Comparativa Norma Viento

WIND LOADS ON LOW-RISE BUILDINGS - A REVIEW
OF CODAL SPECIFICATIONS
A Report
Submitted by
RAJESH GOYAL
COE - RESEARCHER
For the short term fellowship on

The 21st Century COE Program
Wind Effects on Buildings and Urban Environment
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I would like to convey my respectful thanks to Prof. Yukio Tamura, COE

Program Director, Wind Engineering Research Center, Graduate School of Engineering,
Tokyo Polytechnic University for offering me the short term fellowship in the The 21st
Century COE Program Wind Effects on Buildings and Urban Environments
I would like to express my sincere thanks to Mr. Tarsem Garg, Honb Chairman
of MM Education trust, Mullana Ambala for permission to avail this short term
fellowship.
I would like to express my thanks to Dr. N. P. Mehta, Director, MM Engineering
College, Mullana, Ambala and Prof. A.K. Goel, Head Civil Engineering Department for
providing necessary support.
I would like to extend my thanks to Dr. A.K. Ahuja, Assistant Professor, Civil
Engineering Department, Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee for informing me about
this fellowship and encouraging me time to time.
I would like to extend my sincere regards to my beloved parents and other family
members for giving every kind of support I needed to come to Japan.
I am grateful to my wife Mrs. Shally Goyal and dear daughter Ms. Vardha Goyal
to be patient and giving me full support during the period of fellowship.
I would like to extend my thanks to all my colleagues in my Institute specially Mr.
Manik Goyal encouraging and helping me always.
I would like to extend my thanks to the staff, COE program of Tokyo Polytechnic
University, Graduate School of Wind Engineering, Iiyama, Atsugi, Japan.
RAJESH GOYAL
ABSTRACT
The low rise building construction is very popular in every part of the world. These
low rise buildings are used for residential, commercial, industrial, institutional and other
purposes. The size and shape of the building depends upon the variety of factors like the
use of building, location of building, aesthetic consideration etc. The low rise buildings
may have different kind of roofs like flat roof, gable roof, hip roof, through roof, vaulted
roof and so on. Among different type of roof, the buildings with gable roof are very
common at every place as it suitable for almost all the terrains and also look good
aesthetically. The design of gable roof buildings are very seems to be very simple, but
actually not when design against wind loads. The wind forces changes drastically along
the sloping surface of gable roof. So for designing such buildings the recommendations
of wind codes should be followed. Each county have its own wind code, which provide
the design guidelines for wind loads. In the present work, the wind design codes of
various countries have been reviewed for design specifications for gable roof buildings.
For better comparison of design specifications a actual problem of gable roof building
has been solved with recommendations of various codes.
COE- Short Term Fellowship Report
CONTENTS
LIST OF FIGURES
LIST IF TABLES
LIST OF PHOTOGRAPHS
1.0 INTRODUCTION
2.0 FACTORS AFFECTING WIND LOADS

2.1 Aspect Ratio
2.2 Effect of Roof Slope
2.3 Openings
2.4 Projections
2.5 Effect of Angle of Wind Incidence
3.0 TYPES OF ROOFS
3.1 Sloping Roofs
3.2 Curved Roofs
4.0 TYPES OF PROJECTIONS
5.0 EVALUATION OF WIND LOADS
6.0 CODAL SPECIFICATIONS
6.1 Japan wind code recommendations for gable roof buildings
6.2 EURO wind code recommendations for gable roof buildings
6.3 American wind code recommendations for gable roof buildings
6.4 Australian wind code recommendations for gable roof buildings
6.5 Indian wind code recommendations for gable roof buildings
7.0 DESIGN EXAMPLE
7.1 Japan Code (AIJ Recommendations 2004)
7.2 EURO Code
i
7.3 American Code
7.4 Australian Code
7.5 Indian Code
7.6 Summary
8.0 CONCLUSIONS
REFERENCES
ii
LIST OF FIGURES
Fig. 1 Different types of roofs

