Chapter 2:
Electronic
Communications Systems
Chapter 2:
Oscillators and Phase-Locked Loops
Oscillators
oscillate (`-s-lt) v. to fluctuate between
two states or conditions.
An oscillator is a device that produces
oscillations (a repetitive waveform).
Applications of oscillators include high-
frequency carriers, clocks, and timing circuits.
There are free-running and there one-shot
(requiring a trigger) oscillators.
Introduction to Electronic
Communications
Part 1:
Introduction and Feedback Oscillators
Oscillators
Free-running oscillators are self-sustaining,
which require no external input other than a
DC supply voltage.
The output can be a sine wave, a square wave,
a sawtooth wave, or any other shape as long
as it repeats at periodic intervals.
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Feedback Oscillators Feedback Oscillators
An oscillator with a feedback loop. There are two requirements for a feedback
A small portion of the output is fed back to oscillator to work:
the input of an amplifier and gets amplified Positive feedback
(regenerated). The phase of the return signal must be in phase with
the output.
Barkhausen criterion Frequency determining components
For a feedback circuit to sustain oscillations, the Resistors, capacitors, inductors, and/or crystals
net voltage gain must be unity or greater, and the
net phase shift around the loop must be a positive
integer multiple of 360.

Feedback Oscillators Feedback Oscillators

Vout V3 A where:
V1 V2 V3 Av Av Av gain with feedback (closed-loop gain)
Vin + A Vout Vin V1 1 A A open loop gain
A loop gain (feedback ratio)

V4 V3 A V2
If at any frequency A becomes 1 (or a gain
V4 V3
Feedback path of 1 with a phase shift of 180), the 1+A = 0
Rearranging the equation denominator becomes zero and then Av = .
V2 V1 V4 V3 A(V1 V3 ) V3 A V3 A V1 When this happens, the circuit will oscillate
V1 V3 A V1 A V3 V3 (1 A) A V1
and the input can be removed.
V3 A
Av
V1 1 A

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Feedback Oscillators Phase Shift Oscillator
The phase shift in the feedback loop can be RC Phase Shift Oscillator
provided by an RC network. An ideal phase shift oscillator circuit is shown
below:
There are other configurations that can be
Ri Rf
used to provide oscillator action (LC tank C C C
circuits, quartz crystals).
R R R

Phase Shift Oscillator Untuned Oscillator

The output is feed to a three-stage RC network Wein-bridge Oscillator
that provides a total of 180 of phase shift. The Wein-bridge oscillator is an untuned RC
The network parameters are: phase shift oscillator that uses both positive and
1 1 negative feedback.
f
2RC 6 29 Commonly used in signal generators for
For the loop gain A to be greater than unity, producing frequencies between 5 Hz and 1 MHz.
The circuit uses a lead-lag network which
A 29
functions as a bandpass filter.
which can be set by the ratio of Rf and Ri.

3
Untuned Oscillator Tuned Oscillators
Wein-bridge Oscillator Tuned oscillators utilize LC tank circuits as their
frequency determining components.
1
C1
fo Tank circuits exchange energy between the
2 R1C1 R2C2
inductor and capacitors.
R4

R1 R3
R4

If R1 = R2 = R and C1 = C2 = C, then
An initial charge into the capacitor induces a
R4

R2
R4

1
flywheel effect, causing the charging/discharging
R4
R3
fo and 2
2RC
C2
R4
action between the capacitor and inductor.

Tuned Oscillators Tuned Oscillators

The charging/discharging cycle has a
VCC VCC

frequency of R1
RFC
C2 R1
RFC
C2
OUT OUT
1
fo
2 LC Q1 Q1
C1a
L1a
L1
Tuned oscillators include the Hartley oscillator
R2 C1 R2
Cc L1b Cc
C1b

and the Colpitts oscillator.

