ELECTROMAGNETIC METHODS IN

GEOTHERMAL EXPLORATION:

Djedi S. Widarto
Sr. Geoscientist
Upstream Technology Center
PT PERTAMINA

One Day Course

Penerapan Metode Eksplorasi Energi Geothermal di Indonesia
Himpunan Mahasiswa Geofisika FMIPA UGM
Jogyakarta March 03, 2012
GEOPHYSICS:
The study of the earth by quantitative physical methods, especially by
seismic reflection and refraction, gravity, magnetic, electrical,
electromagnetic, and radioactivity methods (Sheriff, 1999).

EXPLORATION GEOPHYSICS / GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING /

APPLIED GEOPHYSICS:
Making and interpreting measurements of physical properties of the earth
to determine subsurface conditions, usually with an economic objective,
e.g., discovery of fuel or mineral deposits. Properties measured include
seismic, gravity, magnetic, electric, and temperature (Sheriff, 1999).

PETROLEUM/GEOTHERMAL GEOPHYSICS:
Making and interpreting measurements of physical properties of the earth
to determine subsurface conditions related to hydrocarbon/geothermal.
Geophysical Methods
Surface Methods Borehole Methods
Seismic Methods : In-Hole Procedures
Seismic reflection methods
Surface wave (refraction) methods
Micro-earthquake
Cross-Hole Procedures
Potential Field Methods :
Surface to Borehole Procedures:
Gravity & magnetic
Velocity surveys
Electrical Methods Vertical seismic profiling
Resistivity methods
Self-potential
Mise a-la masse methods Logging Techniques:
Induced polarization Electrical methods
Acoustic logging
Electromagnetic Methods
Nuclear logging
Magnetotelluric (natural + controlled-source) methods
Flow logging
Time-domain electromagnetic methods
Other methods of logging
Ground penetrating radar
Very-low frequency methods
Seismo-electric method
Nuclear Methods
Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) method
Geophysical Methods
Techniques applying physical laws (or theory) to the study of the solid
Earth,
Estimation of subsurface physical property distribution by measuring
relevant parameters:

Method Measured Rock Property

SEISMICS Travel time & amplitude Elastic moduli (density &
velocity)
GRAVITY Variation in gravitational field Density
MAGNETICS Variation in magnetic field Magnetic susceptibility
ELECTRICAL / Specific resistivity Electrical conductivity
ELECTROMAGNETICS
GPR Travel time Dielectric constant
NUCLEAR Variation in natural radioactivity Nuclear decay
Probable Sequence of Geophysical Exploration Methods Used to Investigate
Young Volcanic Geothermal Prospect (revised from Sudarman, 1983)

Method and Survey Expected Interpretation

Procedure
Aero- or ground magnetic (covers
a large area)
Schlumberger resistivity mapping
and sounding (concentrated in
the area between broad
magnetic low and high)
self-potential (across high and
low resistivity areas)
gravity (covers low and high
magnetic areas)
Anomaly
low anomaly Ql : can be associated with thermally
altered zones
Qt : geometry (?)
low anomaly Ql : can be associated with thermal
fluids upflow and outflow zones
Qt : shallow resistivity structure
high or low Ql : ascending thermal fluid (and / or
anomaly descending cold water)
Qt : ?
high or low Ql : existence of deep structure, i.e.
anomaly intrusive body or caldera structures
Qt : geometry of those above (the upper
structure must be closely defined)
Probable Sequence of Geophysical Exploration Methods Used to Investigate
Young Volcanic Geothermal Prospect (revised from Sudarman, 1983)

Method and Survey Expected Interpretation

Procedure
Thermal gradient and
anomalous temperature (to
figure out the cause of low
resistivity layer)
Magnetotelluric sounding
Anomaly
high Ql : uprising or horisontal thermal
anomaly fluid movement, if depth to resevoir
is relatively shallow
Qt : defined the upper structure
low Ql : can be associated with thermal
anomaly fluids upflow and outflow zones
Qt : deeper resistivity structure

micro-seismics (M< 3) high Ql : permeable zones, hydrothermal

anomaly activity zone
Qt : ?
Natural Source Magnetotelluric
What is Magnetotellurics (MT) ?
MT is a geophysical method to estimate subsurface electrical
property (resistivity or conductivity) distribution by measuring
naturally time-varying EM fields,
Dependence of electric and magnetic phenomena on the
conductivity of the medium can be exploited to study the
structure of solid Earth,
Source of MT signals comes from interaction of the Earths
permanent magnetic field with particles from solar wind and
with atmospheric lightning which induce electric currents in the
subsurface, thus
no need for transmitter, simplifies the logistics
random signals, low S/N (dead band ~1 Hz)
What is Magnetotellurics (MT) ?

