Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
G. Anagnostou
ETH, Swiss Federal Institute of Technology, Zurich, Switzerland
ABSTRACT: Water can affect the stability and the deformations of a tunnel by reducing the effective stress
and thus the resistance to shearing, and by generating seepage forces towards the excavation boundaries. The
seepage-flow may lead to a draw-down of the water-level and to time-dependent subsidence due to consolida-
tion. Furthermore, when tunnelling in soft ground, the seepage forces acting towards the opening may impair
its stability. The movement of water in a low-permeability ground is one major cause of time-dependent ef-
fects in tunnelling. This paper discusses the effects of water by means of examples covering a wide range of
tunnelling conditions. Emphasis is placed on practical questions of tunnel engineering, on the mechanisms gov-
erning the stability and deformation of underground openings in water-bearing ground and on the significance
of poromechanical coupling.
1 INTRODUCTION
Figure 2. (a) Collapse mechanism at the tunnel face (Horn Figure 3. (a) Failure mechanism; (b) Safety factor as a func-
1961); (b) Numerical model for seepage flow analysis; (c) tion of top heading length L; (c) Maximum length L as a
Hydraulic head field ahead of the tunnel face; (d) Results of a function of undrained shear strength Cu.
limit equilibrium stability analysis (geometry as in Fig. 2c)
based upon the method of Anagnostou & Kovri (1996).
1.3 Deformations Fig. 4a shows the crown settlement u of a shallow
tunnel as a function of the support resistance p
Although limit equilibrium analyses are sufficient for
(normalized by the initial stress). The condition of
the investigation of stability questions, coupled
constant water content applies for the short-term de-
stress- and seepage-analyses provide useful insights
formations, while the long-term deformations have
into the mechanics of failure. With such analyses
been obtained by taking into account the steady state
both short- and long-term behaviour can be studied
hydraulic head (Fig. 4c). In the short-term the open-
consistently, based upon the effective strength pa-
ing remains stable even without support, while in the
rameters, i.e. without additional assumptions con-
long-term a minimum support must be provided for
cerning the undrained strength.
stability. When the support pressure approaches a
critical value pcr, the ground fails up to the surface
(Fig. 4c) and the settlement becomes asymptotically
infinite (Fig. 4a). The seepage forces reach approxi-
mately 20 kN/m3 at the tunnel floor (i.e., twice the
submerged unit weight of the ground) indicating
thereby the risk of piping in the case of an open in-
vert.
Coupled analyses are indispensable for investi-
gating questions of surface settlement. Fig. 5b and 5c
show the settlement troughs as well as the steady
state hydraulic head fields around a shallow tunnel
for the case of a constant or a depressed water level,
respectively. In agreement with field observations
(O'Reilly et al. 1991), the settlement trough deepens
and widens with time while the angular distortion
remains approximately constant.
3 FAULT ZONES
3.1 Introduction
Tunnel sections in soil-like materials that are subject
to high water pressures present a considerable chal-
lenge to tunneling operations. In the past such
ground was described as swimming, which aptly
emphasizes the importance of the water. The width
of such fault zones may vary from a few meters to
decametres. In some cases they are accompanied lat-
erally by a heavily jointed and fractured rock zone,
in other cases the transition to competent rock is
very distinct. When such a zone is suddenly encoun-
tered water and loose material flows into the open-
ing. Often one speaks therefore of a "mud inrush",
which in extreme cases can completely inundate long
stretches of tunnel.
Figure 4. Stability of a shallow tunnel (numerical example). To overcome fault zones involving soil under high
(a) Crown settlement u over support pressure p at time t=0+ water pressures the ground is drained and strength-
(undrained conditions) and t= (steady state); (b) Short-term (t ened ahead of the working face (Fig. 6). Experience
= 0+) plastic zone (unsupported opening); (c) Steady state
(t=) hydraulic head field , respective seepage forces f and show that in the case of small tunnel profiles in
extent of plastic zone (support = 17% of initial stress). Com- dense ground or in ground exhibiting some cohesion,
putational assumptions: Isotropic initial stress field; Elastic, drainage alone is often sufficient to enable excava-
perfectly-plastic material; Youngs modulus E = 50 MPa; tion.
