Module 3 Module 4 Module 2 Stress Resultants -stress Relationship

Volume Fraction Weight Fraction Weight Fraction (Void) Weight Fraction Assumptions (behavior of Laminate) 1. The plate consists of orthographic laminae together, with Fundamental Assumption thin, isotropic, homogeneous plate (Kirchhoff Hypotheses) (Classical)
the principle material axes of the orthotropic laminae oriented along arbitrary directions with respect 1. The Deflection of the midsurface is small compared with the thickness of the plate. The slope
v f v m vv 1 w f wm 1 (W f / f ) (Wc W f ) / m 1
vv 1 c to the xy axes. 2. The thickness of the plate, t, is much smaller than the lengths along the plate edges, of the deflected surface is therefore very small and the square of the slope is a negligible quantity
Wc / c w f / f wm / m a and b. 3. The displacements u, v, and w are small compared with the plate thickness. 4.The in in comparison with unity. 2. The mid plane remains unstrained subsequent to bending 3. Plane
plane strains x, y, xy are small compared with unity. 5. Transverse shear strains xz and yz are sections initially normal to the midsurface remain plane and normal to that surface after the
bending. This means that the vertical shear strains XZ and YZ are negligible. The deflection of
Elastic Longitudinal Module (E1) Elastic Transverse Module (E2) negligible. 6. Tangential displacements u and v are linear functions of the z coordinate. 7. The
transverse normal strain z is negligible. 8. Each ply obeys hookes law. 9. The plate thickness t is Navier
the plate is thus associated principally with bending strains. It is deduced therefore that the normal
c1 A f 1 A f m1 Am c1 f 1v f m1vm P c1 A E11 A f 1 Af m1 Am constant. 10. Transverse shear stresses xz and yz vanish on the plate surfaces defined z = t/2.
strains 2 resulting from transverse loading may also be omitted. 4.The stress normal to the
Derivation of the Classical Lamination Theory
E11 E f 1 f 1v f Em m1vm 2 f 2 m 2 2 2 L2 m 2 m 2 Lm Consider an element shown below being deformed in the XZ-plane
midplane, Z, is small compared with the other stress components and may be neglected. This
supposition becomes unreliable in the vicinity of highly concentrated transverse loads.
E1 E f 1v f Em vm E f 1v f Em (1 v f ) f 2 f 2 L f 2 L2 f 2 L f m 2 Lm Similarly, the displacement v along the Y-axis is given by:
From the strain displacement relations:
1 1 1
2 f 2 v f m 2 vm 2 v f 2 vm vf vm v v z
w x
u u
z
^ 2w
y
v v
z
^ 2w u v u v
xy 2z
^ 2w
Ef Em E2 E f2 Em y x x x ^ 2 y y y ^ 2 y x y x xy
The strain-displacement relations can be rewritten neatly as:
Shear Modulus (G12) Major Poissons ratio (v12) Rule of Mixture /// Combining Results
x x k x
v12 v f 12V f v mVm 1 1 1 c f v f m vm Z
Vf Vm ( x ) j ( Ex ) j y y z k y
G 12 G f 12 Gm

