APPENDIX 2 WAVES AND WAVE ANALYSIS

A2.1 Introduction wave terminology and, importantly, they can be manipu-

lated and analysed as if they were waves recorded in the
The term wave is used to describe a localized disturbance
space domain.
which travels through some medium. Consider a cork
Waveforms are frequently encountered in geophysics, so
oating in water. A ripple, i.e. a wave, travelling (propagat-
it is essential to be familiar with the terminology used for
ing) across the waters surface causes the cork to bob up and
describing them and the mathematical methods used for
down. The movement of the cork (and of individual water
manipulating them. Specic aspects of the various type of
molecules) is due to the disturbance associated with the
waves used in geophysical surveys, and their propagation
wave. The wave can be thought of as a moving packet of
in the case of moving waves, are described for each
strain energy travelling through the water. Although the
geophysical method in the relevant chapters of this text.
water is deformed (strained) during the passage of the ripple,
Here we provide only a general description of waveforms
it only produces an oscillation about a point. The cork does
and wave-related phenomena and the techniques used in
not move laterally, demonstrating that the disturbance
their analysis.
associated with the wave does not represent a ow of water.
In the example above, the variation in the surface height
of the water could be plotted as a function of location for A2.2 Parameters dening waves
different times (Fig. A2.1). Each of these plots is a spatial and waveforms
series (see Section 2.2). The movement of the ripple
A familiar and extremely useful waveform is a sine wave,
through space is clearly apparent when the four spatial
also referred to as a sinusoid. This is a graph of the sine
series are compared. It is also possible to plot the height
function from trigonometry, where the sine of an angle is
of the water surface at some chosen point as a function of
plotted against the angle. As will be demonstrated in
time (Fig. A2.1b). This is a time series (see Section 2.2) and
Section A2.4, other waveforms can be represented as the
in the example represents the cork bobbing up and down
sum of a series of different sine waves.
as the ripple passes.
A sine wave is continuous. A waveform is said to be
A graph of the variation of some physical parameter
continuous if it goes to innity in either time or distance.
related to a wave is known as a waveform. As shown in
The concept of a continuous wave is fundamental to the
Fig. A2.1 this can be plotted in the time domain or the space
denition of a wide variety of waveforms. There also exists
domain depending on the type of recording. Although these
another class of waves which are said to be discontinuous.
represent variations in two different physical dimensions,
These have limited temporal/spatial extent, i.e. they only
mathematically they can be treated identically so they can
exist in a restricted area of time or space, and are known
be manipulated and analysed in the same way. The seismic
as wavelets. An example of a wavelet in the time domain is a
and electromagnetic waves exploited in geophysical surveys
single hand clap: the sound only exists in a restricted inter-
travel through the subsurface and are usually analysed as
val of time/space it is a non-continuous wave. The equiva-
time series recorded at a stationary recording location.
lent continuous sound wave might be a continuous hum.
However, graphs of the spatial variations of any of the
Referring to Fig. A2.2a, a number of parameters dene
physical quantities measured in geophysical surveys,
a wave:
although not necessarily directly created by wave phenom-
ena, have all the attributes of a waveform (see Fig. 1.1a in The maximum variation in the sine wave, which
the main text). They can be conveniently described using accounts for the positive and negative variations, is
2 Waves and wave analysis

a) a)
Space domain
Magnitude
+ Direction of
+
propagation Phase difference (Df)
Amplitude (A)
Magnitude

Location
To To
A
Time = t0 Time/location

+ Direction of #2
B propagation #1
Wavelength (l)
Magnitude

or period (P )

Location Time/space domain

Time = t0+ Dt b)

Amplitude (A )
+ Direction of #1

Phase (f)
Amplitude
propagation #2 Phase
#2 difference
difference
Magnitude

#1 (Df)
Location
Frequency Frequency
C
Time = t0+2 Dt Frequency domain
Direction of
+ propagation
D Figure A2.2 Continuous sine waves. The representation of two
Magnitude

continuous sine waves in (a) the time/space and (b) the frequency
domains. See text for further explanations.
Location

