[Ng.

W
.
Wmgwk .
Di? Motion of Electrons

5'1
F/r'ee Elgagggp Theory (Drude Theory of Metals) {313,};
m 1900. three years after the discovery of electron by Thompson. electronfheory of
metals
was pronounced 'by Drude. He
based his theory upon the assumption that the electrical
and
conduction in metals rs due to the motion of certain electrons which can be
heat regarded as
free electrons._The
free electrons are those which are the outermost shell electronsmr the
valence electron of an atom 1n the metalilhese,,el_ectrons can move anywhere within the body
(tithe metal but are restricted to Jump out of the metal due to some forces. These elecrrons are
ill? cause of conduction in the metal when it is subjected to a potential difference and are also
called the conduction electrons. They are different from the electrons lying in the inner shells
surrounding the nucleus of the atom, which are called core electrons. Thus metal can be
pictured as a regular array of positive ion cores immersed in an electron gas comprised of one
ormore electrons donated by each atom.

No important considerations of this theory are :

(1) There is no force of attraction betweenthe electrons.

eld of ions in which the electrons move is completely uniform.

(2) The potential
These considerations indicate that the classical free electron theory follows the kinetic
theory of gases in which the molecules are taken as non interacting particles. This is why. this
theory is sometimes called the free electron gas theory or electron gas model.

The theory was able to explain the Ohms law. Weidmann-Franz law (Le. ratio of thermal
Conductivity to electrical conductivity is proportional to absolute temperature). metallic lustre.
specic heat of metals etc. But there are certain concepts that this theory cannot explain. For
eXample. it yields very different results for certain metals having non linear Hall resistivities
and thermal conduction properties differing by one to two orders-of magnitude. These facts
were explained by Sommerfeld introducing quantum statistical mechanics in 1920.

5-2. Electron Collisions, Mean free path and Drift velocity of electrons

According to the free electron theory. the electrons in the metal are always in a State 03
motion just like the molecules of thegaS~ Therefore they keep 0 conldmg With eaCh otheran
me POSitiVely
Charged ions inside the metal. These are refel'md {0 (15 fhe 3.1.??? {Con (Togisioi.
yunng each
collision. the velocity as well as the dllECIlOIl of motion of the electron L at 3 ~

is a
result. the electron follows a zig zag path as shown in the Figure 5.1.

I 5 'l

494 _

h...
w """ V ' "WIIIU ESL
W 0! Buttons Q

/l
/ /// Normally" thermal "Emmy of
electrons is quite
u / E >106. Therfore. I = mm a = t Um l
mg: as ,a- . : . A - a

A
I '
5'3_2xplanat10n .

F
ofpropemes ofsolids on the
~

basis of Dmde Theory

FigureSJJigZag pathfalloumd by electron in metal 7;? ohms Law. According to free electron 7 r

theory, when an dmm new is applicd

am
J4
metallic muducmr' [he glecmns are a
is given by Lld applied along +1. 5 dllfled opposite to the
[along length ofthe electric eld. I! E be the electric
The avarage thermal sneed (nns value) of the electron (inductor), men
:
_
and
- . m is _ dJ-r 9E F
m/s. Here k5 is the Boltzmann constant and m )5 the mass Orelectrun B L
2 "w = -
egual IO eE
Acceleration
:
105 ' drz m
dxrecu'ons of the electrons are random. therefore the average thermal Velour), va ales; ' =
r
H l
I ma l

zero. I; Hem 3 is the Charge 0 [he EIECIron and m is

its mass. The -ve Sign In eqn. 11 shows that
electrons are accelerated in the direction
v o -o ~ opposite to the electric eld,
Le Ul+ll2-lt3+....,-rlln :0 Equation (1) gives the acceleration ofthe
electron. Therefore. it attains an addltional velocity
n (apart from its thermal velocity) given by a
l
When an electric eld is applied across the ends ofthe conductor, the electrons are
in the direction opposite to the electric eld. During Eh? mono" .undel the Electricme] d
(lx
=_
gE
K 7
E

suffer frequent collisions against the positively charged tons and In domg so lose eld
1 =
{[dtzlz mid! Usinseqnll
their
After each collision. an electron follows some what curved path under the effect org?
eld and gains an ema velocity (apart from its thermal motion). but this additional mail . = -LE,
destroyed at the next collision Thus the electron acquires only a.small VClOCity. on the m (2)
in the direction opposite to the electric eld. This average LElocy {Tilt/I which the av, Therefore. the additional distance travelled by it along .r axis is
elem?"
drifted opposite to the electriceld in additon to its random motion 15 called 1:15;me l