Methods to estimate subsurface electrical property (resistivity)

distribution by measuring (naturally time-varying) EM fields over
a range in frequencies :
Magnetotellurics (MT, f < 10 Hz), Audio-frequency MT (AMT, f > 10 Hz),
Controlled-Source Audio-Frequency MT (CSAMT),
Transient EM / Time-Domain EM, Very Low Frequency EM (VLF-EM),
LOTEM, ., etc.
Ground Probing Radar (GPR)
Airborne EM, Marine CSEM,etc.
Electromagnetic Induction
transmitter generates
time varying EM field

induces Eddy currents

in the conductor (Earth)

generate secondary
magnetic field

electric and magnetic

field are sensed at the
receiver
Electrical Resistivities of Rocks
Resistivity

Resistivity [Ohm-m]
Hydrates

OIL SANDS
0.3 Wm
Interpreting subsurface resistivity: Impact of pore
fluids and geologic processes on resistivity

Saline brine Hydrocarbons

Clay alteration Carbonate cementation

Dissolution Silicification

Temperature
Metamorphism
Pressure

Faulting
Increase Decrease
Shearing
 natural electromagnetic field
104 10+4 Hz

f > 1 Hz

f < 1 Hz
Natural Electromagnetic Natural
Signal
Fields

Ey Ex
x y
Hx
Hy
Hz

Short
Period
Long
period

z
Electric (E) and magnetic (H) fields relationship

For a homogeneous or layered (1-D) medium

Ex = Z Hy Z = scalar impedance

For a medium with 2-D symmetry

Ex = Zxy Hy
Ey = Zyx Hx Zxy Zyx
Z = vector impedance

For a general 3-D medium

Ex = Zxx Hx + Zxy Hy E=ZH

Ey = Zyx Hx + Zyy Hy Z = tensor impedance
Characteristics of MT Method
Infinite distance of source sounding site
plane wave assumption, time invariance of the source
simplifies analysis of the governing equations

Frequency domain and wide frequency bands

intermediate to deep investigation depth

Wide range of applications

regional scale geological studies/tectonics
mineral, geothermal and oil exploration
Characteristics of MT Method

Resistivity contrast
There must be a significant resistivity contrast within
the depth of investigation for the method to be useful
Contrast of 5:1 or greater
Resolution depends on thickness and depth of unit
being mapped:
About 5~10% of depth, e.g. the top of a horizon at
10000 m can be mapped to +- 500 m
MT Advantages:
Great depth of penetration
Provides information in non-
seismic or poor seismic areas
No transmitter required
Light-weight equipment - very
portable
Good production rate
Can access almost anywhere
Little impact on environment
Better resolution than grav /
mag
Well-developed 2-D / 3-D
interpretation procedures
MT Disadvantages:
Coupling with lateral
conductors (e.g. sea)
Irregular natural signal and
industrial noise
Resolution less than seismic
Complex data processing
Static shift of apparent
resistivity curves sometimes
significant
Inversion techniques rely on
smooth models, tougher to
interpret in complex areas
Skin effect and penetration depth

Skin effect = exponential EM wave attenuation with depth

Skin depth ( ) = depth in a homogeneous medium at which the
amplitude becomes 1/e or 63% of the original field strength:

A ( ) = A exp (- ) = A exp (-1)

= (2 / 0) 1/2 500 ( .T)1/2
in meter, in Ohm.m, T in seconds

Skin depth is associated to penetration depth of EM

Skin effect and penetration depth

Skin-depth 500 ( T)
Effective depth d 330 ( T)

Lower frequency
(or higher period) and
higher resistivity

~ slower attenuation

Depth
~ deeper penetration

Principles of MT sounding i.e. wide

frequency band measurement
probes different parts (depths)
of the subsurface
Z
MT Data Acquisition (field set-up)
Magnetic Sensor Receiver System
Induction Coil MTU-5A Phoenix

MT Field Set-up
Receiver System
MTU-5A Phoenix

Electric Sensor
Pb-PbCl2
Audio-Frequency MT (AMT)
and
MT field set-up
 Satellite-Synchronized
Magnetotellurics

Phoenix MT System
2000
 Magnetic and Electric Fields Intensity

MT time series
Time (sec)
Data processing
sequence

To extract impedance tensor Z

from observed EM fields (time
series of E and H),

Spectral analysis and transfer

function estimation

Analysis of subsurface
properties contained in Z
Acquisition, Data Processing and Results
Measurement of orthogonal EM fields (time series)
Ex , Ey , Hx , Hy

