Chapter 2

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE AND STUDIES

In this studies there are 10 related literatures that talks about motivation, academic per-
formance and the relationship between motivation and academic performance. It also tackled
about the difference of motivation according to age, gender, and year level.

Related Literature

Motivation Commented [1]:

No underline on the heading,,nawala ang heading na Related
Motivation is something that is vital to a learners role as a student. Hitt defined motiva- Studies pls insert..Almost all the statemnts from the authors
were not properly cited..may paragraph din na walang au-
tion as a set of forces that energize, direct, and sustain behavior. These forces can come from thor, is that your own statement? Needs improvement

the person, so-called "push" of internal forces, or they can come from the environment that
surrounds the person, so-called "pull" of external forces. Furthermore,Wendy defined motiva-
tion as to give reason, incentive, enthusiasm, or interest that causes a specific action or certain
behavior. Also, one main importance of motivation is to improve the morale of students. In this
respect, Mitchel explained that motivation is essential to increase a students self-confidence,
which will be a factor in continuing to strive towards success. It is well known that highly moti-
vated students have a lower rate of absenteeism than bored or de-motivated students (Garber
& Moustafa, 2015). In nursing education, students need to be motivated to be able to function
and perform well during their clinical exposure. In addition, motivated students always look for
better ways to improve their competence during their duties, which would likely result to more
achievements thus, success.

Motivation is defined as invigorates and energies behaviour (Brown, 2007). An alterna-

tive approach to understanding motivation comes from Walter Cannon (1929) notion of home-
ostasis. This concept assumes that an ongoing attempt is made to maintain many bodily func-
tion at optimal levels. However Cannons homeostatic notion let to drive reduction by Hull
(1943) that suggest animals and human strive to reduce needs and drives whenever possible,
The major short coming of drive reduction is that it does not lend itself to higher order motivated
behaviours. In this state rather than seeking a constant state of reduced drive level, humans
frequently seek increase levels of stimulation. Thus, the optimal state may be a moderate, or
even high level of stimulation, rather than as little as possible.

An explanation for such behaviour led to incentive theories of motivation. According to

these theories they define motivation differently, which reveals the difficulty of describing it in
clear and simple terms. Motivation is commonly thought as an inner state of need or desire that
activates an individual to do something to satisfy them. Motivation is typically defined as the
forces that account for the arousal, selection, direction, and continuation of behavior. Williams
and Burden (2000) also give a proposed definition of motivation. In their opinion, motivation
maybe constructed as a state of cognitive and emotional arousal, which leads to a conscious
decision to act, and which gives rise to a period of sustained intellectual and physical effort in
order to attain a previously set goal.

Academic Performance

According to Steinmayr (2014) academic achievement represents performance out-

comes that indicate the extent to which a person has accomplished specific goals that were the
focus of activities in instructional environments, specifically in school, college, and university. A
thorough, short, and informative overview of academic achievement is provided in Spinath
2012. Spinath (2012) emphasises the importance of academic achievement with regard to dif-
ferent perspectives (such as for individuals and societies, as well as psychological and educa-
tional research). Kithinji, & Kanga (2017) also defined academic achievement as the total score
or grade point which is attained by distance learners. It is measured using a trimesters grade
point average (GPA) and an academic years cumulative grade point average (CGPA).

Many authors have discussed the different factors that affect the student academic per-
formance in their research. There are two types of factors that affect the students academic
performance. These are internal and external classroom factors and these factors strongly af-
fect the students performance.In addition it also shows that students performance depends on
many factors such as learning facilities, gender and age differences, etc. that can affect student
performance (Hansen, Joe B., 2000).
Motivation and Academic Performance

According to Atkinson (19964) students motives to achieves in school are the joint func-
tion of their expectancies for success in academic work and the value that school success has
for them. Motivation, in turn, is presumed to affect achievement related behaviour and subse-
quent academic achievement. Eccles et al. (1983) found expectancies and values to be signif-
icant predictors both of later subject achievement and plans to take a specific subject course in
the future.

It is possible that gender differences in motivation contribute to other differences that

have been observed between boys and girls within an educational context. For example, it is
widely recognised within education that there are gender differences in academic attainment.
More boys perform below their potential than girls, as defined in value-added terms (achieve-
ment above that which is expected) (Gibb, Ferguson & Horwood, 2008)A published book enti-
tled Development of Achievement Motivation by Winfield and Eccles, 2002 provides a compre-
hensive overview of current work on the development of motivation and how instructional prac-
tices influences children motivation. The book discussed research and theory on how motiva-
tion changes as children progress and aged through school, gender differences in motivation,
and motivational differences as an aspect of ethnicity. Motivation is discussed within the context
of school achievement as well as athletic and musical performance. The book is organized the
into four sections. Its purpose is to provide motivation from different theories perspectives on
the development of motivation beliefs values and goal. Achievement motivation refers to moti-
vation in situations in which individuals competence is at issue (Nicholls, 1984).

