.

Finals: Exercise no. 4: The Bipolar

ECE312L1B Junction Transistors Configuration October 14, 2017
(Emitter-Stabilized, Voltage Divider and
Voltage Feedback Circuit)

3RD YEAR/SBEE-3A Group 5: Balajadia, Gatchalian, Lopez, Engr. Leonard A. Catchillar

Nilo, Odi, Ubas, Ramos

I. OBJECTIVES

To familiarize with the transistors.

To learn more about circuit analysis with regards to transistors.

To determine the different functions of transistors

To gain knowledge about how emitter, base and collector affects the circuit.

To practice our analyzation and problem solving.

II. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

Biasing Calculations
Although transistor switching circuits operate without bias, it is unusual for analog circuits to
operate without bias. One of the few examples is TR One, one transistor radio TR One, Ch
9 with an amplified AM (amplitude modulation) detector. Note the lack of a bias resistor at the
base in that circuit. In this section we look at a few basic bias circuits which can set a selected
emitter current IE. Given a desired emitter current IE, what values of bias resistors are required,
RB, RE, etc?
Base Biased
The simplest biasing applies a base-bias resistor between the base and a base battery VBB. It
is convenient to use the existing VCC supply instead of a new bias supply. An example of an
audio amplifier stage using base-biasing is Crystal radio with one transistor . . . crystal radio,
Ch 9 . Note the resistor from the base to the battery terminal. A similar circuit is shown in
Figure below.
Write a KVL (Krichhoffs voltage law) equation about the loop containing the battery, R B, and
the VBE diode drop on the transistor in Figure below. Note that we use VBB for the base supply,
even though it is actually VCC. If is large we can make the approximation that I C =IE. For
silicon transistors VBE0.7V.

Base-bias
Silicon small signal transistors typically have a in the range of 100-300. Assuming that we
have a =100 transistor, what value of base-bias resistor is required to yield an emitter current
of 1mA?
Solving the IE base-bias equation for RB and substituting , VBB, VBE, and IE yields 930k.
The closest standard value is 910k.
What is the emitter current with a 910k resistor? What is the emitter current if we randomly
get a =300 transistor?

The emitter current is little changed in using the standard value 910k resistor. However, with
a change in from 100 to 300, the emitter current has tripled. This is not acceptable in a power
amplifier if we expect the collector voltage to swing from near V CC to near ground. However,
for low level signals from micro-volts to a about a volt, the bias point can be centered for a
of square root of (100300)=173. The bias point will still drift by a considerable amount .
However, low level signals will not be clipped.
Base-bias by its self is not suitable for high emitter currents, as used in power amplifiers. The
base-biased emitter current is not temperature stable. Thermal run away is the result of high
emitter current causing a temperature increase which causes an increase in emitter current,
which further increases temperature.
Collector Feedback Biased
Variations in bias due to temperature and beta may be reduced by moving the V BB end of the
base-bias resistor to the collector as in Figure below. If the emitter current were to increase,
the voltage drop across RC increases, decreasing VC, decreasing IB fed back to the base. This,
in turn, decreases the emitter current, correcting the original increase.
Write a KVL equation about the loop containing the battery, RC , RB , and the VBE drop.
Substitute ICIE and IBIE/. Solving for IE yields the IE CFB-bias equation. Solving for
IB yields the IB CFB-bias equation.

Collector-feedback bias.

Find the required collector feedback bias resistor for an emitter current of 1 mA, a 4.7K
collector load resistor, and a transistor with =100 . Find the collector voltage VC. It should be
approximately midway between VCC and ground.

The closest standard value to the 460k collector feedback bias resistor is 470k. Find the
emitter current IEwith the 470 K resistor. Recalculate the emitter current for a transistor with
=100 and =300.
We see that as beta changes from 100 to 300, the emitter current increases from 0.989mA to
1.48mA. This is an improvement over the previous base-bias circuit which had an increase
from 1.02mA to 3.07mA. Collector feedback bias is twice as stable as base-bias with respect
to beta variation.
Emitter Biased
Inserting a resistor RE in the emitter circuit as in Figure below causes degeneration, also
known as negative feedback. This opposes a change in emitter current I E due to temperature
changes, resistor tolerances, beta variation, or power supply tolerance. Typical tolerances are
as follows: resistor 5%, beta 100-300, power supply 5%. Why might the emitter resistor
stabilize a change in current? The polarity of the voltage drop across RE is due to the collector
battery VCC. The end of the resistor closest to the (-) battery terminal is (-), the end closest to
the (+) terminal it (+). Note that the (-) end of RE is connected via VBB battery and RB to the
base. Any increase in current flow through RE will increase the magnitude of negative voltage
applied to the base circuit, decreasing the base current, decreasing the emitter current. This
decreasing emitter current partially compensates the original increase.