Data processing to extract impedance tensor

Ex = Zxx Hx + Zxy Hy
Ey = Zyx Hx + Zyy Hy E=ZH

Apparent resistivity and phase

1 2 1
Im.Zij
a( ij ) Zij ( ij ) tan
o Re .Zij
Apparent resistivity and phase sounding curves
a (Ohm.m) and (degree) vs frequency (Hz)
Apparent resistivity and phase sounding curves
a (Ohm.m) and (degree) vs frequency (Hz)

good

Medium quality data

(Class-B)

320 Hz ~ 0.5 Hz: good

0.5 ~ 0.00055 Hz:

med - poor
Data Presentation
Pseudo-section
2-D plot of apparent resistivity and phase data from MT
sounding on a profile
horizontal axis is distance or station position
vertical axis is frequency or period (increasing periods
downward ~ increasing depth)
Color contoured:
low resistivity (or high impedance phase) ~ red
high resistivity (or low impedance phase) ~ blue
Qualitative 2-D resistivity distribution for preliminary
interpretation
 Resistivity pseudo-section-1
Frequency (Herz)

Distance (km)
Resistivity pseudo-section-2
A B C D
0

1000
PSEUDO-DEPTH (m)

2000

3000

4000

5000

6000
0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000 14000 16000 18000
DISTANCE (m)

4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26

APP. RESISTIVITY (Ohm.m)

MT Data Modeling

1000 RESISTIVITY (Ohm.m)

APP. RESISTIVITY (Ohm.m)

1 10 100 1000
100

100

10
obs. data

?
calc. data

DEPTH (m)
1
1000
90
PHASE (deg.)

45

0
0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000 10000
PERIOD (sec.)
MT 1-D smooth modeling
OCCAM inversion (Constable et al., 1987), ABIC (Mitsuhata, 1991)
Markov Chain Monte Carlo (MCMC) algorithm (Grandis et al., 1999)

1000 RESISTIVITY (Ohm.m)

APP. RESISTIVITY (Ohm.m)

1 10 100 1000
100

100

10
obs. data
calc. data

DEPTH (m)
1
1000
90
PHASE (deg.)

45

0
0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000 10000
PERIOD (sec.)
Bostick Transform

Assuming skin depth ( ) = investigation depth (D) in a

layered medium, then transform apparent resistivity
period curve ( vs. T) to resistivity depth curve ( vs. D)

data model 1/2

Di 500 aiTi
i , Ti i , Di

1 s(Ti ) 1 M
B ai
B ai
1 s(Ti ) 1 M
, Di
B
d log ai
or
M 1 ,
s(Ti ) 45
d log Ti
0 90
B is Bostick resistivity (Ohm-m)
Di is Bostick depth (meter)
Bostick Transform

1-D Bostick Model

Bostick Transform

First approximation of (z) at each MT sounding site

Used to construct 2-D pseudo-section with vertical axis in depth

or pseudo-depth

Pseudo-depth from Bostick transform

too deep, usually down-scaled

(z) from Bostick transform as initial guest to 1-D model

resistivity and depth iterative adjustments using 1-D
forward modelling
2-D resistivity section from
1-D models on a profile
Correlation of resistivity units from
station to station
Correlation of resistivity units with
geology and lithology
Bostick
Transform

Source: USGS Pubs Web-site

Bostick
Transform

Source: USGS Pubs Web-site

CASE STUDIES: Historical Perspectives

First used for academic and geothermal

Map plate boundaries, structural-tectonic studies,
volcanoes, alteration, etc.
Use for petroleum starting ~1980
1980s: many in-house groups
Shell, Amoco, Arco, CGG
1990s: most work outsourced to contractors and
consultants:
Geosystems (Italy, UK, US), Zonge (USA)
Phoenix (Canada), Metronix (Germany), Russia, Japan,
etc.
Historical Perspectives
MT method in Indonesia
introduction and application since mid 70s
geothermal exploration
foreign contractors (BEICIP, CGG, NGS, )

MT expertise gained in early 90s

start of economic crises in mid late 90s

MT equipment acquired by institutions (LIPI, Elnusa,

PSG, PSDG, ANTAM ) in ~2004
introduction to HC & geothermal explorations
Crustal scale studies

Central Java Transect (AMT & MT, 1995-1996)

Bengkulu Transect (AMT & MT, 1997)

Flores Transect (AMT & MT, 1998)

Cimandiri Fault Zone West Java (AMT & MT, 1999-2000)

Petroleum exploration

Seram, Mollucca (1998)

Tanjungkerta, West Java (1999, 2000)

Kawengan and West Banyuasin, East Java (2004)

Brebes and Losari, Central Java (2005)

Banjar, West Java (2009)