Fig. 2 Various types of projections on low-rise buildings
Fig. 3 The enclosed canopy on two sides [AS/NZS 1170.2:2002]
Fig. 4 Geometric parameters of gable roof building [AIJ Recommendations 2004]
Fig. 5 Geometric parameters of gable roof building [prEN 1991-1-4:2004]
Fig. 6 Geometric parameters of gable roof building [ASCE 7-98]
Fig. 7 Geometric parameters of gable roof building [AS/NZS 1170.2:2002]
Fig. 8 Zoning on gable roof surface [IS 875 (Part 3) 1987]
Fig. 9 Wind pressure coefficients on gable roof building [IS 875 (Part 3) 1987]
Fig. 10 Detail of gable roof building to be design
Fig. 11 Dimensions of gable roof building to be design
Fig. 12 Division of area on the gable roof sloping surfaces as per ASCE 7-98 (wind flow
parallel to the ridge)
Fig. 13 Division of area on the gable roof sloping surfaces as per AS/NZS 1170.2:2002
(wind flow parallel to the ridge)
Fig. 14 Division of area on the gable roof sloping surfaces as per IS 875 (Part-3) 1987
(any direction of wind flow)
iii
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1 Wind pressure coefficients on roof zone R for wind flow parallel to ridge
[AIJ Recommendations 2004]
Table 2 Wind pressure coefficients on windward roof zone Ru for wind flow normal to
ridge [AIJ Recommendations 2004]
Table 3 Wind pressure coefficients on leeward roof zone RL for wind flow normal to
Table 4 Pressure coefficients values on different zones of roof surface for wind flow
normal to the ridge [prEN 1991-1-4:2004]
parallel to the ridge [prEN 1991-1-4:2004]
Table 6 Pressure coefficients on roof surface of gable roof for wind flow normal and
parallel to the ridge [ASCE 7-98]
Table 7 Wind pressure coefficients on upwind slope surface (U) and downwind slope
surface (D) for a< 10 and surface (R) for gable roof [AS/NZS 1170.2:2002]
Table 8 Wind pressure coefficients on upwind slope surface (U) for a =10
[AS/NZS 1170.2:2002]
Table 9 Wind pressure coefficients on upwind slope surface (U) for a =10 and surface
(R) for hip roof [AS/NZS 1170.2:2002]
Table 10 Wind force on gable roof recommended by different wind codes
iv
LIST OF PHOTOGRAPHS
Photo. 1 A hotel building with continuous balcony
Photo. 2 Canopy at the entrance gate of an educational building
v
COE-Short Term Fellowship Report
1.0 INTRODUCTION
In the opening decade of wind engineering research and applications the typical
focus was on the glamorous, high-rise structure. These expensive projects could typically
afford the high cost of a wind tunnel study. As the relative cost of these studies has
decreased over the last forty years, more conventional architecture has found its way into
the wind tunnel. However it is still quite rare for a single- family dwelling to be studied,
and when it does happen it is not usually not just a typical home-rather it is an expensive
architectural edifice. Sadly the arrive of a major wind event, such as cyclone or hurricane,
inevitably results in far more wind damage and consequently financial loss to non-
engineered low-rise homes and industrial buildings.
The majority of the structures built all over the world can be categorized as low-
rise buildings used for commercial, industrial, residential and other purpose. These
buildings are constructed in different types of terrain and topography with various plan
forms. The lateral strength of buildings in areas other than high seismic zones is mainly
governed by wind loads and this aspect is more evident in zones of severe wind such as
coastal regions, open terrains and summit of hills.
Regarding wind loads on buildings the significance of the geometry was
recognized early. Studies carried out have lead to important conclusions regarding the
influence of roof slope upon the wind loading, and superiority of the hipped roof over the
gable roof type. The geometric variables not covered can be taken into account by
additional wind tunnel efforts, though it is not a small task. The several other aspects of
the problem, apart from just one of geometry, need attention. Such issue includes the
consideration of wide spans, presence of canopies or parapets, openings in the walls,
1
porosity of the roof, stability of loose laid roofing, the occurrence of large
pressure/suction averages near the edges or the ridge etc.
While designing the buildings and structures the design wind pressure coefficients
is mainly obtained from different Codes and Standards, wherein the major source of
information on which specifications are based, is wind tunnel testing of scaled rigid
models under simulated flow. In this direction, an attempt has been made in the present
work to compare the specification of different codes of practice of various countries
regarding the gable roof buildings with and without attached canopies.
2.0 FACTORS AFFECTING WIND LOADS
The evaluation of wind pressures on structures is strongly affected by the
geometry of the building (aspect ratio, roof pitch/slope) and the wind incidence angle.
The effect of each of these factors is reviewed in this Section.
2.1 Aspect Ratio
Aspect ratio for the buildings is defined as ratio of length to width of the
building. Davenport et al. (1977, 1978) carried out extensive experimental study to
examine the effect of geometrical parameters (length, height and roof slope), scale and
upstream roughness on a variety of flat and gabled roof buildings. It has been reported
by them that over the range of building lengths studied for which the length exceeds the
width there was comparatively little change in the measured loads. Further, the
investigators found that the dynamic component of all loading effects was dominant
over the mean component. It was even more so for local pressures. It was also found
2
that pressure coefficients have been affected by terrain roughness and the dynamic
component of the pressure coefficients increased consistently with rougher terrain.
2.2 Effect of Roof Slope
Roof slope is the most important parameter related to the building geometry,
which effects both magnitude and distribution of wind loads. Stathopoulos (1975)
examined three roof pitches 1:12, 4:12 and 12:12. It was found that worst suction occurs
on the 4:12 pitch roof near the ridge at the gable end. Edges and corners of the 12:12
pitch roof were found to experience large peak suction. Holmes (1983,1994) reported a
study on domestic houses at James Cook University and pointed out that the mean
windward pressure changes from being all negative at 15 pitch, near zero at 20 and
almost all positive at 30 . The effect of the second separation for the ridge on the roof
suction is largest for the lower roof pitch. At 20 and 30 pitch, the flow does not
reattach after the second separation.
2.3 Openings
The openings and their position changes the distribution of pressure coefficients
on the surface considerably. It is seen from various experimental studies that suction on
roof decreases with increase in openings on walls. While internal pressure increases with
increase in openings [Sunn, 2003]
2.4 Projections
These structural elements provided on the buildings, are of many types viz.
parapets, canopy, sunshades, carports, etc and do affect the values of the pressure
coefficients. Studies indicate that the magnitude of the mean pressures in the edge regions
3
is increased with parapets. Low parapets increased in magnitude of both peak and mean
pressures in the corner regions, however, higher parapets decrease [Kumar, 1994].
2.5 Effect of Angle of Wind Incidence
Most of the studies and consequently also the codes of practice, have
concentrated upon the 0 and 90 angle of wind incidence. Recent studies have,
however, brought out the importance of other angles. Holmes (1983) discussed the
effect of wind direction on mean pressure coefficient for gable building roof and
concluded that the worst mean suctions, independent of wind direction, occur along the
edges near the windward corner but not at the corner itself. For the wind directions
30< 0 <70, the region of low suction extends upto the corner. This phenomenon is
due to the occurrence of conical vortices along the edges of the roof near the corner.
Stathopoulos and Saatoff (1991) in their study on single, double and multiple gable
roofs showed the effect of wind direction on peak suction distribution. The authors also
observed that peak suctions occur at skew wind directions.
3.0 TYPES OF ROOFS
Residential buildings generally have flat or sloping roofs, whereas large span
buildings for industrial or public use have either sloping or curved roofs, namely, domical,
hyperbolic and cylindrical roofs with concave or convex surfaces. Figure 1 shows
different types of roofs.
3.1 Sloping Roofs
The sloping roofs may be of different types as below:
? Monoslope roofs
4
? Double slope roofs or pitched roofs
? Hip roofs
The monoslope roofs are those roofs having slope in one direction only. The
double slope or pitched roofs are the roofs having two slopes. The pitched roofs may be
of gable type or throughed type roofs. The hip roof having four slopes on all the four
walls, thus forming an apex at the top.
Besides the above listed roofs, some special types of sloping roofs are also in
practice. These are saw tooth roofs, combined roofs and roofs with skylight.
3.2 Curved Roofs
The curved roofs are used for industrial and public purposes buildings. These
roofs are large sized roofs and may be of following types:
? Domical roofs
? Hyperbolic roofs
? Cylindrical roofs with concave or convex surfaces
5
Flat Roof Monoslope Roof Monoslope Roof
Gable Roof Hip Roof Through Roof
Saw Tooth Roof Saw Tooth Roof
North Light Roof North Light Roof
Concave Curve Roof Convex Curve Roof
Fig. 1 Different types of roofs
6
4.0 TYPES OF PROJECTIONS
Most of the low-rise buildings are used for residential purposes and thus provided
with different types of projections for the convenience of the users of the buildings. The
projections may be the sunshades, overhangs, parapets, balconies and canopy (Fig. 2).
Depending upon the requirement, a building may have a single type of projection or the
combina tion of different projections.
Window and ventilator openings are provided on the exterior walls of building. In
order to check the entry of sun-rays and rain water, sunshades are generally provided on
these openings. In case of sloping roofs (gable and hip type), roof is generally projected
towards the ground, thus introducing an overhang. In case of low-rise buildings with flat
roofs where access is generally provided to go to the roof, parapets are built. These may
be solid or perforated type. Sometime broken or continuous balconies are also provided
on the exterior surfaces (Photo. 1). Generally at the ground level a slab called canopy is
made at the entrance door of the building. This may be cantilever type slab or supported
one (Photo. 2). At specific locations, canopies are enclosed from two sides thus named as
carports (Fig. 3).
While designing a building with projections, a special attention is required for
safe design of building as well as projection itself. The presence of such projections
affects the wind pressure coefficients to a large extent. As mention above, for design of
various structural elements and cladding units, values of pressure coefficients are
obtained from relevant code of practice. The codes of practice of various countries give
these values for different plan shapes, wind incidence angles and roof slope angles.
7
Parapet
Overhang
Sunshade
Sunshades Eaves Projection Parapet wall

