTER TEN: TRAFFIC AND ENVIRONMENT ........................................................................106
10.1 Detrimental effects of Traffic on Environment........................................................................106
10.2 Air pollution; Noise Pollution................................................................................................109
10.3 Measures to curtail environmental degradation due to traffic ...................................................112
REFERENCES................................................................................................................................113
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CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
1.1 Scope and significance of Traffic Engineering and Management

Traffic engineering is one of the specialized areas of transportation engineering which is itself a branch of
civil engineering. It deals with traffic studies, analysis and engineering application for the improvement of
traffic performance on road. Institute of Traffic Engineers (USA): Traffic Engineering is that phase of
engineering which deals with planning, geometric design and traffic operations of streets and highways,
their networks, terminals, abutting lands, relationship with other modes of transportation for the
achievement of safe, efficient and convenient movement of persons and goods.
Necessity:
It is relatively new branch of civil engineering.
It became necessary with the increase in traffic (number of vehicles).
Traffic congestion, parking problem, environmental degradation, traffic accidents, has created the
attention to the performance characteristics of highway transportation and continuous study and
developments for better geometric design, capacity, intersections, traffic regulations, signals,
signs, roadway marking, terminals, street lighting etc.
Has been recognized as an essential tool in the improvement of traffic operation
Objective of the Traffic Engineering

Basic objective is to achieve efficient, free, and rapid flow of traffic with minimum number of traffic
accidents. Traffic engineering includes a variety of engineering and management skills and the followings
are the main aspects:
Traffic characteristicsvehicles and road users
Traffic study and analysisspeed, volume, capacity, traffic pattern, OD,
Traffic flow characteristics, parking and accident studies
Traffic operation, control and regulationlaws and traffic regulatory
Measures, installation of traffic control devicessigns, signals and islands
Planning and analysisseparate phase for expressways, arterial roads,
Mass transit facilities, parking facilities etc.
Designsgeometric design, parking facilities, intersections, terminals, lighting
Traffic administration and managementengineering, education and enforcement
Continual research
ROAD TRAFFIC MANAGEMENT: As urban populations expand and city roads become increasingly
congested, policy makers and planners need to review urban development and transport policies in order
to address future needs taking into account anticipated social and demographic changes.
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Effective policy must meet multiple objectives:
Strike a balance between different modes of transport: pedestrians, bicycles, motorcycles, cars
and public transport
Provide security, safety and optimum service for transport system users
Maintain the mobility that drives economic development
Reduce urban pollution and congestion caused by motor vehicles
Alongside longer-term solutions such as upgrading public transport systems and introducing city center,
road toll systems, high-performance traffic management systems can be crucial to the success of a city
planning and transportation policy
Traffic Management Solutions include:
Improved road user safety: better traffic control for improved road safety and shorter response
times by emergency services
Quicker travel times in urban areas: smoother traffic flows and shorter public transport journey
times
Less pollution: lower fuel consumption and less environmental impact
Widespread availability of road user information: accurate, reliable user information to
improve the travel experience
1.2 Traffic planning and modeling using prototype

As the number of traffic is increasing exponentially, traffic related problems has born. For the smooth and
effective traffic flow with minimizing traffic accidents and travel cost and maximizing the comfort and
easiness, traffic planning among the city has become inevitable. For the traffic planning, modeling using
prototype study is the best solution for the selection of best among the best alternatives.
Model concept
A model can be defined as a simplified representation of a part of real world-the system of interest-which
concentrates on certain elements considered for its analysis from a particular point of view. For the
analysis, any model made should be calibrated and validated to ascertain the realistic resemblance and the
same validated model is used for the further analysis.
Model calibration is the process by which the numerical values of the parameters of an assumed model
are determined. It is accomplished through the use of Statistical methods and based on experimental
knowledge that is observations, of the dependent and independent variables. These observations are
employed to estimate the numerical values of the model parameters that render the postulated model
capable of reproducing the experimental data. Several statistical goodness-of-fit tests, the one that best
describes the experimental data can then be selected. In this manner it is ensured that the selected model is
realistic. The term calibration refers to procedures that are used to adjust the values of a model's
parameters to make them consistent with observations.
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Model validation refers to the testing of a calibrated model using empirical data than those used to
estimate the model in the first place. It means to predict a situation from the past and to compare this with
the actual situation in the present (back casting). This is how scientific theories are tested, modified, or
replaced.
Figure 1Methodological steps of model building process
1.3 Traffic related problems in major cities

Exponential growing of number of traffic within the limited fixed facilities like highway, interchange,
bridge etc is itself a great traffic related problem in the major city like Kathmandu. Followings are the
major traffic related problems:
Road space and Traffic Congestion: According to reports there are 180,000 (most of them being two
and three wheelers) vehicles registered at The Bagmati Transport Office at present. Considering the
narrow roads and the small area that the city is built in, these vehicles are too many for a city like
Kathmandu. The prevailing high degree of congestion, despite relatively low number of vehicles (private
car ownership rate is relatively low though there is relatively high number of vehicles registered, the most
of them being the two and three wheelers) is often attributed to the small proportion of urban space
devoted to roads. It is also revealed that the annoying causes of traffic jams in the streets of the city are
due to large number of motorbike riders. Traffic congestion is already an important constraint to urban
productivity and the vehicular air pollution is increasing and posing a serious health threat to urban
population.
Accidents: There has been an unprecedented trend in traffic accident in Kathmandu valley. While the
vehicles are increasing in geometric proportion, the roads are being constructed at a snail's pace.
Accidents are increasing in number and severity. Accidents occur more during working days when the
traffic is heavy. According to a report by the Traffic Engineering and Safety Unit at the Departments of
Roads, the frequency of accidents is at the peak at 4 pm followed by 8 am. Pedestrians are the ones who
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are most at risk, followed by motorcycle riders. Accidents also occur when holidays are near and mostly
youngsters tend to drive under the influence of alcohol. Most accidents in the valley happen at
intersections. The places in Kathmandu that witness accidents frequently include Teenkune, Koteshwor,
Harihar Bhawan, Putali Sadak, Ring road and many other intersections, while nocturnal mishaps are more
frequent on the Ring Road, Kantipath and Naya Baneshwor because of over speeding.
The traffic condition: There is no doubt that the wide variety of traffic sharing the limited right of way is
a serious factor in congestion. Most road sections in Kathmandu city are not channelized for motor
vehicles, bicycles and pedestrians. The greater the pressure on road space, the more speeds of the slowest
moving vehicles tend to be reduced, and the potential of faster public, commercial and private vehicles are
wasted. Often pedestrians, market and parking activities intrude even the road space of major arteries. The
greater number of traffic accidents and lower overall average speed of the vehicles in the streets are
attributed to the large number of motorbikes and tempos.
Parking: It is one of the city's chronic problems, particularly in the Business Districts and other sites
where jobs and retail activities are concentrated. The limited road space is further reduced due to
encroachment of the road space by street shops, vehicles and bicycle parking. In particular, parking on the
sidewalks of the streets causes danger to pedestrians. In many cases, construction materials can be seen
placed at footpath and sometimes even on the roads thus forcing the pedestrians to walk on the roadway
which is primarily meant for the motor vehicles. This may cause a great deal of danger for the safety of
the pedestrians. Many buses have to be parked on the streets. Bus terminals have not been well planned
and cause a lot of transfer difficulties for the passengers.
Public transport: Public transport in Kathmandu city can be seen in general as a well-connected but
inadequate capacity is reflected in extreme overcrowding during long periods of peak hour traffic and it
takes a long time in reaching their destination. The development of public transport is often hindered by a
lack of capacity, low operating speed, and outdated equipment and management practices. As there is no
single bus terminus, finding the different places from where buses leave can sometimes be an experience
because there is a lack of information at public places. Also the seating arrangements in most of these
buses are such that you would hardly get to see the scene outside as you journey.
Pedestrians and cyclists: There is problem of movement by pedestrians and cyclists. Pedestrians (and
particularly the safety of pedestrians) are generally not accorded adequate priority by the city officials
responsible for planning and managing roads, as footpaths are inadequate and badly maintained.
Pedestrian crossings are placed in a long walking distance and many people simply don't cross the roads
using the overhead bridge. There are no any rules and regulations regarding punishment for those who
cross the road randomly. As a result walking and crossing streets in many places have become highly
dangerous. Conditions for cyclists are even worse than for pedestrians. Bicycle riding is increasingly
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hazardous. As a result, this cheap and potentially very important mode of transport tends to be grossly
underutilized.
Road maintenance: Roads are inadequately maintained. Visual inspection and evaluation of road
network conditions show failures of the road pavement. A key factor contributing to this situation is the
lack of funding for the maintenance by the government. The situation is exacerbated by the absence of
computer based asset inventory and maintenance management systems. The available scarce resources are
allocated to meet the most pressing demands. In addition to managing existing roads more efficiently
additional capacity is needed by the construction of new roads.
Urban patterns: Physical patterns of cities also compound the difficulties. Central business districts are
typically not so clearly demarcated as in the developed world. The main activities centers are however
often concentrated in narrow streets prone to the intense congestion. High densities of intersections,
winding configurations and changing road widths reduce capacity further.
Road user education: It has not been very efficient and had lacked proper methodology and facilities.
The striking feature of the city traffic is the poor driving behavior. Driving standards are generally low. It
may be amazing to know that many of the drivers have no idea about the traffic signs and rules, which
indicates that our license issuing system is also extremely unscientific and impractical, and it is helping in
adding traffic accidents indirectly. It is reported that in Kathmandu valley the number of accidents are
higher than in the rest parts of Nepal and it can be said that the root cause of increasing traffic accidents is
the lack of traffic awareness among drivers and also pedestrians.
Traffic control measures: Effective road capacity of the city is further reduced by extensive uncontrolled
parking of vehicles of all kinds and by ineffective signaling and other traffic control measures. Manual
control of junctions at peak hours is often required-land traffic signal timings are not appropriate. None of
all the existing traffic signals in the urban area are coordinated, most of them operating under two phase
fixed time control. Although there have been some successful experiments with junction channelization
recently in the city, the majority of the junctions have not been channelized and sometimes traffic island
itself is creating the traffic problem due to its inappropriate placement and bad design. Traffic signs and
markings are too much insufficient. Although some innovative pedestrian crossing facilities have been
implemented in the city, there is still a striking need for better provision of pedestrian crossing facilities to
give pedestrians safer ways to cross the road.
Remedial measures:
As mentioned earlier, with the very rapid growth in demand for transport, Kathmandu is facing serious
traffic problems. The immediate concern in the city is to maintain the existing levels of service of the road
system and personal mobility, whilst reducing the potential for road accidents. For this, traffic
management measures are to be utilized which typically will include junction improvements, one way
streets, segregation of two wheel vehicles with motor vehicle, channelization, markings, signaling,
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selective road widening and provision of pedestrian facilities, continuous traffic awareness program
through the involvement of all the sectors of the society. But traffic management is the concern of the
number of policy and executive agencies. As a result there is pressing need for close coordination,
effective decision making machinery and enforcement, and clearly defined responsibilities because the
success or failure of traffic management measures largely depend on the institutional arrangements.
1.4 Transportation network and their characteristics

The transport system is represented by a network comprising of nodes and links that connect the nodes.
The network model is a simplified reproduction of the real network. The network is used to calculate the
travel times between points of origin and points of destination. The links of the network represent the
roads. The nodes of the network are the intersections. Nodes in the model network are also used to mark
changes in road types and the sites, for example of bridge and other specific infra structure facilities.
The link may be:

Freeways: These roads provide largely uninterrupted
travel, often using partial or full access control, and
are designed for high speeds. Often freeways are
included in the next category, arterials. Arterials:
Arterials are major through roads that are expected
to carry large volumes of traffic. Arterials are often
divided into major and minor arterials, and rural and
urban arterials. Figure 2 Road Networks
Collectors: Collectors (not to be confused with collector/distributor roads, which reduce weaving on
freeways), collect traffic from local roads, and distribute it to arterials. Traffic using a collector is usually
going to or coming from somewhere nearby.
Local roads: These roads have the lowest speed limit, and carry low volumes of traffic. In some areas,
these roads may be unpaved.
Link properties
Length
Travel speed
Capacity of link
Additional information about the link may be given

Type of road
Road width
Presence of bus lane, prohibition for certain vehicle etc
Banned turns
Type of junction
Storage capacity for queues
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Approximate equivalence with road classification in other countries is as follows: class I roads correspond
to expressways, class II to arterial roads, class III-to collector roads and class IV-to local roads.
In Nepal the overall management of National Highways and Feeder Roads comes within the responsibility of the
Department of Roads (DOR). These roads are collectively called Strategic Roads Network (SRN) roads. District
Roads and Urban Roads are managed by Department of Local Infrastructure Development and Agricultural Roads
(DOLIDAR). These roads are collectively called Local Roads Network (LRN) roads.
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CHAPTER TWO: URBAN TRAFFIC PLANNING
2.1 Introduction to urban traffic planning

As the traffic on the existing road system in cities grows, congestion becomes a serious. Medium and long
term solution like widening roads, providing elevated fly-overs and constructing bypasses and urban
expressways are costly. Simple and inexpensive solutions can tide over the crisis for some time. Planning
and managing the urban traffic could be a package of short term measures to make the most productive
and cost-effective use of existing transportation facilities, services.
The fundamental approach in traffic management measures is to retain as much as possible existing
pattern of streets but to alter the pattern of traffic movement on these, so that the most efficient use is
made of the system. In doing so, minor alternations to traffic lanes, islands, curbs etc. are inevitable, and
are part of the management measures. The general aim is to reorient the traffic pattern on the existing
streets so that the conflict between vehicles and pedestrians is reduced.
Some of the well-known traffic management measures are:
Restrictions on turning movements
One-way streets
Tidal-flow operations
Exclusive Bus-lanes
Closing side-streets.
Restrictions on turning movements
At a junction, the turning traffic includes left-turners and right-turners. Left-turning traffic does not
usually obstruct traffic flows through the junctions, but right-turning traffic can cause serious loss of
capacity. At times, right-turning traffic can lock the flow and bring the entire flow to a halt. One way of
dealing with heavy right-turning traffic is to incorporate a separate right-turning phase in the signal
scheme which result in a long signal cycle. Another solution is to ban the turning movement altogether.
Prohibition of right-turning movement can be established only if the existing street system is capable of
accommodating an alternative routing.
One-way Streets
As the name itself implies, one-way streets are those where traffic movement is permitted in only one
direction. As a traffic management measures intended to improve traffic flow, increase the capacity and
reduce the delays, one-way streets are known to yield beneficial results. They afford the most immediate
and the least expensive method of alleviating the traffic conditions in a busy area. In combination with
other methods such as banned turning movements, installation of signals and restrictions on loading and
waiting, the one-way street system is able to achieve great improvement in traffic conditions of congested
areas.
Whenever a system of one-way streets is introduced, it is imperative that proper signs should be put up to
foster safe and efficient traffic. 'No entry' signs are needed at all terminal points of the one-way streets. At
the entrances and exits of all intersections within the scheme, 'one-way' and/or 'two-way' traffic signs
should be displayed. It may be necessary to put up 'No left turn' and 'No right turn' signs at some
junctions.
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Advantages
Reduction in the points of
conflict
Increase capacity
Increase speed
Facilitating the operation
of a progressive signal
system
Improve in parking system
Figure 3Four legged intersection and conflict points
Elimination of dazzle and
head on collision
Tidal-flow operations
One of the familiar characteristics of traffic flow on any street leading to the city center is the imbalance
in directional distribution of traffic during the peak hours. For instance, the morning peak results in a
heavy preponderance of flow towards the city center, whereas the evening peak brings in heavier flow
away from the city center. In either case, the street space provided for the opposing traffic will be found to
be in excess. This phenomenon is commonly termed as "tidal flow". One method of dealing with this
problem is to allot more than half the lanes for one direction during the peak hours. This system is known
Figure 4 Tidal flow operation
as "tidal flow operation", or "reverse flow operation".

Closing Side -streets
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A main street may have a number of side-streets where the traffic may be very light. In such situations, it
may be possible to close some of these side-streets without affecting adversely the traffic, and yet reap a
number of benefits.
Exclusive Bus Lanes

A recent innovation in traffic management practice in some of the Cities is to reserve a lane of the
carriageway exclusively for but traffic. This is possibly only in situations where the carriageway is of
adequate width and a lane can be easily spared for the buses. This implies that there should be at least 3
lanes in each direction. For reasons of convenience of alighting and embarking passengers at the curb, the
exclusive lane has to be adjacent to the curb.
2.2 Calculation of traffic volume

Traffic volume is the number of the vehicles crossing a section of road per unit time at any selected
period. Traffic volume is used as a quantity measure of traffic flow. A complete traffic volume study
includes the classified volume study by recording the volume of various movements and the distribution
on different lanes per unit time. The volume of different type is usually converted into Passenger Car Unit
(PCU).
NRS 2070
Table 1PUC factors (Source: NRS 2070)
SN Vehicle type Equivalency factor

1 Bicycle, motorcycle 0.5
2 Car, auto rickshaw, SUV, light van and 1.0
pick up
3 Light (mini), truck, tractor, rickshaw 1.5
4 Truck, bus, minibus, tractor with trailer 3.0
5 Non-motorized carts 6.0
The objectives and uses of traffic volume studies are:

Traffic volume study is generally accepted as true measure of the relative importance of roads and
in deciding the priority for improvement and expansion.
Traffic volume study is used in planning, traffic operation and control of existing facilities and
also for planning and designing the new facilities.
Traffic volume study is used in the analysis of traffic patterns and trends
Classified traffic volume study is useful in structural design of pavements, in geometric design
and in computing roadway capacity. Volume distribution study is used in planning one way
streets and other regulatory measures.
Turning movement study is used in the design of intersections, in planning signal timings,
channelization and other control devices.
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Pedestrian traffic volume study is used for planning sidewalks, cross walks, subways and
pedestrian signals.
Types of Traffic Volume:

Average annual traffic flow: expressed in vehicle per year.
Annual Average Daily Traffic (AADT): expressed in vehicles per day. It is (1/365) th of the
total annual traffic flow. Total number of vehicles passing the site in a year is divided by 365
days. All vehicles are converted into passenger car unit.
Average Daily traffic (ADT): If the flow is not measured for all the 365 days, but only for few
days (less than one year) the average flow is known as Average Daily Traffic (ADT).
Average Annual Weekday Traffic (AAWT): is the average 24 hour traffic volume occurring on
weekdays over a full year.
Average weekday traffic: is an average 24 hour traffic volume occurring on weekdays for some
period less than one year, such as one month or one season.
Hourly flow: vehicle/hour, peak hour volume.
Variation in traffic flow and accuracy of counts

Traffic counts carried out over a very short time period can produce large errors because traffic flows
often have large hourly, daily, weekly, monthly and seasonal variations. These variations are described in
the following sections.
Hourly variations
An example of hourly traffic variation throughout one day is shown below. In this example major traffic
flow occurs between 05 and 21 hours. In practice traffic counts will usually be carried out for 12, 16 or 24
hour time periods. Typically, in tropical countries, a 12 hour traffic count (example from 6:00 to 18:00)
will measure approximately 80 % of the days traffic whereas a 16 hour count (example from 6: 00 to
22:00) will measure over 90 percent.
In order to obtain estimates of 24 hour flows from counts of less than 24 hours duration, it is necessary to
scale up the counts of shorter duration according to the ratio of flow obtained in 24 hours and the flows
measured in the shorter counting period.
Scale factor (converting a partial days count into a full days traffic count)
( ) ( )
( )
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Hourly variation of traffic flow
1000
800
600
400
200
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
Figure 5 Hourly Variation
For reasons of statistical analysis, HCM (1997) suggests using 15 minutes for most operational and design
analyses. The relationship between hourly volume and the maximum rate of flow within the hour is
defined as the peak hour factor.
For 15 minutes periodsthe maximum value of the PHF 1.0 which occurs when the volume in each 15
minutes period is equal, the minimum value is 0.25 which occurs when the entirely hourly volume occurs
in one 15 minute interval.
Daily and weekly variation

The day to day traffic flows tend to vary more than the week to week flows over the year. Hence large
errors can be associated with estimating average daily traffic flows (and hence annual traffic flows) from
traffic counts of only a few days duration, or which exclude the weekends. Thus there is a rapid increase
in the accuracy of the survey as the duration of the counting period increases up to one week. For counts
longer than one week, the increase in accuracy is less pronounced.
Daily variation of traffic volume

8000
6000
4000
Series1
2000
0
SAT SUN MON TUES WED THURS FRI
Figure 6 Daily Variation
Monthly and seasonal variation

Traffic flows will rarely be the same throughout the year and will usually vary from month to month and
from season to season. The seasonal variation can be quite large and is caused by many factors. For
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example, an increased traffic flow usually occurs at a harvest time, and a reduced traffic flow is likely to
occur in a wet season.
To reduce error in the estimated annual traffic data caused by seasonal traffic variations, it is desirable to
repeat the classified traffic count at different times of the year. A series of weekly traffic counts repeated
at intervals throughout the year will provide a much better estimate of the annual traffic volume than a
continuous traffic count of the same duration.
An example of seasonal variation is shown below. For one week traffic count carried out each month. A
seasonal factor (SF) of unity indicates average flow. A seasonal factor greater than unity, indicates a
higher proportion of traffic than the average. It can be seen that the traffic is lower than average in
December, January, February, July and August. The variation in flow for different classes of vehicle may
not be the same and this will be revealed in the classified traffic survey.
Seasonal variation of traffic flow

1500
1000
500 Series1
0
Jan Feb March Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
2.00 seasonal factors

1.50 1.50
1.31 1.25 1.31
1.07 1.13
1.00 0.92 0.96
0.80 0.83 0.84
0.71
0.50
0.00
Jan Feb March Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Figure 7Seasonal variation
Problem 2.2: The following counts were taken on an intersection Time Period Volume
approach during the morning peak hour. Determine (a.) the hourly 8:00-8:15 AM 150
volume, (b) the peak rate of flow within the hour and (c) the peak hour 8:15-8:30 AM 155
factor. 8:30-8:45 AM 165
Example 2.3: The following traffic count data were taken from a 8:45-9:00 AM 160
permanent detector location.