Geothermal and Volcanology
Hululais, Jambi (MT, 1995)
Seulawah, Aceh (MT, 1995)
Sumurup, Jambi (MT & TDEM, 1997)
Lahendong, North Sulawesi (CSAMT)
Kamojang, West Java (CSAMT)
Cimanggu Hot Spring, West Java (AMT, 1998)
Guntur-Galunggung, West Java (AMT, 2000-2001)
Ungaran, Central Java (AMT, 2002-2003)
Guntur volcano (AMT & MT, 2003-2004)
Papandayan volcano (AMT & MT, 2007)
2-D Modeling by FEM
2-D Inverted Resistivity Model Result
AMT Survey on
Guntur volcano
 INVERTED 2-D RESISTIVITY MODEL BENEATH GUNTUR VOLCANO AS VIEWED FROM NORTH TO THE
SOUTH OF THE VOLCANO

Sta. Citiis [+1523 m]

G. GUNTUR

PTR_01 [+1446.3 m]
Tiltmeter/Watertube
Station

GN_06

PTR_02

PTR_03
PTR_04

PTR_07

PTR_08

PTR_09
GN_05

PTR_06
PTR_05

PTR_10
1.5 R E F E R E NC E
CMK

1.5
GN_03

1 [ ohm-m]
GN_02
GN_01

3
10
1.0

(seismic data)
30

3.5 ~ 8.5 km
100
1.0
300
1000
0.5 3000
10000
0.5

0.0
0.0

- 0.5 Magma
- 0.5
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 chamber 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
EASTING [km] SOUTH-SOUTHWESTING [km]
AMT Survey, Cimanggu Hot Spring, West Java
 3000
4

LOG FREQUENCY (Hz)

1000

3 400

pseudosection 200
2
(data) 70

1 30

10
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
App. Resisitivity
(Ohm.m)

hot-spring hot-spring

10

11

12
13
14
15

16

17

18

19
2

9
1

10000

15
3000
ELEVATION (x 100m)

500
10

200
2-D
smooth model 5 50

20

0
5

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Resisitivity
DISTANCE (x 100m) (Ohm.m)
MT on Papandayan Volcano
MT on Papandayan Volcano
Line-A
Line-B
Line-C
Geologic Interpretation on Geothermal Structure
Controlled-Source Electromagnetic
(CSEM)

Controlled-Source Audio-frequency
Magnetotellurics (CSAMT/CSMT), and

Time-Domain / Transient Electromagnetics

(TDEM/TEM).
Why are Controlled-Source EM methods
worth such attention ?

Answers:

A. Stronger signal compared to the natural one

enhance S/N ratio
B. Electrical conductivity is closely linked to fluid
properties,
C. Electrical conductivity is one of a short list of physical
properties.
Electrical conductivity and fluids:
Rock conductivity is a direct function of porosity,
Rock conductivity is a direct function of permeability,
Rock conductivity is a direct function of fluid conductivity
(clearly need other information or assumptions to separate effects).

Only a few physical properties are available for

remote sensing:
Density, acoustic velocity, magnetization, conductivity,
Only seismics and EM can use an active (man-made) source.
 Conductivity of Earth materials
Electrical resistivity has units of Wm.
Conductivity is just the reciprocal of resistivity: =1/ (S/m)

A 1 m3 cube of 2 Wm rock would have a

series resistance of 2 W across the faces,

L RA
R Wm
A L
Current I
Conductivity is proportionality constant
in Ohms Law for continuous media:

J E or E J

Where J is current density (A/m2) and E is

electric field (V/m)
 Electromagnetic Induction
Faradays Law says that a moving (or time-varying) magnetic field
will induce electric fields in a conductor.

d magnetic flux [weber = 108 maxwell]

E dl Rate of cutting of

C
dt lines of magnetic flux
in Maxwell/sec
a length element of the loop
It is also expressed in terms of the change in the magnetic
induction B with time t:

B Magnetic induction [1 Tesla = 1 weber/m2 = 104 gauss = 109 gamma]

E Voltage
t
Electric field strength [V/m]

Minus sign in Faradays Law shows that conductors attenuate EM fields and so EM
fields propagate in resistive materials.
Electromagnetic Induction
Ohms Law says that a current will be generated from the
electric field in a good conductor.

J E

Amperes Law says that the current I will generate a

secondary magnetic field.