xy xy k xy
Theory of Classic Laminated Beams: (Bending)
1.Plane sections which are initially normal to the longitudinal axis of the beam remain plane and
normal during flexture. 2.The beam has both geometric and material property symmetry about the Mid-plane strains Curvatures
neutral surface(i.e. the plies are symmetrically arranged about the xy plane). 3. Each ply is linearly u v u v ^ 2w ^ 2w ^ 2w
elastic with no shear coupling(i.e. ply orientations are either 00 or 900. 4.The plies are perfectly bonded x y xy kx ky k y 2
x y y x x ^ 2 y ^ 2 xy
together, so that no slip occurs at ply interfaces. 5.The only stress components present are x and xz.
Laminate Orientation Code
1.Ply angles given in degrees - 45 or +45 2. Separated by slashes - 0/90 3. Listed top to bottom a) Pmn = (16 po) / (2 m n ) (m,n = 1,3,5,.)
layer 4. Enclosed in square brackets - [0/90/0] 5. Subscripts used (s symmetric laminate top half b) Pmn = - (8 po cos ( m ) ) / ( 2 m n ) (m,n = 1,3,5,.)
given, (0)n repeat layer n times) 6. Centre layer uses overbar in odd number layer symmetric c) Pmn = (16po ) / ( 2mn)*sin(m /a)*sin(n /b)*sin(m C/2a)*sin (n d/2b); (m,n = 1,2,3,)
d) Pmn = (4P)/(ab) *sin(m / a) * sin( n / b) (m,n = 1,2,3,)
laminate Buckling of Structures
e) Pmn = (8 po)/( 2 m n) for m,n (1,3,5,) ; (16 po )/( 2 m n ) for (m = 2,6,10,..) (n = 1,3,5,)
Strain (Using First Assumption) Stress (Using Third Assumption) f) Pmn = (4po)/( an) *sin(m / a) ; ( (zeta) refers to the line parallel to x.) (m,n = 1,2,3,.) 1. The selection of structural elements is based on strength, stiffness and stability. 2.
Compressive stresses, due to in-plane forces, within a long, thin structure can cause structural
Rayleigh-Ritz Assumption 1. The basic approach is to assume a suitable displacement or shape
instability or buckling. 3. Instability may be global or local. Local buckling may cause permanent
functions for the elastic system under consideration. 1. This function may contain one or more
deformation but global buckling can be catastrophic. 4. Shear stresses in the thin-walled
unknown coefficients which can be determined by application of the principle of MPE. 2.The
structure can cause torsional buckling.
use of a shape function with one unknown coefficient is referred to as the Rayleigh method. 3.
The contribution of Walter Ritz was to introduce an infinite series for the shape function. 4.
Thus allowing any desired improvement in the accuracy of a solution by considering a sufficient
number of terms in the series. 5. The accuracy of the solution thus obtained depends largely on
the displacement function chosen. 6. Generally, such a function can be a polynomial, a
trigonometric function or a beam characteristic function. 7. It has been observed that the
convergence of the solution is faster if an orthogonal function (eg. beam characteristic function)
Equilibrium (Using Second Assumption) Ply-by Ply
is used as the shape function. 8. The function needs only to satisfy the geometric boundary
Stress Resultants conditions. Exact solution can be obtained if the postulated function also satisfy the natural
boundary conditions.
Energy Methods for Structural Analysis: Rayleigh-Ritz method

wx, y Amn X m x Yn y
0; 0 ; .... 0
A11 X 1 x Y1 y A12 X 1 x Y2 y ........... Amn X m x Yn y
A11 A12 Amn
Equilibrium Equilibrium (Assume N is even)-Uniform Thickness
a b
2 w 2 w 2 w 2 WE q * wdxdy
2
2 w 2 w
a b
D
2 0
U 2 2 2(1 ) 2 * 2 dxdy
x y x y xy

0 0
0
U WE
a b
2 w 2 w
2
2 w 2 w 2 w
a 2 b

q * wdxdy
D
2 0
2 2 2(1 ) 2 * 2 dxd Module 1
x y x y xy
0

0 0

Compatibility Equations: Cylindrical coordinates (axisymmetric) (Internal and External Pressure)

Orthogonal Functions
Homogeneous Beam Euler Buckling Combine Results
Stress Resultants Similar Results for Nx, Ny, My and Mxy 2
b
2y
2 a
2x 3a
2 a
x a b
x b
sin
3b
1 cos dy 1 cos dx dx cos dx
2
Extensional Stiffnesses Bending stiffnesses Coupling Stiffnesses
0 b 2 0 a 2 0
a 2 0
b 2
1 1
sin 2 x (1 cos 2 x) cos 2 x (1 cos 2 x) 1 1 1 1
sin dx x sin 2 x x sin 4 x
4
2 2
4 4 8 32

2y 2y x
b a a a
a2 1 sin ax
(1 cos
0
b
)dy b (1 cos
0
a
)dy a x sin
0
a
dx
x sin axdx a x cos ax
0 a2
Flexural Modulus th
Stresses in J Ply Partitioned Form Symmetric Laminate Anti-Symmetric Laminate
Diff with respect to x