Time = t0+3 Dt A sine wave repeats itself. The repeated section of the
Wavelength (l)
Reference
wave is known as a cycle. This is the section between two
point consecutive equivalent points on the waveform experi-
b) Magnitude
encing identical disturbance. For example, the section
(at reference point) between two adjacent peaks or troughs, or two zero
+
cross-overs of the same slope etc., represents one cycle
A of the wave.
Time = t0
B Time In the space domain, the distance that one cycle of the
Time = t0+ Dt domain sine wave occupies is known as the wavelength () of
C
Time = t0+2D t Period (P ) the wave. The time domain equivalent of wavelength is
Time = t0+3D t the period (P) of the wave, which is the time taken for
D
one cycle of the wave to occur.
Time In the time domain, the number of repetitions or cycles
per unit of time, i.e. cycles per second or hertz (Hz), is
Figure A2.1 Waveforms. (a) Waveforms showing the magnitude of a
the frequency (f) of the wave. In the space domain, the
waves disturbance in the region of a reference point in a medium at
different times (separated by time interval t) as a wavelet passes number of cycles per unit of distance, e.g. cycles per
through the point, and (b) the disturbance at the reference point metre, is the spatial frequency or wave number () of
shown as a waveform varying in time. the wave. It is common for spatial frequency to be
(incorrectly) referred to as frequency.
known as the peak value or amplitude (A) of the wave. In The various parameters dened above are related as
the water-ripple analogy, this is the height of the ripples shown in the following Eqs. (A2.1) to (A2.4):
above or below the average water level. As described in 1
Section 6.3.3.1, the amplitude of a wave is a related to its A2:1

energy content. The term amplitude is also used in a less
formal sense to represent the magnitude of the waveform 1
f A2:1
at some specic time or location. P
 A2.3 Wave interference 3

For a wave travelling at a velocity (V) a) Magnitude

c
dis
V g T = 2T = 1
f A2:3

tin
Rota
T=3
T=0
and so T=4 Axis 0 1 2 3 4
Time (T )

V
A2:4
f
Df
Phase
A sine wave of a particular frequency can also be b) Magnitude
difference
described in terms of a radial line rotating anticlockwise c
dis T = 1
g T=0
on a reference circle (Fig. A2.3a). The length of the line is

tin
Rota
the amplitude (A) of the wave. The variation in the T=2
f
vertical height of the end of the amplitude line, measured T=3 Axis 0 1 2 3 4
Time (T )
above and below the axis of the circle, as it rotates is the
T=4
magnitude of the waveform with time.
The rotating circle analogy is important because it easily
Df
demonstrates the concept of phase angle , often just Phase
c) Magnitude
called the phase. In the three parts of Fig. A2.3 the circle difference (180)
c
starts rotating with the amplitude line in different pos- dis
g

tin
itions. Comparing the three waveforms shows they are
Rota f = 180 T=4
shifted relative to each other and parallel to the time axis.
T=0 Axis 0 1 2 3 4
The amount of shift depends on amount of rotation of T=3
Time (T )

the reference circle associated with the different starting T=1

T=2

positions. This is why phase is an angle.

Figure A2.2a shows two sine waves of the same
frequency and with different amplitudes. The offset Figure A2.3 Rotating circle analogy for the magnitude variations of a

between them is their phase difference () (Fig. sine wave. See text for details.

A2.2b). As shown, the variation represented by wave-

form #1 leads that represented by waveform #2 by the
amount of their phase difference. Alternatively, we can
say that waveform #2 lags waveform #1 by the phase
difference.
An important case is when the phase difference between
two waveforms is 180 ( radians), i.e. they are com-
pletely out of phase. This is the case for the waveforms in
Figs. A2.3a and c. There is an exact alignment of the
peaks of one waveform with the troughs of the other
waveform, which is equivalent to multiplying the ampli-
tude of one waveform by 1, i.e. reversing the wave-
forms polarity. When the waveforms are perfectly in
step, i.e. their peaks (and their troughs and cross-overs)
are coincident, their phase difference is zero and the
waves are in phase.
An alternative to the time/spatial domain representations
of a sine wave is its frequency domain (also called Fourier
domain) representation. In Fig. A2.2b, the two sine waves
are represented by two graphs: one showing variations in
amplitude as a function of frequency and known as the
amplitude spectrum, and the other showing the phase
as a function of frequency and known as the phase
spectrum. The frequency domain representation is called
the frequency spectrum, Fourier spectrum, or simply the
spectrum.
A2.3 Wave interference
Waves interact with each other through a process known
as interference. It is an important property of waves which
occurs where two or more waves occupy the same space.
These combine to produce a resultant wave whose proper-
ties depend on the relative amplitudes, frequencies and
phases of the individual waves. The magnitude of the
resultant at any location is the sum of the magnitudes of
the individual waves at that location. Where the peaks, and
troughs, of the waves tend to coincide the magnitude of the
resulting disturbance is greater than that of the individual
4 Waves and wave analysis

waves. This is known as constructive interference. Where
the peaks tend to coincide with the troughs the resultant
magnitude is less and the effect is known as destructive
interference.
A waveform of any type can be described in terms of a
group of interfering sine waves of different frequencies,
and possibly with different amplitudes and phases. It is
very convenient to describe and characterise a waveform in
terms of its constituent sine waves, i.e. in terms of its
frequency spectrum (see Section A2.2). The amplitude
spectrum tells us what frequencies are present in the wave-
form and in what proportions they occur. In other words,
it displays the waveforms frequency content and tells us
how much of the variability in the waveform is due to low-
frequency waves (long wavelengths) and how much is
related to high-frequency waves (short wavelengths). Also,
the frequency domain representation is a mathematically
more convenient and efcient way of manipulating and
analysing waveforms, particularly complex waveforms (see
Section A2.4).