wallwwwawwawa
Free Canopy Supported Canopy Horizontal Canopy
Fig. 2 Various types of projections on low-rise buildings
Photo. 1 A hotel building with continuous balcony
8
Photo. 2 Canopy at the entrance gate of an educational building
Fig. 3 The enclosed canopy on two sides [AS/NZS 1170.2:2002]
9
5.0 EVALUATION OF WIND LOADS
Wind causes pressures and thus forces on the surface where it strikes. Wind forces
are sometimes so high that it causes failures of structures. Therefo re, buildings and other
structures are designed for wind loads and should be able to sustain wind forces during
the lifetime. In India the wind load on a building shall be calculated for:
a) the building as a whole,
b) individual structural elements as roofs and walls, and
c) individual cladding units including glazing and their fixings.
The wind load or force on a structure is determined from the formula given below as
F ? A? P
where, F = wind force
P = wind pressure acting uniformly on area A
The wind pressure, P is related to velocity of flow, V as
1
P? Cp ? V 2
2
where, C p = pressure coefficient which is also called shape factor,
? = density of air = 1.2 N-sec2 /m4
Values for C p can be obtained from National Codes on wind loads and various books.
In case of buildings with openings, which causes internal pressures, C p is given as
C p ? C pe ? C pi
where C pe = external pressure coefficient,
C pi = internal pressure coefficient,
10
Therefore, P ? 0.6?C pe ? C pi ?V 2
Value of wind velocity V for design purpose is evaluated from the value of basic wind
speed Vb , which depends upon the locality where the building is to be constructed.
National Codes of various countries divide their respective country into various zones and
recommend values of Vb for those zones. Vb , thus obtained is modified using
modification factors mainly k 1 , k 2 , k 3 to obtain V as
V ? Vb ?k1 ?k 2 ?k 3
where
k 1 , risk coefficient (probability factor), depends upon class and the design life of
the structure. The IS Code, [IS: 875 (Part-3), 1987], enlists values of modification
factors. k 1 value, ranges from 0.67 to 1.08.
k 2 , terrain, height and size factor, depends on the class of the structure and terrain
category of the particular location. Its value ranges from 0.67 to 1.40.
k 3 , topography factor, depending upon the upwind slope of the site and the value
varies from 1.00 to 1.36.
So the value of external pressure coefficients and internal pressure coefficients are
obtained from the relevant code of practice of wind loads on buildings and structure of
the respective country. But it is found that the different specifications are available in
design codes of different countries for similar structures. With this much of background,
the given specifications in different codes are compared for particularly gable roof and
hip roof buildings.
11
6.0 CODAL SPECIFICATIONS
Wind design codes are very popular in almost every part of the globe. Every
countrys engineering society has established some design guidelines for safe design of
buildings and structure against wind loads in the form of wind design codes. These codes
contain all information needed for the design of buildings and structured against wind
loads. Also the specifications are given for every kind of structures like low rise buildings,
high rise buildings, bridges and the specific structures like water tank, chimneys etc.
The design of gable roof and hip roof type of low rise buildings is very common
in every corner of the world. Design of such buildings are seems to be very simple, but
actually not such when we talk about the wind loading. The wind loads are very
predominant on such buildings particularly on roof cladding. The wind pressure changes
drastically on the sloping roof surface with the change in roof slope as well as the wind
angle. So the design of these buildings should be done strictly in accordance of the
specifications of respective design code where the building is to be constructed.
6.1 Japan wind code recommendations for gable roof buildings
In Japan, the Architecture Institute of Japan (AIJ) recommendations are used for
the design of gable roof and hip roof buildings against wind loads. The latest
modification in these recommendations has done in year 2004. This design code gives the
design pressure coefficients for gable roof building and hip roof buildings as follows:
General
? The external pressure coefficient Cpe are given for gable roof buildings for building
height less than 45m.
12
? The same pressure coefficient values are applicable for flat, gable and mono sloped
roofs.
Wind flow parameters
? The pressure coefficients are available for two wind directions i.e. wind direction W1
and wind direction W2.
? Both wind directions are perpendicular to each other or in other words making an
angle of 90.
? Wind direction W1 is parallel to the ridge of building and direction W2 is normal to
the ridge of the building.
Geometric parameters
? The slope of gable roof is considered from 0 to 45.
? The reference height H is considered the average of eave height and ridge height (Fig.
4).
? The pressure coefficients are presented for different aspect ratios like D/H=1, D/H>1,
B/H=2 and B/H=6.
Detail of coefficient values available
? The pressure coefficients are presented for three different zones on roof surface i.e.
Ra, Rb and Rc for wind flow parallel to the ridge as shown in Table 1.
? Ra is the gable roof zone on windward side, Rc is the zone on leeward side and Rb is
the zone between Ra and Rc.
? The width of zone Ra is equal to 0.5l and zone Rb is 1.0l and remaining (if any) for
zone Rc as l is smaller of 4H and B, where B is the cross wind dimension.
13
? For wind flow normal to the ridge, no zoning is done for windward roof. Single value
of pressure coefficient is presented for full surface of roof Ru (Table 2).
? The leeward roof is divided in two zones i.e. RLa and RLb. The two outer zones are
RLa and the middle zone is RLb. The value of pressure coefficients are presented in
Table 3.
Fig. 4 Geometric parameters of gable roof building [AIJ Recommendations 2004]
Table 1 Wind pressure coefficients on roof zone R for wind flow parallel to ridge
[AIJ Recommendations 2004]
14
Table 2 Wind pressure coefficients on windward roof zone Ru for wind flow normal
to ridge [AIJ Recommendations 2004]
Table 3 Wind pressure coefficients on leeward roof zone RL for wind flow normal to
Strong point
? A good detail is available for finding the pressure coefficients by considering the
roof slope from 0 to 45.
? More precise values of pressure coefficients are presented by dividing the roof
surface in different zones.
? Different aspect rations are considered for presenting the results.
Weak points
? The main limitation of code is that the values are given for two wind direction only
i.e. wind parallel to the ridge and normal to the ridge.
15
? No information is available for wind flow at any skew angles between 0 to 90 or
90 to 180.
6.2 EURO wind code recommendations for gable roof buildings
General
? The pressure coefficients are presented for gable roof buildings in the form of duo
pitch roofs. No special article is given for gable roof buildings.
? The same specifications can be used for free standing roofs having +ve slope or ve
slope.
? The pressure coefficients are given for loaded area A equal to 1m2 and 10m2 in the
tables as Cpe,1 for local coefficients and Cpe,10 for overall coefficients respectively.
? Values of Cpe,1 are intended for the design of small elements and fixings with an area
per element of 1m2 or less such as cladding elements and roofing elements. Values of
Cpe,10 may be used for the design of the overall load bearing structure of the
buildings.
? The pressure coefficients values are available for two wind directions i.e. ? = 0 and ?
= 90.
? The wind direction ? = 0 is the wind flow normal to the ridge and wind direction ? =
90 is the wind flow parallel to the ridge.
Geometric parameters (Fig.5)
? The gable roof angle (pitch) a is considered from 5 to 75.
16
? The roof pitch less than 5 is considered as flat roof so the pressure coefficients
presented for flat roof can be used for the roof pitch less than 5.
? The reference height h is considered from ground to ridge of gable roof (Fig.5).
? For wind direction ? = 0 i.e. wind flow normal to the ridge, the pressure coefficients
are presented for different wind zones on the gable roof surface (Table 4).
? The upwind (windward) roof surface is divided in three zones F,G, H and the
downwind (leeward) roof surface is divided in two zones I ,J.
? The width of F,G and J zone is e/10 and length of zone F is e/4 as shown in fig.
? The dimension e is smaller of b and 2h, where b is crosswind dimension.
? At ? = 0, the pressure changes rapidly between positive and negative values on the
windward face around the pitch angle 5 to 45. So both positive and negative values
are given by the code. For those roofs the largest or smallest values of all areas F,G,
H are combined with the largest or smallest values in area I,J. No mixing of positive
and negative values is allowed on the same face.
? For wind flow ? = 90, the pressure coefficients are presented wind zones F, G, H and
I. The width of zones F, G and lengt h of zone F is same as defined for wind flow ? =
0 (Table 5).
? The width of zone H is (e/2-e/10) from zones F and G. The dimension e is defined
as same as that of earlier case.
17
Fig. 5 Geometric parameters of gable roof building [prEN 1991-1-4:2004]
18
normal to the ridge [prEN 1991-1-4:2004]
parallel to the ridge [prEN 1991-1-4:2004]
19
Strong point
? A good range of roof pitch from 5 to 75 has been considered for presenting the wind
pressure coefficients.
? The roof surface is divided in different zones. So by this way more precise values of
pressure coefficients can be obtained.
? The values for pressure coefficients are tabulated for roof pitch 5, 15, 30, 45, 60
and 75. The linear interpolation is allowed for the intermediate pitch angles between
values of same sign.
? The concept of Cpe,1 and Cpe,10 is used for more economical and safe design
coefficients values.
Weak points
? The main weakness of the code is that the pressure coefficient values are presented
for two wind directions i.e. 0 and 90. No information is presented for in between
wind flow angles.
? No consideration of building aspect ratios like D/H, B/H etc. So the same pressure
coefficient values are used for any size of the building.
6.3 American wind code recommendations for gable roof buildings
General
? The pressure coefficients are presented for gable roof buildings in the form of main
wind force resisting system for enclosed and partially enclosed buildings.
? The same specifications can be used for monoslope roof and mansard roof structures.
20
? The code recommend gust factor effect to be added while designs the gable roof