2 .No. of weekdays in 3.Total days in 4.Total Monthly 5.Total weekday
Month Month(days) Month(days) volume(vehs) volume(vehs)
Jan 22 31 200000 170000
Feb 20 28 210000 171000
Mar 22 31 215000 185000
Apr 22 30 205000 180000
May 21 31 195000 172000
13
Jun 22 30 193000 168000
Jul 23 31 180000 160000
Aug 21 31 175000 150000
Sep 22 30 189000 175000
Oct 22 31 198000 178000
Nov 21 30 205000 182000
Dec 22 31 200000 176000
From this data, determine (a) the AADT, (b) the ADT for each month, (c) the AAWT, and (d) the AWT
for each month, from this information, what can be discerned about the character of the facility and the
demand it serves?
14
Example 2.1: Following table shows the classified manual vehicle count of a 14th February 2015 for three hour at Pepsikola - Manohara - Thimi - Hanumante - Sallaghari
Road. Determine the AADT in term of PCU with given data: the three hour traffic figures out about 20% of the total traffic at tha t day, Lane factor for FR 0.6.
Result of Classified Manual Vehicle Count

Start Date: Location: Pepsikola ,
Road Link: Pepsikola Manohara Note:Direction a: Pepsikola - Manohara Station:
Name of Road: Pepsikola - Manohara - Thimi - Hanumante - Sallaghari Road Direction b:Manohara-Pepsikola Station No.:
Seasonal Variation Factor for the Month of Feburary: 1.31 Surveyed By:
Date: 14th Feburary
2015
Volume of Vehicles
Start Time Truck Bus Motor Utility Three Four Wheel Power
Date Car Tractor Rickshaw Total
(Hrs) Heavy Light Mini Micro Cycle Vehicle Wheeler Drive/Jeep,Van Tiller
A b a b a b a b a b a b a b a b a b a b a b a b a b
12:30-1:30 2 9 13 13 12 17 23 194 203 8 7 1 6 7 247 268 515
14th Feburary, 1:30-2:30 6 2 14 6 10 12 1 32 30 183 188 9 9 1 1 1 1 9 10 1 1 266 261 527

2015 2:30-3:30 4 5 37 52 41 57 98
Traffic Engineering and Management /snlkhyaju@gmail.com 15

CHAPTER THREE: TRAFFIC CHARACTERISTICS
3.1 Basic traffic characteristics - Speed, volume and concentration.

Traffic flow is very complex. It requires more than causal observation while driving on a freeway to discover
that as traffic flow increases, there is generally a corresponding decrease in speed. Speed also decreases, when
vehicles tend to bunch together for one reason or another. Such analysis includes transverse and longitudinal
distribution of vehicles, distribution over time. Thus the provision of the theoretical consistent quantitative
technique by which relevant dimensions of vehicular traffic can be modeled, forms the basis of traffic
analysis.
Traffic flow is a stochastic process, with random variations in vehicles and driver characteristics and their
interactions. The theory of traffic flow can be defined as a mathematical study of the movement of vehicles
over road network. The subject is a mathematical approach to define, characterize and describe different
aspects of vehicular traffic. The development of the topics has taken inspiration from the various field of
knowledge such as, statistics, applied mathematics, psychology and operation research etc.
Approaches to understanding traffic flow: Three main approaches to the understanding and quantification
of traffic flow. The first being the macroscopic based on the analogies as fluid flow. This approach is most
appropriate for studying steady state of flow and hence best describes efficiency of the system. The second is
microscopic approach that consider the response of each individual vehicle in a disaggregate manner. In this
case, individual driver-vehicle combination is examined, and therefore is extensively used in highway safety
work. The third is the human-factor approach, which basically tries to define the mechanism by which an
individual driver and the vehicle locate oneself with reference to another vehicle and the highway guidance
system.
Vehicle flow on transportation facilities may be classified into two categories:
Uninterrupted flow: it occurs on the facilities that have no fixed elements, such as traffic signals, external to
traffic stream , that cause interruption to traffic flow.
Interrupted flow: it occurs on transportation facilities that have fixed elements causing periodic interruptions
to traffic flow. Such elements are traffic signals, stop signs, and other types of controls. These devices cause
traffic to stop periodically.
It should be noted that uninterrupted and interrupted traffic flow are terms to describe the facility and not the
quality of flow.
Speed (v)
It is defined as the rate of motion, as distance per unit time, generally km/h. or m/sec. There is a wide
distribution of individual speed in a traffic stream, an average speed is considered. If travel time t1, t2 , t3 .
tn, are observed from n vehicles traveling a segment of length L, the average travel speed is:
L nL
vs n
n
ti

i 1 n

i 1
ti

Example3.1: Three vehicles are traversing a 1.5 km segment of a highway and following observation is made:
What is the average travel speed of the vehicle?
Vehicle A: 1.2 min. (72 sec.)
Vehicle B: 1.5 min. (90 sec.)
Vehicle C: 1.7 min. (102 sec.)
The average travel speed calculated is referred as the space mean speed (v s). It is called space mean speed
because the use of average travel time essentially weights the average according to length of time each vehicle
spends in space.
Another way of defining average speed of traffic stream is by finding the time mean speed (vt ). This is the
arithmetic mean of the measured speeds of all vehicles passing, say, a fixed roadside point during a given
interval of time, in which case, the individual speeds are known as spot speeds.
n
v i
vt i 1
n
Where, vi , is the spot speed, and n is the number of vehicles observed.
Volume (q)
Volume and rate of flow are two different measures. Volume is the actual number of vehicles observed or
predicted to be passing a point during a given time interval. The rate of flow represents the number of vehicles
passing a point during a time interval less than one hour, but expressed as an equivalent hourly rate.
Density or concentration
It is defined as the number of vehicles occupying a given length of lane or roadway, averaged over time
usually expressed as vehicles per km. direct measurement of density can be obtained through aerial
photography, but more commonly it is calculated from the equation if speed and rate of flow are known,:
q v*k
Where, q = rate of flow veh. /hr)
v = average travel speed, m/sec
k = average density (veh/km)
3.2Relationship between Flow, Speed and Concentration

q = rate of flow veh. /hr
v = average travel speed, m/sec
k = average density (veh/km)
Then,
Now Density, k =
Hence q=k*v

Analysis of Speed, Flow, and Density Relationship
It has been assumed that a linear relationship exists between the speed of traffic on an uninterrupted traffic
lane and the traffic density, as shown in figure below. Mathematically it is represented by:
v A Bk
Where, v is the mean speed of the vehicle.
k is the average density of vehicles veh/km.
A and B are empirically determined parameters
We know,
q kv Ak Bk 2
(v A)v A v 2
q kv v
B B B
At almost zero density, the free mean speed equals to A, and at almost zero speed, the jam density equals A/B.
The maximum flow occurs at about half the mean free speed and is equal to A2 /4B .
The theoretical relationship between flow and density on a highway lane, represented by a parabola. The flow
increases from zero to its maximum value, the corresponding density of this flow is optimum density (k o ).
From this point onward to the right, the flow decreases as the density increases. At the jam density (k j ), the
flow is almost zero.
A2 /4B
Mean speed, km/h
Mean speed, km/h
A
Flow, veh/h
V=A-Bk A/2
A2/4B
A/2B
A/B A/B
Density, veh/km Density, veh/km Flow, veh/h
a) b) c)
Speed -Flow-Density curves

Figure 8Speed-Flow-Density curves

Greenshields Model: in 1935, Greenshields developed a model based on empirical studies.
vsf
vs vsf ( )K
Kj
vs space mean speed
vsf space mean speed for free flow conditions
K j jamming concentration
K concentration
Q
We know that Q vs * K or, K
vs
vsf
Then, Q vsf K ( )K 2 ..................(i)
Kj
vsf Q
Then, vs vsf ( ) or, Qvsf (vsf vs ) K j vs
Kj vs
Kj
or, Q vs K j { }vs2 .........................(ii)
vsf
Differentiating the equation (i) with respect to concentration, we can get the value of concentration
corresponding to the maximum flow.
dQ k
v sf 2v sf 0
dK Kj
Kj
Then, K ...........................(ii i)
2
To obtain the speed corresponding to the maximum flow, the equation (ii) is differentiated with respect to vs .
dQ 2 K j vs
Kj 0
dvs vsf
vsf
or, vs ..........................(iv)
2
Therefore : Q(max imum) vs for maximum Q * K for max imumQ
vsf K j vsf K j
* ....................(v)
2 2 4
Relation between time mean speed and space mean speed:

Considering a stream of traffic with a total flow of Q, consisting of subsidiary stream with flows q 1 , q 2 , q 3
.q c and speeds v 1 , v2 , v3 , vc.
c
Q q1 q2 q3 .......................... q c qi
i 1
For the subsidiary stream with flow q 1 and speed v1 :

Average time headway = 1/q 1
Distance traveled in that time = v1 /q 1
The density of the stream in space (the number of vehicles per unit length at any instant is given by:
qi
ki , t 1, 2, 3......c
vi
K ki
c
The total concentration:
i 1
The time mean speed s defined as: qi vi
c
vt
i 1 Q
The space mean speed is defined as: c ki vi

vs
i 1 K
s2
Relationship between space mean speed and time mean speed v t vs
vs
Example 3.2: Assuming a linear speed-density relationship, the mean free speed is observed to be 85 km/h
near zero density, and at the corresponding jam density is 140veh/km. Assume that, the average length of
vehicles is 6m.
Write down the speed-density and flow-density equations.
Draw the v-k, v-q and q-k diagrams indicating critical values.
Compute speed and density corresponding to flow of 1000 veh/h.
Example 3.3: Speed observations from a radar speed meter have been taken, giving the speeds of the
subsidiary streams composing the flow along with the volume of traffic of each subsidiary stream. The
readings are as under.
Speed range 2-5 6-9 10-13 14-17 18-21 22-25 26-29 30-33 34-37 38-41 42-45 46-49 50-53 54-57 58-61
Volume (qi) 1 4 0 7 20 44 80 82 79 49 36 26 9 10 3
Calculate: a) time mean speed b) space mean speed c) variance about space mean speed
Example 3.4: The speed density relationship of traffic on a section of a freeway lane was estimated to be
Vs = 18.2 ln(220/k)
a) What is the maximum flow, speed, and density at this flow?
b) What is the jam density?
Example 3.5: Determine the maximum flow for the free flow speed of 80 kmph. The aerial photograph shows
that average center to center spacing of two vehicle during jam (i.e. velocity is zero) is found to be 6.5 m.

CHAPTER FOUR: TRAFFIC MEASUREMENT AND ANALYSIS
4.1 Volume Studies

Definition
Traffic volume is the number of the vehicles crossing a section of road per unit time at any selected period.
Traffic volume is used as a quantity measure of traffic flow. Unit used for this is vehicle/day; vehicle/hour etc.
A complete traffic volume may include the classified volume study by recording the volume of various types
of vehicle, distribution by direction and lane and turning movements.
The volume of different type is usually converted into Passenger Car Unit (PCU).
NRS 2070
SN Vehicle type Equivalency factor
1 Bicycle, motorcycle 0.5
2 Car, auto rickshaw, SUV, light van and 1.0
pick up
3 Light (mini), truck, tractor, rickshaw 1.5
4 Truck, bus, minibus, tractor with trailer 3.0
5 Non-motorized carts 6.0
Objectives:
It is the true measure of relative importance of roads, which is important for improvement and
expansion.
Traffic volume is used in planning, traffic operation/control of existing facilities and for planning new
facilities.
Classified volume is used for structural design of pavements.
It is used to analyze traffic pattern and trends.
It is used for design intersections, signal timings, canalizations, and other control devices.
For the determination of one-way street or other regulatory measures.
Pedestrian traffic volume is uses for planning and design of sidewalks, cross walks, subways, and
pedestrian signals.
Hourly traffic volume varies considerably during a day. Peak hour is much higher than average hourly
volume. Daily traffic varies in a week and also with season.
Types of traffic counts:
Short term counts:
For determining traffic flow in peak hours.
To measure saturation flow at signalized intersection
Count for full day
To determine hourly fluctuation of flow
Used intersection counts
Count for full week:
To determine hourly and daily fluctuation of flow
For traffic survey in urban highways.
Continuous count:
To determine fluctuation daily, weekly, seasonal and yearly flow.

To determine annual traffic growth rate
Very commonly used in developed countries at selected sections.
Methods of traffic counts:

Manual count
Combined Manual and mechanical counter
Automatic devices
Photographic Method.
Moving observer method
Manual Count:
The prescribed record sheet is provided for manual count. Vehicles are counted by the method of five-dash
system.
Date: Road classification: Klometrage /mileage
Direction:
Vehicle type Car, Jeep, Bus Micro Truck Three- Motor Cycle
Hour Van bus wheeler bike
8-9
9-11
11-12
It is more desirable to record traffic in each direction of travel separately. The data can be summarized for
each hour
of day.
Figure 9Manual Traffic count
Advantages of manual method:
Vehicle classification, type and occupants

Record of turning and straight going vehicle
Directional breakdown
Check of automatic count
Data easy to analyze
Suitable for short and non-continuous count.
Pedestrian count can also be done.
Enable to record unusual conditions

Disadvantages:
Costly
Continuous counting is not feasible.
Number of team member depends on the number of lane, total volume, complexity of area .
Equipment and tools:
Watch, pencils, erasers, blank field data sheets and a clipboard
Mechanical tally counters and electronic count boards can also be used which can be directly
downloaded to computers.
Manual count at intersections:
Field data sheet can be modified to suit the particular requirements of any intersection. Traffic enumerators
needed to be posted on each arm of the intersection. The count of traffic on each arm should be broken down
into three categories- left turning, right turning and straight ahead traffic.
Combined Manual and Mechanical Method

An example of a combination of manual and mechanical method is the multiple pen recorders. The chart
moves continuously at the speed of a clock. Different pens record the occurrence of different events on the
chart. Particular pen may record specific type of vehicle. Advantage of this type is:
Classification and count is done simultaneously
Time headway can be determined
Figure 10 Combined Mechanical and Manual Method

Automatic device
The automatic devices consist of equipment for detecting the passage or presence of and another for recording
the count. The sensor transmits some form of electric impulse which activates the accumulating register or
record chart.
Sensors (detectors):
1) Pneumatic tube (road tube): flexible tube with one end sealed is clamped to the road surface at right angles
to the pavement. Other end of the tube is connected to a diaphragm actuated switch. When an axle of the
vehicle crosses the tube a volume of air gets displaced thus creating a pressure which instantaneously closes
the electric contact through the switch. Two such contacts result in one count for the two axle vehicle. They
are cheap but it is difficult to fix on gravel surface and they are likely to be damaged by tractors and are easily
pilfered by vandals. They cannot detect vehicles by lane.

2) Electric contact: A pair of steel strip is contained in a rubber pad which is buried beneath the road surface.
By the load of the vehicle, steel strips come into contact with each other and cause the electric current to flow.
3) Co-axial cable: A co-axial cable is clamped across the road surface, with the capability of generating
signals with the passage of axles. These signals actuate a transistorized counter. They are more reliable the n
above-mentioned devices.
4) Photo-electric: A source of light is installed on the one side of the road, which emits a beam of light across
the road. At the other end a photo-cell which can distinguish the light beam and its absence, is fixed. By the
passage of vehicle, photo-cell records the obstruction to the light beam. There may be error due to passage of
vehicle at the same time in different lane.
5) Radar: A Radar (Doppler Effect) may detect the vehicle moving at a speed. When a moving object
approaches or recedes from the sources of signals, the frequency of the signal received back from the moving
object will be different from the frequency of the signal emitted by the source. This difference in two
frequencies causes the detection of the moving object. The initial cost is high but it is reliable and accurate.
6) Infra-red: Infrared sensors can detect the heat radiated from a vehicle or can react to the reflection from the
vehicle of infra-red radiation emitted by the sensors.
7) Magnetic: the disturbance caused by the passage of vehicle to the magnetic field, is taken as the basis of
sensing. Magnetic field is provided by a wire coil, which is buried beneath the road surface.
Recording Mechanism:
The signals generated by the automatic sensors can be recorded by the various methods:
1) Counting register: it is simply an accumulating counter, which indicates the number of the vehicle.
Readings must be taken before and after the counting period.
2) Printed output: this device prints the accumulated totals at regular interval of time on a roll of paper.
3) Electronic system: they are modern system, which can record data directly on floppies or other magnetic
disk.
Video Photographic method:

It gives the permanent record of volume counts. Its analysis can be done at office by replaying the cassette.
Presentation and analysis of traffic volume data

Data collected during the traffic volume study are sorted out and are presented in any of the following forms
depending upon requirements:
Average Annual Daily Traffic (AADT): it is 1/365th of the total annual traffic flow. It is expressed in terms
of PCU and used for determining importance and future development of the road.
Trend Chart: it shows the volume trends over the period of years. By extrapolating the trend we can estimate
the future volume prediction.
Variation Chart: for the presentation of hourly, daily, weekly, seasonal variations such charts are prepared.
They are useful to determine facilities and regulations for the peak hour requirements.
Traffic flow at intersection shown by thick lines: for the intersection design and control measures.