As discussed above, in between two successive collisions the elemon follows an]
path. This path is termed as the free pathfWhen this distance is averaged over a large x = jutlt = Hljdt [USing Ill (2}!

mm m
ofelectron collisions. it is termed as mean freepath. Thus mean free path may be denedml 0 0

average distance covered by the electrons between the two successive collisions. it is gem
denoted by L x = eEt (3)
"
~ .
2m
In between the two successive collisions. an electron gets a chance to relax and
suPposc that we have a group oflarge number no of electrons which had only the thermal
between the successive collisions is termed as the relaxation time. if an average of a numbu
t:
than

collisions is considered. the average of such relaxation times is obtained and is termedm velocrncs at 0. Assuming the Poisson's distribution of actual times between the collisiom
average relaxn'on time. it is denoted by r. the number ofelectrons at a time tis given by

Drude assumed that the relaxation time n :nog'z .14)

results only from the interaction of electronic
the atom cores (the ion left behind when electron leaves it is called atom core) ofthe solid. Clearly. when t:
0, n = no and when [v on. n + 0. Therefore. ifntJ is large enough. we may i

therefore related the mean free path and the distance between atom core as assume that when t 0. n0 , m.
Differentiating eqn. (4).
]T E
i
9. = where a is the distance between the atom core.
rt an d _ " e-Ur
=3) "
!
Also, if E is the average velocity ofelecn'ons made up ofthermal and drift velocities um I m

ud

respectively, then.
_
u
A
= dn _ n0 2" . Hr
Le.
T d! r

I .-
inu
M
l5!
. plumb Solid Sill" PhY

Theminm thr tux-emu? diurnncemw o

t,
by

t 3
its and Eletitunln 8,5 "

mcheleclrnn oi the in t a
n- d"
-LI.Id""J(m}d
~
no 0
V

no

v
W l

my conveningdn In :II. hmlu

I
I" "th

mm
v

.llllt'q
I
mild"
oi

wnull! mm
,4

Damn.
9'
1 [
on, U WNW r umlmtlvlly

The average relaxation time Is given by

0
[I I."
Arm
m
.
rm temperamm
[,mm mmnom 5 and m,

my
155
"ii

Using mm (31 and [5)

-m
r U
[/r I, t _ "m" J:
. _Lj LE" Lid)dt =
0
0
1
t2 1 a A .IL' I'
-I V t

2m: ' um
<x
"a Ii 2," t -
I :
lLl :)v:;'
. ( .
'V'
V

n " 31

But It 9"dt - 2 1
i, .
.5 c, m
3
n
T

a:

Using this value oft in eqn. (11),

,. .E2
an )JT _
OE (.473) z
a Tm m -~-((i) U = nE e eznk
Themfum. the drln velocity of the clectronl ll . " 3kuT :ZBkaT ~~- 2
_ [3, since A is a geometric constant. it does notremppcmtugiuch
de end upon thpcralute.
- -
Therefore.
d I gi> __ m IUsing eqn mm
Equmion (12) gives the dependence Orson the
However' for m ost 5 old
l 5 U 'x T-|
proved by the free electron 15 against theory inmthnw
- r
45)]
area of crossectlon. and no be no, 0me myndence OfO 0" the temperature is established g

Ill
be the current through the conductor. A be its
by the theory
cream, pm. n
volume. [hm -
A]
,
iii Thermal CondUCUVitY- The rflte at which the heat energy flows through a material
maintalllcd at a temperature gradient [5 measured by using the equation I
I_L'.I_..=t-n A-
|
Mud. (IQ dT
l I r = _|(
I (It (Ix . M ii 1

-_-
=9 d
a
"cite "(8 where
dQ . the Fate OWOW theat
7- IS
t
perpendicular to the cross-sectional nrcti A and % is lhn
Here we Sign shows that electron moves 019905c
0 current and I 15 the length orlht temperature gmd'em'

mnducmL According to the transport phenomenon for transport of heat energy. the amount at hem
passing through a crosssection ofa strip per unit area per second is given by
hqummg [7, and w]
d
9E1 I