buildings.
? The pressure coefficients are available for two wind directions i.e. wind direction
normal to the ridge and wind direction parallel to the ridge.
? The gable roof slope ? is considered from 0 to 60 and even more that that slope.
? Code suggests two different reference heights for wall and roof design (Fig. 6).
? For design of wall surface the reference height z is suggested which is equal to the
height from ground to eaves of gable roof.
? For design of roof surface the reference height h is suggested which is equal to
height from ground to mid of eaves and ridge height.
? The pressure coefficients are presented for h/L aspect ratios where L is the dimension
of building parallel to the wind direction.
? For wind direction normal to the ridge the pressure coefficient on roof surface is
presented for three values h/L= 0.25, = 0.5 and = 1.0 (Table 6).
? The pressure coefficients are presented for roof angle ?= 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35,
45 and =60 on windward surface. The coefficient value can be obtained for the
roof angle >60 also, but for roof slopes >80 the Cp value suggested as 0.8.
? On windward roof slope at some roof angles the code recommend two values of Cp,
which indicates that the roof surface is subjected to either positive or negative
pressure. The roof surface shall be designed for both conditions.
21
? The pressure coefficients are presented for roof angle ?= 10, 15 and =20 on
leeward surface.
? For wind direction parallel to the ridge the values of Cp is presented for h/L= 0.5 and
= 1.0.
? The same coefficient values are applicable for the roof slope ?< 10 at wind direction
normal to the ridge.
? The presented values are applicable for four different zones on roof surface (if
possible). The width of each zone from windward edge is defined as 0 to h/2, h/2 to h,
h to 2h and > 2h, where h is defined as earlier.
? For more economical values of Cp, code further suggest the reduction in Cp values
with respect to the increase in roof surface area of zone 0 to h/2 for h/L ratio = 1.0.
? The linear interpolation is permitted for in between values of h/L and ? as presented,
with the condition that the interpolation shall only be carried out between the values
of same sign.
Fig. 6 Geometric parameters of gable roof building [ASCE 7-98]
22
Table 6 Pressure coefficients on roof surface of gable roof for wind flow normal and
parallel to the ridge [ASCE 7-98]
Strong point
? The wind pressure coefficient are presented for a wide range of roof slope from 0 to
80 and even more. The information regarding the high roof slope is available only
in this code.
? The linear interpolation is permitted for in between values other than tabulated in the
code for different aspects.
? The concept of two reference heights is introduced for design of wall surface and
roof surface. So this idea of two heights may impart more economy in design.
? The roof surface zoning has done for pressure coefficients for wind flow parallel to
the ridge. This zoning depends upon the height h.
? The pressure coefficients values are reduced by a reduction factor for high areas.
23
Weak points
? The code has recommended the coefficient values for two wind direction only. No
information is presented for wind direction other than parallel to ridge and normal to
the ridge.
? No zoning of roof surface is considered for pressure coefficient values in case of
wind flow normal to the ridge. One pressure coefficient value is applicable for full
surface. More safe and economical values could be presented by dividing the roof in
different zones.
6.4 Australian wind code recommendations for gable roof buildings
General
? The pressure coefficients are presented for gable roof buildings in the form of
rectangular enclosed buildings.
? The same specifications can be used for monoslope roof and hip roof structures.
? The pressure coefficients are available for two wind directions i.e. wind direction
normal to the ridge and wind direction parallel to the ridge
? No limit of gable roof angle a is defined in the code. So the coefficient values can
be obtained for any roof slope.
? The reference height h is considered the average roof height of the building i.e. the
height from the ground to the mid of eaves and ridge height (Fig. 7).
24
? The building plan dimensions is defined as b and d where, b is dimension normal
to the wind flow and d is the dimension parallel to the ridge.
? The code suggest the same pressure coefficient values for upwind slope (U),
downwind slope (D) when the roof slope a< 10 (wind flow normal to the ridge).
The same coefficient values are applicable to the crosswind slope (R) for any value
of roof slope a (wind flow parallel to ridge) as shown in Table 7.
? These values of pressure coefficients are presented for h/d ratio = 0.5 and = 1.0 for
different zones on roof surface. The width of each zone from windward edge is 0-
0.5h, 0.5h- 1h, 1h-2h, 2h-3h and > 3h successively (if applicable).
? The code presents the pressure coefficients on upwind slope surface (U) for roof
angle a = 10 in separate table. These coefficient value are presented for h/d ratio =
0.25, = 0.5 and = 1.0 as shown in Table 8.
? The pressure coefficients values on downwind slope surface (D) for roof angle a =
10 is presented separately. The same values are applicable for roof surface (R) in
case of hip roof building of any roof slope a as shown in Table 9.
? The linear interpolation for in between values of h/d and roof slopes other than
presented is allowed within the values of same sign.
25
Fig. 7 Geometric parameters of gable roof building [AS/NZS 1170.2:2002]
Table 7 Wind pressure coefficients on upwind slope surface (U) and downwind slope
surface (D) for a < 10 and surface (R) for gable roof [AS/NZS 1170.2:2002]
Note 1 For intermediate values of roof slopes and h/d ratio, linear interpolation is allowed between the
Note 2 The values given in parentheses are provided for interpolation purposes.
Table 8 Wind pressure coefficients on upwind slope surface (U) for a =10
[AS/NZS 1170.2:2002]
Note For intermediate values of roof slopes and h/d ratio, linear interpolation is allowed between the
26
Table 9 Wind pressure coefficients on upwind slope surface (U) for a =10 and
surface (R) for hip roof [AS/NZS 1170.2:2002]
Note For intermediate values of roof slopes and h/d ratio, linear interpolation is allowed between the
Strong point
? The wind pressure coefficients are presented for a wide range of roof slope. The
slope limits are not specified which means the coefficient values can be obtained for
any roof slope angle.
? The linear interpolation is permitted for in between values other than tabulated in the
code for h/d ratio and roof slope.
? The roof surface zoning has done for pressure coefficients for wind flow parallel to
the ridge (all a) and wind flow normal to the ridge (a < 10). This zoning depends
upon the height h.
Weak points
? The code has recommended the coefficient values for two wind direction only. No
information is presented for wind direction other than parallel to ridge and normal to
the ridge.
? No zoning of roof surface is considered for pressure coefficient values on upwind
slope surface (U) and downwind slope surface (D) having roof slope a = 10.
27
6.5 Indian wind code recommendations for gable roof buildings
General
? The code presents the pressure coefficients on gable roof building in the form of
rectangular clad building.
? The same coefficient values are applicable for all kind of pitched roofs (enclosed
building).
? The concept of local pressure coefficients is introduced near the edges of the gable
roof surface.
? The pressure coefficients value are available for two wind directions i.e. ? = 0 and ?
= 90.
? The wind direction 0 is flow normal to the ridge and 90 is wind flow parallel to the
ridge.
? The gable roof angle a is considered from 0 to 60.
? The reference height h is considered from ground to eaves of gable roof.
? The plan dimensions of the gable roof building is represented by l and w, where l is
larger dimension and w is smaller dimension.
? The roof surface is divided in four overall coefficients zones E, F, G, H and four
local coefficients zones presented by different hatching as shown in fig. 8.
? The width of the local coefficient zones is y, where y is smaller of h and 0.15w.
28
? The coefficients values are presented for three ranges of building height ratio (h/w)
i.e. h/w = 1/2, 1/2 < h/w = 3/2 and 3/2 < h/w < 6.\
? For wind flow normal to the ridge, the coefficients are presented for the combined
zones EF and GH.
? For wind flow parallel to the ridge, the coefficients are presented for the combined
zones EG and FH.
? The local pressure coefficients are presented for almost all the local pressure zone for
all the roof slopes. Where no local coefficient is given, the overall coefficients apply.
Fig. 8 Zoning on gable roof surface [IS 875 (Part 3) 1987]
29
Strong point
? A high range of h/w ratio is considered upto 6. It means the available pressure
coefficients can be used for high buildings also.
? A sufficient zoning of roof surface is done for finding the very accurate value of
pressure coefficient.
? The local pressure zones are introduced, which gives more safe and precise
coefficient values near the edges of the roof surface.
? A good range of roof slope is considered for presenting the pressure coefficient
values varying from 0 to 60.
Weak points
? The code has recommended the coefficient values for two wind direction only i.e.
?=0 and ?=90. No information is presented for wind direction other than parallel to
ridge and normal to the ridge.
? The linear interpolation for the in between values of building height ratio and roof
angle is not specified.
30
31
Fig. 9 Wind pressure coefficients on gable roof building [IS 875 (Part 3) 1987]
7.0 DESIGN EXAMPLE
The codal specifications listed in article 6 for wind design codes of various
countries are used for one design problem for better comparison of the recommended
specifications. For this purpose a gable roof building is considered for design as follows:
Example : Find the wind load on sloping roofs of a gable roof building as shown in Fig.
10. Consider the building as closed building (Cpi = 0) and design wind pressure at the
building site as p N/mm2 .
Gable Roof
H
a
Plan View
B
Isometric View H
L- Length of Building = 15m
B- Breadth of Building = 7.5m
H- Eave Height of Building = 7.5m
a - Roof Slope = 20 L
Front View
Fig. 10 Detail of gable roof building to be design
Solution : This problem of finding the wind loads on sloping roof of gable roof building
has been solved with the recommendation of wind design codes of various countries.
7.1 Japan Code (AIJ Recommendations 2004)
Wind direction W1 (Parallel to the ridge) Referring Fig. 4