B dl I
C

B H H is magnetizing force or magnetic field strength

[1 ampere turn/m = 4p10-3 oersted]
0
o = permeability of free space = 4p10-7 Henry/meter
= permeability of the medium
Electromagnetic Induction
CSEM and MT lack the resolution of seismic methods, but can constrain
depths very much better than potential field methods through the skin
depth:
For a plane wave incident on a uniform
conductor,

s 2
is called the skin depth. It is the distance
that field amplitudes are reduced by 1/e, or
37%. In practical units,

s 500 1 f 500 T m
d s 2 350 T m effective depth

where circular frequency f= /2p=1/T

Skin depth is not a measure of resolution, but is a guide to the

maximum distance EM energy can propagate.
What is Controlled-Source Electro-
Magnetics (CSEM) ?
A terminology grouping all electromagnetic techniques which use
their own transmitter. Examples are time-domain/transient
electromagnetics (TDEM/TEM) and controlled-source audio MT
(CSAMT),

CSEM is an active geophysical method to estimate subsurface

electrical property (resistivity or conductivity) distribution by
measuring generated secondary EM fields,

Source of EM signals is transmitted from, in general, a grounded-

dipole wire & loop-wire (horizontal & vertical) sources,

The receivers are, in general, fluxgate magnetometer (3 comp.),

induction magnetic coil + electric sensors.
What is Controlled-Source Electro-
Magnetics (CSEM) ?

CSAMT (freq: 10 Hz ~ 20 kHz) / CSMT (freq: <1 Hz ~

20 kHz) frequency domain

Manufacturers: Phoenix Geophysics Ltd (Canada), Zonge Ltd

(US), Metronix BmgH (Germany), Neoscience Ltd (Japan,
local), etc.
Services: Phoenix Geophysics Ltd (Canada), Geosystem Srl.
(Italy), Zonge Ltd (US), Indonesia (PT Elnusa Geosains?, PT
Aneka Tambang: 2 systems in end 2008?),
Targets: mainly geothermal, several in oil and gas,
groundwater and civil engineering
What is Controlled-Source Electro-
Magnetics (CSEM) ?
Time-Domain EM / Transient EM / MULTI-TEM

Manufacturers: Phoenix Geophysics Ltd (Canada),

Lamontagne Geophysics Ltd. (UTEM, Canada), Zonge Ltd
(US), Metronix BmgH (Germany), Geonics Ltd (Canada),
Neoscience Ltd (Japan, local), etc.
Services: Phoenix Geophysics Ltd (Canada), Geosystem Srl.
(Italy), Zonge Ltd (US), Lamontagne Geophysics Ltd. (UTEM,
Canada), Geonics Ltd (Canada), Metronix BmgH (Germany),
SIROTEM (Aussie), Neoscience Ltd (Japan, local), Indonesia
(PT Elnusa Geosains), PGS, WesternGeco,
Targets: mainly geothermal, several in oil and gas,
groundwater and civil engineering, sulfide (conductive)
minerals
What is Controlled-Source Electro-
Magnetics (CSEM) ?
Long-Offset TEM (LOTEM) Tx Re offset is
approximately equal to or greater than the
exploration depth

Manufacturers & Services: K-M Strack (Western Atlas

Internatl. Ltd)
Targets: oil and gas, geothermal, and structural tectonic
studies
What is Controlled-Source Electro-
Magnetics (CSEM) ?

Airborne TDEM/TEM:
Japan, US, Australia, China, Canada
Targets: minerals, volcano studies & geothermal

Marine CSEM/TDEM/TEM/MT:
Services: EMGS, PGS, CGG, OHM, WesternGeco, etc.,
Targets: oil and gas, methane hydrate,
Cases: Gulf of Mexico, North sea, Nigeria, Brazil, Colombia,
Canada, and offshore West Africa,
ExxonMobil Resistivity Mapping Surveys: West Africa (23
cases), South America (9 cases), North America (10 cases),
Nile delta (2007, 2008).
Why Controlled-Source Electro-
Magnetics (CSEM) ?
The polarization of the fields can be selected by the
orientation of the transmitting source and the signal
strengths do not depend upon the time of day and season,
Signals are stronger (greater S/N ratio) and hence higher
accuracy, therefor the receiving equipment does not need
to be as sensitive as that for natural MT/AMT,
Because of the coherent signal, the usual signal processing
and enhancement techniques are far more effective,
It is less affected by lateral resistivity variations when
providing sounding information (Ward, 1983), and
The surveys can be much faster than of using natural
source.
Why Controlled-Source Electro-
Magnetics (CSEM) ?
BUT,
It is more expensive & logistically inefficient (esp.
tensor CSMT) for very long cross-country traverses
over those natural fields,
One (technical) disadvantage: if the survey area is
closer to the transmitter, the resistivity of the deep
layers cannot be accurately determined (Goldstein
and Strangway, 1975; Yamashita, 1984) the plane-
wave assumption is no longer true. To avoid such
effect, the receiver must be placed at some distant
where the transmitted EM field becomes satisfy a
plane wave assumption or as the so-called far-field
response Lf 4 x skin-depth = 2000 /f.
 Characteristics of EM Fields
Multi-layered half space
model, with a current
dipole of sufficiently
small length.