51:1] dQ = Eng
1 (IE
uml 7 t

A, i
r- it
__ l
m n,Ar n,e A I I
number offree electrons per unit volume. u. is the thermal velocity of electrom.
E
where [1,, is
when, I is currem denmy A
'
I - n :21 E mean free path and
[1E ,
is the energy gradient.
.
I
ls the
m
"49
i
Clearly l u E or i =UE "'m But we know that Um: i}
i
where (1 : "
'PI is the condutlvlty ol' the material and is constant if physical conditions remain \i?_k !
m = 11:, OfQEEPful-flgnroruurw
' . .

and E w
i

unchanged 2 U

The equation (10) is called the Microscopic form of Ohio's law and has been proved using

aa
6113 3
ELBE
_ CIT v I
Drudv's llltuly -- z 7L;
at. \.~ ~_ 7

E
 $
Us

anu lhv vulucs nfvm and a:

Th" "mauve BF
:tla\:)vtwl:n2:vrnlurcs

3,
rhm or
E. = in
(1,

[Q
71
4

,
=
3

_
1

2 m
In at!

J_
I 3

MyLn w
rAejccVJng the negative
7
nlmh

k T
7'

(1"
-

(u) only tells us that thanerm;

51g a"
)
- Smle
Solid

13,! .
3
-
(11

dT
In
PM"5
' a" d tietlronics BS

k' =
now
m takes a
. (, 1|

Ce 9"!
m p arinIg equanms high

(Skim/2,101
'(KM

M0

-
"a

unt'

Hail" [m walls
r

he box is
f

/
65.u _0 rnmClfCld
box)
To Study the.

Elem-on cant

ConSldtT a
4
,- 1-"
(6n:

long
Oljt
, ,

km? a" -
Quantum Theo W

.
-

bdmyloyrl 0 a [mu Flam San.

off? box "3 pf'rLmYgld

Lorne out o t e box
and value of
.v

dffnenzllornnl

because it has 10 do
Here the potentlal V has gm the
A

lmull cxclu5.|0n PTmCP 0 0 Cnnsldered the Snmmurfuld Introduced the quantum Ihcnry
ml [gy box as dISCUSSCd
below, u: nlectmn gas in a one dImerL-uonnl polcmm

9
box such that an
mm 0" nely electron
rec Electron gas In

is enrlnwd m n In
move Wilhln [he houndnns
lnnlde thP box.
pmcnual V extends upm infmy. Thurelme,
innite work to ()Vcrcume the pmenxml.
one Dlmcns {0113!

me lemnh n!

-t
157
1

M
R
.
KA : 1-n,.}x(13kn)32/T or 2A r following VE n v
...w
renditions
which given lln- vnrlmlon of thermal ' W1'1 l1 t E mperature '
2 conductivmz
[1 '1 h
V = 0 [DHRR
V m [m X 2
w

:
chdemnnn Franz law states m l e mm of
v
n

mwmgnn I The and x S 0

M MT
C0"!(1m I 10110 0 CC C unvnnductivlty 0f 1 mm m constant mmpemlure is a
the ' , l n r or I t
UPI
This can boyproved using Drude theory. can: ' C
km: ItogtliSEeer EZIUltignec
l . m as E and 2 I

41;

Pplymg
DIVIdlng eqn. (16) by cqn. (12). . + '7
:fZI(E VWLt) = ()
. 3&2 T 8r

_ _,
1

k' _ ____ZA__-__= PutV=o,for0<x<a

. -_-_
2 -92" 1 2A 92)
[he above equatlon
becomes "
Jamar 2 2 n
Clcurly
K
a: T m+LquDH
Br I! :0 Figure 5.2.
" (n
O . .
' has a uke value for 0 < x < a
.
at
, ii 1 i9. kept constant. :1-
K a constant quantity. ' 15
which ' 1he S tat emem As the electron rcmams wnhm the box of
length a.
0medel
-
15 \V
Flam. lnw Also. W m = n for x < 0 and [orx > I

5.4. Failure of DrudeLorcnz Theory Here the total enerEV is E = m

2 Le.
- .
kmLtlL energy.
l

;

because V = 0
inllnwmg icnture ofmatcrials cannot be explained
- '
usmg Drude . Lorentz. them) I

i. ll (10th not explain the variation of conductiVlli With

izxpm internally the conductivity is found to vary inversely With dream chilmm'l E = m 2 112 = p2
temperature '1 M 2m 2m
lunlpt'mlurcs and is independent MT ill low temperdIUlLS- HOWL'VLI.
L
Dludv mm
2m 2 .
shows that conductivity. 0 a
1
or . E = = H

i
12
I12
.tla)
24 ll cannot explain large electron mean free path at low where k is the propagation constant and pI IS the
temperatures,