Emitter-bias
Note that base-bias battery VBB is used instead of VCC to bias the base in Figure above. Later
we will show that the emitter-bias is more effective with a lower base bias battery. Meanwhile,
we write the KVL equation for the loop through the base-emitter circuit, paying attention to the
polarities on the components. We substitute IBIE/ and solve for emitter current IE. This
equation can be solved for RB , equation: RB emitter-bias, Figure above.
Before applying the equations: RB emitter-bias and IE emitter-bias, Figure above, we need to
choose values for RC and RE . RC is related to the collector supply VCC and the desired
collector current IC which we assume is approximately the emitter current IE. Normally the bias
point for VC is set to half of VCC. Though, it could be set higher to compensate for the voltage
drop across the emitter resistor RE. The collector current is whatever we require or choose. It
could range from micro-Amps to Amps depending on the application and transistor rating. We
choose IC = 1mA, typical of a small-signal transistor circuit. We calculate a value for RC and
choose a close standard value. An emitter resistor which is 10-50% of the collector load
resistor usually works well.
Our first example sets the base-bias supply to high at VBB = VCC = 10V to show why a lower
voltage is desirable. Determine the required value of base-bias resistor RB. Choose a standard
value resistor. Calculate the emitter current for =100 and =300. Compare the stabilization
of the current to prior bias circuits.

An 883k resistor was calculated for RB, an 870k chosen. At =100, IE is 1.01mA.

For =300 the emitter currents are shown in Table below.

Emitter current comparison for =100, =300.
Bias circuit IC =100 IC =300
base-bias 1.02mA 3.07mA
collector feedback bias 0.989mA 1.48mA
emitter-bias, VBB=10V 1.01mA 2.76mA

Table above shows that for VBB = 10V, emitter-bias does not do a very good job of stabilizing
the emitter current. The emitter-bias example is better than the previous base-bias example,
but, not by much. The key to effective emitter bias is lowering the base supply V BB nearer to
the amount of emitter bias.
How much emitter bias do we Have? Rounding, that is emitter current times emitter resistor:
IERE = (1mA)(470) = 0.47V. In addition, we need to overcome the VBE = 0.7V. Thus, we need
a VBB >(0.47 + 0.7)V or >1.17V. If emitter current deviates, this number will change compared
with the fixed base supply VBB,causing a correction to base current IB and emitter current IE.
A good value for VB >1.17V is 2V.

The calculated base resistor of 83k is much lower than the previous 883k. We choose 82k
from the list of standard values. The emitter currents with the 82k R B for =100 and =300
are:

Comparing the emitter currents for emitter-bias with VBB = 2V at =100 and =300 to the
previous bias circuit examples in Table below, we see considerable improvement at 1.75mA,
though, not as good as the 1.48mA of collector feedback.
Emitter current comparison for =100, =300.
Bias circuit IC =100 IC =300
base-bias 1.02mA 3.07mA
collector feedback bias 0.989mA 1.48mA
emitter-bias, VBB=10V 1.01mA 2.76mA
emitter-bias, VBB=2V 1.01mA 1.75mA

How can we improve the performance of emitter-bias? Either increase the emitter resistor
RE or decrease the base-bias supply VBB or both. As an example, we double the emitter
resistor to the nearest standard value of 910.

The calculated RB = 39k is a standard value resistor. No need to recalculate IE for = 100.
For = 300, it is:

The performance of the emitter-bias circuit with a 910

emitter resistor is much improved. See Table below.
Emitter current comparison for =100, =300.
Bias circuit IC =100 IC =300
base-bias 1.02mA 3.07mA
collector feedback bias 0.989mA 1.48mA
emitter-bias, VBB=10V 1.01mA 2.76mA
emitter-bias, VBB=2V, RE=470 1.01mA 1.75mA
emitter-bias, VBB=2V, RE=910 1.00mA 1.25mA

As an exercise, rework the emitter-bias example with the emitter resistor reverted back to
470, and the base-bias supply reduced to 1.5V.