Hartley oscillator Colpitts oscillator
C1a C1b
L = L1a + L1b and C = C1 L = L1 and C
C1a C1b

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Tuned Oscillators
The Clapp oscillator is identical to the
Colpitts oscillator but with the addition of a
small capacitor Cs in series with L1.
Cs is made smaller than C1a or C1b, and has
the most effect in determining the frequency
of operation than C1a and C1b.
C1a and C1b is mainly chosen for an optimum
feedback ratio.
Frequency Stability
RC phase shift oscillators suffer from short-
and long term variations.
LC networks Q-factors (selectivity) are
relatively low and would oscillate over a wide
range of frequencies.
Most radio communications applications
require a frequency stability of less than 1%.
Frequency Stability
The ability of an oscillator to remain at a fixed
frequency.
Short-term stability is mainly affected by
fluctuations in the DC supply voltage.
Long-term stability is a function of
component aging, and ambient temperature
and humidity.
Frequency stability of LC tank circuits and
RC phase shift networks are inadequate for
most radio communications applications.
Crystal Oscillators
Crystal oscillators use a crystal as the
frequency determining component instead of
an LC tank circuit.
Crystals are also called crystal resonators
because they are capable of producing a very
stable and precise frequency.
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Crystal Oscillators
Piezoelectric Effect
Occurs when oscillating mechanical stresses
applied across a crystalline lattice generate
electrical oscillations and vice versa.
A number of natural crystal substances exhibit
piezoelectric properties: quartz, Rochelle salt,
tourmaline; and other manufactured substances
as well.
(Synthetic) Quartz is most often used for
oscillators because of its permanence, low
temperature coefficient, and high mechanical Q.
Crystal Oscillators
Crystal Cuts
The crystals z-axis is the optical axis, the x-axis
is the electrical axis, and the y-axis is the
mechanical axis.
If a thin flat section is cut from a crystal such that
the flat sides are perpendicular to an electrical
axis, mechanical stresses along the y-axis will
produce electrical charges on the flat sides.

Crystal Oscillators Crystal Oscillators

A variety of cuts can be made by rotating the Crystal Equivalent Circuit
plane of the cut around one or more of the axes.
The series resonant frequency is
The type, length, and thickness of the cut and Z
1
mode of vibration determine the natural resonant L f1
2 LC1
frequency of a crystal.
R C2
The relationship between a crystals operating The parallel resonant frequency is
frequency and its thickness is C1 1
f2
C1C2
65.5 where: 2 L
h f1 f2

fn
h crystal thickness, in
fn crystal natural resonant frequency, Hz Equivalent circuit Impedance curve
C1 C2

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Crystal Oscillators Crystal Oscillators
Pierce Oscillator Pierce Oscillator
Q1 provides the needed gain for
Uses simple circuitry and has a good frequency
+V

self-sustained oscillations to occur.
range (1 kHz to 30 MHz). R2 R4
R1 and C1 provide 65 of phase lag
Has a high output signal output while dissipating XTAL1
OUT
to the feedback signal.
very little power in the crystal itself. Q1 The crystals series resonance
Has excellent short-term frequency stability. C1 C2
R3
impedance is mostly resistive, and
D1 R5
C3
along with C2, provides an
However, the Pierce oscillator requires a high gain R1
additional 115 of phase lag.
amplifier, possibly even a multi-stage amplifier Q1 inverts the signal (180 phase
shift), giving the necessary 360
total phase shift.

Crystal Oscillators Crystal Oscillators

RLC Half-bridge Crystal Oscillator
The original Meacham oscillator was developed
in the 1940s and employs a full 4-arm bridge and
a negative-temperature coefficient tungsten lamp.
The modified version uses only a 2-arm bridge
and a negative-temperature coefficient thermistor.
The crystal must operate at its series resonant
frequency.
RLC Half-bridge Crystal Oscillator
When oscillations begin, the signal amplitude
increases gradually, decreasing the thermistor
resistance until the bridge almost nulls.
The amplitude of the oscillations stabilizes and
determines the final thermistor resistance.
The LC tank circuit is tuned to the crystals series
resonant frequency.