I : current intensity, Amp

ds : dipole length, m
r : distant of dipole
source center to
P(x,y,0), m
: conductivity, S/m or
resistivity, Ohm-m
x, y, z : Cartesian axes
Characteristics of EM Fields
Horizontal components of the EM fields Ex, Ey, Hx and Hy at P(x,y,0) due
to the dipole are described as follows (e.g. Wait, 1966, 1970; Daniels,
1974; Murakami, 1986):

Ids x
Ex j 1 RTE J0 r d Q ,
4p 0 u0
0
x r

y
Ey Q ,
x r

Ids y
Hx RTE ( ) RTM ( ) J1 r d
4p x r 0 u0
Characteristics of EM Fields
Ids
Hy 1 RTE J0 r d
4p 0

Ids x
RTE ( ) RTM ( ) J1 r d ,
4p x r 0
where

Ids u0
Q 1 RTE RTE ( ) RTM ( ) J1 r d ,
4pj 0 0 u0

u02 2
k02 , k02 2
Characteristics of EM Fields

: dielectric constant

: magnetic permeability

: angular frequency

RTE , RTM : reflection coefficients of TE and TM mode

EM wave at the Earth surface

Jo, J1 : Bessel functions

Ex, Ey, Hx and Hy : (usually) complex numbers

Survey Design & Acquisition

Acquired parameters:

E-field : Magnitude + Phase

H-field : Magnitude + Phase are measured as a function of frequency

Calculated parameters (these are calculated automatically in the field):

Cagniard resistivity:
2
1 Ex E : mV/km
a H : nano-Tesla (nT) or gamma
5f Hy

Phase difference (degree): E-phase minus H-phase,

= E - H
Survey Design & Acquisition

Based on their configuration:

Scalar Tx: 1 system; Re: Ex/Hy or Ey/Hx

Vector Tx: 1 system; Re: Ex, Ey, Hx and Hy

Tensor Tx: 2 systems (Tx-1 and Tx-2); Re: Ex1,

Ex2, Ey1, Ey2, Hx1, Hx2, Hy1, and Hy2
Scalar CSAMT/CSMT
Scalar CSAMT/CSMT

Scalar impedance is calculated from a pair of orthogonal

horizontal E- and H-fields : Zxy = Ex/Hy or Zyx = Ey/Hx,

In the frequency domain, the relationship between E and H is

shown by the transfer function:
Ex( ) = Z( )Hy( )

In an homogeneous area or 1-D structure, scalar impedance

provides complete information the resistivity structure,

For complex structure as in mining and geothermal areas, the

resistivity models analyzed from scalar impedances can be
ambiguous and confusing due to the heterogeneity.
Vector CSAMT/CSMT
Vector CSAMT/CSMT

The impedance is calculated from a set of orthogonal horizontal

E- and H-fields (Vozoff, 1986) :

Ex = ZxxHx + ZxyHy Ex Z xx Z xy Hx
, E Z H
Ey = ZyxHx + ZyyHy, Ey Zyx Zyy Hy

The tensor impedance Z is a complex number, then apparent

resistivity and phase are calculated by:

1 2 Im Zij
a.ij Zij ij tan 1

0
Re Zij
Vector CSAMT/CSMT
Defining the impedance tensor:

Ex E *x Z xx Hx E * x Z xy Hy E * x Power-spectra:
X i X i*
E x E *y Z xx Hx E *y Z xy Hy E *y
* * * YiYi*
Ex H x Z xx Hx H x Z xy Hy H x

E x H *y Z xx Hx H *y Z xy Hy H *y Cross-spectra:
Ey E * x Zyx Hx E * x Zyy Hy E * x X iY j*

Ey E *y Zyx Hx E *y Zyy Hy E *y
X and Y are
Ey H * x Zyx Hx H * x Zyy Hy H * x magnetic or electric
field at i- or j-
Ey H *y Zyx Hx H *y Zyy Hy H *y direction
Tensor CSAMT/CSMT
Tensor CSAMT/CSMT
Best technique to be used in a very complex with strong regional
anisotropy (i.e. volcano and geothermal studies, mineral exploration)
Full tensor solution to the impedance may be preferred,
The determinant of the impedance tensor is invariant under rotation and
hence is not influenced by the orientation of the measuring coordinates
and source orientation (Eggers, 1992; Geophysics),
The tensor is more representative of most situations since it does permit
to obtain intrinsic apparent resistivity under 2- or 3-D structures
(Cantwell, 1960; Swift, 1967; Sims, Bostick and Smith, 1971; Eggers,
1982),
It improves resolution of complex geologic structure compared to single
source CSAMT (Sanberg and Hohmann, 1982; Otten and Musmann,
1985; Uchida et al., 1989)
Tensor CSAMT/CSMT
Defining the full impedance tensor, two source polarizations are
required. The MT tensor data set become:

Source-1 :
Ex1 = ZxxHx1 + ZxyHy1
Ey1 = ZyxHx1 + ZyyHy1, (1)

Source-2 :
Ex2 = ZxxHx2 + ZxyHy2
Ey2 = ZyxHx2 + ZyyHy2, (2)

Source-1 and -2 are transmitted independently !