Time/space domain Frequency/Fourier domain

Resultant Waveform #1 Waveform #2 Resultant

a) waveform waveform
Waveform #1 Amplitude Amplitude Amplitude
Interference Interference
(S) (S)
Phase Phase Phase

Waveform #2
Frequency Frequency Frequency

b)
Waveform #1 Amplitude Amplitude Amplitude
Interference Interference
(S) (S)
Phase Phase Phase

Frequency Frequency Frequency

Waveform #2 (change in amplitude)

c)

Waveform #1 Amplitude Amplitude Amplitude

Interference Interference
(S) (S)
Phase Phase Phase

Waveform #2 (change in phase) Frequency Frequency Frequency

d)

Waveform #1 Amplitude Amplitude Amplitude

Interference Interference
(S) (S)
Phase Phase Phase

Waveform #2 (change in frequency)

Frequency Frequency Frequency

Figure A2.4 The interference of two continuous sine waves illustrating how differences in their amplitudes, phases and frequencies determines
the nature of the resultant wave, which is shown in both the time/space and frequency domains. (a) Waveform #2 is twice the frequency of
waveform #1 and their amplitudes are equal; (b) the amplitude of waveform #2 has increased; (c) the amplitudes of both waveforms are the
same as (a) but the phase of waveform #2 has changed; and (d) the amplitude of both waveforms is the same as (a) but the frequency of
waveform #2 has increased.
 A2.4 Spectral analysis 5

a) Figure A2.4 shows the effects of varying the amplitude,

1
phase and frequency of just one of two interfering waves.
Notice how the occurrences of constructive and destructive
interference change position along the resultant waveform,
5
radically affecting its shape and its frequency spectrum.
The concept of a geophysical dataset comprising a series
of interfering waveforms is of fundamental importance. In
10 the main text there are numerous references to, and dis-
cussions of, longer- and shorter-wavelength (lower- and
higher-frequency) components of the variation in the data.
The waveform in Fig. A2.4d might be described in these
15 terms. Often these represent signal or noise (see Section
2.4). For example, the problem of separating shorter-
20 wavelength (residual) variations from longer-wavelength
b) (regional) variations is discussed at length in Section 2.9.2.

Sum of waveforms 1 to 5
Dominant period A2.4 Spectral analysis
Sum of waveforms 1 to 10
A waveform can be transformed into its frequency spec-
trum, or separated into its component sine waves, through
Sum of waveforms 1 to 15 a process known as spectral analysis. The mathematical
operation used for the spectral, or Fourier, analysis of
Sum of waveforms 1 to 20 waveforms is called the Fourier transform. A forward
transform converts a time or spatial series into its Fourier
To To
0 domain equivalent. As the name suggests, the reverse or
Time/location
c) inverse transform does the opposite. The Fourier trans-
Amplitude Phase
Sum of waveforms 1 to 5
form is a complex algorithm the mathematics of which are
5 beyond our scope, but a description containing minimal
mathematics is provided by Rayner (1971) and a more
1 1 5
0 mathematical, but still easy to follow description, is pro-
Frequency Frequency
vided by Dobrin and Savit (1988).
Amplitude Phase When transformed into the frequency domain, a
10 Sum of waveforms 1 to 10
5 waveform can be modied in ways to suit the user, i.e.
1
the amplitudes and or phases of some or all of the com-
1 5 10
0 ponent sine waves can be changed, for example those with
Frequency Frequency

Amplitude Phase
Figure A2.5 Summing zero-phase wavelets. (a) A series of sine waves
10 15 Sum of waveforms 1 to 15 of different frequencies and amplitudes whose positive peaks are
5
coincident in time/space at the central point (because they all have
1 zero phase shift). (b) Various zero-phase wavelets shown in the time/
1 5 10 15
0
Frequency Frequency spatial domain obtained by summing different combinations of the
sine waves shown in (a). The black horizontal line represents the
Amplitude Phase
dominant period. Note how this decreases, and the pulse narrows, as
10 Sum of waveforms 1 to 20
5
15 more high-frequency sine waves are included. (c) The amplitude-
and phase-spectra of the frequency domain representation of the
1 20 1 5 10 15 20 wavelet created by summing the sinusoids in (a). Phase is zero across
0
Frequency Frequency the bandwidth because all the components are zero-phase sinusoids.
6 Waves and wave analysis