The 33k base resistor is a standard value, emitter current at = 100 is OK. The emitter current
at = 300 is:

Table below below compares the exercise results 1mA and 1.38mA to the previous examples.
Emitter current comparison for =100, =300.
Bias circuit IC =100 IC =300
base-bias 1.02mA 3.07mA
collector feedback bias 0.989mA 1.48mA
emitter-bias, VBB=10V 1.01mA 2.76mA
emitter-bias, VBB=2V, RB=470 1.01mA 1.75mA
emitter-bias, VBB=2V, RB=910 1.00mA 1.25mA
emitter-bias, VBB=1.5V, RB=470 1.00mA 1.38mA

The emitter-bias equations have been repeated in Figure below with the internal emitter
resistance included for better accuracy. The internal emitter resistance is the resistance in the
emitter circuit contained within the transistor package. This internal resistance rEE is significant
when the (external) emitter resistor RE is small, or even zero. The value of internal resistance
REE is a function of emitter current IE, Table below.
Derivation of rEE
rEE = KT/IEm
where:
K=1.3810-23 watt-sec/oC, Boltzman's constant
T= temperature in Kelvins 300.
IE = emitter current
m = varies from 1 to 2 for Silicon
rEE 0.026V/IE = 26mV/IE
For reference the 26mV approximation is listed as equation rEE in Figure below.

Emitter-bias equations with internal emitter resistance rEE included..

The more accurate emitter-bias equations in Figure above may be derived by writing a KVL
equation. Alternatively, start with equations IE emitter-bias and RB emitter-bias in
Figure previous, substituting RE with rEE+RE. The result is equations IE EB and RB EB,
respectively in Figure above.
Redo the RB calculation in the previous example emitter-bias with the inclusion of rEE and
compare the results.

The inclusion of rEE in the calculation results in a lower value of the base resistor RB a shown
in Tablebelow. It falls below the standard value 82k resistor instead of above it.
Effect of inclusion of rEE on calculated RB
rEE? rEE Value
Without rEE 83k
With rEE 80.4k

Bypass Capacitor for RE

One problem with emitter bias is that a considerable part of the output signal is dropped across
the emitter resistor RE (Figure below). This voltage drop across the emitter resistor is in series
with the base and of opposite polarity compared with the input signal. (This is similar to a
common collector configuration having <1 gain.) This degeneration severely reduces the gain
from base to collector. The solution for AC signal amplifiers is to bypass the emitter resistor
with a capacitor. This restores the AC gain since the capacitor is a short for AC signals. The
DC emitter current still experiences degeneration in the emitter resistor, thus, stabilizing the
DC current.

Cbypass is required to prevent AC gain reduction.

What value should the bypass capacitor be? That depends on the lowest frequency to be
amplified. For radio frequencies Cbpass would be small. For an audio amplifier extending
down to 20Hz it will be large. A rule of thumb for the bypass capacitor is that the reactance
should be 1/10 of the emitter resistance or less. The capacitor should be designed to
accommodate the lowest frequency being amplified. The capacitor for an audio amplifier
covering 20Hz to 20kHz would be:

Note that the internal emitter resistance rEE is not bypassed by the bypass capacitor.
Voltage Dividier Biased
Stable emitter bias requires a low voltage base bias supply, Figure below. The alternative to
a base supply VBB is a voltage divider based on the collector supply VCC.

Voltage Divider bias replaces base battery with voltage divider.

The design technique is to first work out an emitter-bias design, Then convert it to the voltage
divider bias configuration by using Thevenins Theorem. [TK1] The steps are shown
graphically in Figure below. Draw the voltage divider without assigning values. Break the
divider loose from the base. (The base of the transistor is the load.) Apply Thevenins Theorem
to yield a single Thevenin equivalent resistance Rth and voltage source Vth.
Thevenins Theorem converts voltage divider to single supply Vth and resistance Rth.
The Thevenin equivalent resistance is the resistance from load point (arrow) with the battery
(VCC) reduced to 0 (ground). In other words, R1||R2.The Thevenin equivalent voltage is the
open circuit voltage (load removed). This calculation is by the voltage divider ratio method. R1
is obtained by eliminating R2 from the pair of equations for Rth and Vth. The equation of R1
is in terms of known quantities Rth, Vth, Vcc. Note that Rth is R B , the bias resistor from the
emitter-bias design. The equation for R2 is in terms of R1 and Rth.

Convert this previous emitter-bias example to voltage divider bias.

Emitter-bias example converted to voltage divider bias.

These values were previously selected or calculated for an emitter-bias example

Substituting VCC , VBB , RB yields R1 and R2 for the voltage divider bias configuration.
R1 is a standard value of 220K. The closest standard value for R2 corresponding to 38.8k is
39k. This does not change IE enough for us to calculate it.
Problem: Calculate the bias resistors for the cascode amplifier in Figure below. VB2 is the bias
voltage for the common emitter stage. VB1 is a fairly high voltage at 11.5 because we want the
common-base stage to hold the emitter at 11.5-0.7=10.8V, about 11V. (It will be 10V after
accounting for the voltage drop across RB1 .) That is, the common-base stage is the load,
substitute for a resistor, for the common-emitter stages collector. We desire a 1mA emitter
current.