B = 7.5 m
D = 15 m
32
Reference height H = 8.183 m

Roof Slope ? = 20
4.0m
1.365m
?
8.183m
7.5m
7.5m
Fig. 11 Dimensions of the gable roof building to be design
Area A of all zones on roof

l = Smaller of 4H and B
So l = B = 7.5 m
Areas on one sloping face
Ra = 0.5*7.5*4 = 15 m2
Rb = 7.5*4 = 30 m2
Rc = 3.75*4 = 15 m2
Total area on one sloping face = 60 m2
External wind pressure coefficients (Cpe) Referring Table 1
B/H = 7.5/8.183 = 0.916 = 2
D/H = 15/8.183 = 1.833 > 1
Cpe for zone
Ra = -0.8
Rb = -0.4
Rc = -0.2
Wind force F on roof surface
The design wind pressure (p) = p N/mm2
Wind force (F) = (Cpe - Cpi) *A *p N
So wind force on zone
Ra = -0.8 * 15 * p = -12p N
Rb = -0.4 * 30 * p = -12p N
33
Rc = -0.2 * 15 * p = -3p N
Total wind force on one sloping roof = -27p N
Since the roof area is same for both sloping roofs and also the zones are similar in
both roofs, so same wind force will act on other roof surface also.
Wind direction W2 (Normal to the ridge) Referring Fig. 4