mx w mx m 2w mx m 2 sin 0 sin 2 0
w sin cos * sin *( )
a x a a x 2 a a
Diff with respect to y
sin* n * x cos* n * x * n
2y w 2y 2 2w 2y 2
w (1 cos ) (0 sin )* cos( ) * ( )2
Symmetric Laminates Both geometric and material properties are symmetric about the mid-plane. b y b b y 2 b b
Types of symmetric laminates include angle-ply and cross-ply laminates. No bending-extensional Internal Pressure Only
Deflection Failure - Jth ply in 00 in Compression Combine Results coupling, Bij=0. Anti-Symmetric Laminates: Plies of identical material and thickness at equal
cos* n * x sin* n * x ///
positive and negative distances from middle surface. Orientation is antisymmetric, that is if at
distance +z the orientation is q then at distance -z the orientation is -q. General Quasi-Isotropic
Naviers Double Series Equation Exact Solution
Laminates: It is possible to construct a laminate that exhibits some of the properties of isotropic
behaviour. 2. Three or more adjacent layers oriented at the same angle relative to each other. [A] mx ny mx ny
is isotropic [B] and [D] may or may not be. 3. One example: Angle between adjacent laminae = p/N w( x, y ) Wmn sin sin q( x, y ) qmn sin sin
a b a b
where N is the number of lamina.
Equation 7 16q 0 mx ny
q sin sin m, n 1,3,5...
For a N-Layered laminate shown, the resultant forces and moments per unit width at the edges mn 2 a b
are: Where Z k and Z k-1 are defined in the figure and Zo = -t/2 Outer Radius Inner Radius
Failure - Jth ply in 900 in Tension Interlaminar stress (N is Even) Homogene Isotropic Beam Most commonly used orthogonal functions Contact Stress: Hertzian solution

Failure Criteria Shear strain energy theory/Von Mises failure Criteria

Weight Fraction and void content 1. Typical autoclave-cured composites with vacuum bagging may
have void fractions in the range of 0.1 to 1 percent. 2. The weight of fibres can be found by either Equation 8 Substitute eqn (6) into eqn (7) yields:
burning the matrix off at a certain temperature, or digesting the matrix by a suitable acid which
Governing Differential Equation Buckling
does not react with the inert fibres. 3. Density of composite can be computed by measuring the
volume of the composite sample, which can be found by way of measuring the weight of the sample Qx Qy 2w 2w 2w 2M x 2 M xy 2 M y 2w 2w 2w
in water and utilizing the Archimedian Buoyancy Law. Elastic Moduli E1 Assumtion 1. the strain of q N x 2 N y 2 2 N xy 0 2 q N x 2 N y 2 2 N xy 0
x y x y xy x 2 xy y 2 x y xy
resins in fiber direction is the same as that of the fibers, L1 namely 2. plane section remains plane.
Observation 1. E2 is controlled by the matrix modulus Em, which is normally far lower than Ef. 2. Module 4
4w 4w 4w 2w 2w 2w
Vf=1, E2=Ef, which requires a non-existent perfect bonding among fibers, 3. transverse strain D 2D 2 2 D 4 q N x Ny 2 N xy 0
x 4 x y y x 2 y 2 xy
mismatch between fiber and matrix, 4. same stress in both matrix and fiber (unlikely) Observation
1. Homogeneous formula with correction Factor 2. Maximum stress does not always occur on the
4w 1 2w
4w 4w 4w N 2w
outer surface (farthest away from neutral axis). 3. Maximum stress occurs when (Ex)jz is maximum. 4w 4w 2w 2w
2 2 2 4 q N x 2 N y 2 2 N xy 2 2 2 4 0
x 4 x y y D x y xy x 4 x y y D x 2
Since the mid surface strains and curvatures are not function z, then eqn (8) can be written as:
Stiffness Matrix
The complete external work done or lost of potential energy is thus
1 b a w 2
w
2

w w
2 0 0
WE WX WY WXY Nx Ny 2 N xy dxdy
x y x y

The total change in potential energy of the buckled plate

D
2 w 2 w
2
2 w 2 w 2 w 2
x 2 y 2 2 1 x 2 y 2 xy dxdy WE
2 area

General Quasi-Isotropic Laminates Laminate Compliances Laminates stiffness
Admissible deflection function is postulated
M N
w Wmn X m x Yn y
Compliance Matrix Coordinate systems and stress resultants for a laminate plate m 1 n 1 off-axis tension
Energy Method for Structural Analysis
Invert Submatrices Submatrices 1. The advantage of energy methods over other methods is their application to the approximate
solution of complex problem for which exact solutions may not exist. 2.Energy methods have
application in almost every branch of structural analysis, as well as in many other fields. 3. Strain
energy is a fundamental concept in applied mechanics, and strain energy principles are widely
used for determining the response of machines and structures to both static and dynamic loads.
4. The use of the principle of minimum total potential energy is very common in solid mechanics
Submatrices Submatrices Partially Inverted Form and structural analysis. 5. In mechanics, Energy is the capacity to do work and Work is force
times distance. 6. In deformable solid, Force=A, and deformations are distances. The internal
work done is the product of these two quantities. 7.This internal work is stored in an elastic
body as the elastic strain energy. 8. To illustrate the basic ideas of strain energy, the assumption
of static load is used. No dynamic or inertial effects due to motion. 9. The load is applied slowly,
so that it gradually increases from zero to its maximum applied value.