Development for them is the number of important ways in which children go through their
school years (Wigfield, 1994). One fundamental way is that children understanding of racial
motivational constructs such as their concept of ability changes as they mature (Nichollls,
1978). Motivation became more differentiated and complex through the childhood years. This
differentiation has important implication for the achievement behaviour, especially their choices
to pursue and their response to negative feedback. Although this pattern of differentiated be-
liefs, values, and goals has been posited to characterized the development of children motiva-
tion, but some theories has different point of view. Bandar (1997) self-efficacy argued that self-
efficacy initially is task specific and gradually becomes more generalized. Heidi and
Harackiewicz (2002) discussed how the interests often become generalized into deeper per-
sonal interest.

The levels of motivation changes as they mature. Young children are optimistic about
their abilities and thus positively motivated for school learning (Eccles et al., 1998). Over the
years many childrens academic motivation decreases due to changes both in themselves and
in the school environments experience and at risk for developing negative motivational beliefs
and goals (Dweck, 1998).
A science and profession of education require a general theory of learning productivity
that is empirically tested and proven in educational practice. Theories can be ranked not only
on their scientific parsimony, comprehensiveness, and explicitness but also on how well they
fit the facts and are useful in the practice of education. By such criteria, education is neither a
science nor a profession. Walbergs (1981) theory of educational productivity was empirically
tested as one of very few theories of academic achievement. Walbergs theory of academic
achievement posits that psychological characteristics of individual students and their immediate
psychological environments influence educational outcomes (cognitive, behavioural, and atti-
tudinal) (Reynolds & Walberg, 1992). Further, Walbergs research identified nine key variables
that influence educational outcomes as: student ability/prior achievement, motivation, age/de-
velopmental level, quantity of instruction, quality of instruction, classroom climate, home envi-
ronment, peer group, and exposure to mass media outside of school (Walberg, Fraser, &
Welch, 1986).

Much has been discussions on reasons why students do not do well in school. With the
rapidly changing educational environments in many countries in the world over, there is an
opening for research exploring solutions to the challenge of enhancing student academic per-
formance to getting a good education. Many variables play a role to students academic perfor-
mance. Academic motivation is an important psychological construct for learning and academic
performance in all the school subjects. Since it is unobservable, it can only be inferred from
actions or. The relationship between academic motivation and academic performance is still
unclear and can only be determined with continued observation of the students.
Extrinsic Motivation

According to Hoyenga & Hoyenga 1984, extrinsic motivation refers to motivation that are
outside of the behaviours they cause , the motive for the behaviour is not inherent in or essential
to the behaviour itself. If a student studies hard to do well on a test because a good grade will
result in a brand new phone or less reprimand from their parents, then the motive behind stud-
ying is not what it is intended to do which is to gain and obtain knowledge. Studying information
is a essential to earning, however, it is often manipulated to lead toward other things such as
money, acceptance, or power. Adding an extrinsic incentive to study or complete a task has
also been found to decrease intrinsic motivation (Hoyenga & Hoyenga, 1984). Such a finding
is harmful to education. To help students develop academic intrinsic motivation, it is important
to define the factors that affect their motivation (Dev, 1997). Two extrinsic factors that need to
be further explored are power motivations and fear of failure.

Power motivations are difficult to spot in students because unlike other extrinsic motiva-
tions, they increase achievement measures (Hoyenga & Hoyenga, 1984). It is often seen in
students, especially in university setting. A student who is motivated by power feels the need
to control his/her environment. The best way they find to do this is to prove their ability and
competence to others. A study performed by Fortier, Valler and, and Guay (1995), confirmed
perceived academic competence to be directly related to autonomous academic motivation,
which is directly related to school performance. To sum it up power motivation tend to be easily
mistaken for intrinsic motivation. Both seems to be the same but theres a hindrance and a block
occurs in the process of reaching the goal, a intrinsic student will find a strategy to get around
the hindrance or a block however the power motivator may feel frustrated and helpless (Hoy-
enga & Hoyenga, 1984). If this is the case,
then the intrinsic students would continue to persist in challenging tasks while a student with
power motivations would give up in the face of difficulty. The fact is that the two goals are
entirely different, only the means are the same. This type of behaviour can lead to an aversive
reaction toward education.