Bias for a cascode amplifier.

Problem: Convert the base bias resistors for the cascode amplifier to voltage divider bias
resistors driven by the VCC of 20V.

Transistor Biasing
Transistor Biasing is the process of setting a transistors DC operating voltage or current
conditions to the correct level so that any AC input signal can be amplified correctly by the
transistor.
A transistors steady state of operation depends a great deal on its base current, collector
voltage, and collector current and therefore, if a transistor is to operate as a linear amplifier, it
must be properly biased to have a suitable operating point.
Establishing the correct operating point requires the proper selection of bias resistors and load
resistors to provide the appropriate input current and collector voltage conditions. The correct
biasing point for a bipolar transistor, either NPN or PNP, generally lies somewhere between
the two extremes of operation with respect to it being either fully-ON or fully-OFF along its
load line. This central operating point is called the Quiescent Operating Point, or Q-point for
short.
When a bipolar transistor is biased so that the Q-point is near the middle of its operating range,
that is approximately halfway between cut-off and saturation, it is said to be operating as a
Class-A amplifier. This mode of operation allows the output current to increase and decrease
around the amplifiers Q-point without distortion as the input signal swings through a complete
cycle. In other words, the output current flows for the full 360o of the input cycle.
So how do we set this Q-point biasing of a transistor? The correct biasing of the
transistor is achieved using a process know commonly as Base Bias.

But before we start looking at the possible different transistor biasing arrangements, lets first
reminder ourselves of the basic transistor circuit and associated voltages and currents as
shown on the left.
The function of the DC Bias level or no input signal level is to correctly set the transistors
Q-point by setting its Collector current ( IC ) to a constant and steady state value without an
input signal applied to the transistors Base.
This steady-state or DC operating point is set by the values of the circuits DC supply voltage
( Vcc ) and the value of the biasing resistors connected the transistors Base terminal.
Since the transistors Base bias currents are steady-state DC currents, the appropriate use of
coupling and bypass capacitors will help block bias current setup for one transistor stage
affecting the bias conditions of the next. Base bias networks can be used for Common-base
(CB), common-collector (CC) or common-emitter (CE) transistor configurations. In this simple
transistor biasing tutorial we will look at the different biasing arrangements available for a
Common Emitter Amplifier.
Base Biasing a Common Emitter Amplifier
One of the most frequently used biasing circuits for a transistor circuit is with the self-bias of
the emitter-bias circuit where one or more biasing resistors are used to set up the initial DC
values of transistor currents, ( IB ), ( IC ) and ( IE ).
The two most common forms of transistor biasing are: Beta Dependent and Beta
Independent. Transistor bias voltages are largely dependent on transistor beta, ( ) so the
biasing set up for one transistor may not necessarily be the same for another transistor.
Transistor biasing can be achieved either by using a single feed back resistor or by using a
simple voltage divider network to provide the required biasing voltage.
The following are five examples of transistor Base bias configurations from a single supply
( Vcc ).
Fixed Base Biasing a Transistor
The circuit shown is called as a fixed base bias circuit, because the transistors base
current, IB remains constant for given values of Vcc, and therefore the transistors operating
point must also remain fixed. This two resistor biasing network is used to establish the initial
operating region of the transistor using a fixed current bias.
This type of transistor biasing arrangement is also beta dependent biasing as the steady-state
condition of operation is a function of the transistors beta value, so the biasing point will vary
over a wide range for transistors of the same type as the characteristics of the transistors will
not be exactly the same.
The emitter diode of the transistor is forward biased by applying the required positive base
bias voltage via the current limiting resistor RB. Assuming a standard bipolar transistor, the
forward base-emitter voltage drop will be 0.7V. Then the value of RB is simply: (VCC
VBE)/IB where IB is defined as IC/.
With this single resistor type of biasing method the biasing voltages and currents do not remain
stable during transistor operation and can vary enormously. Also the temperature of the
transistor can adversely effect the operating point.
Collector Feedback Biasing a Transistor