Traffic Flow Maps: along the routes of the road 30 th Highest Hourly Volume (design hourly
network, are useful for the graphical presentation volume): It is the hourly volume that will be
for the volume study. Traffic volume distribution on exceeded only 29 times in a year and all other
the road network can easily be noticed. hourly volumes of the year will be less than this
value. For the economic point of view, the highest
hourly volume is not accepted for designing of the
Hourly Traffic Volume, % of ADT
30 th highest hour
facilities. And the annual average hourly volume

will not be sufficient during considerable period of
year. So for designing traffic facilities, the
congestion only 29 hours in the year is permissible.
Thus the 30th highest hourly volume is generally
taken as the hourly design volume.
0 20 40 60 80 100
Numbers of hours in one year
with traffic volume
exceeding that shown
700 1050
600
100
Traffic flow map Traffic flow at intersection

450 300
15 minutes total traffic flow

4000
Total number of traffic flow
3500
3000
2500
2000
1500
1000
500
0
0 4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 36 40 44 48 52 56 60 64 68 72 76 80 84 88 92 96
Number of 15 min duration
Figure 11Graphical Representation of Traffic data
4.2 Speed studies
Definition of terms
Speed is a factor influencing traffic flow on existing roads. Speed studies are essential for:
Traffic operation like sign location and timings, establishing speed zones etc.
Geometric design of elements like curvatures, super elevation, stopping sight distance etc.
Spot speed: it is an instantaneous speed of a vehicle at a specific location.
Running speed: It is the average speed of vehicles along a given section of road excluding delays at
controlled intersection.
Running speed = length of course/running time = length / (journey time- delay time)
It is useful for assessing traffic capacity of roads.
Journey speed: it is average speed of vehicles along a route including all delays, but excluding all voluntary
stoppages. It is useful in urban areas for measuring time adequacy an existing road network, for assessing the
efficiency of the improvement measures.
Journey speed = length of route / total journey time including delays
Average speed: average spot speed of several vehicles passing a specific section is termed as average speed.
Application:
For the traffic control and regulation, in geometric design, accident studies, studying traffic capacity
etc.
Effect of traffic flow constraints like bridge and intersection
Spot speed is affected by physical of road like pavement width, curve, sight distance and grade .
There are two types of average speed: Space mean speed and time mean speed.
Space mean speed: Average speed of vehicles over a certain length of road at a given time. This is obtained
from the observed time of the vehicles over a relatively long stretch of the road.
3.6dn
Space mean speed (kmph), Vs
n
ti
i 1
n=Number of individual vehicle observation; d - Length of the road section. ti - observed travel time in sec
for the i th vehicle to travel d m.
Time mean speed: it represents speed distribution of vehicles at a point on the roadway and it is the average
of instantaneous speed of observed vehicles at the spot.
n
Vi
i 1
Vt Vt is time mean speed (km/h); Vi observed instantaneous speed
n
of the i th vehicle kmph; n no of vehicles observed.

Spot Speed study:
Uses:
Geometric design of roads;

Regulation and control of traffic operation;
Anglicizing the causes of accidents;
Before and after study of improvement projects;
Determining the problems of congestion in the road section;
Capacity study.

Methods of Spot speed measurement:
Methods available for the measuring spot speed can be grouped as follows:
Those who require observation of time taken be the vehicle to cover a known distance;
Direct timing procedure;

Enoscope
Pressure contact tube
Radar speed-meter which automatically records the instantaneous speed;
Photographic method
General consideration for the site selection foe spot speed measurement:
Location selection should be according to the specific purpose;
Minimum influence to the traffic flow and their speed by the survey team and equipment;
Generally straight, level and open section should be selected.
Recommended base length:
Average speed of traffic stream, km/h Base length
Less than 40 27
40-65 54
Greater than 65 81
a) Direct timing procedure for the spot speed determination:

Simple method
Two reference points are marked on the pavement at a suitable distance apart and an observer starts
and stops an accurate stopwatch as a vehicle crosses these two marks.
From the known distance and measured time intervals spot speed is calculated;
Large effects may occur due to the parallax effect;
Reaction of individual observer may affect the result.
One observer stands at the first reference point and gives signal to the observer standing at last
reference point (with stopwatch).
Figure 12 Stopwatch spot speed study layout

b) Enoscope
It is a simple device consisting of L-shaped mirror box, open at both ends. It has a mirror set fixed at 45
degree to the arms of the instrument as in figure.
50 m
Light for night
Figure 13: Enoscope method
c) Pressure contact tubes

In this method detectors are used to indicate the time of entering and leaving the base length by the vehicle.
Figure 14Pressure contact tubes
d) Inductive loop detector

Two wire loops are inserted in the pavement at known distance apart and radio frequency at 85-115 kHz is fed
to the circuit tuned to avoid electric interferences. When the vehicle passes over the loop it causes shift of
phase in frequency thus recording the vehicle presence.
e) Radar speed meter: This automatic device works on the Doppler principle that the speed of a moving
body is proportional to the change in frequency between the radio wave transmitted to the moving body and
the radio wave received back. It directly measures speed.
Figure 15Traffic Police using Radar Gun Meter

f) Photographic and video camera method
Time-lapse camera photography has been used to determine the speed of the vehicles. In this method,
photographs are taken at fixed intervals of time on a special camera. By projecting the film on the screen, the
passage of any vehicle can be traced with reference to time.
Video camera also can be used to measure the speed of the vehicle.
Presentation and analysis of spot speed data

Spot speed depends on factors like volume and composition of traffic, geometric layout, and condition of the
road, environmental conditions, human and vehicle characteristics etc. Careful consideration is necessary
while presenting the data.
Tabular presentation: grouping of spot speeds into speed cases to facilitate esay computation.
Graphical presentation: (Histogram and cumulative frequency curves)
Modal speed: peak of the frequency curve. (mode of the distribution)
Median Speed: 50th percentile speed
98 th percentile speed: below this speed 98% of vehicles move, and it is taken as design speed for the
geometric design.
85 th percentile speed: 85% of the vehicles move below this speed. It is used to establish upper speed limit
for traffic management. It is taken as limit of safe speed in the road.
15 th percentile speed: 15% of vehicles move below this speed. It is used for determining minimum speed
limit for major highways.
Arithmetic mean or average spot speed: Summation of all variable speed divided by the number of
observations.
Spot speed observation table (say the stretch of the road section L=50 m):
Observation
1 2 3 4 5 ..
number
Observed time 3.52 3.45 2.85 3.25 2.65 .. .
Speed (km/h) 51.14 52.2 63.2 55.4 67.9 .
Grouping of data and presentation:
Large amount of data could be presented by arranging them in a frequency table . First data should be
grouped into suitable class interval. Size of class interval:
Range
i Where, i is the class interval, N is the number of observations.
1 3.22 log 10 N
Parameters of Distribution
The frequency table, histogram and the cumulative frequency curve give only the rough idea of the
distribution and their inherent characteristics. An accurate idea about distribution can be expressed from the
parameters of distributions.

Histogram: vertical axis: percentage
LLR Smoother
frequency; horizontal axis: class-limits. 20.00

The cumulative percentage frequency
diagram: 15.00
%Frequency
The Pace: Another Measure of Central 10.00

Tendency The pace is a traffic engineering

measure not commonly used for other 5.00

statistical analyses. It is defined as the 10

0.00
kmph increment in speed in which the
30.00 40.00 50.00 60.00
highest percentage of drivers is observed. It speed, km/h

is also found graphically using the
frequency distribution curve. The solution
recognizes that the area under the
frequency distribution curve between any
two speeds approximates the percentage of
vehicles traveling between those two
speeds, where the total area under the curve
is 100%.
The pace is found as follows: A 10 kmph
template is scaled from the axis. Keeping
this template horizontal, place an end on
the side of the curve a move slowly along Figure 16Presentation of Speed data
the curve. When the right side of the
template intersects the right side of the curve, the pace located. This procedure identifies the 10 kmph
increment that the peak of the curve; this contains the most area and, the highest percentage of vehicles.
Percent Vehicles within the Pace. The pace itself is a measure of the center of the distribution. The
percentage of vehicles traveling within the pace speeds is a measure of both central tendency and dispersion.
The smaller the percentage of vehicles traveling within the pace, the greater the degree of dispersion in the
distribution. The percent of vehicles within the pace is found graphically using both the frequency distribution
and cumulative frequency distribution curves. The pace speeds were determined previously from the
frequency distribution curves. Lines from these speeds are dropped vertically to the cumulative frequency
distribution curve. The percentage of vehicles traveling at or below each of these speeds can then be
determined from the vertical axis of the cumulative frequency distribution curve
Example 4.1: Three cars with speed 20kmph, 40kmph and 60kmph travelling length D. Determine the space
mean speed and time mean speed.
Example 4.2: Twenty five spot speed observations were taken and were as under (km/h):
50, 40, 60, 54, 45, 31, 72, 58, 43, 52, 46, 56, 43, 65, 33, 69, 34, 51, 47, 41, 62, 43, 55, 40, 49
Calculate: a) time mean speed, b) space mean speed, and c) verify the relation between them.
Example 4.3: Consider the following spot speed data, collected from a freeway site operating under free-flow
conditions:
Speed Group (kmph) Number of vehicles observed (N)
15-20 0
20-25 3
25-30 6
30-35 18
35-40 45
40-45 48
45-50 18
50-55 12
55-60 4
60-65 3
65-70 0
a) Plot the frequency and cumulative frequency curves for these data.
b) Find and identify on the curves: medium speed, modal speed, pace, percent vehicles in pace.
c) Compute the mean and standard deviation of the speed distribution.

CHAPTER FIVE: SPEED STUDIES
5.1Head ways and Gaps

Spacing and headway are two additional characteristics of traffic streams. Spacing (s) is defined as the
distance between successive vehicles in a traffic stream as measured from front bumper to front bumper.
Headway (h) is the corresponding time between successive vehicles as they pass a point on a roadway. Both
spacing and headway are related to speed, flow rate and density.
1000
k ; veh / km
average spacing (s), m
average spacing ( s ), m
h , sec
average speed (v), m/sec
3600
q ; veh / hour
average headway ( h) , sec
Clearance (m)
gap (sec) L, m
Spacing (m) or
headway (sec)
Figure: Clearance-gap and Spacing-headway
Figure 17 Clearance-gap and Spacing- Headway
Spacing of vehicles in a traffic lane can generally be observed from aerial photographs. Headway of the
vehicles can be measured using stopwatch observations as vehicles pass a point on a lane.
80 3
60
Minimum spacing, m
40 Headw 2
ay, Sec
Min headway, sec
30
,m
c ing
20 Spa 1
10
0
0 20 40 60 80 100
Speed, km/h
Figure: Variation of Min spacing and headway with speed

Lane occupancy (R): is a measure used in freeway surveillance. If one could measure the lengths of vehicles
on a given roadway section and compute the ratio.
sum of lengths of vehicles Li

R
length of road way section D
R could be divided by the average length of a vehicle to give an estimate of density (k).
Lane occupancy (LO) can also be described as the ratio of the time that vehicles are present at a detection
station in a traffic lane compared to the time of sampling.
L
C Loop detector
L= length of the vehicle

C= distance between the loops of detector
total time vehicle detector is occupied t0

LO
total observation time T
LC
t0
vs
Density can be calculated by the formula:
LO *1000
k
LC
Lane clearance (c) and Gap (g) are related to the spacing parameter and headway. These four measurements
are shown in figure below. The difference between spacing and clearance is obviously the average length of a
vehicle in m. Similarly the difference between headway and gap is the time equivalence of average length of a
vehicle (L/v):
Where, g is the gap, m;

L is the mean length of vehicle, m;
c is the mean clearance, m;
h is the mean headway, sec;
v is the mean speed, m/sec
5.2 Uncontrolled Intersection

An intersection is a road junction where two or more roads either meet or cross at grade. This intersection
includes the areas needed for all modes of travel: pedestrian, bicycle, motor vehicle, and transit. Thus, the
intersection includes not only the pavement area, but typically the adjacent sidewalks and pedestrian curb cut
ramps. All the road junctions designated for the vehicles to turn to different directions to reach their desired
destinations. Traffic intersections are complex locations on any highway. This is because vehicles moving in
different direction want to occupy same space at the same time. In addition, the pedestrians also seek same
space for crossing. Drivers have to make split second decision at an intersection by considering his route,
intersection geometry, speed and direction of other vehicles etc. A small error in judgment can cause severe
accidents. It causes delay and it depends on type, geometry, and type of control. Overall traffic flow depends
on the performance of the intersections. It also affects the capacity of the road. Therefore, both from the
accident perspective and the capacity perspective, the study of intersections are very important by the traffic
engineers.
Categories of Intersection
Intersection design can vary widely in terms of size, shape, number of travel lanes, and number of turn lanes.
Basically, there are four types of intersections, determined by the number of road segments and priority usage.
Priority Intersection: Occur where one of the intersecting roads is given definite priority over the other. The
minor road will usually be controlled by some form of sign marking, such as stop or yield sign; thus ensuring
that priority vehicles travailing on the main street will incur virtually no delay.
Space sharing intersection: Are intended to permit fully equally priority and to permit continuous movement
for all intersecting vehicle flows; example would be rotaries and other weaving areas.
Time Sharing Intersection: Are those at which alternative flows are given the right of way at different point
in time. This type of intersection is controlled by traffic signal or by police officer.
Uncontrolled intersection: are the most common type of intersection usually occurs where the intersecting
roads are relatively equal importance and found in areas where there is not much traffic shown in figure. At
uncontrolled intersection the arrival rate and individuals drivers generally determine the manner of operation,
while the resulting performance characteristics are derived from joint consideration of flow conditions and
driver judgment and behavior patterns. In simplest terms, an intersection, one flow of traffic seeks gaps in
the opposing flow of traffic.
At priority intersections, since one flow is given priority over the right of way it is clear that the secondary or
minor flow is usually the one seeking gaps. By contrast at uncontrolled intersection, each flow must seek
gaps in the other opposing flow. When flows are very light, which is the case on most urban and rural roads
large gaps exist in the flows and thus few situation arise when vehicles arrive at uncontrolled intersection less
than 10 second apart or at interval close enough to cause conflicts. However when vehicles arrive at
uncontrolled intersection only a few second apart potential conflicts exist and driver must judge their relative
time relationships and adjusts accordingly.
Generally one or both vehicles most adjust their speeds i.e. delayed somewhat with the closer vehicle most
often taking the right of way; in a sense, of course, the earlier arriving vehicle has priority and in this
instance when two vehicles arrive simultaneous, the rule of the road usually indicate priority for the driver
on the right. The possibility of judgmental in these, informal priority situation for uncontrolled intersection is
obvious. At an uncontrolled intersection, service discipline is typically controlled by signs (stop or yield signs)
using two rules two way stop controlled intersection (TWSC) and all way stop controlled intersection
(AWSC).

Figure 18uncontrolled intersection
Two-Way Stop-Controlled Intersection Figure 19Two way stop controlled intersection
Researchers rely on many specific definitions to describe

the performance of traffic operation systems. The clear understanding of such terminology is an important
element is studying two-way stop-controlled (TWSC) traffic operation system characteristics; defined as: One
of the uncontrolled intersections with stop control on the minor street shown in Fig. 4.
Characteristics of TWSC Intersections
At TWSC intersections, the stop-controlled approaches are referred to as the minor street approaches; the
intersection approaches that are not controlled by stop signs are referred to as the major street approaches. A
three-leg intersection is considered to be a standard type of TWSC intersection if the single minor street
approach is controlled by a stop sign. Three-leg intersections where two of the three approaches are controlled
by stop signs are a special form of uncontrolled intersection control.
Figure 20Traffic flow stream in two way stop controlled intersection source

Flow at TWSC Intersections
TWSC intersections assign the right-of-way among conflicting traffic streams according to the following
hierarchy:
Rank 1 - The major street through and right-turning movements are the highest-priority movements at a
TWSC intersection. This movements shown Fig. 4 are 2, 3, 5, 6, 15 and 16.
Rank 2 - Vehicles turning left from the major street onto the minor street yield only to conflicting Major
Street through and right-turning vehicles. All other conflicting movements yield to these major street left-
turning movements. The movements on this rank are 1, 4, 13, 14, 9 and 12.
Rank 3 - Minor Street through vehicles yield to all conflicting major street through, right-turning, and left-
turning movements. The movements on this rank are 8 and 11.
Rank 4 - Minor Street left-turning vehicles yield to all conflicting major street through, right-turning, and left-
turning vehicles and to all conflicting Minor Street through and right-turning vehicles. The movements on this
rank are 7 and 10.
All-Way-Stop-Controlled Intersection (AWSC)

AWSC Intersection are mostly used approaching from all directions and is required to stop before proceeding
through the intersection as shown in Fig. 5. An all-way stop may have multiple approaches and may be
marked with a supplemental plate stating the number of approaches.
Figure 21All way stop controlled intersection
The analysis of AWSC intersection is easier because all users must stop. In this type of intersection the critical
entity of the capacity is the average intersection departure head way.
Secondary parameters are the number of cross lanes, turning percentages, and the distribution volume on each
approach. The first step for the analysis of capacity is select approach called subject approach the approach
opposite to subject approach is opposing approach, and the approach on the side of the subject approach is are
called conflicting approach.
Characteristics of AWSC Intersections
AWSC intersections require every vehicle to stop at the intersection before proceeding. Since each driver
must stop, the judgment as to whether to proceed into the intersection is a function of traffic conditions on the
other approaches. If no traffic is present on the other approaches, a driver can proceed immediately after the

stop is made. If there is traffic on one or more of the other approaches, a driver proceeds only after
determining that there are no vehicles currently in the intersection and that it is the drivers turn to proceed.
5.3 Gap acceptance studies