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Crystal Oscillators Chapter 2:
RLC Half-bridge Crystal Oscillator

+V +V
Introduction to Electronic
R1 R2 C2 L
Communications
RT

C1
Q1
Part 2:
IC Oscillators and Phase-Locked Loops
XTAL OUT
RL

R2

Integrated Circuit (IC) Oscillators Integrated Circuit (IC) Oscillators

Large-Scale Integration (LSI) has made it Sync output
possible to produce IC-based oscillators.
IC oscillators have very excellent frequency AM Modulator Buffer
stability, a wide tuning range, and are easy to Oscillator Waveshaper
(optional) amplifier
Output

use.
Currently, aside from IC oscillators there are Sine or triangular Output DC level control
wave select
also waveform generators and function
generators. Integrated circuit waveform generator

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Phase-Locked Loops (PLL)
A very versatile circuit used extensively in
electronic communications systems.
Its functions include modulation,
demodulation, signal processing, carrier and
clock recovery, frequency generation,
frequency synthesis, etc.
It is used in both analog and digital
modulation, both at the transmitter and
receiver sides.
Phase-Locked Loops (PLL)
A PLL ultimately uses phase lock to perform
its intended function.
However, before a phase lock can occur, a
PLL must be frequency locked.
After frequency lock has occurred, the phase
comparator produces an output voltage that is
proportional to the difference in phase
between the VCO output frequency and the
external input frequency.
Phase-Locked Loops (PLL)
PLLs are closed-loop feedback control system
wherein the frequency or the phase of the
feedback signal is the parameter of interest.
External
input signal Phase
LPF Amplifier
comparator
Output
Voltage-
controlled
oscillator
Phase-locked loop block diagram
Phase-Locked Loops (PLL)
For a PLL to operate properly, there must be
complete path around the feedback loop.
When there is no external input, or when the
loop is open, the VCO operates at a preset
frequency (natural frequency) fn, and is
determined from external components.
When an external input signal fi is initially
applied, the phase comparator produces an
error voltage (vd) proportional to the difference
in frequency between the two signals.
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Phase-Locked Loops (PLL)
This error signal is then fed to the VCO. If fi
is sufficiently close to fn, the feedback nature
of the PLL causes the VCO to synchronize or
lock onto fi.
Mathematically, the VCO output frequency is
where:
fo VCO output frequency, Hz
f o f n f fo VCO output frequency, Hz
f fi fn, Hz
fi input signal frequency, Hz
Phase-Locked Loops (PLL)
Loop Acquisition
Initially, the PLL is in its free-running state. When
an input signal is applied to the phase comparator,
it mixes with the VCOs output signal.
The phase comparator is a non-linear device that
produces the cross-product frequencies (sum and
difference) of the input signals.
The output of the phase comparator is fed to an
LPF, where only the difference (fn fi) is allowed
to pass.
Phase-Locked Loops (PLL)
The PLL has three operating states:
Free-running state
There is no input, or the feedback loop is open. The
VCO operates at it natural frequency.
Capture state
An input must be present (or the loop is closed). The
PLL is in the process of acquiring a frequency lock.
Lock state
The VCO output frequency is locked onto (equal to)
the input frequency. When in the lock state, the VCO
tracks (follows) changes in the input frequency.
Phase-Locked Loops (PLL)
This very low frequency difference is often called
the beat frequency.
The beat frequency is then amplified and applied
to the input of the VCO, which changes the VCO
frequency proportional to the polarity and
amplitude of the beat frequency.
This in turn causes the beat frequency to change,
and will continue until the cycle causes the
frequency difference to be zero.
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Phase-Locked Loops (PLL)
When this happens, the VCO has acquired a
frequency lock. The output of the LPF is at 0 Hz
(a DC voltage), and its polarity and magnitude
proportional to the phase difference between the
input and VCO signals.
The time it takes to achieve lock is called the
acquisition time or pull-in time.
Phase-Locked Loops (PLL)
Capture range
The range of frequencies centered around the
VCO natural frequency (fn) where the PLL can
establish a frequency lock.
Generally between 0.5 to 1.7 times of fn.
Pull-in range is the range of frequencies on either
side of fn where a lock can be established.

Phase-Locked Loops (PLL) Phase-Locked Loops (PLL)

Lock range Lock range, 2fl

The range of frequencies centered around the VCO Hold-in range, fl Hold-in range, fl

natural frequency (fn) where the PLL can maintain a Capture range, 2fc
frequency lock with the external input. Pull-in range, fc Pull-in range, fc
The lock range is also known as the tracking range.
Hold-in range is the range of frequencies on either Lower capture VCO natural frequency, fn Upper capture
limit, fcl limit, fcu
side of fn where the PLL can track the input. Lower lock Upper lock
limit, fll limit, flu
The capture range is never greater than, and almost
PLL capture and lock ranges
always less than, the lock range.

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