This self biasing collector feedback configuration is another beta dependent biasing method
that requires only two resistors to provide the necessary DC bias for the transistor. The
collector to base feedback configuration ensures that the transistor is always biased in the
active region regardless of the value of Beta () as the DC base bias voltage is derived from
the collector voltage, VC providing good stability.
In this circuit, the base bias resistor, RB is connected to the transistors collector C, instead of
to the supply voltage rail, Vcc. Now if the collector current increases, the collector voltage
drops, reducing the base drive and thereby automatically reducing the collector current to
keep the transistors Q-point fixed. Then this method of collector feedback biasing produces
negative feedback as there is feedback from the output to the input through resistor, RB.
The biasing voltage is derived from the voltage drop across the load resistor, RL. So if the load
current increases there will be a larger voltage drop across RL, and a corresponding reduced
collector voltage, VC which will cause a corresponding drop in the base current, IB which in
turn, brings IC back to normal.
The opposite reaction will also occur when transistors collector current becomes less. Then
this method of biasing is called self-biasing with the transistors stability using this type of
feedback bias network being generally good for most amplifier designs.
Dual Feedback Transistor Biasing
Adding an additional resistor to the base bias network of the previous configuration improves
stability even more with respect to variations in Beta, ( ) by increasing the current flowing
through the base biasing resistors.
The current flowing through RB1 is generally set at a value equal to about 10% of collector
current, IC. Obviously it must also be greater than the base current required for the minimum
value of Beta, .
One of the advantages of this type of self biasing configuration is that the resistors provide
both automatic biasing and Rf feedback at the same time.
Transistor Biasing with Emitter Feedback

This type of transistor biasing configuration, often called self-emitter biasing, uses both emitter
and base-collector feedback to stabilize the collector current even more as
resistors RB1 and RE as well as the base-emitter junction of the transistor are all effectively
connected in series with the supply voltage, VCC.
The downside of this emitter feedback configuration is that the output has reduced gain
because of the base resistor connection as the collector voltage determines the current flowing
through the feedback resistor, RB1 producing what is called degenerative feedback.
The current flowing from the emitter, IE (which is a combination of IC + IB) causes a voltage
drop to appear across RE in such a direction, that it forward biases the base-emitter junction.
So if the emitter current increases, voltage drop IRE also increases. Since the polarity of this
voltage reverse biases the base-emitter junction, IB automatically decrease. Therefore the
emitter current increase less than it would have done had there been no self biasing resistor.
Resistor values are generally set so that the voltage drop across emitter resistor RE is
approximately 10% of VCC and the current flowing through resistor RB1 is 10% of the collector
current IC.
This type of transistor biasing configuration works best at relatively low power supply voltages.
Voltage Divider Transistor Biasing
The common emitter transistor is biased using a voltage divider network to increase stability.
The name of this biasing configuration comes from the fact that the two
resistors RB1 and RB2 form a voltage or potential divider network across the supply with their
center point junction connected the transistors base terminal as shown.
This voltage divider biasing configuration is the most widely used transistor biasing method,
as the emitter diode of the transistor is forward biased by the voltage dropped across
resistor RB2. Also, voltage divider network biasing makes the transistor circuit independent of
changes in beta as the voltages at the transistors base, emitter, and collector are dependant
on external circuit values.
To calculate the voltage developed across resistor RB2 and therefore the voltage applied to
the base terminal we simply use the voltage divider formula for resistors in series.
Generally the voltage drop across resistor RB2 is much less than for resistor RB1. Then clearly
the transistors base voltage VB with respect to ground, will be equal to the voltage across RB2.
The current flowing through resistor RB2 is generally set at 10 times the value of the required
base current IB so that it has no effect on the voltage divider current or changes in Beta.
The goal of Transistor Biasing is to establish a known Q-point in order for the transistor to
work efficiently and produce an undistorted output signal. Correct biasing of the transistor also
establishes its initial AC operating region with practical biasing circuits using either a two or
four-resistor bias network.
In bipolar transistor circuits, the Q-point is represented by ( VCE, IC ) for the NPN transistors or
( VEC, IC ) for PNP transistors. The stability of the base bias network and therefore the Q-point
is generally assessed by considering the collector current as a function of both Beta () and
temperature.
Here we have looked briefly at five different configurations for biasing a transistor using
resistive networks. But we can also bias a transistor using either silicon diodes, zener diodes
or active networks all connected to the base terminal of the transistor or by biasing the
transistor from a dual power supply.
Choosing the right bias
After selecting the proper connection, the one that is most suitable for your application, you
must select a biasing method. Biasing in general means to establish predetermined voltages
and currents at specific points of a circuit, so that the circuit components will operate normally.
For transistors, biasing means to set the proper voltage and current of the transistor base,
thus setting the operating point, also known as quiescence point (Q). We will discuss in details
the quiescence point within the next chapters. For now, you need to know that this point will
determine how the transistor will operate (amplifier or switch). A correctly placed Q offers
maximum amplification without signal distortion or clipping.
The most efficient and commonly used biasing method for transistor amplifiers, it the voltage
divider bias (VDB). We will analyze this method in detail, but first we need to discuss the
other biasing methods. In this chapter, we will use a Common Emitter NPN transistor amplifier
to analyze the various biasing methods, but each method can be used for other connections
as well.
Fixed bias