A gap is defined as the gap in between the lead and lag vehicles in the target lane. For merging into an
adjacent lane, a gap is acceptable only when both lead and lag gap are acceptable. Drivers are assumed to have
minimum acceptable lead and lag gap lengths which are termed as the lead and lag critical gaps respectively.
These critical gaps vary not only among different individuals, but also for a given individual under different
traffic conditions. Most models also make a distinction between the lead gap and the lag gap and require that
both are acceptable. The lead gap is the gap between the subject vehicle and the vehicle ahead of it in the lane
it is changing to. The lag gap is defined in the same way relative to the vehicle behind in that lane.
Gap acceptance is an important element in most lane-changing models. In order to execute a lane-change, the
driver assesses the positions and speeds of the lead and following vehicles in the target lane and decides
whether the gap between them is sufficient. Gap acceptance models are formulated as binary choice problems,
in which drivers decide whether to accept or reject the available gap by comparing it to the critical gap
(minimum acceptable gap).
Basic Terminologies
Gap means the time and space that a subject vehicle needs to merge adequately safely between two
vehicles. Gap acceptance is the minimum gap required to finish lane changing safely. Therefore, a gap
acceptance model can help describe how a driver judges whether to accept or not.
Gap acceptance: The process by which a minor stream vehicle accepts an available gap to maneuver.
Critical gap: The minimum major-stream headway during which a minor-street vehicle can make a maneuver.
Lag: Time interval between the arrival of a yielding vehicle and the passage of the next priority stream
vehicle (Forward waiting time).
Headway: The time interval between the arrivals of two successive vehicles. Headway differs from gap
because it is measured from the front bumper of the front vehicle to the front bumper of the next vehicle.
Minimum Headway: The minimum gap maintained by a vehicle in the major traffic stream.
Follow-up time: Time between the departure of one vehicle from the minor street and the departure of the
next vehicle using the same gap under a condition of continuous queuing.
Delay: The additional travel time experienced by a driver, passenger or pedestrian.
Conflicting movements: The traffic streams in conflict at an intersection.
Capacity: The maximum hourly rate at which persons or vehicles can reasonably be expected to traverse a
point or uniform section of a lane or a roadway during a given time period under prevailing roadway, traffic,
and control conditions.
Gap Acceptance Model
Gap acceptance is one of the most important components in microscopic traffic characteristic. The gap
acceptance theory commonly used in the analysis of uncontrolled intersections based on the concept of
defining the extent drivers will be able to utilize a gap of particular size or duration. A driver entering into or
going across a traffic stream must evaluate the space between a potentially conflicting vehicle and decide
whether to cross or enter or not. One of the most important aspects of traffic operation is the interaction of

vehicles with in a single stream of traffic or the interaction of two separate traffic streams. This interaction
takes place when a driver changes lanes merging in to a traffic stream or crosses a traffic stream. Inherent in
the traffic interaction associated with these basic maneuvers is concept of gap acceptance.
Figure 22Gap Acceptance Model
The subject vehicle tends to move from its current lane to target Lane, into the gap between 2 vehicles
travelling in the target lane. When a driver wants to do lane changing, the critical lead gap and the lag gap are
required to be acceptable for the driver. Otherwise, it is not safe for the driver to do the lane changing.
Critical Gap
The critical gap tcx for movement x is defined as the minimum average acceptable gap that allows
intersection entry for one Minor Street or Major Street. The term average acceptable means that the average
driver would accept or choose to utilize a gap of this size. The gap is measured as the clear time in the traffic
stream defined by all conflicting movements. Thus, the model assumes that all gaps shorter than tcx are
rejected or unused, while all gaps equal to or larger than tcx would be accepted or used. The adjusted critical
gap tcx computed as follows.
t cx t cb t cHV PHV t cG G t cT t cLT

Where, tcx = critical gap for movement x,
tcb = base critical gap from Table.
tcHV = adjustment factor for heavy vehicles
PHV = proportion of heavy vehicles
tcG = adjustment factor for grade
G = percent grade divided by 100,
tcT = adjustment factor for each part of a two-stage gap acceptance process
tcLT =critical gap adjustment factor for intersection geometry
Follow up Time
The follow up time tfx for movement x is the minimum average acceptable time for a second queued minor
street vehicle to use a gap large enough admit two or more vehicles. Follow-up times were measured directly
by observing traffic flow. Resulting follow-up times were analyzed to determine their dependence on different

arameters such as intersection layout. This measurement is similar to the saturation flow rate at signalized
intersection. Following table shows base or unadjusted values of the critical gap and follow up time for
various movements. Base critical gaps and follow up times can be adjusted to account for a number of
conditions, including heavy - vehicle presence grade, and the existence of two stage gap acceptance. Adjusted
Follow up Time computed as:
t fx t fb t fHV PHV
Where,
tfx = Follow-up time for minor movement x
tfb = Base follow-up time from table 1
tfHV = Adjustment factor for heavy vehicles
PHV = Proportion of heavy vehicles for minor movement
Table 3Adjustments to Base critical gap and follow up times Table 2Base critical gap and follow up times source
Adjustment Values
tcb, sec tfb, sec
1.0, Two-lane major street Movement
tcHV Two-lane Four-lane
2.0, Four-lane major street
Major Street Major Street
0.1, Movements 9 and 12
tcG Major LT 4.1 4.1 2.2
0.2, Movements 7, 8, 10 and 11
Minor RT 6.2 6.9 3.3
1.0, Otherwise
Minor TH 6.5 6.5 4.0
1.0, With two stage process
tcT Minor LT 7.1 7.5 3.5
0.0, With single stage process
source
0.7, Minor-street LT at T-intersection
TcLT
0.0, Otherwise
0.9, Two-lane major street
tfHV
1.0, Four-lane major street
Conflicts
The traffic flow process at un-controlled intersection is
complicated since there are many distinct vehicular
movements to be accounted for. Most of this
movements conflict with opposing vehicular volumes.
These conflicts result in decreasing capacity, increasing
delay, and increasing potentials for traffic accidents.
Consider a typical four-legged intersection as shown in
Fig. The numbers of conflicts for competing through Figure 23Conflicts at four legged intersection
movements are 4, while competing right turn and
through movements are 8. The conflicts between right turn traffics are 4, and between left turn and merging
traffic are 4. The conflicts created by pedestrians will be 8 taking into account all the four approaches.

Diverging traffic also produces about 4 conflicts. Therefore, a typical four legged intersection has about 32
different types of conflicts.
Determine Conflicting Volume
Conflicts at an intersection are different for different types of intersection. The essence of the intersection
control is to resolve these conflicts at the intersection for the safe and efficient movement of both vehicular
traffic and pedestrians. The movements for determining conflict in four legged intersection are:
Major Street left turns seek gaps through the opposing through movement, the opposing right turn movement
and pedestrians crossing the far side of the minor street.
Minor street right turns seek to merge in to the right most lane of the major street, which contains through
and right turning vehicles. Each right turn from the minor street must also cross the two pedestrians path
shown.
Through movements from the minor street must cross all Major Street vehicular and pedestrians flows.
Minor street left turns must deal not only with all major street traffic flow but with two pedestrians flows
and the opposing Minor Street through and right turn
movements.
Through this movements the conflict volume (Vcx ) for the
given movement x is can be computed.
As an example the formula of conflict volume for movement
7 for three legged intersection shown in Fig. computed as:
Vc 7 = 2Vc 4 + Vc 5 + +Vc 2 + 0.5V 3 + V 13 + V 15
Figure 24three legged intersection
Potential Capacity
Capacity is defined as the maximum number of vehicles, passengers, or the like, per unit time, which can be
accommodated under given conditions with a reasonable expectation of occurrence. Potential capacity
describes the capacity of a minor stream under ideal conditions assuming that it is unimpeded by other
movements and has exclusive use of a separate lane.
Once of the conflicting volume, critical gap and follow up time are known for a given movement its potential
capacity can be estimated using gap acceptance models. The concept of potential capacity assumes that all
available gaps are used by the subject movement i.e. there are no higher priority vehicular or pedestrian
movements and waiting to use some of the gaps it also assumes that each movement operates out of an
exclusive lane. The potential capacity of can be computed using the formula:
e (v cx t cx / 3600 )
c px v cx
(v cx t fx / 3600 )
1 e
Where,

cpx = potential capacity of minor movement x (veh/h)
vcx = conflicting flow rate for movement x (veh/h)
tcx = critical gap for minor movement x
tf,x = follow-up time movement x.
Movement Capacity and Impedance Effects
Vehicles use gaps at a TWSC intersection in a prioritized manner. When traffic becomes congested in a high-
priority movement, it can impede lower-priority movements that are streams of Ranks 3 and 4 as shown in
Fig. 30:4 from using gaps in the traffic stream, reducing the potential capacity of these movements. The ideal
potential capacities must be adjusted to reflect the impedance effects of higher priority movements that may
utilize some of the gaps sought by lower priority movements. This impedance may come due to both
pedestrians and vehicular sources called movement capacity.
The movement capacity is found by multiplying the potential capacity by an adjustment factor. The
adjustment factor is the product of the probability that each impeding movement will be blocking a subject
vehicle. That is
Where,
Cmx = movement capacity, movement x,
Table 4Relative pedestrian/vehicle hierarchy
veh/hr
Cpx = Potential capacity movement x, veh/hr
Pvi = probability that impeding vehicular
movement i is not blocking the
subject flow; (also referred to as the
vehicular impedance factor for
movement i
Ppi = probability that impeding
pedestrian movement j is not
blocking the subject flow; also referred to us the pedestrian impedance factor for the movement j
Vehicular Movements
Priority 2 vehicular movements LTs from major street and RTs from Minor Street are not impeded by any
other vehicular flow, as they represent the highest priority movements seeking gaps. They are impeded,
however, by Rank 1 pedestrian movements. Priority 3 vehicular movements are impeded by Priority 2
vehicular movements and Priority l and 2 pedestrian movements seeking to use the same gaps. Priority 4
vehicular movements are impeded by Priority 2 and 3 vehicular movements, and P riority 1 and 2 pedestrian
movements using the same gaps. Following Table lists the impeding flows for each subject movement in a
four leg.
Generally the rule stated the probability that impeding vehicular movement i is not blocking the subject
movement is computed as
Where,
vi = demand flow for impeding movement i
Cmi=movement capacity for impeding movement i veh/hr
Pedestrian impedance factors are computed as:

Pedestrian Movements
One of the impeding effects for all the movement is pedestrians movement. Both approaches of Minor-street
vehicle streams must yield to pedestrian streams. Table. Shows that relative hierarchy between pedestrian and
vehicular streams used. A factor accounting for pedestrian blockage is computed by following Eqn. on the
basis of pedestrian volume, the pedestrian walking speed, and the lane width that is:
( )
Where, Pedestrian impedance factor for impeding pedestrian movement j

= pedestrian flow rate, impeding movement j, peds/hr
w = lane width, m
= pedestrian walking speed m/s
Determining Shared Lane Capacity
The capacities of individual streams (left turn, through and right turn) are calculated separately. If the streams
share a common traffic lane, the capacity of the shared lane is then calculated according to the shared lane
procedure. But movement capacities still represent an assumption that each minor street movement operates
out of an exclusive lane. Where two or three movements share a lane its combined capacity computed as:

( )
Where, = shared lane capacity, veh/hr

= flow rate, movement y sharing lane with other minor street flow
= movement capacity of movement y sharing lane with other minor street
Determining Control Delay

Delay is a complex measure and depends on a number of variables it is a measure of driver discomfort,
frustration, fuel consumption, increased travel time etc. Total delay is the difference between the travel time
actually experienced and the reference travel time that would result during base conditions, in the absence of
incident, control, traffic, or geometric delay. Also, Average control delay for any particular minor movement
is a function of the Capacity of the approach and. The degree of saturation. The control delay per vehicle for a
movement in a separate lane is given by:

3600 v x
( )( )
dx
3600
900T (
vx
1) (
vx 2
1)
c mx c mx
5
c mx c c mx 450T
mx

Where,
dx = average control delay per vehicle for movement x, s/veh
Cmx = capacity of movement or shared lane x, veh/hr
T = analysis period, h (15min=0.25h)
Vx = demand flow rate, movement or shared lane x, veh/hr
Performance Measures Table 5Level of service criteria for TWSC intersection
Four measures are used to describe the performance of TWSC

intersections: control delay, delay to Major Street through
vehicles, queue length, and v/c ratio. The primary measure that
is used to provide an estimate of LOS is control delay. This
measure can be estimated for any movement on the minor
(i.e., the stop-controlled) street. By summing delay estimates
for individual movements, a delay estimate for each minor street movement and minor street approach can be
achieved.
For AWSC intersections, the average control delay (in seconds per vehicle) is used as the primary measure of
performance. Control delay is the increased time of travel for a vehicle approaching and passing through an
AWSC intersection, compared with a free flow vehicle if it were not required to slow or stop at the
intersection. According to the performance measure of the TWSC intersection, LOS of the minor-street left
turn operates at level of service C approaches to B.
Example 5.1: four vehicles 6, 6.5, 6.75 and 6.9 m long, are distributed over a length of freeway lane 200 m.
long. What is the lane occupancy and density?
Example 5.2: In example 3.2 compute the average headways, spacing, clearances and gaps when the flow is
maximum.
Example 5.3: For the given three legged intersection of above figure the total volume pedestrian and
vehicular at each movement is given in the fig itself. Taking the following:
The speed of the pedestrians 1.2m/s
All flows contains 10% trucks
The percentage of the grade is 0.00
Ignore moments coming from south
bound
The analysis period is 15min.(T=0.25)
Determine: The control delay and level of
service for movement 7?

Figure 25Three legged intersection
Example 5.4: In the adjoining figure the amount of volume for the pedestrians, volume vehicles and the width
of the lane in (m) at each movement are given. Taking the following:
The speed of the pedestrians 1.2m/s
All flows contains 8% trucks
The percentage of the grade is 0.00
Ignore moments coming from south bound
Determine:
1. The potential capacities for movement 7
2. The movement capacities for movement 7
3. The control delay and level of service for movement 7
Figure 26Four legged intersection

CHAPTER SIX: HIGHWAY CAPACITY AND LEVEL OF SERVICE
6.1Basic definitions related to capacity

Traffic Capacity:
Capacity of a transport facility is defined as the maximum number of vehicles, passengers, or the like, per unit
time which can be accommodated under given conditions with a reasonable expectation of occurrence. The
Highway Capacity Manual (2010) defines the capacity as the maximum howdy rate at which persons or
vehicles can be reasonably expected to traverse a point or a uniform segment of a lane or roadway during a
given time period, under prevailing roadway, traffic and control conditions. Several observations can be made
from the above definition. Although capacity is the maximum howdy rate, in many situations the break 15
minute flow rate is expressed as the capacity. The above definition also contains the term reasonably
expected to account for the variation in traffic and driving habit at various location. However, it can be
termed as a probabilistic measure. Further, analytical derivations are possible for getting the maximum flow
rate, seldom it is achieved in the field. However, capacity measures are often empirically derived. Capacity is
usually defined for a point or a uniform segment where operating conditions do not vary.
The capacity measure depends on these operating conditions. The first is the traffic conditions and the factors
that influence the capacity includes vehicle composition, turning, movements, etc. The second factor is the
roadway conditions and it includes geometrical characteristics such as lane width, shoulder width, horizontal
alignment, and vertical alignment. The third factor is the control conditions such as the traffic signal timings,
round-about characteristics. It is also to be noted that the above capacity definition holds good for a point or at
a section of the road having uniform control conditions. Another aspect of the above capacity definition is the
expression that the maximum flow rate which accounts for the worst 15 minutes traffic within the peak hour
traffic. Lastly the term reasonable expectancy indicates that the capacity measure is probabilistic and not an
analytically derived deterministic value. The capacity measure is probabilistic, for it accounts for the
unexplainable variation in traffic and diverse driving characteristics.
Types of capacity:
An important operation characteristic of any transport facility including the multi-lane highways is the
concept of capacity. Capacity may be defined as the maximum sustainable flow rate at which vehicles or
persons reasonably can be expected to traverse a point or uniform segment of a lane or roadway during a
specified time period under given roadway, geometric, traffic, environmental, and control conditions; usually
expressed as vehicles per hour, passenger cars per hour, or persons per hour.
There are two types of capacity, possible capacity and practical capacity. Possible capacity is defined as the
maximum number of vehicles that can pass a point in one hour under prevailing roadway and traffic

condition. Practical capacity on the other hand is the maximum number that can pass the point without
unreasonable delay restriction to the average drivers freedom to pass other vehicles.
Basic Capacity or theoretical capacity or capacity under ideal conditions: Basic Capacity maximum
number of passenger cars that can pass a given point on a lane in one hour under the most nearly ideal
roadway and traffic conditions which can possibly be attained.
* In bad prevailing traffic condition traffic congestion possible capacity zero.

* In ideal prevailing traffic and roadway condition possible capacity basic capacity.
Zero<Possible capacity<Basic capacity
Possible and Basic capacity represent the extreme cases of roadway and traffic condition. They are not
adopted for design purpose.
Importance of traffic capacity:
Following are some application of highway capacity:
Design features, governed by the capacity are highway type, number of lanes required, width of lane,
intersection geometry etc.
To study adequacy or deficiency of highway network present traffic volume is compared with the
capacity of the existing facility.
Improvements and changes in geometric features, junctions, traffic control devices traffic
management measures can be planned effectively if capacity of facility is known.
Determination of theoretical maximum capacity:

1000 V
Basic or theoretical capacity, C
S
Where, C = capacity of single lane, vehicle per hour
V = speed, km/h
S = average centre to centre spacing of vehicles (space headway), m.
The value of S, the headway distance is known from the actual observations or can be calculated from
considerations of perception time braking distance and length of vehicle.
tV 1000 V 1000 2 1 V2
S L [ ] L 0.278Vt ; m
3600 3600 2 gf 254 f
Where, S = Spacing of vehicles, m
L = Length of vehicles, m
V = Speed, km/h
f = frictional factor
t = perception reaction time in sec.
The maximum theoretical capacity of a traffic lane may be obtained if the minimum time headway ht is
known:
3600
C vehicle per hour
ht
Speed Capacity Relationship:
Peak value of the maximum theoretical capacity is reached at an optimum speed. As speed is increased
further, the maximum capacity of the lane starts decreasing due to increase in headway
Figure 27General concept of LOS
6.2 Factors affecting capacity and LOS

BASE CONDITIONS
Many of the procedures in this manual provide a formula or simple tabular or graphic presentations for a set of
specified standard conditions, which must be adjusted to account for prevailing conditions that do not match.
The standard conditions so defined are termed base conditions.
Base conditions assume good weather, good pavement conditions, and users familiar with the facility, and no
impediments to traffic flow
Base conditions for uninterrupted flow facilities include the following:
Lane widths of 3.6 m,
Clearance of 1.8 m between the edge of the travel lanes and the nearest obstructions or objects at the
roadside and in the median,
Free-flow speed of 100 kmph for multilane highways,
Only passenger cars in the traffic stream (no heavy vehicles).
Level terrain.
No no-passing zones on two-lane highways, and
No impediments to through traffic due to traffic control or turning vehicles.
Base conditions for intersection approaches include the following:
Lane widths of 3.6 m,
Level grade,
No curb parking on the approaches.
Only passenger cars in the traffic stream,
No local transit buses stopping in the travel lanes,
Intersection located in a non-central business district area. and
No pedestrians.
In most capacity analyses, prevailing conditions differ from the base conditions. And Computations of
capacity, service flow rate, and level of service must include adjustments. Prevailing conditions are generally
categorized as roadway, traffic, or control.
ROADWAY CONDITIONS
Roadway conditions include geometric and other elements. Iii some cases, these influence the capacity of a
road: in others, they can affect a performance measure such as speed. but not the capacity or maximum flow
rate of the facility. Roadway factors include the following:
Number of lanes.
The type of facility and its development environment,
Lane widths.
Shoulder widths and lateral clearances,
Design speed,
Horizontal and vertical alignments, and
Availability of exclusive turn lanes at intersections.
The horizontal and vertical alignment of a highway depend on the design speed and the topography of the land
on which it is constructed.
In general the severity of the terrain reduces capacity and service flow rates. This is significant for two-lane
rural highways, where the severity of terrain not only can affect the operating capabilities of individual
vehicles in the traffic stream, bitt also can restrict opportunities for passing slowmoving vehicles.
TRAFFIC CONDITIONS
Traffic conditions that influence capacities and service levels include vehicle type and lane or directional
distribution.
Vehicle Type
The entry of heavy vehiclesthat is vehicles other than passenger cars (a category that includes small trucks
and vans) into the traffic stream affects the number of vehicles that can be served. Heavy vehicles are
vehicles that have more than four tires touching the pavement. Trucks, buses, and recreational vehicles (RVs)
are the three groups of heavy vehicles addressed by the methods. Heavy vehicles adversely affect traffic in
two ways:
They are larger than passenger cars and occupy more roadway space: and
They have poorer operating capabilities than passenger cars, particularly with respect to
acceleration, deceleration, and the ability to maintain speed on upgrades.
Directional and Lane Distribution
In addition to the distribution of vehicle types, two other traffic characteristics affect capacity, service flow
rates and level of service: directional distribution and lane distribution. Directional distribution has a dramatic
impact on twolane rural highway operation which achieves optimal conditions when the amount of traffic is
about the same in each direction. Capacity analysis for multilane highways focuses on a single direction of
flow. Nevertheless, each direction of the facility usually is designed to accommodate the peak flow rate in the

peak direction. Typically, morning peak traffic occurs in one direction and evening peak traffic occurs in the
opposite direction. Lane distribution also is a factor on multilane facilities. Typically, the shoulder lane carries
less traffic than other lanes.
CONTROL CONDITIONS such as the traffic signal timings, round-about characteristics.
6.3 Level of Service concept

Highway Capacity and Level of Service
Level of Service (LOS) is the qualitative measure describing the operational conditions within a traffic
stream, and their perception by motorists or passengers. The following factors may be considered to evaluate
LOS:
Speed and travel time, including the operating speed and overall travel time;
Traffic interruption or restrictions, with due consideration to the number of stops per mile;
Driving comfort and convenience reflecting the roadway and traffic conditions;
Freedom to maneuver to maintain the desired operating speed;
Economy, with due consideration operating cost
of vehicle. Six level of LOS: A, B, C, D, E, and F
HCM has categorized LOS depending upon the travel speed A : Free flow condition
and v/c ratio. B & C : Stable flow
Level of Service A: Free flow operation; free-flow speeds D & E : Unstable flow
prevail; vehicles completely unimpeded in their ability to &F : forced flow
maneuver within the traffic stream; average spacing of 528
ft. The effects of incidents are local and minimum.
Level of Service B: Reasonably free flow; generally free flow speed; ability to maneuver within the traffic
stream slightly restricted; average spacing 330 ft.
Level of Service C: Provides flow with speeds still at or near free flow speed; freedom to maneuver within
the traffic stream noticeably restricted and lane changes require more care by driver; average spacing 220 ft.
Local deterioration due to incidents in substantial and queues may be expected behind any significant
blockage.
Level of Service D: Speed begins to decline slightly with increasing flow; density begins to increasing
somewhat quickly; freedom to maneuver is more limited. Average spacing 165 ft.
Level of Service E: Describes operation at capacity at its highest density values; operations are volatile and
virtually no useable gaps exist in the traffic stream; maneuverability is extremely limited; average spacing is
110 ft. Level of physical and psychological comfort afforded the driver is poor.
Level of Service F: forced flow at low speeds; describes breakdown in vehicular flow at points of recurring
congestion such as merge, weave or diverging locations.
Passenger Car Unit (PCU):
The basic consideration behind using the concept of PCU is that different types of vehicle offer different
degree of interference to other traffic and it is necessary to bring all types to a common unit.