B = 15 m
D = 7.5 m
Reference height H = 8.183 m
Roof slope ? = 20
l = Smaller of 4H and B
So l = B = 15 m
Area of windward face
Ru = 15 * 4 = 60 m2
Area of leeward face RL
RLa = 7.5 * 4 = 30 m2
RLb = 0
External wind pressure coefficients (Cpe) Referring Table 2 and 3.
B/H = 15/8.183 = 1.833 = 2
D/H = 7.5/8.183 = 0.916 = 1
Cpe for windward roof face
Ru = 0.014 (? 15)
= 0.014 (20-15) = 0.07
Cpe for leeward roof face RL
RLa = -0.6 (for D/H = 1)
RLb = -0.6 (for B/H < 6)
Wind force on windward roof face
34
Ru = 0.07 * 60 * p = 4.2p N
Wind force on leeward roof face RL
RLa = -0.6 * 30 * p = -18p N
RLb = 0
So total wind force on
Windward roof face = 4.2p N
Leeward roof face = 2 * -18p = -36p N
7.2 EURO Code
Wind direction ?=90 (Parallel to the ridge) Referring Fig. 5.

b = 7.5 m
Reference height h = 8.865 m
Roof pitch angle a = 20
Area A of all zones on roof Referring Fig. 5.
e = Smaller of b and 2h
So e=b=8m
e/2 = 4 m
e/4 = 2 m
e/10= 0.80 m
Areas on one sloping face of roof of zone
F = 2 * 0.8 = 1.6 m2
G = 2 * 0.8 = 1.6 m2
H = 3.2 * 4 = 12.8 m2
I = 11 * 4 = 44 m2
Total area on one sloping face = 60 m2
External wind pressure coefficients (Cpe) Referring Table 5.
Considering the values of Cpe10, Since all zones having area A > 1 m2
e=b=8m
Cpe for zone
F = -[1.3 (0.2/15)*5] = -1.233
G = -[1.3 + (0.1/15)*5] = -1.333
35
H = -[0.6 + (0.2/15)*5] = -0.667

I = - 0.5
Wind force on zone
F = -1.233 * 1.6 * p = - 1.97p N
G = -1.333 * 1.6 * p = - 2.13p N
H = -0.667 * 12.8 * p = -8.54p N
I = -0.5 * 44 * p = -22p N
Total wind force on one sloping roof surface= -34.64p N
Wind direction ? = 0 (Normal to the ridge) Referring Fig. 5.

b = 15 m
Roof pitch angle a = 20
Area A of all zones on roof Referring Fig. 5.
e = Smaller of b and 2h
So e = b = 15 m
e/4 = 3.75 m
e/10= 1.50 m
Areas of zone
F = 3.75 * 1.5 = 5.625 m2
G = 7.5 * 1.5 = 11.25 m2
H = 2.5 * 15 = 37.50 m2
I = 2.5 * 15 = 37.50 m2
J = 1.5 * 15 = 22.5 m2
External wind pressure coefficients (Cpe) Referring Table 5.
Considering the values of Cpe10, Since all zones having area A > 1 m2
36
e=b=8m
Cpe for zone
F = -[0.9 (0.4/15)*5] = -0.767 and
= [0.2 + (0.5/15)*5] = 0.367
G = -[0.8 - (0.3/15)*5] = -0.700 and

= [0.2 + (0.5/15)*5] = 0.367
H = -[0.3 - (0.1/15)*5] = -0.267 and

= [0.2 + (0.2/15)*5] = 0.267
I = - 0.5 and
= 0.0
J = -[1.0 - (0.5/15)*5] = -0.833 and

= 0.0
Wind force on windward zone
F = -0.767 * 5.625 * p = -4.31p N and
= 0.367 * 5.625 * p = 2.06p N
G = -0.70 * 11.25 * p = -7.88p N and

= 0.367 * 11.25 * p = 4.13p N
H = -0.267 * 37.5 * p = -10.01p N and

= 0.267 * 37.5 * p = 10.01p N
Wind force on leeward zone

I = -0.5 * 37.5 * p = -18.75p N and
37
= 0.0 * 37.5 * p = 0
J = -0.833 * 22.5 * p = -18.74p N and

= -0.0 * 22.5 * p = 0
So total wind force on
Windward roof face = -26.52p N and
18.27p N
Leeward roof face = -37.49p N and
0N
7.3 American Code
Wind direction parallel to the ridge Referring Fig. 6.

B = 7.5 m
L = 15 m
z = 7.5 m
Roof slope angle ? = 20
h/L = 8.183/15 = 0.545 > 0.5
The American code suggests the different zones on sloping roof surface starting
from the windward edge of the roof. The widths of the four zones are 0 to h/2, h/2 to h, h
to 2h and > 2h respectively (if possible ). In present case, the three zones are possible in
total length of 15 m. For simplicity the zones are named as A, B and C as shown in Fig.
11.
Areas of zones on one sloping roof surface
A = 4.091 * 4 = 16.364 m2
B = 4.091 * 4 = 16.364 m2
C = 6.818 * 4 = 27.272 m2
38
0 to h/2 h/2 to h h to 2h
h = 8.813 m
A B C 4m
WIND Width of zone A = 0 to h/2 = 4.091 m

Width of zone B = h/2 to h = 4.091 m
A B C 4m Width of zone C = h to 2h = 6.818 m
15 m
Fig. 12 Division of area on the gable roof sloping surfaces as per ASCE 7-98
(wind flow parallel to the ridge)
External wind pressure coefficients (Cp) Referring Table 6.

The pressure coefficients are available for h/L ratio = 0.5 and = 1.0 with the
permission of linear interpolation for in between values. In present case the h/L = 0.545.
So interpolation has to be done between the values given for 0.5 and 1.0. Further the code
suggests that the Cp value should be reduced by a reduction factor for zone 0 to h/2 at
h/L= 1.0.
So Cp = - 1.3 (at h/L = 1.0)
Area of zone 0 to h/2 (i.e zone A) = 16.364 m2
Reduction factor = {1 [(0.1)/ (23.23-9.29)] * 7.074} = 0.949
Then Cp = -1.3 * 0.949 = -1.234
Finally pressure coefficient Cp on zone
A = -[0.9 + (0.334/0.5)*0.045] = -0.930
B = -[0.9 (0.2/0.5) * 0.045] = -0.882
C = -[0.5 + (0.2/0.5) * 0.045] = -0.518
Wind force on zone
A = -0.930 * 16.364 * p = -15.22p N
B = -0.882 * 16.364 * p = -14.43p N
C = -0.518 * 27.272 * p = -14.13p N
So total wind force on one sloping roof surface = -43.78p N
39
Wind direction normal to the ridge Referring Fig. 6.