:M
3. ii Lull nut explain the existence alsemiconductors momentum uf electron
with positive charge ')
it can not explain the negligible L'tilliets. Le, k = Ea r ')

.7
4.
electronic specic heat in Comparison to
spcliiit heat, 1m. h h A
Equation (1) becomes
5. ltdoes not explain the
paramagnetic susceptibility of conduction
ClCCll'Ons.
6. it does not explain why metals 62w
prefer certain structures. Bxgxl + kzl (I ) =U
.LZL'I
I

-
'u-
a

x miwi.
v
"in" W h
2517 -' "-~ ~' -- if u
a.
r17. -

m Dlnulr Solld Slnle

Physlrs and Elenronlts 8.5L In (W Man of
Eletlrons r59

IMHO In Etlunm" (m mmm

Tht meml solution of the nhovt'
li,
~.

_-Aaln 114 ll cos w m W4 mu (a,

mm a.

a .i
mnmnms- nun d HIV t ' um ll ltmts, '1
whom A and It nn arhltrnrv
r _t

S""""lnhnll "WWW" Cmb [Ound bymplymgmc h r level dlaumm for lnllnlte more well p0 ienu a l
.
' rrmmlnu
Enc y
We We

4

ullho wnw lunrnnn m the houndu' x = (I l

nnd when
w
(x) 0 when x = 0 :
equmlon (3) ,we E 0
-
From
Cqumnn (M)
'
k
' y]
ZmE
'2
I
h
Will); llw nhuvv (Ulllllllll ill \' 3 n. m
It : ll .
from q
e n. (5) k 1 *-
m:
a

_
Equntlon (3) now becomes
mu) =Aslnkx
, . _
- t, M 2 mF JI
I! zit2
3%?
.
-
(l we get ____'_ 0" 5)
(x) _ 0 when x
a y] h2 E=
Also. the second boundary condition 15 \u

0 A sin kl! : [3 Ag;

wltcren=1,-.
9 3

have only discrete values.

51 nkk.a = n is tha energy of the Electron can
: rm
.A

or 'a -
The minimum value of energy for n = 1 and is given by
is

_- _.__.
mt
0' k = I
2,1:
a a; E
where n = 1. 2. 3.
known as ground. state energy of the electron The energy
states Eg, 2m; a, 5,. . for n = 2
is
Equation (4) becomes 3, 4,It are known as exerted Stale,
,5.
_

le) = Asin[) 4 3h; E.-unzl

1 F017; 52:712- =4El
means [he eleCIfon l'emainn 2mg
Here n can never be taken as zero or negative. because n = 0
rest till the
. tlme
_ . not
inside the . box which is acceptable physically. It can be further interpretr
. . zero) 1.9.. 2 = 95
a.
E :95
_______-n e
_3 h
. .
the electron ism
t

that wht n k _ 0. \u (A) = 01,e_l\y|2 = 0 (1,2. the probability density 15

A A

E. = .__-9n 3
,1
Zmu2 l 3
in lht- bnxi ' 5

v
The value olconstnnt A can be found out by applying the normalisation Lei total probablhi E3=4E. ____________-
n: 3

1.5 one. thus we get

...- ..-a..u~.-o..- IODDODVIl-DO

{I wlxlzdx
I
:1 Figure 5.3.
box.
Fig 5.3 shows the energy level diagram for the electron enclosed m one dimensional
discrete

T
arbitrary energy but only
Hence. the electron in innite potential well cannot have any
I Asml mu
.

0 " 2 mtx energy value given by El. E2. E3. .Therelore. energy of electron in a box is quantized.
>

d4 :1
7
or A Jstn[a]dx
I
:1 energy. beamse when tht
H 0 '
Here the ground State energy is also known as the zero pomt
electron but not equal to zero.