6.3 Computation of capacity and level of service f or two lane highways, multilane highways and
freeways .
Multilane Highways
Increasing traffic flow has forced engineers to increase the number of lanes of highways in order to provide
good maneuvering facilities to the users. The main objectives is to present the basics of multilane highway, its
operational characteristics, capacity and level of service (LOS) concepts. An important parameter in the
capacity and LOS analysis is the free flow speed.
A highway is a public road especially a major road connecting two or more destinations. A highway with at
least two lanes for the exclusive use of traffic in each direction, with no control or partial control of access,
but that may have periodic interruptions to flow at signalized intersections not closer than 3.0 km is called as
multilane highway. Multilane highways exist in a number of settings, from typical suburban communities
leading to central cities or along high volume rural corridors that connect two cities or important activities
generating a considerable number of daily trips.
Highway Classification
Although there are various ways of classification of highways; the most common one is based on the number
of lanes. Thus highways may be classified as:
Two lane highways.
Three lane highway, and
Four or more lane highway
The procedure for computing practical capacity for the uninterrupted flow condition is as follows:
Select an operating speed which is acceptable for the class of highways the terrain and the driver.
Determine the appropriate capacity for ideal conditions from table shown below.
Determine the reduction factor for conditions which reduce capacity (such as width of road,
alignment, sight distance, heavy vehicle adjustment factor).
Multiply these factors by ideal capacity value obtained from step 2.
Table 6 Free flow speed and capacity for freeway and
multilane highway. (Source: HCM, 2000)
Determination of Level of Service

The determination of level of service for a multilane highway involves three steps:
Determination of free-flow speed
Determination of flow rate
Determination of level of service
Determination of Free-flow speed

Free-flow speed is the theoretical speed of traffic density, when the density approaches zero. It is the speed at
which drivers feel comfortable travelling under the physical, environmental and traffic conditions existing on
an uncongested section of multilane highway. In practice, free-flow speed is determined by performing travel
time studies during periods of low-to-moderate flow conditions.
From various studies of the flow characteristics, base conditions for multilane highways are defined as
follows:
Lane widths are 3.6 m.
Lateral clearance is 1.8 m.
The total lateral clearance is 3.6 m, with minimum of 1.8 m on either sides of in the direction of
travel. The clearance distance is measured from the edge of the outer lane and is inclusive of the
shoulder. If lateral clearance is more than 1.8 m, then it is considered as equal to 1.8 m.
No direct access points along the highway.
Divided highway.
Only passenger cars in the traffic stream.
Figure 30Density-flow relationships on multilane highways

Figure 30Speed-flow relationship on multilane highways
(HCM, 2000)
(HCM, 2000)
Figure 30Speed-flow curves with LOS criteria for multilane highways (HCM,
2000)
A free-flow speed of 90 km/h or more.
When field data are not available, the free-flow speed can be estimated indirectly as follows:

Where,
FFS is the estimated FFS (km/h),
BFFS= base FFS (km/h),
= adjustment for lane width, from Table (km/h),
= adjustment for lateral clearance, from Table (km/h),
= adjustment for median type, from Table (km/h), and
= adjustment for access points, from Table (km/h).
Table 7Adjustment for lane width (Source: HCM, 2000)
Table 8Adjustment for median type (Source: HCM, 2000)
Table 10 Adjustment for lateral clearance (Source: HCM, 2000)density (Source:

Table 9 Adjustment for Access-point
HCM, 2000)
Table 11 Level of Service criteria for a typical free flow speed of 100 km/hr. (Source: HCM,
Determining Flow Rate

Two adjustments must be made to hourly volume counts or estimates to arrive at the equivalent passenger-car
flow rate used in LOS analyses. These adjustments are the PHF and the heavy-vehicle adjustment factor. The
number of lanes also is used so that the flow rate can be expressed on a per-lane basis. These adjustments are
applied in the following manner using the equation below.
Where,
= 15-min passenger-car equivalent flow rate (pc/h/ln),
= the hourly volume (veh/h),
= the peak-hour factor,
N = number of lanes,
= heavy-vehicle adjustment factor, and
= driver population factor.
Heavy-vehicle adjustment factor:

Besides that, the presence of heavy vehicles in the traffic stream decreases the FFS because base conditions
allow a traffic stream of passenger cars only. Therefore, traffic volumes must be adjusted to reflect an
equivalent flow rate expressed in passenger cars per hour per lane (pc/h/ln). This is accomplished by applying
the heavy-vehicle factor . Once values for ET and ER have been determined, the adjustment factors for
heavy vehicles are applied as follows:
( ) ( )
Where,
= adjustment factor for heavy vehicles.
ET and ER = equivalents for trucks and buses and for recreational vehicles (RVs), respectively,
PT and = proportion of trucks and buses, and RVs, respectively, in the traffic stream (expressed as a
d
Table 12 Passenger-car equivalent on extended general highway segments (Source: HCM,
e
c
i
m
al fraction),
Driver Population Factor

The adjustment factor reflects the effect weekend recreational and perhaps even midday drivers have on the
facility. The values for f range from 0.85 to 1.00. Typically, the analyst should select 1.00, which reflects
weekday commuter traffic (i.e., users familiar with the highway) unless there is sufficient evidence that a
lesser value, reflecting more recreational or weekend traffic characteristics, should be applied. When greater
accuracy is needed comparative field studies of weekday and weekend traffic flow and speeds are
recommended.
Determination of Level of Service

The level of service on a multilane highway can be determined directly from Fig. or Table based on the free-
flow speed (FFS) and the service flow rate (vp) in pc/h/ln. The procedure as follows:
Define and segment the highway as appropriate. The following conditions help define the
segmenting of the highway,
Change in median treatment
Change in grade of 2% or more or a constant upgrade over 1220 m
Change in the number of travel lanes
The presence of a traffic signal

A significant change in the density of access points
Different speed limits
The presence of bottleneck condition
In general, the minimum length of study section should be 760 m, and the limits should be no closer
than 0.4 km from a signalized intersection.
On the basis of the measured or estimated free-flow speed on a highway segment, an appropriate speed-
flow curve of the same as the typical curves is drawn.
3. Locate the point on the horizontal axis corresponding to the appropriate flow rate (vp) in pc/hr/ln and
draw a vertical line.
4. Read up the FFS curve identified in step 2 and determine the average travel speed at the point of
intersection.
5. Determine the level of service on the basis of density region in which this point is located.
Density of flow can be computed as
Where,
D is the density (pc/km/ln),
is the flow rate (pc/h/ln), and S is the average passenger-car travel speed (km/h).
The level of service can also be determined by comparing the computed density with the density ranges shown
in table given by HCM. To use the procedures for a design, a forecast of future traffic volumes has to be made
and the general geometric and traffic control conditions, such as speed limits, must be estimated. With these
data and a threshold level of service, an estimate of the number of lanes required for each direction of travel
can be determined.
Table 13 LOS criteria for Multi-Lane Highway
Figure 31Speed Flow curve with LOS criteria

Two lane highway
Capacity
The capacity of a two-lane highway is 1,700 1jc/h for each direction of travel. The capacity is nearly
independent of the directional distribution of traffic on the facility, except that for extended lengths of two-
lane highway, the capacity will not exceed 3,200 pc/h for both directions of travel combined. For short lengths
of two-lane highway such as tunnels or bridges a capacity of 3,200 to 3,400 pc/li for both directions of travel
combined may be attained but cannot be expected for an extended length.
Level of Service
On Class I highways, efficient mobility s paramount, and LOS is defined in terms of both percent time-spent-
following and average travel speed. On Class II highways, mobility is less critical, and LOS is defined only in
terms of percent time spent-following, without consideration of average travel speed. Drivers will tolerate
higher levels of percent time spent-following on a Class II facility than on a Class I facility, because Class II
facilities usually serve shorter trips and different trip purposes.
Table 15 LOS criteria for two lane highway Class I
Table 14LOS criteria for two lane highway Class II
Figure 32LOS criteria (Graphical) for two lane highway class I

Two-Way Segments
The two-way segment methodology estimates measures of traffic operation along a section of highway, based
on terrain, geometric design, and traffic conditions. Terrain is classified as level or rolling. Mountainous
terrain is addressed in the operational analysis of specific upgrades and downgrades. The methodology
typically is applied to highway sections of at least 3 km. Traffic data needed to apply the two-way segment
methodology include the two-way hourly volume, a peak-hour factor (PHF), and the directional distribution of
traffic flow. The PHF may be computed from field data, or appropriate default values may be selected. Traffic
data also include the proportion of trucks and recreational vehicles (RVs) in the traffic stream. The operational
analysis of extended two-way segments for a two-lane highway involves several steps, described in the
following sections.
Estimating FFS
The FFS can be estimated indirectly if field data are not available. This is a greater challenge on two-lane
highways than on other types of uninterrupted-flow facilities because the FFS of a two-lane highway can
range from 70 to 110 km/h. To estimate FFS, the analyst must characterize the operating conditions of the
facility in terms of a base free-flow speed (BFFS) that reflects the character of traffic and the alignment of the
facility. Because of the broad range of speed conditions on two-lane highways and the importance of local and
regional factors that influence driver-desired speeds, no guidance on estimating the BFFS is provided.
Estimates of BFFS can be developed based on speed data and local knowledge of operating conditions on
similar facilities. The design speed and posted speed limit of the facility may be considered in determining the
BFFS; however, the design speeds and speed limits for many facilities are not based on current operating
conditions. Once BFFS is estimated, adjustments can be made for the influence of lane width, shoulder width,
and access-point density. The FFS is estimated using the following equation
Where
= Adjustment for lane and shoulder width, from Table

Adjustment for access points, from Table

Table 16 Adjustment (fLs) for lane width and shoulder width
Table 17Adjustment (fA) for access-point density
Determining Demand Flow Rate

Three adjustments must be made to hourly demand volumes, whether based on traffic counts or estimates, to
arrive at the equivalent passenger-car flow rate used in LOS analysis. These adjustments are the PHF, the
grade adjustment factor, and the heavy vehicle adjustment factor. These adjustments are applied according to
equation:
Where
= passenger-car equivalent flow rate for peak 15-min period (pc/h),
V = demand volume for the full peak hour (veh/h),
PHF = peak-hour factor,
= grade adjustment factor, and
= heavy-vehicle adjustment factor.
Table 18 Grade Adjustment factor (fg) to determine speeds on two-way and directional segments
Table 19Grade Adjustment factor (fg) to determine the percent time-spent-following on two-way and directional
segments
Heavy-Vehicle Adjustment Factor

Once values for ET and ER have been determined, the adjustment factor for heavy vehicles is computed using
equation
( ) ( )
Where,
PT and = proportion of trucks and buses, and RVs, respectively, in the traffic stream (expressed as a
decimal fraction),
Table 20 Passenger-car equivalents for trucks and RVs to determine speeds on two-way and directional segments
Table 21 Passenger-car equivalents for trucks and RVs to determine time-spent-following on two-way and directional segments
Determining Average Travel Speed

The average travel speed is estimated from the FFS, the demand flow rate, and an adjustment factor for the
percentage of no-passing zones. Average travel speed is then estimated using equation
Where

ATS = average travel speed for both directions of travel combined (km/h.
= adjustment for percentage of no-passing zones and
= passenger-car equivalent flow rate for peak 15-min period (pc/h).
Table 22 Adjustment factor (fnp) for effect of no-passing zones on average travel speed on two-way segments
Determining Percent Time-Spent- Following

The percent time-spent-following is estimated from the demand flow rate, the directional distribution of
traffic, and the percentage of no-passing zones. Percent time-spent-following is then estimated using equation.
Where
PTSF = percent time-spent-following,
BTSF = base percent time-spent-following for both directions of travel combined, and
= adjustment for the combined effect of the directional distribution of traffic and of the
percentage of no-passing zones on percent time-spent following.
Appropriate values of base percent-time-spent following can be determined from equation
( )
Determining LOS
The first step in determining LOS is to compare the passenger-car equivalent flow rate (Vp)) to the two-way
capacity of 3,200 pc/h. If vp is greater than the capacity, then the roadway is oversaturated and the LOS is F.
Similarly, if the demand flow rate in either direction of travelas determined from the two-way flow rate and
the directional split is greater than 1 ,700 pc/h, then the roadway is oversaturated and the LOS is F. In LOS F,
percent timespentfollowing is nearly 100 percent and speeds are highly variable and difficult to estimate.
When a segment of a Class I facility has a demand less than its capacity, the LOS is determined by locating a
point on figure 22 that corresponds to the estimated percent time-spent-following and average travel speed. If
a segment of a Class II facility has a demand less than its capacity, the LOS is determined by comparing the
percent time spentfollowing with the criteria in table 6. The analysis should include the LOS and the
estimated values of percent timespentfollowing and average travel speed. Although average travel speed
is not considered in the LOS determination for a Class II highway, the estimate may be useful in evaluating
the quality of service of twolane highway facilities, highway networks, or systems including the segment.

Table 23 Adjustment factor (fnp) for combined effect of directional distribution of traffic and percentage of no-passing zones on percent
time-following on two-way segments

Basic Freeway Segment
Freeway facilities are composed of connected segments consisting of basic freeway segments, ramp segments,
and weaving segments. When several of these segments occur in sequence they form a freeway facility. A
freeway facility is the fundamental unit of analysis. A freeway facility is analyzed by direction, and the
independent analysis of both directions constitutes the analysis of a two direction freeway facility.
Figure 33Freeway and its components
Base Conditions for Basic Freeway Segments

The base conditions under which the full capacity of a basic freeway segment is achieved are good weather,
good visibility, and 110 incidents or accidents. For the analysis procedures in this chapter, these base
conditions are assumed to exist. If any of these conditions fails to exist, the speed, LOS, and capacity of the
freeway segment all tend to be reduced.
The specific speed-flow-density relationship of a basic freeway segment depends on prevailing traffic and
roadway conditions. A set of base conditions for basic freeway segments has been established. These
conditions serve as a starting point for the methodology in this chapter.
Minimum lane widths of 3.6 in;
Minimum right-shoulder lateral clearance between the edge of the travel lane and the nearest obstacle
or object that influences traffic behavior of 1.8 in;
Minimum median lateral clearance of 0.6 in;
Traffic stream composed entirely of passenger cars;
Five or more lanes for one direction (in urban areas only)
Interchange spacing at 3 km or greater;
Level terrain, with grades no greater than 2 percent; and
A driver population composed principally of regular users of the facility.
These base conditions represent a high operating level, with a free-flow speed (FFS) of 110 km/h or greater.
LOS
A basic freeway segment can be characterized by three performance measures: density in terms of passenger
cars per kilometer per lane, speed in terms of mean passenger-car speed, and volume-to-capacity (v/c) ratio.
Each of these measures is an indication of how well traffic flow is being accommodated by the freeway.
The measure used to provide an estimate of level of service is density. The three measures of speed, density,
and flow or volume are interrelated. If values for two of these measures are known, the third can be computed.

Level-of-service thresholds for a basic freeway segment are summarized below.
Table 24 LOS criteria for basic freeway segment
Table 25 required input data and default value for basic freeway segment
Table 26 Example service volumes for basic freeway segment (see footnote for assumed values)
Table 27LOS criteria for Basic freeway segments

Figure 34 Speed-flow curves and LOS for basic freeway segments
Dete
rmining FFS
FFS is the mean speed of passenger cars measured during low to moderate flows (up to 1300 pc/h/in). For a
specific segment of freeway, speeds are virtually constant in this range of flow rate. Two methods can be used
to determine the FFS of a basic freeway segment: field measurement and estimation with guidelines provided
the field-measurement procedure is provided for users who prefer to gather these data directly. However, field
measurements are not required for application of the method. If field-measured data are used no adjustments
are made to the free-flow speed. The speed study should be conducted at a location that is representative of
the segment when flows and densities are low (flow rates may be up to 1,300 pc/h/ln).
If field measurement of FFS is not possible. FFS can be estimated indirectly on the basis of the physical
characteristics of the freeway segment being studied. The physical characteristics include lane width, number
of lanes, right-shoulder lateral clearance, and interchange density. Following is used to estimate the free-flow
speed of a basic freeway segment:
Where, BFFS - base free-flow speed, 110 (urban) or 120 km/h (rural)
- Adjustment for lane width from Table 28, km/h
- Adjustment for right shoulder clearance from Table 29, km/h
- Adjustment for number of lanes from Table 30, km/h
- Adjustment for interchange density from Table 31, km/h
Table 28 Adjustment for Lane Width
Table 29 Adjustments for right-shoulder Lateral Clearance
Table 30Adjustments for number of lanes
Table 31Adjustments for Intersection density
Determination of peak flow rate

The hourly flow rate must reflect the influence of heavy vehicles, the temporal variation of traffic flow over
an hour, and the characteristics of the driver population. These effects are reflected by adjusting hourly
volumes or estimates, typically reported in vehicles per hour (veh/h), to arrive at an equivalent passenger-car
flow rate in passenger cars per hour (pc/h). The equivalent passenger-car flow rate is calculated using the
heavy-vehicle and peak-hour adjustment factors and is reported on a per lane basis (pc/h/in). Following is
used to calculate the equivalent passenger-car flow rate.
Where
= passenger-car equivalent flow rate for peak 15-min period (pc/h),
V = demand volume for the full peak hour (veh/h),
PHF = peak-hour factor,
N = number of lanes
= driver population factor, and
Driver Population Factor
The adjustment factor reflects the effect weekend recreational and perhaps even midday drivers have on the
facility. The values for f range from 0.85 to 1.00. Typically, the analyst should select 1.00, which reflects
weekday commuter traffic (i.e., users familiar with the highway) unless there is sufficient evidence that a
lesser value, reflecting more recreational or weekend traffic characteristics, should be applied. When greater
accuracy is needed comparative field studies of weekday and weekend traffic flow and speeds are
recommended.
= heavy-vehicle adjustment factor.
( ) ( )
Where,
PT and = proportion of trucks and buses, and RVs, respectively, in the traffic stream
(expressed as a decimal fraction),
The effect of heavy vehicles on traffic flow depends on grade conditions as well as traffic composition.
Passenger-car equivalents can be selected for one of three conditions: extended freeway segments, upgrades,
and down2rades
Table 32Passenger-car equivalents on extended freeway segments

Table 33 Passenger-car equivalents for trucks and buses on upgrades
Table 34Passenger-car equivalents for RVs on Upgrade

Table 35Passenger-car equivalents for trucks and buses on downgrade
For RVs, downgrades may be treated as level terrain.