a) particular frequencies removed. The process of modifying

1 f0
the original waveform in this way is called ltering, and
is commonly utilised when the signal and noise have
different frequency content; see Section 2.7.4.4.
2 3f0
Figure A2.4 demonstrates that quite complex waveforms
3 5f0
can be created from the interference of just two sine waves.
4 7f0
Even complicated waveforms that bear little resemblance
5 9f0
6 11f0 to a sine wave can be created from the summation of
13f0
7 different sine waves. Figures A2.5 and A2.6 demonstrate
8 15f0
this for two waveforms of relevance to geophysics. The
wavelet in Fig. A2.5 might represent the pulse of energy
b) created during a seismic survey (see Chapter 6) or a high-
frequency electromagnetic (radar) survey (see Appendix 5).
Sum of waveforms 1 to 2
The square wave in Fig. A2.6 is a waveform commonly
created by the transmitters used in electrical and electro-
Sum of waveforms 1 to 3 magnetic surveys (see Chapter 5).
Referring to Fig. A2.5, each of the sine waves added to
create the wavelet has a different frequency, most have the
Sum of waveforms 1 to 4
same amplitudes and in this case all have zero phase. This
makes the sinusoids symmetrical about a central point
Sum of waveforms 1 to 5 where they all have coincident peaks. The wavelet is also
symmetrical about the central point and this is where its
peak value occurs. The wavelet is referred to as a zero-
Sum of waveforms 1 to 6 phase wavelet. As more and more sine waves of higher and
higher frequency are added, the wavelet becomes shorter. It
is said to be more localised in time (or space) but it has a
Sum of waveforms 1 to 7
larger range in its frequency content (spectrum), i.e. it has
greater bandwidth. A zero-phase wavelet is the wavelet that
Sum of waveforms 1 to 8
has the shortest time/spatial duration for a given frequency
content. It is common also to talk about a dominant
frequency or dominant period of a wavelet, which is that
To To of the central peak.
0
Time/Location The limiting case is when the wavelet is so short it is
c) everywhere zero except at one time/location where it has
Amplitude Phase
nite amplitude. This is referred to as a spike or impulse.
f0
A perfect impulse is formed by summing sinusoids of
equal amplitude across all frequencies, i.e. it has an innite
3f
0

7f 0 11
f f f
5f
0

f0 7f 0 11 15 bandwidth.
0

f
0
9f
0

13

f
0

f
0
130

0
15

9f
0
3f
5f
0

Frequency
Figure A2.6 Square waves. (a) A series of sine waves with
frequency increasing as the odd multiple (n) of the fundamental
frequency (f0) and amplitudes decreasing as 1/n as shown and
described in the text. (b) Various approximations of a square wave
shown in the time/spatial domain obtained by summing different
combinations of the sine waves shown in (a). (c) The amplitude-
and phase-spectra of the frequency domain representation of the
square wave created by summing all eight sine waves. Phase is zero
across the spectrum because all the components are zero-phase
sinusoids.
Frequency
The square wave is created by the summation of sine
waves whose frequencies are odd multiples (n) of the
lowest or fundamental frequency (f0), whose amplitudes
decrease with increasing frequency by the inverse of the
multiple (1/n), and they all have zero phase (Fig. A2.6). As
more high-frequency sine waves are added to the series the
teeth of the square wave become better-dened, i.e. their
edges are stepper and their tops atter. The perfect square
wave requires an innite number (n goes to innity) of sine
waves to be summed together.

The frequency content of a square wave makes it a very
useful waveform when measurements are required at
different frequencies. It is commonly exploited to great
advantage in electrical geophysics where multi-frequency
measurements are made simultaneously. The recording
can be reduced to its component sine waves using the
Fourier transform, and the amplitudes and phases of
selected frequencies analysed.
The sharpening of the square wave and localisation of a
wavelet with the addition of high-frequency sine waves has
important implications for geophysical data analysis. As
described in Section 2.6.1, the geophysical responses
comprise continuous waveforms that have to be digitally
REFERENCES
Dobrin, M.B. and Savit, C.H., 1988. Introduction to Geophysical
Prospecting. McGraw Hill Book Co.
References 7
sampled to be processed using computers. The spacing
between samples needs to be smaller when the data contains
variations of higher frequency. In practice there are limits to
how small the sample interval can be. This means the entire
information content in the data is not represented by the
sampling and so the Fourier-transformed data are not an
exact representation of the actual data. If there are discontinu-
ities in the data, i.e. abrupt changes such as steps or spikes,
there is a tendency for spurious short-wavelength reverber-
ations to appear in the transformed data. The effect is known
as ringing. It is more properly known as Gibbs phenomenon, a
detailed description of which is beyond our scope. This is a
form of methodological noise (see Section 2.4.2).
Rayner, J.N., 1971. An Introduction to Spectral Analysis. Pion
Ltd.