This is the most rarely used biasing method with transistor amplifiers, but it is widely used
when the transistor operates as a switch. The base current IB is controlled by the base resistor
RB. From the second law of Kirchhoff, we have:
VCC = VB + VBE
VB is calculated using the Ohm's law:
VB = IB x RB
So, by selecting the proper base resistor RB, we can define the required base voltage VB and
base current IB. Now we can calculate the collector current using the appropriate hybrid
parameter. Since this is a common emitter circuit, we use the h fe:
IC = IB x hfe
The problem with this method is that the collector current is very sensitive is slight current gain
changes. Suppose for example that this is a silicon transistor and operates as a B-class
amplifier with current gain 300, RB=80 Kohms, RC=200 Ohms and VCC = 10 volts:
VCC = VB + VBE => VCC = IB x RB + VBE => IB = (VCC - VBE) / RB = (10-0.7) / 80000 = 112.25
uA
IC = IB x 300 = 33.67mA
The output of this circuit is taken from the collector resistor RC:
VRC =IC x RC = 6.7 Volts
Now suppose that the temperature rises. As we've discussed in earlier pages, this will increase
the current gain. An increment by 15% is a realistic and rather small value. From 300 it will
climb up to 345. This means that the collector current will become 38.7mA, and the output
voltage will also become 7.7 Volts! A whole volt higher than before. That is why this biasing
method is not used for transistor amplifiers.
On the other hand, due to the fact that this method is very simple and cost-effective, it is widely
used when the transistor operates as a load switch, for example as a relay or LED driver. That
is because the Q point operates from cut-off to hard saturation, and even large current gain
changes have little or no effect at the output.
Emitter feedback bias (Fixed bias with emitter resistor)

This is the first method that was historically used to fix the problem of the unstable current
gain discussed previously. In a transistor circuit with fixed bias, a resistor was added at the
emitter. This method never worked as it should, so it is not used anymore. This is how it was
supposed to work. If the collector current is increased due to a temperature increment, the
emitter current is also increased, thus the current through RE is also increased. The voltage
drop across RE is increased (emitter voltage) which eventually increases the base voltage.
Finally, this base voltage increment has as a result the decrement of the voltage across the
base resistor RB, which eventually decreases the current of the base I B. The idea is that this
base current decrement decreases also the collector current!
This sounds amazing since a change of the output of the circuit has an effect on the input.
This effect is called "feedback" and more specifically it is a "negative feedback", since an
output increment causes an input decrement. Here is how the new collector current is
calculated:
IC = (VCC - VBE) / (RE + (RB / hfe))
Let's see how the previous circuit (Fixed bias) would react if we add a 100 Ohms R E feedback
resistor.
IC = (10-0.7) / (100 + (80000 / 300)) = 9.3 / 366.6 = 25.3 mA
We assume again that the current gain is increased by 15%:
IC = (10 - 0.7) / (100 + (80000 / 345)) = 9,3 / 331,88 = 28mA
So, a 15% current gain increment caused a 15.1% output current increment. By adding a 100
Ohms feedback resistor at the emitter, a 15% current gain increment caused a 10.6% output
current increment. The increment is 4.5% less which means that this method works somehow,
but still the shifting of the Q-point is too large to be acceptable.
Collector feedback bias (Collector to base bias)

The next method that the researchers used to stabilize the Q point is the collector feedback
bias. According to this method, the base resistor is not connected at the power supply, instead
it is connected at the collector of the transistor. If the current gain is increased due to
temperature increment, the current through the collector is increased as well, and this
decreases the voltage on the collector VC. But the base resistor is connected at this point, so
less current will go through the resistor in the base. Less current through the base means less
current through the collector.
Again, there is a negative feedback in this circuit. But how much is it? Lets do some math.
The collector current is now calculated by the following formula:
IC = (VCC - VBE) / (RC + (RB / hfe))
To see the change, we will apply this formula in our first example (fixed bias):
IC = (10 - 0.7) / (100 + (80000 / 300)) = 9.3 / 366.6 = 25.3 mA
When the current gain is increased by 15%:
IC = (10 - 0.7) / (100 + (80000 / 345)) = 9.3 / 331.8 = 28 mA
The effectiveness of this method compared to the emitter resistor feedback bias shown before
is exactly the same. The difference is that, RC is usually much larger than RE, which results
in higher stability. Nevertheless, quiescence point Q cannot be considered stable.
Collector feedback bias (Collector to base bias)
It did not take long before someone tried to utilize both the previous methods to work together
to achieve better results. And indeed, the stabilization is much better than each one
separately. The formula to calculate the collector current is the following:
IC = (VCC - VBE) / (RC + RE + (RB / hfe))
Let's apply this formula to our previous examples
IC = 9.3 / (100 + 100 + (80000 / 300)) => IC = 9.3 / 466.6 = 19.9 mA
With a 15% current gain increment:
IC = (VCC - VBE) / (RC + RE + (RB / hfe)) = 9.3 / (100 + 100 + (80000 / 345)) = 21.3 mA
So, a 15% current gain increment causes a 7% output current increment. Although it is better
than the previous circuits, still the Q point is not stable enough. Add to this that hfe is extremely
sensitive to temperature changes and the transistor generates a lot of heat when it operates
as a power amplifier. So we need a much better stabilization technique.