B = 15 m
L = 7.5 m
z = 7.5 m
Roof slope angle ? = 20
h/L = 8.183/7.5 = 1.091 > 1.0
No roof zoning is considered in the code for the wind flow normal to the ridge.
So
Area of windward roof slope surface = 15 * 4 = 60 m2
Leeward roof surface = 15 * 4 = 60 m2
h/L ratio = 1.091 > 1.0
So pressure coefficient on
Windward roof surface = -0.70
Leeward roof surface = -0.60
Wind force on
Windward roof surface = -0.70 * 60 *p = - 42p N
Leeward roof surface = -0.60 * 60 *p = - 36p N
7.4 Australian Code
Wind direction parallel to the ridge Referring Fig. 7.

b = 7.5 m
d = 15 m
40

Roof slope angle a = 20
The Australian code defines the roof surface as R and suggests the different
zones on surface R starting from the windward edge of the roof. The widths of the five
zones are 0 to 0.5h, 0.5h to 1h, 1h to 2h, 2h to 3h and > 3h respectively (if possible). In
present case, the three zones are possible in total length of 15 m. For simplicity the zones
are named as A, B and C as shown in Fig. 12.
0 to 0.5h 0.5h to1h 1h to 2h
h = 8.813 m
A B C 4m
WIND Width of zone A = 0 to 0.5h = 4.091 m

Width of zone B = 0.5h to 1h = 4.091 m
A B C 4m Width of zone C = 1h to 2h = 6.818 m
15 m
Fig. 13 Division of area on the gable roof sloping surfaces as per

AS/NZS 1170.2:2002 (wind flow parallel to the ridge)
Areas of zones on one sloping roof surface
A = 4.091 * 4 = 16.364 m2
B = 4.091 * 4 = 16.364 m2
C = 6.818 * 4 = 27.272 m2
h/d = 8.183/15 = 0.545 > 0.50
So pressure coefficient on zone
A = -[0.9 + (0.4/0.5)* 0.045] = -0.936 and
-[0.4 + (0.2/0.5)* 0.045] = -0.418
B = -[0.9 (0.2/0.5)* 0.045] = -0.882 and
-[0.4 - (0.1/0.5) *0.045] = -0.391
C = -[0.5 + (0.2/0.5)* 0.045] = -0.518 and
-[0.0 + (0.3/0.5) * 0.045] = -0.027
41

Wind force on zone
A = -0.936 * 16.364 * p = -15.32p N and
-0.418 * 16.364 * p = -6.84p N
B = -0.882 * 16.364 * p = -14.43p N and
-0.391 * 16.364 * p = -15.32p N
C = -0.518 * 27.272 * p = - 14.13p N and
-0.027 * 27.272 * p = -0.74p N
So total wind force on one sloping roof surface = -43.88p N and -13.98p N
Wind direction normal to the ridge Referring Fig. 6.

b = 15 m
d = 7.5 m
h/L = 8.183/7.5 = 1.091 > 1.0
No roof zoning is considered in the code for the wind flow normal to the ridge.
The upwind roof surface is named as (U), and downwind roof surface is named as (D).
So area of
Upward roof surface U = 15 * 4 = 60 m2
Downwind roof surface D = 15 * 4 = 60 m2
External wind pressure coefficients (Cp) Referring Table 8 and 9.
h/d ratio = 0.545 > 0.5
a = 20
So pressure coefficient on
Upwind roof surface U = -[0.4 + (0.3/0.5)*0.045] = -0.427 and
-[0.0 + (0.3/0.5)*0.045] = -0.027
Downwind roof surface D = -0.60
42

Wind force on
Upwind roof surface U = -0.427 * 60 *p = - 25.62p N and
-0.027 * 60 *p = - 1.62p N
Downwind roof surface D = -0.60 * 60 *p = - 36p N
7.5 Indian Code
Wind direction ? = 90 (Parallel to the ridge) Referring Fig. 8 and 9.

w =8.0 m
The Indian code suggests the different overall pressure and local pressure zones
on sloping roof surfaces. The four overall pressure zones are E, F, G and H. The four
local pressure zones are represented by different hatching style as shown in fig. 8. For
the purpose of clear understanding, the plan of gable roof building is reformatted here
and shown in fig. 13. The dimensions are the same as specified by Indian code. The four
local pressure zones are named as I, J, K and L respectively as per the code.
So area of zone
E = 3.15 * 2.8 = 8.82 m2
F = 3.15 * 2.8 = 8.82 m2
G = 4.35* 2.8 = 12.18 m2
H = 3.15* 2.8 = 8.82 m2
I = 1.2 * 4 = 4.8 m2
J = 1.2 * 3.15 = 3.78 m2
K = 1.2 * 3.15 = 3.78 m2
L = 1.2 * 7.5 = 9 m2
43
y y
y I
G
J E
L
K F H y = smaller of h and 0.15w = 1.2 m

WIND ?
15 m
Width of zone I, J, K and L = 1.2 m
Width of zone E,F,G and H = 2.8 m
15 m
4m 4m
Fig. 14 Division of area on the gable roof sloping surfaces as per

IS 875 (Part-3) 1987 (any direction of wind flow)
External wind pressure coefficients (Cp) Referring Fig. 9.

h/w ratio = 7.5/7.5 =1
So 1/2 < h/w = 3/2
a = 20
EG = -0.8
FH = -0.6
I = -1.5
J = -1.5
K = -1.5
L = -1.0
Wind force on area
EG = -0.8 * (8.82 + 12.18) * p = -16.80p N
FH = -0.6 * (8.82 + 8.82) * p = -10.58p N
I = -1.5 * 4.8 * p = -7.2p N
J = -1.5 * 3.78 * p = -5.67p N
44
K = -1.5 * 3.78 * p = -5.67p N

L = -1.0 * 9 * p = -9.0p N
So total wind force on one sloping portion of roof = -54.92p N
Since the roof surface have the similar zoning on remaining half portion. So the
pressure force will be the same.
Wind direction ? = 0 (Normal to the ridge)

w =8.0 m
The roof surface zoning do not change with the change in wind angle. Also the
width w defined by the code is same for any wind direction. So the area of all the zones
on roof surface will be the same.
External wind pressure coefficients (Cp) Referring Fig. 9.
h/w ratio = 7.5/7.5 =1
So 1/2 < h/w = 3/2
a = 20
EF = -0.7
GH = -0.5
I = -1.5
J = -1.5
K = -1.5
L = -1.0
Wind force on windward zone
EF = -0.7 * (8.82 + 8.82) * p = -12.35p N
I = -1.5 * 4.8 * p = -7.2p N
45
J = -1.5 * 3.78 * p = -5.67p N

K = -1.5 * 3.78 * p = -5.67p N
Total wind force on half portion on windward surface = -30.89p N
So total force on windward surface = -30.89p * 2 = -61.78p N
Wind force on leeward zone
GH = -0.5 * (12.18 + 8.82) * p = -10.50p N
L = -1.0 * 9 * p = -9.0p N
Total wind force on half portion on leeward surface = -19.50p N
So total force on leeward surface = -19.50p * 2 = -39p N
7.6 Summary
The calculations done as above for the design of gable roof building are in terms
of design pressure p. For simplified comparison of the calculated values, assuming the
value of p is same in all the cases and equal to unity. The American code suggests that
the gust factor G should be multiplied for finding the surface pressure. Again for
comparison purpose assuming the gust factor G as unity. The comparison of the
calculated values of wind force on roof of gable roof building is presented in Table 10.
Table 10 Wind force on gable roof recommended by different wind codes