Fear of failure is inhibitory to everyone. It brings about avoidant approaches to situations

in order to avoid such fear. The motive to avoid failure is a general disposition to avoid failure
or the capacity to react with shame and embarrassment when the outcome of an achievement
task is a failure. The only way to avoid failure is to avoid achievement tasks or simply not doing
anything that could lead to failing. This avoidant behaviour lacks intrinsic motivation. Hoyenga
& Hoyenga, 1984 research shows that fear of failure is noticed most when such students are
given moderately difficult task to achieve. Reasons for this may be that these students expect
to fail at difficult tasks, and often do succeed at relatively simple tasks. If the task is simple, then
the need to avoid failure will motivate the student to find the necessary means to achieve.
However, if the task is moderately difficult, the anxiety that may build up could cause avoidant
reactions to such a task and inhibit the necessary means to achieve. Both of these factors
clearly inhibit the characteristics of intrinsic motivation. Not only do they inhibit positive behav-
iour, but they may cause students to avoid academics all together.

Intrinsic Motivation

The book Intrinsic motivation by Edward Deci (1975)he describe affect as the first ap-
proach which is the basis of motivation as it precedes behaviour and energies and directs the
behaviour. While the cognitive approach to motivation places primary emphasis on a persons
thought process. It assumes that people will decide what to do on the basis of their evaluations,
goals and desired end states of the likely outcomes of their behaviour alternatives. Then they
behave in accordance with their decisions this means that cognitive processing is an important
determinant of behaviour. This approach views human as striving to satisfy their needs by set-
ting goals and choosing behaviours that they believe will allow them to achieve these goals.
And lastly the exploration of personality and behaviours as predictors of academic performance
and attrition is becoming increasingly apparent in the nursing literature. These include: anxiety,
self- efficacy, support seeking and academic engagement. Intrinsic motivation requires much
persistence and effort put forth by an individual student. Students with intrinsic motivation would
develop goals such as, the goal to learn and the goal to achieve. A mastery goal, the desire to
gain understanding of a topic, has been found to correlate with effective learning strategies,
positive attitudes toward school, the choice of difficult tasks as opposed to a simple task, per-
ceived ability, effort, concern of future consequences, self- regulation, the use of deep cognitive
processes, persistence, achievement, choice and initiative (Archer, 1994; Miller, Greene,
Montalvo, Ravindran, & Nichols, 1996; Garcia & Pintrich, 1996).
Academic Performance

Student success often closely related to the faculty in University being successful in retain-ing
the best educators, programs and enrolments of the best talent (Waggoner and Goldman, 2005). Ma-
laysian always emphasized on academic success for student where they will be looked highly compare
to others. Examination scores is the measurement in differentiating students level of knowledge for
them to go further in their studies, gaining scholarship and obtain better entry level at top universities
(Habibah et al., 2011). Student depends on university ability to provide them with the best available
programs as pathway to their future success so that they will develop best skill and knowledge during
their working life (Waggoner and Goldman, 2005). It was the student attitude towards their study being
the one criterion that makes the difference in their academic performance at university level where
there has been positive relationship between the variables (Kamariah et al., 2010). Andon et al., (2010)
stated that companies and professional accounting bodies are seeking to acquire and retain the most
flexible graduates with wide range of skills and knowledge. They also stated that the new era breeds
extensive demand for this type of graduates and these corporate organization have started to go to
extra length for the sake of finding the best talent with distinctive values (Andon et al., 2010). Hence,
there is a need to justify the relations between the variables and academic success outcome for univer-
sity student for example the attitude from student taking mathematic subject and how they perform
where positive attitude toward the subject can be the defining factor for success (Kamariah et al., 2010).

A study form Galiher (2006) and Darling (2005), also used GPA to measure student
academic performance.Some other researchers used test results or previous year result since
they are studying performance for the specific subject or year (Hijazi and Naqvi, 2006). They
researchers have discussed the different factors that affect the student academic performance
in their research. There are two types of factors that affect the academic performance. These
are internal and external classroom factors and these factors strongly affect the students per-
formance. Internal classroom factors includes students competence in English, class sched-
ules, class size, English text books, class test results, learning facilities, homework, environ-
ment of the class, complexity of the course material, teachers role in the class, technology used
in the class and exams systems. External classroom factors include extracurricular activities,
family problems, work and financial, social and other problems. Research studies shows that
students performance depends on many factors such as learning facilities, gender and age
differences, etc. that can affect student performance (Hansen, Joe B., 2000).

Soom (2010) this study, investigated from a person-oriented perspective whether different mo-
tivational and academic self-concept profiles could be discerned between male and female first-year
college students in STEM and whether differences in early academic achievement were associ-
ated with these student groups. Results shows the motivation levels and academic achieve-
ment of a student presents no difference due to constant factors of hindrances to motivation for
academic achievement.

Ryckman et al. (1988) conducted a study on gender relationships among intellectual achieve-
ment, responsibility, questionnaire and measured achievement and grades. Data were col-lected from
145 girls and 142 boys of fourth to sixth grade students of California usingCalifornia achievement test.
The results revealed no significant gender differences in academic achievement of the students.