Determining LOS
The first step in determining LOS of a basic freeway segment is to define and segment the freeway facility as
appropriate. Second, on the basis of estimated or field measured FFS, an appropriate speed-flow curve of the
same shape as the typical curves Figure 34 is constructed. On the basis of the flow rate, and the constructed
speed-flow curve, an average passenger-car speed is read on the y-axis of figure 34. The next step is to
calculate density using following equation
Density of flow can be computed as
Where,
D is the density (pc/km/ln),
is the flow rate (pc/h/ln), and S is the average passenger-car travel speed (km/h).
Examples:
Example 6.1: A segment of undivided four-lane highway on level terrain has field-measured FFS 74.0-km/h,
lane width 3.4-m, peak-hour volume 1,900-veh/h, 13 percent trucks and buses, 2 percent RVs, and 0.90 PHF.
What is the peak-hour LOS, speed, and density for the level terrain portion of the highway?
Example 6.2: A segment of an east-west five-lane highway with two travel lanes in each direction separated
by a two-way left-turn lane (TWLTL) on a level terrain has- 83.0-km/h 85th-percentile speed ,3.6-m lane
width, 1,500-veh/h peak-hour volume, 6 % trucks and buses, 8 access points/km (WB), 6 access points/km
(EB), 0.90 PHF, 3.6-m and greater lateral clearance for westbound and eastbound. What is the LOS of the
highway on level terrain during the peak hour?
Example 6.3: A Class I two-lane highway has a base free-flow speed of 100 km/h. Lane width is 3.6 m and
shoulder width is 1.2 m. There are six access points per kilometer. The roadway is located in rolling terrain
with 40 percent no-passing zones. The two-way traffic volume is 800 veh/h, with a PHF of 0.90. The

directional split is 60/40. Traffic includes 5 percent trucks and 10 percent recreational vehicles. Determine the
level of service.
Example 6.4: A Class I two-lane highway has a base free-flow speed of 100 km/h. Lane width is 3.4 m and
shoulder width is 1.2 m. There are 12 access points per kilometer. The roadway is located in rolling terrain
with 50 percent no-passing zones. The two-way traffic volume is 1600 veh/h, with a PHF of 0.90. The
directional split is 50/50. Traffic includes 14 percent trucks and 4 percent recreational vehicles. Determine the
level of service.
Example 6.5: The Highway A Class Il two-lane highway segment on a scenic and recreational route. What is
the two-way segment LOS?
The Facts:
1,050 veh/h (two-way volume), 70/30 directional split,

5 percent trucks and buses, 7 percent RV5,
0.85 PHF, 90-km/h base FFS,
Rolling terrain, 3.0-m lane width,
0.6-m shoulder width, 10-km roadway length, and
60 percent no-passing zones, 6 access points/km.
Example 6.6: The Freeway Existing four-lane freeway, rural area, very restricted geometry, rolling terrain,
110-km/h speed limit. What is the LOS during the peak hour?
The Facts
Two lanes in each direction, 5 percent trucks,

3.3-m lane width, 0.92 PHF,
0.6-m lateral clearance, 0.6 interchanges per kilometer,
Commuter traffic, Rolling terrain.
2,000-veh/h peak-hour volume (one direction),
Example 6.7: New suburban freeway is being designed. How many lanes are needed to provide LOS D
during the peak hour?
3.6-m lane width, 3 percent RVs,

1.8-m lateral clearance, 0.85 PHF,
15 percent truck 0.9 interchanges per kilometer,
4,000-veh/h peak-hour volume (one direction), Level terrain.

CHAPTER SEVEN: PARKING STUDIES AND ANALYSIS
7.1Types of parking facilities - on street parking and off street Parking facilit ies
Parking problem is the one of the serious problems for planners and traffic engineer.
Effects
Congestion: Capacity of the street is reduced
Journey speed drops down
Journey time, delay increases
Accidents: Careless opening of the door of vehicles
Bringing a car to the parking location from the mainstream
Moving out of a parked position
Obstruction to the emergency services
Fire fighting vehicles; block access to building
Environment
Methods of parking surveys

Parking space inventory: Sketch plan is prepared; number and type of parking space are counted and recorded.
Questionnaire type parking usage survey (to know parking demand)
Cordon count
Purpose of parking studies:
To determine the congestion in the city or town areas
To assess the suppressed parking demand
To estimate the desires and demands of the public for parking facility
To decide the capacity, location and type of future parking facilities
Method of Parking
On street parking
Off street parking
On street parking
Vehicles are parked on the sides of the street itself.
This will be usually controlled by government agencies itself. Common types of on-street parking are
as listed below.
This classification is based on the angle in which the vehicles are parked with respect to the road
alignment.
As per IRC the standard dimensions of a car is taken as 5mX2.5m.

Parallel parking:
Angle parking
30 parking:
45 parking:
60 parking
Right angle parking:
Figure 35 on street parking

Off Street Parking
In many urban centers, some areas are exclusively
allotted for parking which will be at some distance
away from the main stream of traffic. Such a parking is
referred to as off-street parking. They may be operated
by either public agencies or private firms. A typical
layout of an off-street parking is shown in figure.
TYPES
Surface parking
Multi-storey car parks
Roof car parks
Mechanical car parks

Underground car parks
Figure 36 off street parking
7.2Parking studies and analysis

PARKING STATISTICS:
Parking accumulation: The total
number of vehicles parked in an area at a
Number of vehicles parked
specific moment. The curve of parking

accumulation for typical day is given in fig.
Average Accumulation
9
12 6 12
3 /snlkhyaju@gmail.com
Traffic Engineering and Management 3 6 9 12 73
Time of day
Figure 37Parking accumulation diagram

Parking volume: The number of vehicles parking in a particular area over a given period of time. It is usually
measured in vehicles per day.
Parking load: The area under the parking accumulation curve during a specific period. For example the
hatched area (in fig.) represents the parking load in vehicle-hour for a period of 3 hours from 6am to 9 am.
Parking duration: The length of time spent in a parking space.
Parking index: percentage of parking bays actually occupied by parked vehicles as compared to the
theoretical numbers available.
Parking turnover: Rate of the usage of the available parking space. Thus if there were 10 parking spaces
used by 100 vehicles in a period of, say 12 hours, then the parking turnover would be
Types of parking surveys

Parking space inventory
The first step in a parking survey is to collect data on the amount, type and location of space actually or
potentially available for parking in an area. The area to be surveyed should first be delineated. The CBD is
usually the area where parking survey is needed. Items to be recorded are:
Total length of curb, and lengths governed by no waiting and limited waiting restrictions.
Number of parking space provided in the street
Street width
Location of bus stops, Bus bays, pedestrian crossings, loading zones, taxi stands and other features
that are likely to affect the use of the street for parking.
Traffic management measures in force, such as prohibited turns, one way streets etc.
Number and type of traffic signs for regulation of parking
Private streets
Vacant or unused land suitable for temporary or permanent parking space

A typical sketch plan for a street with the above information recorded given in fig.
Figure 38Parking space inventory
Parking usage by patrol

Purpose: the purpose of parking usage survey is to obtain data on the extent of usage of parking spaces. The
survey will include counts of parked vehicles at regular intervals through a period, covering both the morning
and evening peak period, and the parking accumulation and turn over.
The survey can be for on-street and off-street parking. The general methodology for both the survey is similar.
This method consists of making periodic observations of
parked vehicle on each patrol.
Mapping the street system: The first step is to prepare
a map of the street system that will be covered by the
patrol, showing therein its sub-division into sections.
Street junctions make convenient points for determining
the sections.
The recording can be for both sides of the road or
separately for each side. The map and the forms should
clearly show the direction of travel by the patrol man
and the side or sides where observations are to be
Figure 39Patrol map
recorded (by arrows). The length of streets to be covered
by a patrol is limited by:
The speed of walking while noting the registration numbers and
The frequency of patrol
A speed of 900m in half an hour is useful guide, which should be altered to suit the density of
parking.
Frequency of patrol:
A frequency of half an hour is considered to be satisfactory for on-street parking, while a frequency of one
hour could be used for off-street parking. A frequency of half an hour is likely to miss short term parkers (up
to 29 minutes duration) and this makes it necessary to have more frequent patrols in selected areas where short
term parking may be significant e.g. near banks, post offices etc.
Method of observation:

Usually patrols are by foot, but where vehicles are not parked, too close to one another a moving car may also
be used. As an aid a tape recorder may be used to record the registration numbers of vehicles.
Timing of survey:
The survey should be done on a typical week day, free from factors likely to result in non-representative
characteristics. The period of the survey is usually 10 to 12 hours, so as to cover the arrival and departure of
commuters and shoppers.
Equipment and form of recording
Each observer will be equipped with a watch, a pencil, a supply of forms, a map of the street and a board. A
specimen form is shown in fig.
Pa rki ng Survey Pa trol : 2
On s treet Street : Ki ng Street
Secti on : AB
Si de : Ri ght
Da te : Fri da y, 02/02/2011
AM PM
8:00 8:30 9:00 9:30 10:00 10:30 11:00 11:30 12:00 12:30 1:00 1:30
L R L R L R L R L R L R L R L R L R L R L R L R
421 421 421 336 814 836 129 129 129 129 451 451
545 356 353 402 336 402 402 402 402 402 402 402
817 27 350 421 402 921 921 921 921 921 921 921
98 114 333 921 421 56 56 56 56 56 56
113 27 350 421 455 455 455 455 455 455 455
545 714 114 333 333 312 312 312 312 312 312
120 98 27 356 356 356 356 356 356 444 444
817 113 97 114 114 99 99 99 99 99 99
656 714 27 97 97 97 97 97 97 221
545 98 97 221 221 221 221 221 221 76
212 113 221 65 76 76 76 76 76 714
149 450 714 714 714 714 714 714 714 98
120 656 98 95 98 98 98 98 98 113
88 545 113 113 113 113 113 113 113 77
817 212 450 450 450 450 450 79 77 426
44 149 428 426 426 426 426 426 426 21
150 656 656 345 345 345 21 21 118
120 118 118 118 118 118 118 118 244
817 212 212 212 212 212 212 244 150
44 149 150 150 150 150 150 150 817
929 150 149 136 136 136 817 817
817 817 817 817 817 929 929
929 929 929 929 929
444 444 444 444
Questionnaire type parking usage survey

The questionnaire type parking usage survey involves interviews with the drivers who use the parking
facilities.
The survey can either be made by making enquiries among the car owners living in the vicinity of the survey
area, or by making enquiries among the drivers of cars seen to park in the area at the time of survey.
In this interview of actual parkers, the information collected should include:
Address of origin of the trip
Address of destination of the trip
Trip purpose
Time of arrival at the parked place
Time of departure from the parked place
Type of parking space used
Type of vehicle
Normally one interviewer is required to cover about fifteen spaces. All the parkers in 8 or 10 hours period are
interviewed. The duration of the survey may be a single day or may be spread over a number of days.
Cordon count
In this method, the area to be surveyed is demarcated by a cordon line which is crossed by the roads
emanating from the area. Counting stations are established at these crossing points and a count is made of all
the vehicles entering and leaving the area. The difference between the top traffic gives the number of vehicles
parked or in motion in the area.
Examples:
Example 7.1: From an in-out survey conducted for a parking area consisting of 40 bays, the initial count was
found to be 25. Table gives the result of the survey. The number of vehicles coming in and out of the parking
lot for a time interval of 5 minutes is as shown in the table 1. Find the accumulation, total parking load,
average occupancy and efficiency of the parking lot.
Table 1: Time 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60
In-out survey In 3 2 4 5 7 8 2 4 6 4 3 2
data Out 2 4 2 4 3 2 7 2 4 1 3 5
Table 2 : License plate parking survey data

Example 7.2: The parking survey data collected from a Bay Time
0-15 15-30 30-45 45-60
parking lot by license plate method is s shown in the table 1 1456 9813 - 5678
2 below. Find the average occupancy, average turn-over, 2 1945 1945 1945 1945
3 3473 5463 5463 5463
parking load, parking capacity and efficiency of the parking
4 3741 3741 9758 4825
lot. 5 1884 1884 - 7594
6 - 7357 - 7893
7 - 4895 4895 4895
8 8932 8932 8932 -
9 7653 7653 8998 4821
10 7321 - 2789 2789
11 1213 1213 3212 4778
12 5678 6678 7778 8888

CHAPTER EIGHT: TRAFFIC SAFETY
8.1Accident studies and analysis

The problem of road accident is ever-existing and acute in highway transportation due to complex flow of
vehicular traffic, presence of mixed traffic and pedestrians. Consequence of traffic accident may include
property damages, personal injuries, fatal cases as well as social and moral effect of a community. Systematic
studies to investigate the causes of accidents and preventive measures in terms of designs and control may
decrease the rate of accidents. The cost of the traffic accident helps to evaluate an improvement scheme for
reducing accidents.
Traffic safety is most important issue in the present context of motorization. More than 1.3 million people are
killed in the world only by the road accidents each year and 50 million people injured and disabled as the
result. This is number one cause of death for young people worldwide. In Nepal there were 1734 deaths due to
road accident 2009/2010 and 4230 were seriously injured.
Definitions:
Road accident: An accident (collision, overturning or slipping) which occurred or originated on a road open
to public traffic resulting in either injury or loss of life, or damage to property, in which at least one moving
vehicle was involved.
Person killed: (given in the Convention of Road Traffic (Vienna, 1968) Any person who was killed outright
or who died within 30 days as a result of the accident.
Fatal accident: an accident in which one or more person were killed.
International comparison of road accidents:

It is important to compare the road safety situations in different countries. The data vary in different countries
due to economic conditions, education and literacy, climate, types of vehicles, traffic conditions, population
and vehicle density, and others. Most countries maintain records and statistics about road safety and accidents.
There are three methods to compare the road safety conditions:
country Road death, per Total population, Total number

100,000 population million killed in road death
Italy 9.7 57.9 5 625
Japan 6.7 127.7 8 492
Korea 13.6 48.1 6 563
Luxembourg 11.1 0.5 50
Netherlands 4.9 16.3 804
New Zealand 10.7 4.1 436
Norway 5.7 4.6 259
Poland 15.0 38.2 5 712
Portugal 12.3 10.5 1 294

a) The UK 5.6 59.8 3 368 number of road
U SA 14.5 293.7 42 636
deaths for every
100,000 population is a
measure of the public
health risk associated with road trauma. (Data for 2004 source: Australian transport safety Bureau)
b) The number of deaths for every 10,000 registered vehicles is a means of comparing road death levels
among nations by taking into account their different levels of motorization.
country Road death per 10,000 Total registered Total number killed
Registered vehicle vehicles, million in road death
Spain 1.8 26.4 4741
Sweden 0.9 5.1 480
Switzerland 1.0 5.0 510
United Kingdom 1.0 33.0 3368
c) The number of road deaths for every 100 million vehicle kilometers traveled is a direct measure of
the risk associated with road travel.
Country Road death per 100,000 Total vehicle kilometer Total road death
Vehicle-kilometer traveled traveled (100 million)
Finland 0.7 509 375
France 1.0 5600 5530
Germany 0.8 6971 5842
Objectives of accident study:

The main objectives of accident studies and recording are to work out solutions after proper analysis and
study. They can be listed as:
To study the causes of accidents and to suggest corrective treatment at potential locations.
To evaluate performance of existing facilities in terms of safety

To support proposed design.
To carry out before and after studies of improvement schemes.
To make computations of financial loss during accidents.
To give economic justification for improvement schemes.
To define and identify high-accident locations.
8.2Causes of accidents - The Road, The vehicle, the road user and the Environment
Smeed and Jeffcoate have presented a relationship between the number of motor vehicles (N) per population
(P) and the number of deaths (D) per vehicle population (N).
2 / 3
D N
0.0003
N P
A research on accident has established the major causes and their contribution to the traffic accident as in the
table below:
Prime causes of Road accidents Percentage of accidents
Human factors alone 65
Human + Road 25
Human + Vehicle 5
Road factors alone
2
Vehicle factors alone
2
Human + Road + Vehicle
1
Total
100
Figure 40 Causes of accident 2069/70 and 2070/71
A road accident may be caused due to combination of several reasons

Different causes:
Drivers: Excessive speed, carelessness, violation of rules and regulations, fatigue, sleep, alcoholic etc.
Pedestrians: Violating regulations, carelessness.
Passengers: Alighting from or getting into moving vehicles.
Vehicle defects: Failure of brakes, steering system, lighting system, tyre brust, etc.
Road condition: Slippery or skidding road surface, pot holes and other damaged conditions.
Road design: Defective geometric design.
Weather: Fog, snow, rainfall, dust, smoke etc which restrict the normal visibility.
Animals: Stray domestic animal and wild animals.
Other causes: Incorrect signs or signals, advertisement boards, service stations etc.
8.3 Accident studies, records and analysis

Various steps involved in accident studies are:
a) Collection of accident data: Accident data are collected in a standard form. Details to be collected are:
i. General: Date, time, persons involved in the accident, classification of accident (fatal, serious,
minor etc.)
ii. Location: Description and details of the location site of accident.
iii. Details of vehicles involved: Registration number, description of vehicle, loading details, vehicles
details, vehicular defects etc.
iv. Nature of accident: Condition of vehicles, details of collisions, pedestrians or objects involved
damages etc.
v. Road and traffic conditions: Details of road geometry, surface characteristics, traffic condition
(density etc.)
vi. Primary causes of accident: Various possible cause and primary causes.
vii. Accident costs: Property damages, personal injuries and causalities.
b) Accident statistics
Types of accident statistics:
Accident statistics generally address and describe one of three principal informational elements:
Accident occurrence: Accident occurrence relates to the numbers and types of accidents that
occur, which are often described in terms of rates based on population or vehicle-miles
traveled.
Accident involvements: Accident involvement concerns the numbers and types of vehicles
and drivers involved in accidents with population-based rates a very popular method of
expression.
Accident severity: Accident severity is generally dealt with by proxy; the number of fatalities
and fatality rates are often used as a measure of the seriousness of accidents.
Accident Rates
Simple statistics citing total numbers of accidents, involvements, injuries, and/or deaths can be quite
misleading, as they ignore the base from which they arise. An increase in the number of highway fatalities in a
specific jurisdiction from one year to next must be matched against population and vehicle-usage patterns to
make any sense. For this reason, many accident statistics are presented in the form of rates.
Accident rates generally fall into one of two broad categories: population-based rates, and exposure-based
rates.
Population-based accident rates
Some common bases for population-based rates include:
Area population
Number of registered vehicle
Number of licensed drivers
Highway mileage
These values are relatively static (they do not change radically over short periods of time) and do not depend
upon vehicle usage or the total amount of travel. They are useful in quantifying overall risk to individuals on a
comparative basis. Number of registered vehicles and licensed drivers may also partially reflect usage.
Population-based rates are stated according to;
Fatalities, accidents, or involvements per 100,000 area population
Fatalities, accidents, or involvements per 10,000 registered vehicles
Fatalities, accidents, or involvements per 10,000 licensed drivers
Fatalities, accidents, or involvements per 1,000 miles of highway
Exposure-based accident rates
Exposure based accident rates attempt to measure the amount of travel as a substitute for the individuals
exposure to potential accident situations. The two most common bases for exposure-based rates are:
Vehicle miles traveled
Vehicle hours traveled
Exposure-based rates are stated according to:
Fatalities, accidents or involvements per 100,000,000 vehicle- miles traveled.
Fatalities, accidents or involvements per 10,000,000 vehicle-hours traveled.
Fatalities, accidents or involvements per 1,000,000 entering vehicles (for intersections only)
Severity Index:
A widely used statistic for the description of relative accident severity is the severity index (SI), defined as the
number of fatalities per accident .For the data of the previous example, there were 75 fatalities in a total of
2,360 accidents. This yields a severity index of:
Identifying high-accident locations

A Primary function of an accident record system is to regularly identify locations with an unusually high rate
of accidents and/or fatalities. Accident spot maps are a tool that can be used to assist in this task.
Figure shows a sample accident spot map. Coded pins or markers are placed on a map. Color or shape codes
are used to indicate the category and/or severity of the accident.