III. LIST OF MATERIALS/ TOOLS/ EQUIPMENTS

Pen
Paper
Scientific Calculator
Lecture Notebook (Composed of formulas regarding filter and rectification process.)

IV. METHODOLOGY

In general, the steps provided below are the things we did to solve the specific problems.
Analyzation of the data given

On this process, we can distinguish whether what kind of circuit is given (Emitter-Stabilized
Circuit, Voltage Divider Circuit or Voltage Feedback).
In Emitter-Stabilized Circuit, Voltage Divider Circuit and Voltage Feedback, the first step is
to analyze the circuit diagram.
Check the direction of the current in the circuit because it will tell you what process to be
used in solving the problem
Check the number of resistors and its position, because it will lead you in knowing what
type of transistor circuit.

Solving for the value of what is asked in the problems for every number.

The step by step process should be applied because the values you can get in your
previous computation might be use on the next solution.
Know what is missing.
Solving for the missing value.

The formulas that we learned from the discussions lately are the key for us to have computations/
solutions that give us the answers for the unknown.
V. EXPERIMENTAL CIRCUIT SETUP

FIGURE 1

FIGURE 2

FIGURE 3
VI. DATA/ TABLE/ RESULTS/ COMPUTATIONS

Problem 1:

Determine the ff:

DC Operating Voltage and Currents

Saturation Level and Cut Off Level

Region of Operation

Draw the configuration and label

Given:

RB1 = 13kohms

RB2 = 2.2kohms
RC = 6.8kohms

RE = 1.5kohms

VCC = 15v

= 80

Solution:

Solving using Approximate and Exact Method:

By Thevenins Theorem

RB2
VTH = Vcc (1+2)

2.2
= 15V (13+2.2)

= 2.17V

RTH = RB1 // RB2

(RB1)(RB2)
=
1+2

13(2.2)
= 15.2

= 1.88kohms

9
Icsat = 1.5
6.8+( )
0.99

9
= 10.30
 = 0.87 mA
2.170.7
IB = 1.88+1.5(80+1)

= 11.92mA

Problem 2:

RB = 100kohms

RC = 2.2kohms

RE = 1.8kohms

VCC = 9V

= 60

( Voltage Feedback )

-Vcc + RCIC + RBIB + VBE + REIE

9 0.7
IB = 100[(2.2+1.8)(60+1)]

= 24.13A

IE = IC + IB

IC = IE IB

IE = (+1)IB

IE = 1.46mA

Vcc ( RC + RE )IE = 0

IESAT = + = 2.25mA
VCE = Vcc ( RC + RE )IE

= Vcc ( RC + RE )0

Vce = Vcc

Problem 3:

= 100

IB = 39.5A

VCE = 5.83V

PRE = 28.66mW

Vcc = 30V

Determine RB, RC and RE

Draw the circuit and label

Solution

IE = IC + IB

= 3.95mA + 39.5A

= 3.98mA

+1
= IC (
)

= 3.99mA

IC = IB

= 100(39.5A)
 = 3.95mA

@ KVL BE loop.

-Vcc + RBIB + VBE + REIE = 0

RB =

300.7
= 39.5

= 741772.15ohms or 741.77kohms

By KVL @ CE Loop

-Vcc + ICRC + VCE + IERE = 0

-30V + (3.95mA)(RC) + 5.83V + (3.99mA)(1.8kohms) = 0

RC = 4.3kohms

So by KVL BE Loop,

-30V + 39.5A(RB) + 0.7V + 3.99mA(1.8kohms) = 0

RB = 559.95kohms

VII. OBSERVATION

After we did the computation and deep understanding with regards to the problem that we need
solve, some important facts have been observed:

Identifying the circuit is very important step to be done first.