Tensor CSAMT/CSMT
Multiply (1) and (2) to reference signal Hy*1 and Hx*2 (* denotes
complex conjugate), we obtain:

* * *
E x1 H y1 Z xx Hx1 H y1 Z xy Hy1 H y1

E y1 Hy*1 Zyx H x1 Hy*1 Zyy Hy1 Hy*1

E x 2 Hx*2 Z xx Hx 2 Hx*2 Z xy Hy 2 Hx*2
E y 2 H x*2 Zyx H x 2 H x*2 Zyy Hy 2 H x*2
Tensor CSAMT/CSMT
The full impedance tensor elements can be obtained as follows:

E x1 Hy*1 Hy 2 Hx*2 E x 2 Hx*2 Hy1 Hy*1

Z xx
Hx1 Hy*1 Hy 2 Hx*2 Hx 2 Hx*2 Hy1 Hy*1
Hx1 Hy*1 E x 2 Hx*2 Hx 2 Hx*2 E x1 Hy*1
Z xy
Hx1 Hy*1 Hy 2 Hx*2 Hx 2 Hx*2 Hy1 Hy*1
Ey1 Hy*1 Hy 2 Hx*2 Ey 2 Hx*2 Hy1 Hy*1
Zyx 1 2
H x1 H *
Hy 2 H *
Hx 2 H *
Hy 1 H *
ij Zij
y1 x2 x2 y1
0

Hx1 Hy*1 Ey 2 Hx*2 Hx 2 Hx*2 Ey1 Hy*1 Im Zij

Z xx * * * * ij tan 1

H x1 H y1 Hy 2 H x2 Hx 2 H x2 Hy 1 H y1 Re Zij
Tensor CSAMT/CSMT
In 1-D Earth case, we obtain:

Z xx (or xx ) Zyy (or yy ) 0

Z xy (or xy ) Zyx (or yx )

In 2-D Earth case, Zxy and Zyx have a maximum or minimum,

parallel or perpendicular to the strike.

If the x- or y-axis is along strike : Zxx = Zyy = 0

If neither axis is along strike : Zxx + Zyy = 0

In 3-D Earth case : Zxx Zyy 0

Processing & Modeling : General
Procedures
Objective:
To extract the observed signals a set of smooth, repeatable
functions representing the Earths response to be used in
interpreting the Earths conductivity structures

The response functions consist of:

Impedance tensor,
Apparent resistivities and phases,
Principle directions,
Skew, and
Ellipticity

The processing steps:

1. Pre-processing step (in the field, real time), and
2. Advanced processing step (at labo)
Processing & Modeling : General
Procedures
Pre-Processing Steps (in the field, real time):
Compute Fourier coefficient by convoluting signal wave data to obtain
real (cosine wave) and imaginary (sine wave) parts for E and H, and
Gain phase correction to convert the measured E and H fields to
common units (mV/km and nT).

Advanced Processing Steps (at Labo):

Estimate auto-power and cross-power spectra (Vozoff, 1991),
Testing statistical hypothesis/random data analyses (Bendat and
Piersol, 1971): S/N ratio, polarization parameters and their azimuth
(Fowler et al., 1967), and coherencies (Reddy and Rankin, 1974),
Impedance tensor analyses (Cantwell, 1960; Vozoff, 1972; also Goubau
et al., 1978 & Kao and Rankin, 1977),
Tensor apparent resistivities and phases (Vozoff, 1972, 1991; Eggers,
1981),
Invariant apparent resistivities and phases (Eggers, 1982;
Ranganayaki, 1984) reduce 4 resistivities and phases into single
resistivity and phase.
Processing & Modeling : General
Procedures

Auto-power & cross-power spectra:

Hx Hx* , Hy Hy* , E x E x* , Ey Ey*

Hx Hy* , Hx E x* , Hx Ey* , Hy E x* , Hy Ey* , E x Ey*

Testing statistical hypothesis/random data analyses :

S/N ratio 2
Polarization parameters 0.9 (90%),
Coherencies 0.9 (90%)

Impedance tensor analyses & Tensor apparent resistivities and phases

in the previous chapter
Processing & Modeling : General
Procedures
Invariant apparent resistivities and phases (Eggers, 1982;
Ranganayaki, 1984) To obtain representative 1-D model from any Z;
reduce 4 resistivities and phases into single resistivity and phase.