Figure 41Typical Accident spot map
Before and after accident analysis

When an accident problem has been identified, and an improvement implemented, the engineer must
evaluate whether or not the remediation has been effective in reducing the number of accidents
and/or fatalities.
A before and after analysis must be conducted. The length of time considered before and after the
improvement must be long enough to observe changes in accident occurrence. For most locations,
periods ranging from three months to one year are used. The length of the before period and the
after period must be the same
The normal approximation test is often used to make this determination. The statistics Z is computed as:

)
)
Test statistic representing the reduction in accident on the standard normal distribution
The normal distribution table is entered with this value to find the probability of Z being equal to or less than
Z1 . If probability [Z Z1 ] 0.95, the observed reduction in accidents is statically significant.
c) Site Analysis
One of the most important tasks in traffic safety is the study and analysis of site-specific accident information
to identify contributing causes and develop site remediation measures that will lead to improved safety.
Once location has been statistically identified as high-accident location, detailed information is required in
two principal ways:
Occurrence of accident
Environmental and physical conditions
The best information on the occurrence of accidents is compiled by reviewing all accident reports for a given
location over a specified study period. This can be done using accident record. Environmental and physical
conditions are established by a through site investigation. Two primary graphical outputs are then prepared.

Collision diagram
Condition diagram
Collision diagram:
A collision diagram is a schematic representation of all accidents occurring at a given location over a specified
period. Depending upon the accident frequency, the specific period usually ranges from one to three years.
Each collision is represented by a set of arrows, one for each vehicle involved, which schematically represents
the type of accident and directions of all vehicles. Arrows are generally labeled with codes indicating vehicle
types, date and time of accident, and weather conditions.
Condition diagram
A condition diagram describes all physical and
environmental conditions at the accident site. The
diagram must show all geometric features of the
site, the location and description of all control
devices (signs, signals, markings, lighting, etc.) and
all relevant features of the road side environment,
such as the location of carriage ways, roadside
objects, lane uses etc.
Figure 42 Condition Diagram

Figure 43Collision Diagram

8.3Engineering, Enforcement and Education measures for the prevention of accidents.
Measures for the reduction in accident rates
The various measures to decrease the accident rates may be divided into three groups:
Engineering
Enforcement 3-Es
Education
Engineering measures
Road design: The geometric design features of the road such as sight distances, width of pavement, horizontal
and vertical alignment and intersection design elements are checked and corrected if necessary. The pavement
surface characteristics are checked and suitable maintenance steps taken to bring them upto the design
standards.
Preventive maintenance of vehicle: The braking system, steering and lighting arrangements on vehicle may be
checked.
Before and after studies: After making the necessary improvement in design and enforcing regulation, it is
again collect and maintain the record of accidents before and after the introduction of preventive measures
to study their efficiency.
Road lighting: Lighting is particularly desirable at intersections, bridge sites and at places where there are
restrictions to traffic movements.
Enforcement measures
Speed control: Checks on spot speed of all fast moving vehicles should be done at selected locations and
timings and legal actions on those who violate the speed limits should be taken
Traffic control devices: Signals may be re-designed or signal system be introduce if necessary. Proper traffic
control device like signs, markings or channelizing island may be installed if necessary.
Training and supervision: the transport authorities should be strict in testing and issuing license to driver.
Medical check: The drivers should be tested for vision and reaction time at prescribed intervals.
Special precautions for commercial vehicles: having attendant to help and give proper direction to drivers of
heavy vehicles.
Observance of law and regulations: Traffic authorities should send study groups of trained personal, to
different locations to check whether the traffic regulations are being followed by the road users and also to
enforce the essential regulations.
Educational measures
Education of road users: The passengers and pedestrians should be taught the rules of the road, correct manner
of crossing etc.
Safety drive: Imposing traffic safety week when the road users are properly directed by the help of traffic
police and transport staff is a common means of training the public these days.

Figure 44 Traffic Police Accident report

Figure 45Traffic Police Accident report

Example 8.1: The following are sample gross accident for a relatively small urban jurisdiction in the year
2003: Compute accident and fatality rates
Fatalities: 75
Fatal accidents: 60
Injury accidents: 300
PDO: 2000
Total involvements: 4100
Vehicle-miles travelled: 1,500,000,000
Registered vehicles: 100,000
Licensed drivers: 150,000
Area population: 300,000
Example 8.2
A signal is installed at a high-accident location to reduce the number of right-angle accidents that are
occurring. In the 6 months period prior to installing the signal, 10 such accidents occurred. In the 6 months
period following the installation of the signal, 6 such accidents occurred. Was this reduction statically
significant?

CHAPTER NINE: TRAFFIC CONTROL AND REGULATION
9.1Warrants for traffic control signal system

Each and every intersection is not feasible for signalization. Traffic control signals should not be installed
unless one or more of the following signal warrants met.
IRC recommended:
Warranty I: Minimum vehicular volume
Min. 650 veh/hr on a major street in a single lane
800 veh/hr on two or more lanes
Min 200 veh/hr on a minor street in a single lane
250 veh/hr on a two or more lanes
But when 85 th percentile speed = 60kmph or when it is within built up areas, only 70% of the above warranty
is needed.
Warranty II: Interruption of continuous traffic
Interruption of continuous traffic on Major Street with 1000-1200veh/hr and there is delay or hazard
to traffic on minor street with a traffic of 100-150 veh/hr.
Warranty III: Minimum pedestrian volume
If on the major street, 600 veh/hr or more enter the intersection (both approaches) OR where there is a
raised median island 1.2m or more in width, 1000veh/hr or more (both direction) enter the
intersection;
In the above intersection if 150 or more pedestrians cross the major street & If 85 th percentile speed exceeds
60kmph, 70% of above is sufficient.
Warranty IV: Accident experience
If the 5 or more reported accidents involving personal injury or property damage (IRs. 2000 or more);
Adequate trial of less restrictive remedies with satisfactory observance and enforcement have failed to
reduce the accident rate;
The signal installation will not seriously disrupt traffic flow.
9.2 Design Principles of Traffic Signal

The conflicts arising from movements of traffic in different directions is solved by time sharing of the
principle. The advantages of traffic signal includes an orderly movement of traffic, an increased capacity of
the intersection and requires only simple geometric design. However the disadvantages of the signalized
intersection are it affects larger stopped delays, and the design requires complex considerations. Although the
overall delay may be lesser than a rotary for a high volume, a user is more concerned about the stopped delay.
Definitions and notations
A number of definitions and notations need to be understood in signal design. They are discussed below:
Cycle: A signal cycle is one complete rotation through all of the indications provided.

Cycle length: Cycle length is the time in seconds that it takes a signal to complete one full cycle of
indications. It indicates the time interval between the starting of green for one approach till the next time the
green starts. It is denoted by C.
Interval: Thus it indicates the change from one stage to another. There are two types of intervals - change
interval and clearance interval. Change interval is also called the yellow time indicates the interval between
the green and red signal indications for an approach. Clearance interval is also called all red is included after
each yellow interval indicating a period during which all signal faces show red and is used for clearing off the
vehicles in the intersection.
Green interval: It is the green indication for a particular movement or set of movements and is denoted by Gi.
This is the actual duration the green light of a traffic signal is turned on.
Red interval: It is the red indication for a particular movement or set of movements and is denoted by Ri.
This is the actual duration the red light of a traffic signal is turned on.
Phase: A phase is the green interval plus the change and clearance intervals that follow it. Thus, during green
interval, non-conflicting movements are assigned into each phase. It allows a set of movements to flow and
safely halt the flow before the phase of another set of movements start.
Lost time: It indicates the time during which the intersection is not effectively utilized for any movement. For
example, when the signal for an approach turns from red to green, the driver of the vehicle which is in the
front of the queue, will take some time to perceive the signal (usually called as reaction time) and some time
Figure 46Typical flow rates at a signalized movement
will be lost here before he moves.

The signal design procedure involves six major steps. They include the (1) phase design, (2) determination of
amber time and clearance time, (3) determination of cycle length, (4) apportioning of green time, (5)
pedestrian crossing requirements, and (6) the performance evaluation of the above design.
Phase design
The objective of phase design is to separate the conflicting movements in an intersection into various phases,
so that movements in a phase should have no conflicts. If all the movements are to be separated with no
conflicts, then a large number of phases are required. In such a situation, the objective is to design phases with
minimum conflicts or with less severe conflicts.
There is no precise methodology for the design of phases. This is often guided by the geometry of the
intersection, flow pattern especially the turning movements, the relative magnitudes of flow. Therefore, a trial
and error procedure is often adopted. However, phase design is very important because it affects the further
design steps. Further, it is easier to change the cycle time and green time when flow pattern changes, whe re as
a drastic change in the flow pattern may cause considerable confusion to the drivers. Left turns is ignored. The
first issue is to decide how many phases are required. It is possible to have two, three, four or even more
number of phases.
Figure 48Four legged intersection Figure 47Two Phase Signal
Figure 49Three possible ways for four phase signal

Interval design
There are two intervals, namely the change interval and clearance interval, normally provided in a traffic
signal. The change interval or yellow time is provided after green time for movement. The purpose is to warn
a driver approaching the intersection during the end of a green time about the coming of a red signal. They
normally have a value of 3 to 6 seconds. The design consideration is that a driver approaching the intersection
with design speed should be able to stop at the stop line of the intersection before the start of red time.
Institute of transportation engineers (ITE) has recommended a methodology for computing the appropriate
length of change interval which is as follows:
Where y = Clearance interval

= 85th percentile speed of approaching vehicles in m/s
g = grade of approach road

The clearance interval is provided after yellow interval and as mentioned earlier, it is used to clear off the
vehicles in the intersection. Clearance interval is optional in a signal design. It depends on the geometry of the
intersection. If the intersection is small, then there is no need of clearance interval whereas for very large
intersections, it may be provided.
Cycle time
Cycle time is the time taken by a signal to complete one full cycle of iterations i.e. one complete rotation
through all signal indications. It is denoted by C. The
way in which the vehicles depart from an intersection
Figure 50Group of vehicles at a signalized intersection waiting for

green signal
when the green signal is initiated will be discussed now. Figure 51Headways in Departing signal
Figure 50 illustrates a group of N vehicles at a signalized intersection, waiting for the green signal. As the
signal is initiated, the time interval between two vehicles, referred as headway, crossing the curb line is noted.
The first headway is the time interval between the initiation of the green signal and the instant vehicle
crossing the curb line. The second headway is the time interval between the first and the second vehicle
crossing the curb line. Successive headways are then plotted as in figure 5134:7. The first headway will be
relatively longer since it includes the reaction time of the driver and the time necessary to accelerate. The
second headway will be comparatively lower because the second driver can overlap his/her reaction time with
that of the first drivers. After few vehicles, the headway will become constant. This constant headway which
characterizes all headways beginning with the fourth or fifth vehicle, is defined as the saturation headway, and
is denoted as h. This is the headway that can be achieved by a stable moving platoon of vehicles passing
through a green indication. If every vehicles require h seconds of green time, and if the signal were always
green, then s vehicles/per hour would pass the intersection. Therefore,
Where
S = saturated flow rate per hour of green time per lane
h = saturated headway in seconds
As noted earlier, the headway will be more than h particularly for the first few vehicles. The difference
between the actual headway and h for the ith vehicle and is denoted as ei shown in figure 51. These differences
for the first few vehicles can be added to get start up lost time, l1 which is given by,
The green time required to clear N vehicles can be found out as,

Where
T = time required to clear N vehicles through signal
= start-up lost time
h = saturation headway in seconds
Effective green time

Effective green time is the actual time available for the vehicles to cross the intersection. It is the sum of
actual green time (Gi) plus the yellow minus the applicable lost times. This lost time is the sum of start-up lost
time (l1) and clearance lost time (l2) denoted as tL. Thus effective green time can be written as,
Lane capacity
The ratio of effective green time to the cycle length ( ) is defined as green ratio. We know that saturation
flow rate is the number of vehicles that can be moved in one lane in one hour assuming the signal to be green
always. Then the capacity of a lane can be computed as,
Where
Ci is the capacity of lane in vehicle per hour,
Si is the saturation flow rate in vehicle per hour per lane,
C is the cycle time in seconds.
Critical lane
During any green signal phase, several lanes on one or more approaches are permitted to move. One of these
will have the most intense traffic. Thus it requires more time than any other lane moving at the same time. If
sufficient time is allocated for this lane, then all other lanes will also be well accommodated. There will be
one and only one critical lane in each signal phase. The volume of this critical lane is called critical lane
volume.
Determination of cycle length

Highway capacity manual (HCM) has given an equation for determining the cycle length C is given by,
( )
Where
N is the number of phases,
L is the lost time per phase,
V is the volume
C is the capacity.
( ) = ratio of volume to saturation flow for phase i,
= quality factor called critical V/C ratio

Green splitting
Green splitting or apportioning of green time is the proportioning of effective green time in each of the signal
phase. The green splitting is given by,
[ ]

Where is the critical lane volume and is the total effective green time available in a cycle.
This will be cycle time minus the total lost time for all the phases. Therefore,
Where C is the cycle time in seconds, n is the number of phases, and is the lost time per phase. If lost time
is different for different phases, then cycle time can be computed as follows.
Where is the lost time for phase i, n is the number of phases and C is the lost time in seconds. Actual green
time can be now found out as,
Where is the actual green time, is the effective green time available, is the amber time, and is the
lost time for phase i.
Pedestrian crossing requirements
Pedestrian crossing requirements can be taken care by two ways; by suitable phase design or by providing an
exclusive pedestrian phase. It is possible in some cases to allocate time for the pedestrians without providing
an exclusive phase for them. For example, consider an intersection in which the traffic moves from north to
south and also from east to west. If we are providing a phase which allows the traffic to flow only in north-
south direction, then the pedestrians can cross in east-west direction and vice-versa. However in some cases, it
may be necessary to provide an exclusive pedestrian phase. In such cases, the procedure involves computation
of time duration of allocation of pedestrian phase. Green time for pedestrian crossing Gp can be found out by,
Where, is the minimum safe time required for the pedestrians to cross, often referred to as the ``pedestrian
green time", = is the start-up lost time, is the crossing distance in meters, and is the walking speed of
pedestrians which is about 15th percentile speed. The start-up lost time can be assumed as 4.7 seconds and the
walking speed can be assumed to be 1.2 m/s
Performance measures
Performance measures are parameters used to evaluate the effectiveness of the design. There are many
parameters involved to evaluate the effectiveness of the design and most common of these include delay,
queuing, and stops. Delay is a measure that most directly relates the drivers experience. It describes the
amount of time that is consumed while traversing the intersection. The figure 52 shows a plot of distance
versus time for the progress of one vehicle. The desired path of the vehicle as well as the actual progress of
the vehicle is shown. There are three types of delay as shown in the figure. They are stoppe d delay, approach
delay and control delay.
Stopped time delay includes only the time at which the vehicle is actually stopped waiting at the red signal. It
starts when the vehicle reaches a full stop, and ends when the vehicle begins to accelerate.
Approach delay includes the stopped time as well as the time
lost due to acceleration and deceleration. It is measured as the
time differential between the actual path of the vehicle, and
path had there been green signal. Control delay is measured
as the difference between the time taken for crossing the
intersection and time taken to traverse the same section, had
been no intersection. For a signalized intersection, it is
measured at the stop-line as the vehicle enters the
intersection. Among various types of delays, stopped delay is
Figure 52Illustration of delay measures
easy to derive and often used as a performance indicator and
will be discussed.
Vehicles are not uniformly coming to an intersection. i.e., they are
not approaching the intersection at constant time intervals. They
come in a random manner. This makes the modeling of signalized
intersection delay complex. Most simple of the delay models is
Websters delay model. It assumes that the vehicles are arriving at
a uniform rate. Plotting a graph with time along the x-axis and
cumulative vehicles along the y-axis we get a graph as shown in
figure 53. The delay per cycle is shown as the area of the hatched
portion in the figure.
Webster derived an expression for delay per cycle based on this, Figure 53Graph between time and cumulative
number of vehicles at an intersection
which is as follows.
* +
Where
= effective green time,
C= cycle length,
= critical flow for that phase,
S = saturation flow.
Delay Models in the HCM 2000

The delay model incorporated into the HCM 2000 includes the uniform delay model, a version of Akceliks
overflow delay model, and a term covering delay from an existing or residual queue at the beginning of the
analysis period. The delay is given as,

* +
* ( ) ( )+
[( ) ( ) ]
Where,
d = control delay, s/veh
= uniform delay component, s/veh
PF = progression adjustment factor
= overflow delay component, s/veh
= delay due to pre-existing queue, s/veh
T = analysis period, h
X = v/c ratio
C = cycle length, s
k = incremental delay factor for actuated controller settings; 0.50 for all pre-timed controllers
I = upstream filtering/metering adjustment factor; 1.0 for all individual intersection analyses
c = capacity, veh/h
Level of service for signalized intersections

Level of service (LOS) for signalized intersections is defined in terms of control delay. The average control
delay is estimated for each lane group and aggregated for each approach and for the intersection as a whole.
Table 36 LOS criteria for signalized intersection
Capacity and V/C ratio

The v/c ratio for each lane group is computed directly by dividing the adjusted flow by the capacities
computed as equation
Where
= Capacity of lane group I (vph)
= saturation flow rate for lane group i (vphg)
= green ratio for lane group i
C = cycle length (s)