Poissons number = 0.25, friction angle ' = 28, cohesion
c' = 20 kPa, assoc. flow rule, total = 20.5 kN/m3; porosity n
= 20%.
Figure 5. Settlement induced by tunnelling (numerical example from Anagnostou 2002): (a) Model; (b) Settlement trough and
steady state hydraulic head field for an constant water level; (c) Settlement trough and steady state hydraulic head field after draw-
down of water level. Parameters: Ground: elastic, perfectly-plastic material with associated flow rule, E = 60 MPa, = 0.30, ' =
30, c' = 0, porosity n=30%. Lining: d = 0.20 m, E = 20 GPa.
The ground can be strengthened and sealed either tional symmetry, and closed-form solutions can be
by grouting or by artificial freezing. Ground freez- derived (Anagnostou & Kovri 2003).
ing however only offers a temporary solution. In Due to the filling of the pores, the permeability
deep tunnels, in general a permanent strengthening of the grouted zone is very low compared to that
and sealing is required, which can only be obtained of the untreated ground. In the borderline case of a
by grouting. By injecting a fluid into the ground, very stiff and low-permeability grouting body, the
which then hardens, its strength, stiffness and im- tunnel excavation does not have any effects on the
perviousness are increased. The aim is usually to stresses and porewater pressures in the surround-
obtain a cylindrical grouted body by carrying out ing untreated ground. The conditions at the ex-
the grouting works in a controlled way. trados of the grouting cylinder are given, therefore,
by the initial values of effective stress o and
porewater pressure po. The hydraulic head differ-
1.2 Effect of seepage flow ence between the untreated ground and the excava-
The effect of water on the stability of grouting tion boundary is dissipated entirely within the
bodies can be explained by considering the simple grouting body.
case of a circular tunnel (of radius a) in a homoge-
neous and isotropic initial stress field (total stress
o , Fig. 7a). The initial water pressure at the eleva-
tion of the tunnel is assumed to be uniform with
the value po . After tunnel excavation the grouted
zone takes the form of a thick-walled cylinder
whose outer surface (at radius r = b) is loaded by
the surrounding untreated ground and the water.
The ground (both the grouted and the untreated)
is considered to be a porous medium according to
the principle of effective stresses. Elastoplastic
material behaviour with Coulomb's failure criterion
is assumed. Seepage effects are taken into account
based upon Darcy's law. The permeability of the
grouted body is k, that of the untreated ground k o . Figure 6. Tunneling through a fault zone.
The excavation boundary (r=a) represents a seep-
age face, i.e. the water pressure p at that point
takes on the atmospheric value. Under these as-
sumptions the system fulfils the condition of rota-
The porewater pressure distribution within the
grouted body (Fig. 7a) is:
ln(r / a)
p = po (1)
ln(b / a)
The grouting cylinder is loaded by the ground pres-
sure o acting at r = b and by the seepage forces
associated with the porewater pressure gradient
dp/dr. Depending on the magnitude of these pa-
rameters and on the strength of the grouted zone,
yielding may occur. The extent of the plastic zone
is given by its radius (Fig. 7a).
The effect of the seepage forces can be demon-
strated best by studying the equilibrium inside the
plastic zone. The equilibrium condition is
d r t r dp
= (2)
dr r dr
where r and t denote the effective radial and
tangential stress, respectively. The stress field
within the plastic zone fulfils, furthermore, the
yield condition
1+ sin
t = r + f c (3)
1 sin
Figure 7. Extent of plastic zone and distribution of pore
water pressure p when (a) the permeability k of the grouted where fc and denote the uniaxial compressive
zone is very low relative to the permeability ko of the un- strength and the friction angle of the grouted body,
treated ground; (b) when the grouted zone is completely
respectively. From Equations (1) to (3) we obtain:
drained. Parameters: Radius a = 5 m; Radius b = 13 m; Ini-
tial total stress o = 4.2 MPa; Initial pore water pressure po d r 2sin po
= 2 MPa; Friction angle = 30; Uniaxial compressive r = r + f c (4)
dr 1 sin ln(b / a)
strength fc = 3 MPa. Calculation after Anagnostou & Kovri
(2003). From the above we note that the effect of pore wa-
ter pressure is apparently equivalent to a reduction
of the uniaxial compressive strength fc by po/ln(b/a)
(cf. Egger et al. 1982). In the example of Fig. 7a, the
seepage forces cause an apparent strength reduc-
tion from 3 to 0.9 MPa!