Arithmetic average : Z A 0.5 Z xy Zyx

1/2
Geometric average : ZG Z xy Zyx

Determinant : ZD Z xx Zyy Z xy Zyx

1 2
inv Z

inv tan 1 Z im Z re
Processing & Modeling : General
Procedures
Impedance tensor rotation
Impedance tensor Z obtained from measurement in a coordinate
system can be rotated mathematically to obtain Z in other
coordinate system (axes rotated + clockwise)

x Z = R Z RT
x

R cos sin
sin cos
y

y
Processing & Modeling : General
Procedures
For 1-D resistivity variations: For 2-D resistivity variations:

1 2 1
inv Z xy xy inv Z xy Zyx xy yx

inv 2 xy inv xy yx

TE- and TM-modes Apparent Resistivities and Phases:

1 2
tan 1 Z xy.im Z xy.re
TE( E // strike) xy Z xy xy

yx tan 1 Zyx.im Zyx.re

1 2
TM( H // strike) yx Zyx
Processing & Modeling : General
Procedures
1-D Modeling, Forward (ex. Kaufman and Keller, 1981, pp. 68-74):

1 1
a 1 coth k1h1 coth 2 1 coth k2h2 coth 3 2 ...
1 1 2
...coth n 1 n 2 coth kn 1hn 1 coth n n 1 ...

n and hn are resistivity and thickness of layer n-th, and k=(- / )1/2

1-D Modeling, Inversion (ex. Bostick, 1977):

p
D a( ) 1
2
1/2
D a( )
CSAMT/CSMT CASE STUDIES
CSAMT Field Setup
2-D and 3-D interpretation of CSMT data in the
Bajawa geothermal field, Flores (Uchida et al., 2002)
2-D and 3-D interpretation of MT
data in the Bajawa geothermal
field Flores, Indonesia (Uchida et
al., 2002)
Graben CSAMT Survey Lines, Borealis Project,
Walker Lane gold belt, western Nevada, USA
The dark purple color represents low resistivity/high conductivity.
Drill holes in the centre of the dark purple correlate to high
quartz-pyrite and higher grade ore intercepts
The dark purple color represents
low resistivity/high conductivity.
Drill holes in the centre of the dark
purple correlate to high quartz-
pyrite and higher grade ore
 2-D Smooth-Model Resistivity Inversion, Scalar CSAMT Data

The Los Olivos

Project is located 5
km east of Valle de
Olivos near Hidalgo
de Parral in the
State of Chihuahua,
Mexico
Sur de Guerrero, Taxco, Mexico CSAMT Survey
Line 2- Comparison of 1-D and 2-D inversion
models
1D modeled resistivities at draped depths of
100 m and 200 m
2D modeled resistivities at draped depths of
100 m and 200 m
2D modeled resistivities along Taxco Line 4
and geologic cross-section through drillsite
C (TA443 ore discovery).
Wadi Almarsad Project
The Kingdom of Jordan
Line 10
Experience is not what happens to
you..

Experience is what you

do with what happens to you

Aldow Huxley
Thank You
Djedi S. Widarto
Education :
BS in geology (ITB, 1985)
M.Eng. in mineral resources engineering (Waseda University, 1991)
Dr.Sci. in science, geology and mineralogy (Kyoto University, 1994)

Working Experiences :
March 1986 June 2008, Research Ctr for Geotechnology, LIPI, Bandung
Last post: Principle Researcher in Applied Geophysics
June 2008 present, Upstream Technology Center, PT Pertamina (Upstream), Jakarta
Present Position: Senior geoscientist / Specialist in electromagnetic geophysics
Chief of New Energy & Green Technology, Upstream Technology Center, PT Pertamina
Award :
2006, Peneliti Utama Terbaik Indonesia, Riset Unggulan Terpadu, KMNRT 2006
2004-2005, National Science Council Scholarship Award, National Central Univ, Taiwan
1995 2008, Japan Society for the Promotion of Science, Research Scientist at Japanese universities (Kyushu,
Hokkaido, and Chiba Universities)
1997, TWAS/UNESCO Scholarship Award at the Flinders Univ of South Australia

Professional Membership :
1990 present, Society of Exploration Geophysicists (SEG)
1989 present, European Society of Geoscientists and Geoengineers (EAGE)
1989 present, Society of Exploration Geophysicists Japan (SEGJ)
1986 present, Indonesian Association of Geophysicists (HAGI)
1986 present, Indonesian Association of Geologists (IAGI)
2007 present, Inter-association Working Group EMSEV (Electromagnetic Studies on Earthquakes and
Volcanoes)