A; temperature of the box is OK, the total energy of the is E.
i.
jzsm=(m
a dx =1orLj1-C052"x
a 2
dx getcra
w l. tie
I energy 0 r nt h] evel'lS gtvcn b y
in 3 U 2
:1
1

a- n
2 z 2
no
u

En = n I;
l3
-n

2
or Z~ta=1mA=J:a
_
Clearly. E" at
2m
n
QR-

m
no
The energy 11,, is therefore a pmnhollt inn
and is \lmt1 a. in Ft l1 urt 5i4-
Now
l

H shall proceed to dlsLtIh dmcmm
we

possible tnt-rgy suite. The Pnttlt LXCF1513;

Armrdmg to "m prinplo' only two

wmpmnm w Mam mum, me energy mm 0113;

akmg

Fultl'lcid quantum theory (one dtmettMO. I - dd

,.~"I.1crml Energy. According In

us
restricts the electrons to go into an energy bmte
mrme
related wtth tht tlotlt'tms in tho mittnl It} ml) use 0!

occupy {HIV SHIN}. DC \Vi'h spin Up {llSctchltragntzith

0
Dlnuh

SnttllllCli"::: gsm
the electrons msulv the metal keep on "10, gm
thtmttnl nrtttpvingtlilltrvnttnttgy stings.
In hwn (0 M It ntptrntttto.tltt
tlortrtlll
mm
Solid Slain P

llllwlowvest
principle
M;
-

spin

called the Fermi level and the mmrgycarrespandingto iistilveuel is called

For example. lot there be seven electron, Then these
:
down.
[3,,

5?:
l

first four energy levels in l. 2. 3 and 4) such that the rstt a 1:13:15 have two
l
bolts and Elutltottlts

"
n
/'

MgureSA.
Therefore.

Fem.
at
0 a cetain (,naxirnun-l)absolllle
energy
trons can be 0

whereas the foiirth level has only one electron in the groun state of the system as Sh own
ener
EFL?
.
19,
late;

elegtiggled by
h Each
m
.
0
llSt. Ill
(Kashmir! Mom" oi

l
[1. ,

sum allhe

level! We

a
h

But,
le (trons

r" m] Energy. The total enery of "8 lliltem

energ ics of all th e N
-

Np
ICC'TOM. Since N
level occupes two elem)"5"

S
E0

F
0

n
2

.1

=.

=
225

22

l
1

6
N12

as.
m2

"-1

S
'1

2
+2 +3 +

(282
2 2

zmaz
p

R h

i
2
a nzhz
ma
olN electrons in the ground gum t.

+ (3
Is even. therefore.
Micro"). "W tom GMI'KY En is given by

.TIZ"
2 2

l
t): + s: a E- s (282 + 35 + I)
I
mi
there are 2 energy
2

1.13?

{0'5 > > i

As 2(3) 4 53
rt C5 - 3

8' 2,12 _ N
- Tl
F.mp1) / ,
73.x 1.6.. n 6 2 2 3 2
[Usings
_
Ha ||cdO__N_4
(
l
" t

Therefore. the eqn. (13) becomes

Completely lled
7
.-O'__"=3
O.__
Completely filled
M:
2
E
o
= 7:th
Tia:
_ l
3
N )3
2
_
_
1

2
N
W
Nznzhz

oo:1 or 50 - 3 Br ...(14) {Using eqn. (12

C"P''Y "Cd
i

Figure 5.5
130
_gives the total energy of the system of N electrons.
Therefore. in this system. fourth level is considered as the fermi level. Above n 4. all the
levels are empty at U K.
: '13.0 is the average energy ofelectmn5_
E 1
NE
Let we have an even number N of electrons to be accommodated on a line and the highest
lled energy level be It... _
Then E0 = NlL =
3
___E.
N
= is}:
3
Then N = 2 nt- mu
ird
where II" is the prinicipal quantum number ofFermi state (or Fermi level). Thus the average (kinetic)
I . . energy ofthe electron is equal to 3 of fermi ene ng [0 I one
Then. according to Sommcrfcld theory. the energy of up level will be given as _ dmensogemal box'
n. 2 2; 2 [11. Fe chlocity.
I From Sommerfeld theory. it clear that the gy o e
encr f I
v

EF ___ t 7 [Usmg eqn. (10)] lled level at 0 K is not zero. It means that the electrons ectrons 'tn uppermost
Zma some velocrty. are not at rest even at 0 K and possess
The velocity of the electron having an
But lmni eqn. (1). nt. = N velocity u F t
energy equal to EF is called Fermi