Stresses

Mechanical Testing: Reasons: 1. Analytical models required measured intrinsic mechanical or

Discussion: 1. non-zero Q16, Q26, S16 and S26 distinguish the present materials from isotropic
material familiar to us. 2. They are called the coefficients of mutual influence. 3 . Shear stress can
cause stretching, and 4 . Normal stress can cause shearing. 5 . In other words, normal and shear
stresses are coupled 6 . Young's modulus (Ex=1/S11), Poisson's ratio (xy=S12/S11), shear modulus
(Gxy=1/S66) are now functions of orientation rather than constants as in isotropic materials
Generalised Hookes Law for Unidirectional Lamina: 1. A unidirectional lamina has three mutually
perpendicular planes of symmetry, and is therefore, orthotropic. 2 . The three directions are called
1, 2, 3, with the usually defined stresses and strains. 3 . Fibres are along direction 1, direction 2 is
the in plane and transverse to the fiber direction, 4 . direction 3 is out of the plane of the lamina.
5 . A general 3-D state of stress at a point in a materials have 9 stresses and strain components,
Where [Cij] is a fully populated 9x9 matrix of stiffnesses or elastic constants 6 . A unidirectional
lamina loaded in the principal material coordinates has three mutually orthogonal planes of
symmetry (i.e. 12 plane, 23 plane and 13 plane) i.e. The specially orthotropic lamina /////////
material properties as inputs. 2. An important element in Quality Control processes is the
measurement of the fundamental properties. 3. The only alternative to questionable analytical
model may be experimental models and tests. Uniaxial tension test problems: 1. Misalignment
of the fibre direction from the load direction. 2. Misalignment of strain gauges with respect to
fibre direction. 3. Failure of end tabs due to poor bonding. (inaccurate strength values) 4. In the
off-axis tests, specimen must be of sufficient length to cater for St. Venants effect. Uniaxial
compression test problems: 1. More difficult to carried out than the tension tests, thus present
many more problems. 2. Biggest problem is the prevention of buckling. 3. Brooming or localized
crushing is another major problem. 4. There are 3 commonly used test fixtures: IITRI (Illinois
Institute of Technology Research Institution) (ASTM D3410-87). Face Supported Compression
Fixture (Lockheed). End Loaded Compression Fixture (Northtrop). Governing Differential Equation for Thin plate
Calculate Q, then Q bar, then A,B,D (stiffness matrix)
Symmetric laminated in general ; Bij = 0 , (A16 = A26 = D16 = D26 ) 0
Specially orthotropic laminated ; Bij = 0 , A16 = A26 = D16 = D26 = 0 ( 0, 90,sym ply)
Symmetric cross ply laminate ; Bij = 0 , A16 = A26 = D16 = D26 = 0 Strain Displacement Relationship
Anti Symmetric cross ply laminate ; ( B11 = B22 ) 0 , A16 = A26 = D16 = D26 = 0
Symmetric angle ply laminate ; Bij = 0 , A16 = A26 = 0 (D16 = D26) 0
Anti Symmetric angle ply laminate ; ( B16 = B26 ) 0 , A 16 = A26 = D16 = D26 = 0
Transformed Reduced Stiffness
11 = Q11 cos4 + 2 (Q12 + 2 Q66 ) sin2 cos2 + Q22 sin4
12 = (Q11 + Q22 - 4 Q66 ) sin2 cos2 + Q12 ( sin4 + cos4 )
22 = Q11 sin4 + 2 (Q12 + 2 Q66 ) sin2 cos2 + Q22 cos4
16 = (Q11 Q12 - 2 Q66 ) sin cos3 + (Q12 Q22 + 2 Q66 ) sin3 cos
26 = (Q11 Q12 - 2 Q66 ) sin3 cos + (Q12 Q22 + 2 Q66 ) sin cos3
66 =(Q11 + Q22- 2 Q12 - 2 Q66 ) sin2 cos2 + Q66 ( sin4 + cos4 )