The ratio of flow rate to capacity, v/c, often labeled as X is therefore:
( )
( )
Where;
= v/c ratio for lane group i (vph)
= saturation flow rate for lane group i (vphg)
= actual flow rate for lane group i (vph)
= effective green time for lane group i (s)
C = cycle length (s)
A critical v/c ratio less than 1 indicates that all movements in the intersection can be accommodated within the
defined cycle length.
Figure 54LOS of Signalized intersection methodology
Example 9.1
The traffic flow for a four-legged intersection is as shown in figure 36:3.
Given that the lost time per phase is 2.4 seconds, saturation headway is 2.2
seconds, amber time is 3 seconds per phase, find the cycle length, green
time and performance measure(delay per cycle). Assume critical v/c ratio
as 0.9.
Figure 55Traffic flow at four legged

intersection
Example 9.2

An intersection approach at an isolated pre-timed signal with a cycle length of 80 s has a saturation flow rate
of 3,000 veh/h. The length of the green is 24 s. The v/c ratio is 0.90. What is the level of service, if control
delay is measured over a 15 min interval?
9.3 Signal Co-ordination methods, Simultaneous, Alternate, Simple progressi on and Flexible
progression Systems.
Signal Co-ordination methods
For signals that are closely spaced, it is necessary to coordinate the green time so that vehicles may move
efficiently through the set of signals. In some cases, two signals are so closely spaced that they should be
considered to be one signal. In other cases, the signals are so far apart that they may be considered
independently.
Coordination attempts to achieve some combination of the following objectives:
Minimise fuel consumption
Minimise pollution emission
Minimise stops
Minimise delay
Maximise smooth flow
Maximise capacity
Minimise queue length
Minimise arrival of platoons at red lights
The signals less than 800m apart are coordinated as common practise. All but most complex coordination
scheme requires same cycle length for all signals.
Terminology
Offset: the difference between the green initiation times at two adjacent intersections. Usually expressed as a
positive number between zero and the cycle length. Sometimes convenient to think of it as a negative number,
usually no more than one half a cycle length.
Ideal offsets: The ideal offset is a value such that the first vehicle of a platoon just arrives at the downstream
signal, the downstream signal turns green.
( )

Bandwidth: The amount of green time used by a continuously moving platoon of vehicles through a group of
Figure 56 Coordinated Traffic Signal
intersections (time difference between the first and the last vehicle moving through the system without
stopping)
Traffic signal progression

Traffic signal progression is the concept of linking traffic signals together along a street so that "platoons" of
vehicles can pass through signalized intersections without getting stopped at a red light. Some factors that
affect traffic signal progression include signal spacing, speed of traffic, cycle length traffic signals run along
the corridor, and roadway congestion.
Forward and reverse progressions
Simple progression is the name given to the progression in which all the signals are set so that a vehicle
released from the first intersection will arrive at the downstream intersections just as the signals at those
intersections initiate green. As the simple progression results in a green wave that advances with the vehicles,
it is often called a forward progression (Figure 56). It may happen that the simple progression is revised two
or more times in a day, so as to conform to the direction of the major flow, or to the flow level. In this case,
the scheme may be referred to as a flexible progression. Under certain circumstances, the internal queues are

sufficiently large that the ideal offset is negative. The downstream signal must turn green before the upstream
signal, to allow sufficient time for the queue to start moving before the arrival of the platoon. The visual
image of such a pattern is of the green marching upstream, toward the drivers in the platoon. This is referred
to as reverse progression.
Simultaneous progressions
All signals show the same indication at the same time.
Provides inefficient timing
Increases speeds
Reduces capacity
Best suited to very short (300-500 ft.) or equally spaced very long blocks, and locations where Major Street
can have most of the green time.
Figure 57Simultaneous Progression
Alternate System
Single Alternate. Every other signal shows the same indication.
Double Alternate. Every other pair of signals shows the same indication.
Requires 50-50% cycle split.
Not well-suited for unequal block spacing.
Double alternate reduces the through band width by 50%.
Best suited for downtown areas with square blocks and low speeds.

Figure 58Single alternate progression
Figure 59Double alternate progression
Progressive Systems
A signal system in which the vehicles receive a green indication as they arrive at the intersection.
Signal progression on one-way streets
Determining ideal offsets

Assuming no vehicles are queued at the signals, the ideal offsets can be determined if the
platoon speed is known. For the purpose of illustration, a platoon speed of 60 km/h is
assumed. The offsets are determined according to
( )
Next the time-space diagram is constructed according to the following rules:
The vertical should be scaled so as to accommodate the dimensions of the arterial, and the
horizontal so as to accommodate at least three to four cycle lengths.
The beginning intersection should be scaled first, usually with main street green initiation at
t=0, followed by periods of green and red.
The main street green of the next downstream signal should be located next, relative to t=0
and at the proper distance from the first intersection. With this point located, the periods of
green, yellow and red for this signal are filled in.
This procedure is repeated for all other intersections working one at a time.
For the analysis let the signal phase cycle be as following:
Figure 60Signal phase cycle
Following table show the time needed to travel the link with uniform speed of 60 kmph.
Table 37Offset calculation
speed
Distance time
Link (60kmph) cumulative
(m) (sec)
in m/s
Sallaghari - Thimi 2100 16.68 126 126
Thimi - Gathaghar 1300 16.68 78 204
Gathaghar - Kaushaltar 1400 16.68 84 288
Kaushaltar - Jadibuti 900 16.68 54 342
The above table shows that the vehicles passed through green interval of Sallaghari signal at t = 0 sec will
reach in Thimi after 126 sec that mean green interval should be in for their passing through intersection.
Similarly green signal should be on Gathaghar at t = 204 sec, on Kaushaltar at t = 288 sec and on Jadibuti at t
= 342 sec for the uniform.
One-way street progressive systems can provide a band width of 100% of green regardless of the block
spacing.

Figure 61Signal progression on one-way streets
Effect of vehicles queued at signals

It sometimes happens that there are vehicles stored in block waiting for a green light. These may be stragglers
from the last platoon, vehicles that turned into the block, or vehicles that came out of parking lots or spots.
The ideal offset must be adjusted to allow for these vehicles, so as to avoid unnecessary stops. The ideal offset
can then be given as: ( )
where, Q = number of vehicles queued per lane, veh, h= discharge headway of queued vehicle, sec/veh, and
Loss 1 = loss time associated with vehicles starting from rest at the first downstream signal.
Signal Progression - on two-way streets and in networks
Consider that the arterial shown in Fig 61 is not a one-way but rather a two-way street. Fig. 62 shows the
trajectory of opposite vehicle on this arterial.
Figure 62Vehicles movement from both direction

Offset determination on a two-way street
If any offset were changed in Fig. 61 to accommodate the opposite vehicle(s), then the northbound vehicle or
platoon would suffer. The fact that offsets are interrelated presents one of the most fundamental problems of
signal optimization.
For longer lengths as in Fig. 63 the offsets might add to two cycle lengths. When queue clearances are taken
into account, the offsets might add to zero lengths. The general expression for the two offsets in a link on a
two-way street can be written as
Figure 63Offsets on 2 way arterials are not independent- Two cycle length

CHAPTER TEN: TRAFFIC AND ENVIRONMENT
10.1 Detrimental effects of Traffic on Environment

Fuel efficiency or Fuel Economy is the energy efficiency of a vehicle, expressed as the ratio of distance
traveled per unit of fuel consumed in km/liter. Fuel efficiency depends on many parameters of a vehicle,
including its engine parameters, aerodynamic drag, weight, and rolling resistance. Higher the value of fuel
efficiency, the more economical a vehicle is (i.e., the more distance it can travel with a certain volume of fuel).
Fuel efficiency also affects the emissions from the vehicles. Fuel Consumption is the reciprocal of Fuel
Efficiency. Hence, it may be defined as the amount of fuel used per unit distance, expressed in liters/100km.
Lower is the value of fuel consumption, more economical is the vehicle. That is less amount of fuel will be
used to travel a certain distance.
Automobile Pollution
The pollution caused due to the emissions from vehicles is generally referred to as automobile pollution. The
transportation sector is the major contributor of air pollution. Vehicular emissions are of particular concerns,
since these are ground level sources and hence have the maximum impact on the general population. The
rapid increase in urban population have resulted in unplanned urban development, increase in consumption
patterns and higher demands for transport and energy sources, which all lead to automobile pollution. The
automobile pollution will be higher in congested urban areas. The vehicle obtains its power by burning the
fuel. The automobile pollution is majorly caused due to this combustion, which form the exhaust emissions, as
well as, due to the evaporation of the fuel itself. The chemical reactions occurring during ideal combustion
stages may be represented as follows:
( ) ( )
Similarly, the typical engine combustion which occurs in vehicles can be represented by the below chemical
equation.
( ) ( )
Types of Vehicular Emissions

The fuel loss of vehicles may be due to emissions or refueling. The emissions maybe evaporative or exhaust
emissions. The fuel losses in a vehicle are shown in Fig. 64.
Exhaust emissions: Exhaust emissions are those which are emitted through the exhaust pipe when the vehicle
is running or is started. Hence, the exhaust emissions maybe of 2 types - start up emissions and running
emissions.
Startup emissions: Emissions when the vehicle is started initially. Based on how long the
vehicle had been turned off after use, they may be cold start and hot start. Cold start refers to
when the vehicle is started suddenly after a long gap of use, whereas, hot start refers to when
the vehicle is started without the vehicle getting enough time to cool off after its previous use.
Running emissions: Emissions during normal running of the vehicle, i.e., when the vehicle is
in a hot stabilized mode.

Evaporative emissions: These include running losses and hot soak emissions produced from fuel evaporation
when an engine is still hot at the end of a trip, and diurnal emissions (daily temperature variations).
Figure 64 Losses of fuel in vehicles
Exhaust Pollutants
The pollutants which are emitted from the exhaust pipe of the automobiles are known as exhaust pollutants.
They are formed as a result of combustion of the fuel in the engine. These pollutants are harmful to the
atmosphere and living things in particular. The major types of exhaust pollutants are discussed in the
following sections.
The major air pollutant is total suspended particles (TSP) and PM10, due to the following main sources (in
approximate order of importance).
For TSP: resuspension from roads, bricks kilns. Domestic fuel combustion. Diesel vehicles, gasoline vehicles.
For PM 10 : Diesel vehicles, gasoline vehicles, resuspension, domestic fuel, brick kilns.
Sulphur Oxides (SOx )

Combustion of petroleum generates Sulfur Dioxide. It is a colorless, pungent and non-flammable gas. It
causes respiratory illness, but occurs only in very low concentrations in exhaust gases. Further oxidation of
SOx forms H2SO4 and thus acid rains.
Nitrogen Oxides (NOx )
Combustion under high temperature and pressure emits Nitrogen dioxide. It is reddish brown gas. Nitrogen
oxides contribute to the formation of ground level Ozone and acid rain.
Hydrocarbons and Volatile Organic Compounds (HC and VOC)
Hydrocarbons result from the incomplete combustion of fuels. Their subsequent reaction with the sunlight
causes smog and ground level Ozone. V OCs are a special group of Hydrocarbons. They are divided into 2
types methane and non-methane. Prolonged exposure to some of these compounds (like Benzene, Toluene and
Xylene) may also result in Leukemia.
Carbon Dioxide (CO2)
It is an indicator of complete combustion of the fuel. Although it does not directly affect our health, it is a
greenhouse gas which causes global warming.
Carbon Monoxide (CO)

It is a product of the incomplete burning of fuel and is formed when Carbon is partially oxidized. CO is an
odorless, colorless gas, but is toxic in nature. It reaches the blood stream to form Carboxyhemoglobin, which
reduces the flow of Oxygen in blood.
Lead (Pb)
It is a malleable heavy metal. Lead present in the fuel helps in preventing engine knock. Lead causes harm to
the nervous and reproductive systems. It is a neurotoxin which accumulates in the soft tissues and bones.
Particulate Matter (PM)
These are tiny solid or liquid particles suspended in gas (soot or smoke). Particulate Matter in higher
concentrations may lead to heart diseases and lung cancer.
Factors Affecting Emission Rates
The vehicular emissions are due to a variety of factors. The emissions vary according to the environment, fuel
quality, vehicle, etc. emissions are higher in congested and urban areas. Fuel adulteration and overloading also
cause higher amount of emissions. The emissions from vehicles depend on the following factors:
Travel related factors
Highway Network related factors
Vehicle related factors
Travel Related Factors: The number of trips, distance travelled and driving mode are the major travel related
factors affecting emissions. As the number of trips increases, the amounts of emissions also increase.
Emissions increase with the distance travelled by the vehicle. The vehicular emissions also depend on the
driving mode. The driving modes may be idling, cruising, acceleration and deceleration. These modes
complete one driving cycle. Other factors affecting the emission rates are the speed, acceleration and engine
load of the vehicle. Low speeds, congested driving conditions, sharp acceleration, deceleration, etc. result in
higher emissions. On the other hand, intermediate speeds and low density traffic conditions cause lower
emissions.
Highway Network Related Factors: These include the geometric design features of the highway such as grade.
The emission rate is very high at steep gradients, as the vehicle needs to put in more effort to maintain its
speed. The highway network facilities such as signalized intersections, freeway ramps, toll booths, weaving
sections, etc. also influence the vehicular emission rates.
Vehicle related factors include the engine sizes, horsepower and weight of the vehicle. Vehicles with large
engine sizes emit more pollutants. Since larger sized engines are seen in vehicles with more horsepower and
more weight, these factors also contribute to the emission rates. Another important factor is the age of the
vehicle. Older vehicles have higher emission rates.
Other Factors
Ambient Temperature: Evaporative emissions are higher at high temperatures.
Type of engine: Two stroke petrol engines emit more amounts of pollutants than the four stroke diesel
engines.
Urbanization: Congestion is higher in urban areas, and hence emissions are also higher.

10.2 Air pollution; Noise Pollution
Table 39WHO Guideline Value on Noise Level
Table 38WHO Guideline Value on Air Quality
Table 40Emission of TSP and PM10

Table 41Noise Level at Different Areas

Table 42Monthly Average of PM10 for 2003-2007 in Different Areas

10.3 Measures to curtail environme ntal degradation due to traffic
Following are the measures that will help to curtail environmental degradation due to traffic:
Create the balanced traffic: There should be balance between vehicular traffic and non-vehicular
traffic and pedestrian and road user.
Vehicle emission test and sound level test of vehicle: The vehicle should have been emission test as
well as sound level test. Those vehicle that exceed the critical level of emission and sound should be
banded.
Vehicle registration should be scientific: Vehicle registration with in the municipal should be
scientific based on the area, number of population and road network.
Traffic awareness regarding the degradation on environment due to traffic.
Very old as well as non-conditioned vehicles should be obsoleted. High fuel efficient vehicles
should be used.
The residue from garage such as used diesel etc should be well disposed.
Mass transit system: Sajha Yatayat vehicles replace about 4-5 micros buses and 10 tyampoo.
Greenery development along the roadside.
Sound absorber unit should be installed among the major city areas.
Development of non-pollution vehicle like trolley bus, electric bus and solar vehicles. The
then trolley bus service had been obsoleted from Nepal but one electromechanical cable car
has been developed for Manakamana temple visit.

REFERENCES
Roess, RP., McShane, WR. and Prassas, ES. (1998), Traffic Engineering, Prentice Hall.
May, A. D. (1990), Fundamentals of Traffic Flow, Prentice Hall.
Papacostas, C. S. (1987), Fundamentals of Transportation Engineering, Prentice Hall.
Kadiyali, LR (1987), Traffic Engineering and Transportation Planning, Khanna.
Highway Capacity Manual (2000), Transportation Research Board, USA.
Khanna, S. K. and Justo, C. E. G. (1991), Highway Engineering, Nemchand.
Pingnataro, G. J. (1970), Principles of Traffic Engineering, Mc Graw - Hill.
npTEL note on Traffic Engineering and Management, Dr. Tom V. Mathew, IIT Bombay
Environment Statistic of Nepal, 2008, Government of Nepal, National Planning Commission
Secretariat, Central Bureau of Statistics, Kathmandu, Nepal
Signal Progression, Permit Writers Workshop

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Traffic Engineering Management

Examination Scheme Total marks Remarks

2. Urban Traffic Planning 3 hrs.

3 .Traffic Characteristics 3 hrs.

Traffic Engineering and Management /snlkhyaju@gmail.com

5. Speed Studies: 5 hrs.

6. Highway Capacity And Level Of Service: 5 hrs.

7. Parking Studies And Analysis : 5 hrs.

8 Traffic Safety: 7 hrs.

9 Traffic Control And Regulation: 5 hrs.

10. Traffic And Environment: 3 hrs.

Traffic Engineering and Management /snlkhyaju@gmail.com

1.1 Scope and significance of Traffic Engineering and Management .................................................. 1

1.2 Traffic planning and modeling using prototype............................................................................ 2

1.3 Traffic related problems in major cities ....................................................................................... 3

1.4 Transportation network and their characteristics .......................................................................... 6

CHAPTER TWO: URBAN TRAFFIC PLANNING ............................................................................. 8

2.1 Introduction to urban traffic planning.......................................................................................... 8

2.2 Calculation of traffic volume .................................................................................................... 10

CHAPTER THREE: TRAFFIC CHARACTERISTICS....................................................................... 16

3.1 Basic traffic characteristics - Speed, volume and concentration................................................... 16

3.2Relationship between Flow, Speed and Concentration ................................................................ 17

CHAPTER FOUR: TRAFFIC MEASUREMENT AND ANALYSIS .................................................. 21

4.1 Volume Studies ....................................................................................................................... 21

4.2 Speed studies .......................................................................................................................... 26

4.3Methods of conducting speed studies; ........................................................................................ 27

CHAPTER FIVE: SPEED STUDIES................................................................................................. 32

5.1Head ways and Gaps ................................................................................................................ 32

5.2 Uncontrolled Intersection ......................................................................................................... 33

5.3 Gap acceptance studies ............................................................................................................ 37

CHAPTER SIX: HIGHWAY CAPACITY AND LEVEL OF SERVICE .............................................. 45

6.1Basic definitions related to capacity........................................................................................... 45

6.2 Factors affecting capacity and LOS .......................................................................................... 47

6.3 Level of Service concept.......................................................................................................... 49

CHAPTER SEVEN: PARKING STUDIES AND ANALYSIS ............................................................ 70

7.2Parking studies and analysis ...................................................................................................... 73

CHAPTER EIGHT: TRAFFIC SAFETY ........................................................................................... 78

8.3 Accident studies, records and analysis ...................................................................................... 81

CHAPTER NINE: TRAFFIC CONTROL AND REGULATION......................................................... 90

9.1Warrants for traffic control signal system................................................................................... 90

9.2 Design Principles of Traffic Signal ........................................................................................... 90

CHAPTER TEN: TRAFFIC AND ENVIRONMENT ........................................................................106

10.1 Detrimental effects of Traffic on Environment........................................................................106

10.2 Air pollution; Noise Pollution................................................................................................109

10.3 Measures to curtail environmental degradation due to traffic ...................................................112

Traffic Engineering and Management /snlkhyaju@gmail.com

1.1 Scope and significance of Traffic Engineering and Management

Objective of the Traffic Engineering

Traffic Engineering and Management /snlkhyaju@gmail.com

1.2 Traffic planning and modeling using prototype

Traffic Engineering and Management /snlkhyaju@gmail.com

Figure 1Methodological steps of model building process

1.3 Traffic related problems in major cities

Traffic Engineering and Management /snlkhyaju@gmail.com

1.4 Transportation network and their characteristics

The link may be:

Additional information about the link may be given

Traffic Engineering and Management /snlkhyaju@gmail.com

Traffic Engineering and Management /snlkhyaju@gmail.com

2.1 Introduction to urban traffic planning

Traffic Engineering and Management /snlkhyaju@gmail.com

Figure 4 Tidal flow operation

as "tidal flow operation", or "reverse flow operation".