An extensive plastification, such as the one in
Fig. 7a, is in general unacceptable as it may lead to
a loosening of the grouted zone and carries the risk
of an uncontrollable material and water inflow (in-
ner erosion). The plastification of the grouted body
can be limited by different measures, such as ap-
plying a tunnel lining of higher resistance or by
producing a grouted body of larger diameter or
higher strength. In view of the considerable effect
of seepage discussed above, it is obvious that an-
other very efficient measure is the systematic
Figure 8. Water inflow Q (normalized by the inflow Qo tak- drainage of the grouting body.
ing place without grouting) and thickness (-a) of the plastic Note that drainage does not reduce the total load
zone (normalized by the thickness b-a of the grouting cylin- acting upon the grouted body. Due to the seepage
der) as a function of the permeability k of the grouted zone
(normalized by the permeability ko of the untreated ground). flow, which takes place within an extended region
Parameters: as in Figure 7. Calculation after Anagnostou & surrounding the grouted zone, the untreated ground
Kovri (2003). consolidates towards the grouted zone and the ef-
fective radial stress on the external boundary of the
grouted body increases by the same amount as that
by which the water pressure decreases there. The
effective stress at the extrados of the grouted body vealed that control of porewater pressure during
becomes equal to the total initial stress o . Never- triaxial testing is indispensable. Specimen pre-
theless, keeping the seepage forces away from the saturation and maintenance of a sufficient back
highly stressed grouted region leads to a considera- pressure are essential for obtaining reliable and re-
bly narrower plastic zone (Fig. 7b). producible parameters (Vogelhuber et al. 2004).
The technical and financial feasibility of drain- Conventional triaxial tests are inadequate, as they
age in an actual case depends on the quantity of may lead to a serious under- or over-estimation of
water inflows. Reduction of water inflows calls for the strength parameters. Consolidated drained
a lower permeability grouting body and implies a (CD) and consolidated undrained (CU) tests pro-
more intensive stressing (Fig. 8) or, in order to limit vided, despite the complex structure of the kakiritic
plastification, a higher strength grouting. phyllite, remarkably uniform results. The distribu-
tion of the strength parameters obtained by such
tests was very small in comparison with conven-
4 SQUEEZING ROCK tional triaxial testing data.
Squeezing normally develops slowly, although
cases have also been known where rapid deforma-
4.1 Introduction tions occur very close to the working face. The de-
When driving through zones of cohesive materials velopment of rock pressure or deformation may
of low strength and high deformability the tunnel- take place over a period of days, weeks or months
ing engineer is faced with problems of a completely and can be traced back generally to three mecha-
different kind. It is almost as if the rock can be nisms:
moulded, which is why it was formerly spoken of (a) The three-dimensional redistribution of
a "mass of dough". If suitable support measures are stress in the region around the working face. This
not implemented, large long-term rock deforma- mechanism cannot explain long-term rock deforma-
tions will occur, which can lead even to a complete tions, because it occurs within two or three tunnel
closure of the tunnel cross section. The rock exerts diameters from the working face.
a gradually increasing pressure on the temporary (b) The rheological properties of the ground. So
lining, which can lead to its destruction. In such called "creep" is especially evident if the rock is
cases one can speak of "genuine rock pressure and highly stressed as the failure state approaches,
the ground is characterized as "squeezing". The ba- which indicates, therefore, that it plays an impor-
sic aspects of tunneling in zones of squeezing rock tant role in squeezing.
have been presented in a concise form by Kovri (c) The excavation of a tunnel in saturated rock
(1998). Typical examples of rocks prone to triggers a transient seepage flow process, in the
squeezing are phyllites, schists, serpentinites, course of which both the pore water pressures and
claystones, certain types of Flysch and decom- the effective stresses change over time. The latter
posed clay and micaceous rocks. leads to rock deformations. Thus we are faced here
Experience shows that high pore water pressure with a coupled process of seepage flow and rock
promotes the development of squeezing. This is deformation. The more impermeable the rock, the
confirmed by the observation that considerably slower will process be, i.e. the more pronounced is
smaller deformations take place when the rock the time-dependency of the rock deformation or
mass is drained in advance. pressure.