[1
Emu"
=_ NZTTJ/lz

l
"
, 1

m'Ul:
z
:E 2..Nzrrzh2 ~

.
which gives the expression for' Fermi energy. .
x

y
2 F
amaz [Using eqn. tun
 f 7f 1w
TT
""I "'" W-V'WDW-F'Kigw
,_ '
v
_v
{I ,I
~_?{;:1~Tid"itr_ w~~~mn~ __
"
'tw I
i
. t A. ., .1
.
.Kx3},b
V
\
'3
_ r

r >_ ~

34..
'6 and Elotlmnitsjt u Hit 1
[lad runs
I

it Solid State Phi/5' ushm am a}

ohm t Electron (he in T}, rec Dimensions ml
2
FE
H

M 5.7?idcr t i if! rrm 0 I C(lrrm

- ;

I
5 "1 threw- dimnn
t -
t

\i
=
2m Con i . S!'
hoxajlvrpiihf
- Ctihir
- . (:fygfanl Nth mm the
"w" ""5 Emmm
i

= ama 2 and mmidtz thv "mm"

Potential m9
mi:(ELTHTEJJJ mmrl" i ' ' '5
wave mm 0 '
EQL

i
':
h
it imam ,.

m __....\,
~h"' 2 I
a,
__ _
'
[WM r)
2~

2m W H
Nh
the total Lntrgy of kth state
H

I r a MM :1
where Bk be J n "-

which givm us the Mimi velocity.

density of Sm 203 is defined as
the number 01;.
echo. and i72 = i? 2
+ .
+ a?
,

iv. Density of Stmcs. The 5Y2

Staten per unit energy range. equation (1) may be writtena"
as
Differentiating oqn. (9). we get
2 2 -" LL 2 2

maz n d
[-32+ 62
52 *7 V r) TzEkWg"}
62

m -
2
,
dB = 01 I at2
- y 62
Ema
9

(In ma 6 + __]w _. ZmLk _.

6x + _2-
a
52 _( r ) + :0
w n,

Wk)
V
mil
:3 - :
-,,7,
mi ' or [2 6 6:32 k 2
"(2)
~

(115
range d h y
levels per unit energy
n

Eqn. tltii gives the number of energy ' 98C energy the electronS are restricted
' to the cubical Ch Side
-
states possr'b16 for V I leVeltonewlt '
Since
box Mm
- 4. the wave function 15

As already discussed. there are

two quantum total number of encig) states perm given by
down. Therefore. the
spin up and the other with spin _,
energy range (Le. density of states) is 3
d" = Wt.
. i z A sm[_)sm{
"lynx n my
i . [ mm_, its;
a 5' 4
i
Zma
ZlEl ,mzhz ...u: a ,
7. (E) = 27;}; => constant and nx. ny' n are n on letgyp::::;}rlteger5- smce
whereA is a - . the 812cm)" is restricted

W
~

volume (13. the value of A can be found

to the the wave function,
llznzhz _1_ = TV!
2 8
But from eqn. (9). E = = n aJ ZmE Therefore, I wklriwt.(r)dv=i
. . _.
1

'l''-

"
Using this value of the equation (17) becomes v
n nx . q n 1!
-sin~._"_}:sin-"z_7t~dt
7
_1

2 2 q

,
. - .
d dz
"9" 8m
A Zma2 a 2m II

1th
(E) = a = III! E v a a a ' y
, n ny
ZmE n in

. r a
2m
Density
or A2 a Sln
. 2 dx
nxruc .
a 51m Y a . 2 n nz
dz =1
l I dyjsm
I
. State
.
.n L H A =
n].
E (
18) oi
[2(a)] V
0
a 0 a 0 a

The variation of density of electronic energy A2(](]
.T
r.
,_
_a_

7
=
1 8 y
'
2
v

states with energy for a one

dimensional line .
A =
~

Or

_
1

5.5. The gure 2 =

1x

shown in Figure 2 2
may be plotted as
1 1

0 Energy Er a
shows that all the states upto fermi energy El;
_ k 1

g
are filled at U K. Figure
. 5.5. l-e-I
, A = a I - ' ,
\l as
t
w
>
_ * 1

.
i - R >
"m. tun
W: _ A} _ T.

*9
A 4 3. T'*fk rig-1,1,
__ g; J

7:-
_
7.-id
Mgg-Wwwi and":
a
liar-p1? 13! F
5
-

"Wwgi'ZF
Eur ,v " 4...?!
-. r an"?
.uj 1)-}; ~37" $347:
"Egg! alga t" a
3'7" 3? <5"1
9s"
(g:
J r

u Dlnuh Solid Slolo Physlts and Eloclronks 8.5L m (M .