Yukselturk and Bulut (2009) analyzed gender differences in self-regulated learning

components, motivational beliefs, and achievement in self-regulated online learning environ-
ments and suggested that test anxiety was a significant factor in female students achieve-
ment and self-efficacy for learning and performance as well as task value were significant fac-
tors in male students achievement. Their research reported no statistically significant gender
differences in terms of motivation, self-regulation, and achievement.

Study from Balam and Platt (2014) examined differences between male and female undergrad-
uate students in terms of motivation and learning strategies. The outcome from the study has con-
cluded that there is no statistically significant difference was found between male and female students
in their motivation or learning strategies. In general, male and female students demonstrated similar
measures of motivation and learning strategies.

Balam (2015) study investigated whether gender had an impact on the motivation and
learning strategies used by post-graduate students at a southeastern university. No statistically
significant difference was found between male and female students in their motivation or learn-
ing strategies. However, regardless of gender, graduate students showed differences in extrin-
sic goal orientation, test anxiety (motivation) and effort regulation and peer learning (learning
strategies)

Alshammari, Saguban et al (2017) study aimed to determine the factors that affect the aca-
demic performance of the student-nurses at the University of Hail, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA).
Result indicate that many year level of the respondents had a significant difference in the extent
of effect they have on the academic performance of students.

A study by Niebuhr (1995) investigate the effect of students age on academic motivation and
academic performance among secondary school students attending day schools within Nakuru
municipality. The objectives specific to this study were to investigate how students age affected
academic motivation and academic performance. The study adapted the ex-post facto research
design. The target population comprised all Form two and Form four students in the sixteen
secondary schools in Nakuru municipality from which seven day schools were sampled using
the stratified random sampling technique. The sample was made up of 489 students. Data was
collected using a students questionnaire and the academic performance scores were obtained
from the school records of the previous year. The major statistical methods used in this study
were: Pearsons r, and analysis of variance (ANOVA). Descriptive statistics, means, frequen-
cies, percentages and standard deviations were used for data presentation and to explain the
variables in this study. The findings of this study indicated that there was a positive relationship
between academic motivation and academic performance. It was also established that stu-
dents age had a significant effect on the students academic performance and students age
had no significant effect on the academic motivation. These findings will assist teachers, par-
ents, administrators and other stake holders to engage in interventions in school and at home,
that can improve the quality of learning and hence boost the students academic performance.
included an investigation of the relationship of individual motivation and its effect on academic
performance. The findings of this study indicated that student motivation showed no significant
effect on the relationship with academic performance
 Sadeghi, Moghadam, Ahmadi, Sadeghi,& Parvizifard (2016) study investigates the rela-
tionship between academic motivation and academic performance of students at Mazandaran
University of Medical Sciences in 2013 Materials and Methods: In this descriptive, analytical
study, data analysis was performed by, descriptive statistics indices (mean and standard devi-
ation), inferential statistics (Pearson correlation coefficient and independent T-test) and using
SPSS17 software. The data of the present study showed that, more than half of the study sub-
jects from the viewpoints of academic motivation had the score more than the mean level. In
the present investigation, there was insignificant relationship between the academic motivation
and academic performance. It is necessary that the educational administrators pay attention to
this important issue.

Eymur and Geban (2011), the researcher found that extrinsic motivation was generally
negatively related to achievement whereas intrinsic motivation positively related with achieve-
ment. Eymur and Geban (2011), proposed that there are three main types of motivation,
namely intrinsic motivation, extrinsic motivation and amotivation. Intrinsic motivation refers to
being engaged in an activity for itself and for the pleasure and satisfaction derived from partic-
ipation (Deci, in Eymur and Geban 2011). Intrinsic motivation is widely regarded as the high-
est level of motivation as it is completely from within an individual (Grolnick, in Eymur and
Geban 2011)

E Ebenuwa-Okoh, E. (2017) study examines the influence of age, financial status and
gender on Academic Performance among undergraduates. To guide this study, one question
was asked and three hypotheses were formulated and tested 0.05 level of significance. The
design is correlational and simple random sampling was used to select sample size of 175
respondents. The instrument used for this study has face and content validity. Cronbach alpha
was used to obtain reliability coefficient of 0.84. In addition to the instrument, the cumulative
grade point average (CGPA) of the respondents was collected from the departmental office and
marched with the names of the respondents. The findings of the study reveal that gender, age
and finance are not significant predictors of academic performance. There was no significant
difference in academic performance based on age, gender and financial status. It was recom-
mended that counselling centres should open to handle varying problems confronting student
irrespective of age, financial status or gender.
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Affecting Students Academic Motivation and Achievement Motivation in Kermanshah University of
Medical Sciences. Educational Research In Medical Sciences Journal, 5(1), 24-28.
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