The effects of porewater pressure on the me- These three mechanisms are in general superim-
chanical behaviour of squeezing rock have been in- posed. Here attention will be paid exclusively to
vestigated by a comprehensive laboratory testing the processes associated with the development and
program, which was carried out at ETH Zurich dissipation of pore water pressures. The effects of
during the design and exploration phase of the 57 porewater pressure will be discussed on the basis
km long Gotthard highspeed railway tunnel. Heav- of computational results obtained with simple
ily squeezing ground was expected particularly in models.
the so-called northern Tavetsch massif (TZM- A rotationally symmetric system in plane strain
N). During mountain formation this zone was sub- will be considered (see inset in Fig. 9). At the exca-
jected to intensive tectonic action resulting in alter- vation boundary, an atmospheric porewater pres-
nating layers of intact and weak kakiritic gneisses, sure (pa = 0) and a radial stress a corresponding to
slates, and phyllites. Kakirite denotes an inten- the lining resistance apply. At the far field bound-
sively sheared rock, which has lost a large part of ary, stress and porewater pressure are fixed to their
its original strength. On account of a depth of cover initial values. The rock mass is modelled as a satu-
of 800 m, of an initial pore water pressure of 80 rated porous medium according to the principle of
bar and of the expected rock properties, the ap- effective stresses. Seepage flow is taken into ac-
proximately 1100 m long TZM-N was a major count using Darcys law. The mechanical behaviour
challenge to the project. The laboratory tests re-
is described by an elastic, perfectly plastic material
model obeying Coulomb's failure criterion. Interesting results concerning the efficiency of
these two structural concepts can be obtained by
investigating:
1.2 Short- and long-term behaviour (a) the time-development of the rock pressure
We first consider the two limiting states of tran- under a fixed radial displacement ua (the "resistance
sient seepage flow: the state at t = 0+ ("short-term principle" case);
behaviour") and the state at t = ("long-term be- (b) the time-development of the displacement ua
haviour"). The first is characterised by the condi- for a constant lining resistance a (the yielding
tion of a constant water content, while the second principle case).
is governed by the steady state porewater pressure Fig. 10a shows the results of two transient
distribution. The short-term volumetric strains are analyses carried out in respect of these two cases.
zero, while the long-term deformations are associ- The ordinates a and ua refer to the "resistance
ated with a volume increase caused by rock dila- principle" (left axis) and to the "yielding principle"
tancy. The short-term behaviour is therefore more (right axis), respectively. For the sake of simplic-
favourable than the long-term behaviour. ity, it was assumed that the lining was installed af-
This can be seen clearly by comparing the re- ter the occurrence of the short-term deformations.
spective ground response curves (Fig. 9), which Thus the curves have their origin at a = 0 and ua =
describe the interdependence of radial displacement 0, respectively.
ua at the excavation boundary and lining resistance According to Fig. 10a, the radial displacement ua
a. of a flexible lining develops at a much slower rate
The short-term radial displacement ua stabilises than the rock pressure a acting upon a rigid lining.
at approximately 0.36 m even in the case of an un- The development of rock deformations in the first
supported opening (lining resistance a = 0). Long- case needs more time, because it is associated with
term, however, the tunnel would close (upper volumetric strains and, consequently, presupposes
curve). the seepage of a larger quantity of water. The rock
If one assumes that about 30 - 40% of the pressure a acting upon a stiff lining (the resistance
short-term deformation occurs before the installa- principle) increases within a month to the consid-
tion of the lining (ahead of the excavation or in the erable value of 0.5 MPa, while the corresponding
immediate vicinity of the working face, cf. Panet deformation of the flexible lining at 0.03 m is still
1995) and that a temporary lining can withstand a negligible. This result is interesting from the practi-
radial displacement of 0.20 m without experiencing cal point of view, as it shows that with a yielding
damage, then it has to be dimensioned for a rock support one gains time.
pressure of approximately 0.30 MPa (Fig. 9, Point
A). Long-term however the rock pressure would
increase to the much higher value of 1.5 MPa
(Point B).
6 CLOSING REMARKS
REFERENCES