[from [1431]

Thctvfnm the normalized wnvr function
'
ls 0 u" ans
1
MOW"
I65
4L; "Am
="""b" W
,nV a
n _L_V n4 (5) in o
wm
1
90 us "Fl
my
m ~

M 1
a r
cm (2) 1nd ml

7
L
a
L):
a; 4,"
n . z
,(k/Mv *z
. . 2
=0 ,a It," Witt,
' min k}:
Smersmky} h"
w)
+ . m
2mg a
V

7'
m r 2x
=4":
["kek-kldkHi]
a Le k1 .
whcrc k, "'
n
a
71!
' k"
n n
. = __..'_and
a
k =
z
[1.7!
a
E

k,
hzkz
smh lhnl . 2 + L:
= k1: + Ly -2 " z -~
2m 5}

mpg
2 . 2 2
_ .71. ("x 4 +H 1
o

+71 2 ~ h 3
H
~
02 y ) . or [3"
+Icy2 +153]
Fqn <4) rvprvsonts the wave funmm 1" . 59 three dim
' ensmns. owever. a more
8'3"er
.

solution [0 cqn. (-1) can be put in the form clearly. the energy 8186" Values are Quantlzed.
The value of A for the wave Imam
_, 49 rpresemed by eqn (5) may be {Ound by normalizing
WkU')
=Aelk-r the wavefunctlon MG),
A Thereforev
where k =kxi+kyj+kzk
A A A
w; (?)wk(?)dv :1
V

and ? =x?+yj\+zk an a
-
HA 9 y zz)][Ae"kkW""]dx dy dz -
i(lc x+k k
:9 x 1
, (U: x+k +1: 2]
Ihcrefore. Wu?) =Ae 1 W l all
o o o

The wave function must satisfv symmetry conditions of translation along X, Y and za1h
a
such Ihm :5 Az'jdxffdyjdz =1
w (x+a,y.z) =w(x.y.z} 0 0 0

and
w(x.y+a,z) =\V(x.y.z)
w(x,y,z+a) =w(x.y.z)
A2a3=1 :5 A2:-
03
1
or A
2:...
V
1

Applying rst condition to eqn. (5).

: A ekxukykzz) d A: 1

A allkxumukywkzzl 77
Therefore, the normalized wave function is given by
a elk)! =1 = eNmH where n = 0.1.2.
k)
-+
= lV :kayydzz)
=o,i2_",ii,....._i
Mk
e
k;
ll
...ll
a a

similarly k" = 0. 3.71. $2,.....,ig ->

(r) =
1
e"WE,
H
a a a
.49
W 77
and k, z 0. 1%. 1.51,......i_2 (
I
Density of State. Density of state Z (E)
energy range at the energy E.
is the total number of electronic sales per mm
" a a a
-- -

Mn
66
"imummu

~_* VW ---n-

fa Dmuih' of Mnlcs M 0 K. lint R Vwm I N hm"

Chum m 1 Rmund Ham the mm nuHli| "V
1hr clp. mm m. hr Wprmrm, m paints in sphert M
Dm P lhr vnmm n! llw unhm of sphtrc I< ('nlltd
ulnuh Solid Slate Physin n nd
m anlmniu [15 I (K

I.

a.
,
as
h
WEBM
ln
magnitude
p
'

Wk
"1' ~ ' v ' (a 51' ,. -
r

'67
J

57,
1

1hr I-mmx rnmm H A ; L. m If .

/!IrrmH
Iht I'mmi surim'o [Hr ['u
a m = hk or n a 31"
(12)

/
m
tlwn lmm vqn (m I, ~- ..(.q) For k = kF, we get
the Fermi velocity
gun by
.'m
2-\,/
7

\ 1

m INNMM Um). mm and (5c). u is observed

that thorv ls (mr dislm uiplm of quantum number k
I ,/ Up --';'L:;
hk n MIN
V
1/3

mm {1031
'h 1! . k7
h.
.
\Il k, und 1;) Ilw mlumv 0 kspace'
U_h
-
1m
a Figure 5.6, 31:2N
14']

walnrn. xhv mml numlwx of Siam WI]! [10 Equal m m (13)

F
v
mlumc nf Fermi sphcrv divided bv Since all the energy sta tes below
21! 1
2F are lled at 0 K and N In the total number of smut
'
-
a
E

.1; A
th.E)dE =N
24:3 "114)
Ll" [For N elections.
-
there are EN from equation
0.