We should know the flow on how to solve the circuit.
Annalyzing the given value is very important in solving the problem.
Knowledge about how to manipulate formula is very important also.
Figuring out what is missing and trying to solve for the missing is a very important part also.
Identifying the differences between the Emitter Stabilized Circuit, Voltage Divider Circuit
and Voltage Feedback must be known.
Kirchoffs Law is very significant in every circuit that is to be solve.
Thevenins Formula can only be used in Voltage Divider Circuit.

VIII. ANALYSIS

Identifying what type of circuit that will be solving is very important to be done first. Because

it will lead us in solving the problem.

 We know that there is a given, and thats where to start it in annalyzing what type of circuit

it should be. For example in problem 1, we didnt know that problem 1 is Voltage Divider,

until we compare the given to its original circuit diagram.

Taking notes of a given formula is very important in solving the problem, because in

exercises and activities like this, its very usable.

Usable Formulas:
RB2
VTH = Vcc (1+2)

RTH = RB1 // RB2

(RB1)(RB2)
=
1+2

-Vcc + RCIC + RBIB + VBE + REIE

Vcc ( RC + RE )IE = 0

IESAT =
+
VCE = Vcc ( RC + RE )IE

IE = IC + IB

IC = IB

RB =

Knowing the basic principles of the circuits, whether its Emitter Stabilized Circuit, Voltage

Divider Circuit or Voltage Feedback is very important, because you or we dont need to

memorized all of the formula, but if we know how it runs or we know the principles in solving

the problem, we will probably doing it in a good.

Manipulating the formula that is given is very important also, because sometimes in the

formula, is not compatible in solving it, but when we manipulating it, we can finally answer

the problem.

For Example in Problem 2:

IE = 0

VCE = Vcc ( RC + RE )IE

= Vcc ( RC + RE )0

Vce = Vcc

Studying the differences of Emitter Stabilized Circuit, Voltage Divider Circuit and Voltage

Feedback Circuit will probably help us in solving any problem that is given, but if we dont

know the differences between the 3 circuit, it will lead us in a wrong answer.

Drawing the Circuit diagram will also lead is in figuring out on how to solve the problem that

is given there. It can help us in annalyzing what flows can be running on it and what formulas

that is needed. We know that Kirchoffs Law is very important, but if there is no circuit

diagram, its makes hard to solve the problem.

For Example:
 Problem 1

The differences between Emitter Stabilized CIrcuit and Voltage Divider Circuit are:

Emitter Stabilized Circuit (ESC) is not beta independent while Voltage Divider circuit (VDC)

is a beta independent.

In ESC, there are only 3 resistors in circuit while in the VDC, there are 4 resistors in circuit.

On the base side, ESC has only 1 resistors while in VDC, it has 2 resistors.

ESC used only KVL, ohms law and the formula that is needed in solving the problem exept

Thevenins Fomula, while VDC used Thevenins formula first and the next is the same with

the ESC, but there is difference when solving aproximate method and the exact method.

Voltage Feedback and Emitter Stabilized Circuit has a uniformity but in voltage feedback, the Base

Resistor is connected in series with Collector Resistor, and we do have I`c while in the Emitter

Stabilized Circuit it does not exist.

IX. CONCLUSION

From the observation and analysis of the data gathered the following ideas has been

conclude. First, Emitter Stabilized Circuit (ESC) is not beta independent while Voltage Divider circuit

(VDC) is a beta independent. Second, In ESC, there are only 3 resistors in circuit while in the VDC,

there are 4 resistors in circuit. Third, On the base side, ESC has only 1 resistors while in VDC, it has

2 resistors. Fourth, ESC used only KVL, ohms law and the formula that is needed in solving the

problem except Thevenins Formula, while VDC used Thevenins formula first and the next is the same

with the ESC, but there is difference when solving approximate method and the exact method. Fifth,

formula and solution must base on the type of the circuit used. Sixth, emitter stabilized circuit contains

a resistor at the emitter terminal. This emitter resistor improved temperature stability over fixed bias

configuration. Seven, in the voltage gain of common collector is nearly equal to one. And lastly, the

stability of bias circuit can be improved by introducing a feedback path from a collector to base.

X. RECOMMENDATION

After doing this activity, the students suggest the following:

Take note of the important information in the lesson, so that it can help you or us in solving

a problem.

Always analyze first the problem and given before doing anything.

Drawing the circuit diagram is necessary.

Know how the circuits flow its very important.

Kirchoff`s Law is very useful.

Understanding the lesson is very important.

 Practice and perform it, is necessarily.

Use the formula carefully.

XI. REFERENCES

https://www.allaboutcircuits.com/textbook/semiconductors/chpt-4/biasing-calculations/

http://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/amplifier/transistor-biasing.html

http://www.pcbheaven.com/wikipages/Transistor_theory/?p=2