Wind Force in N
Sr. Wind design
Wind flow parallel to Wind flow normal to ridge
No. code
ridge (on each face) Windward face Leeward face
1 Japan Code -27 4.2 -36
2 EURO Code -26.52
-34.64 -37.49
18.27
3 American Code -43.78 -42 -36
4 Australian Code -43.88 -25.62
-36
-13.98 -1.62
5 Indian Code -54.92 -61.78 -39
For wind flow parallel to the ridge, the force is ve force (acting away from the
surface) on the gable roof surface. The Japan code gives the minimum force while the
Indian code gives the maximum wind force on gable roof surface. The variation of force
value provided by EURO code, American code and Australian code is not very big, but it
is considerable.
46
For wind flow normal to the ridge, it is very interested to see that all the codes
gives almost same force value on leeward roof surface of gable roof. The variation in all
the values if between -36 N to -39 N. But on windward roof surface, the variation in force
values is very high. Even the Japan code gives the force acting towards the roof surface
(+ve force) and rest all code gives the force acting away from the surface (- ve force). The
variation in ve force is also very high.
8.0 CONCLUSIONS
The following conclusions have been arrived from the present study:
1. The design recommendations of gable roof buildings in wind design codes is limited
to two wind direction only i.e. wind flow parallel to the ridge and normal to the ridge.
No information is available for in between wind directions.
2. No unified method of dividing the roof in different zones. Some code considers the
zoning and some not.
3. The suggestions of American and Australian wind code is seems to be very identical.
4. All codes provide the different value of force on gable roof surface for design of
similar building with all the parameters kept same.
5. Much variation of design wind force has been found on windward surface of roof
when wind flows normal to the ridge.
6. Least or almost no variation has been found on leeward surface of roof when wind
flows normal to the ridge.
7. In general the Japan code provides the minimum force values and Indian code
provides the maximum force values.
8. The Japan code, EURO code and Indian code considered the different zones on
leeward roof surface for wind flow normal to the ridge. But practically the zoning on
surface yield no effect on total force on roof surface as American and Australian code
does not consider any zoning but force is same as that of other codes.
9. Need to develop a unified wind load specifications for all the countries or at least
countries in one region.
47
REFERENCES
1. AIJ Recommendations 2004.

2. ASCE 7-98, Minimum Design loads for Buildings and Other Structures, Published by
American Society of Civil Engineers.
3. AS/NZS 1170.2:2002, Australian / New Zealand Standard Structural Design Actions,
Part 2: Wind Actions.
4. BIS (1987), Indian Standards Code of Practice for Design Loads (other than
Earthquake) for Buildings and Structures, Part-3: Wind Loads, Bureau of Indian
Standards, India.
5. Davenport, A.G., Surry, D. and Stathopoulos, T. (1977), "Wind loads on low buildings:
Final Report of Phase I and II - Parts 1 and 2", BLWTReport SS8- 1977 UWO,
Canada.
6. Davenport, A.G., Surry, D. and Stathopoulos, T. (1978), "Wind loads on low
buildings: Final Report of Phase I and II - Parts 1 and 2", BLWTReport SS8-1978
UWO, Canada.
7. Eurocode 1 : Actions on Structures General Actions Part 1-4: Wind Actions, prEN
1991-1-4.
8. Goyal R., Wind Loads on Gable Roof Buildings with Attached Canopies Ph.D.
Dissertation, Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee, Roorkee India, Dec. 2006.
9. Holmes, J.D. (1983), "Wind loads on low-rise buildings -A review", CSIRO Div. of
Building Research, Highett, Victoria, Australia.
10. Holmes, J.D. (1994), "Wind pressure on tropical housing", Journal of Wind
Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics, Vol. 53, pp 105-123.
11. Krishna P., Wind Loads on Low Rise Buildings A review Journal of Wind
Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics, Vol. 54/55, pp 383-396.
12. Kumar, A. (1994), "Wind interference amongst low-rise buildings", M.E. Thesis,
University of Roorkee, Roorkee, India.
13. Stathopoulos, T. (1975), "Wind pressure loads on flat roofs", BLWT Report 3-1975,
UWO. London, Canada
14. Stathopoulos, T. and Saathoff, P.J. (1991), "Wind pressures on roof of various
geometries", Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics, Vol. 38, pp
275-284.
15. Sunn, A. (2003), Wind loads on low-rise buildings, M. Tech., Seminar Report,
Department of Civil Engineering , IIT Roorkee, India.
48

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WIND LOADS ON LOW-RISE BUILDINGS - A REVIEW

For the short term fellowship on

I would like to convey my respectful thanks to Prof. Yukio Tamura, COE

2.0 FACTORS AFFECTING WIND LOADS

3.1 Sloping Roofs

3.2 Curved Roofs

4.0 TYPES OF PROJECTIONS

5.0 EVALUATION OF WIND LOADS

6.0 CODAL SPECIFICATIONS

6.1 Japan wind code recommendations for gable roof buildings

6.2 EURO wind code recommendations for gable roof buildings

6.3 American wind code recommendations for gable roof buildings

6.4 Australian wind code recommendations for gable roof buildings

6.5 Indian wind code recommendations for gable roof buildings

7.0 DESIGN EXAMPLE

7.1 Japan Code (AIJ Recommendations 2004)

7.2 EURO Code

7.3 American Code

7.4 Australian Code

7.5 Indian Code

Fig. 1 Different types of roofs

Photo. 1 A hotel building with continuous balcony

Photo. 2 Canopy at the entrance gate of an educational building

engineered low-rise homes and industrial buildings.

coastal regions, open terrains and summit of hills.

Regarding wind loads on buildings the significance of the geometry was

consideration of wide spans, presence of canopies or parapets, openings in the walls,

pressure/suction averages near the edges or the ridge etc.

work to compare the specification of different codes of practice of various countries

2.0 FACTORS AFFECTING WIND LOADS

The evaluation of wind pressures on structures is strongly affected by the

The effect of each of these factors is reviewed in this Section.

2.1 Aspect Ratio

component of the pressure coefficients increased consistently with rougher terrain.

2.2 Effect of Roof Slope

reattach after the second separation.

increase in openings [Sunn, 2003]

2.5 Effect of Angle of Wind Incidence

observed that peak suctions occur at skew wind directions.

3.0 TYPES OF ROOFS

different types of roofs.

3.1 Sloping Roofs

The sloping roofs may be of different types as below:

? Double slope roofs or pitched roofs

walls, thus forming an apex at the top.

3.2 Curved Roofs

roofs are large sized roofs and may be of following types:

? Cylindrical roofs with concave or convex surfaces

Flat Roof Monoslope Roof Monoslope Roof

Gable Roof Hip Roof Through Roof

Saw Tooth Roof Saw Tooth Roof

North Light Roof North Light Roof

Concave Curve Roof Convex Curve Roof

Fig. 1 Different types of roofs

4.0 TYPES OF PROJECTIONS

combina tion of different projections.

carports (Fig. 3).

While designing a building with projections, a special attention is required for

Sunshades Eaves Projection Parapet wall

Free Canopy Supported Canopy Horizontal Canopy

Fig. 2 Various types of projections on low-rise buildings

Photo. 1 A hotel building with continuous balcony

Photo. 2 Canopy at the entrance gate of an educational building