[HT
a 2
Slam: B at ( 11),

13/2
N = 2ranf
03kg. N n-
-?
31:
61:
Using this value of N in eqn. (14),
01' 325
lap-v
3 E /2
['9 a3 :V [HERE _ Tn:
V 2mEF :lJ
[hz
1/3
k; 3:1:2N
or
'|: V mun
Expressing the at love integral as an indenite integral. taking E; = E

Using the value of kr. from eqn..(10) in =_V_[2_m]

eqn. (9). the Fermi energy
I ZEdE
H 31:2 1:2
,
E r 1.2 MN 2/3
which on differem tiation w.r.t. E gives

=._
2m V
__
F mlll
3/2
Equation (1 1) gives the Fermi energy for the free z ()
E V 2m 1/2
2n2[ hz]

electron in three dimensions. E (15)
Fermi velocity, let us recall the fact that To nd
the momentum operator is
1hr

Eqn. (15) gi ves \[he density of states and can be

w
: II -V =ll !+
.a
'~+k
a A a A A plotted as a fum :tion of energy as in Figure 5.7.
p ' '[ 6:: 1 ay 62:] At the Fen ni surface, E 2 BF. therefore. eqn. (15)
Operating this operator on eqn. becomes
(8) and solving further. we get
3I2 Figures.
V 2m
2
2 E
=hl?
[ h2 ]
I7 =z, E ...(16)
( F) 21: F
 35 ?t_"~17 '. 7
WT 53"WW'J-wv W'I-W,~wam? m
1 '

Nnuh Solid Stale Physics and Electronic 8.5L

"1
M9
168

numlwr of electronic states

actually occupied lay the free electrons at n ternpm-mllmf firm?
electrons 01:10): Paul: fkalllhlUll principle. If N; M1.
L(j32fEJIT v 2", .w
Dim. Emma may he used because
the states between l: and I: r d E, Iliun Al d111, 211 h2 1312].}?{ M)
number of electrons occupying
Nm) 4 E = ZtE) NE) (1 E hz T
WW
3n2N

Where F(E)
1
"I

Therefore. E" H v _

HE) is called the Fermi Functlon. the fermi

energy El"d can be calculated only by knowing J; Le. the concentration a!
(18). which is
At zero kelvln. T = 0. therefore from eqn.
electrons. This @0211? that CVcnfii 0 K. the electrons do possess some amount of energy as
F(E) =1 forE < EF classrca Vlcw. according to which the energy possessed by electrons at 0 K mum be
against the
and E(E) =0 forE>EF zero . .

Therefore. all the states above Ep are empty and below

13;: are filled at 0 K.
(2)
Average kmeuc Energy. The average kinetic energy of electrons at zero keMn is given

At any other temperature T, the equation (17) can be

written as
I
bi

$21:
1

ME) d E = In;
<En> = J' EZiE)F(E)dE
N 0

, 5.8. Derivation of Important Parameter of Free electron gas Since NE) :1 forE<EF

i
(Fermi Energy. We know the total number of electrons is given at and
F(E) =0 forE>EF
E

N = TN(E)dE = TZ(E)F(E)dE <Eo> = [Em-ME

0 O
N 0

But Z E
( )
='V
21t2[

2m
] hz
3/2
E
1/2
[Eqn. (15) section (7]: =L
N
E

0 21': h
3/2 1_

5245 [Using eqn. (15) ofsection (7.7)?

'0 ' 3/2

3/25
N E1/2.F(E)dE _ V 2m
[E
"
3/2
O 27: it
27:2N[ r3] JrE
Q

=L 2'13
21:2 112) l
EfEl/Z IE
dE+ EF dE-
m 1/2F() =__v [211]
ZuzN n2 5/ 2
0

But at 0 K temperature. the fermi function

=-
312

F (E) :0
forE>EF <E
>
V
-
2m2
5 211:2N[ n2 J
E
F
5/2

and F(E) =1 forE>Ep

lherufore. from above equation. N a v (2mE;]3/2
But [From eqn. (11) of section (7.7)}
37:3 I12

N = V (2m) 3/2
EfEmd [3+ 0 3
2712 hz Therefore. <E0> = EEF
0 h

Which gives the average energy of electrons at zero kelvin.