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Robert Sarsby

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Published by Thomas Telford Publishing, Thomas Telford Ltd, 1 Heron Quay,
London E14 4JD.
URL: http://www.thomastelford.com

Distributors for Thomas Telford books are


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First published 2000

Also available from Thomas Telford Books

Contaminated soil 2000 (2 vols). ConSoil. ISBN: 0 7277 2954 3


Design applications of raft foundations. J. A. Hemsley. ISBN: 0 7277 2765 6
Environmental assessment. R. Singleton, P. Castle & D. Short. ISBN: 0 7277 2612 9
Geoenvironmental engineering: ground contamination. R. N. Yong & H. R.
Thomas (eds). ISBN: 0 7277 2840 7
Green 2: contaminated and derelict land. R. Sarsby (ed.). ISBN: 0 7277 2633 1

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

ISBN: 0 7277 2752 4

Robert Sarsby and Thomas Telford Limited 2000

All rights, including translation, reserved. Except as permitted by the Copyright,


Designs and Patents Act 1988, no part of this publication may be reproduced,
stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means,
electronic, mechanical, photocopying or otherwise, without the prior written
permission of the Publishing Director, Thomas Telford Publishing, Thomas
Telford Ltd, 1 Heron Quay, London E14 4JD.

This book is published on the understanding that the author is solely responsible
for the statements made and opinions expressed in it and that its publication does
not necessarily imply that such statements and/or opinions are or reflect the views
or opinions of the publishers. While every effort has been made to ensure that the
statements made and the opinions expressed in this publication provide a safe and
accurate guide, no liability or responsibility can be accepted in this respect by the
author or publishers.

Typeset by MHL Typesetting Ltd, Coventry


Printed and bound in Great Britain by MPG Books, Bodmin, Cornwall

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Preface

The construction industry has always served to aid society and has contributed
significantly to its development and mankinds well-being through, for example,
the provision of clean water and sanitation, the building of transport networks
and, more recently, the engineering of waste disposal and the rehabilitation of
derelict and contaminated land. These latter contributions are prime examples of
the inevitable interaction that occurs between construction and the environment.
This interaction can be classified as incidental, accidental, opportunistic or
deliberate. While much of this interaction has been beneficial, there have of
course been instances of detrimental interaction, for a variety of reasons. In recent
years growing environmental awareness, within both society and the construction
industry, has led to the formal statement and definition of attitudes and
approaches to construction and its environmental consequences so as to prevent
harm.
The construction industry interacts broadly with the environment in two ways:
as a service industry to environmentally orientated operations
as a major consumer of materials (and thereby being partner to the
associated environmental consequences).
From the nature of the foregoing activities it is readily apparent that the major
constructionenvironment interface is geotechnical in nature, primarily by virtue
of the need to use the ground for the support of works of construction and the
bulk use of geotechnical materials in construction. The recognition of
environmental geotechnics as an identifiable facet of civil engineering is the
raison detre for this text.
This book is directed towards the application of geotechnical principles,
processes and techniques in situations where there is a major environmental
component, such as engineered waste disposal by landfill or landraise,
rehabilitation of derelict and contaminated land and use of waste materials in
construction.
The first part of the book contains an outline of those elements of soil
mechanics which I feel are required knowledge for persons studying or working
within the general area of environmental geotechnics. My intention was not to
produce another textbook on soil mechanics, but to incorporate my academic and
practical experience in a presentation of those aspects of soil mechanics that are
most important for environmental geotechnics. In this respect it is believed that
the key to the development of environmental geotechnics as an analytical and
design tool, as it continues to grow and become more refined, is to understand
the basic principles of geotechnics. I regard understanding the concept of
effective stress and the ability to select relevant behavioural mechanisms and
appropriate representation of the strength behaviour of materials as vital. In this
context I hope that the reader will see the connection between geotechnics and the
hovercraft, aquaplaning, ice skating, etc.
It is intended that this text is read as a whole book rather than as a step-by-step
guide to obtaining solutions to grossly simplified, artificial questions, and hence
it contains no worked examples of exam-type questions. To my mind, engineers
have to be problem-solvers (not just identifiers of problems), and a prime

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iv Environmental Geotechnics

requirement is for them to have knowledge and judgement to approximate a


previously unseen, atypical, seemingly intractable problem into a situation that
can be solved with an appropriate degree of accuracy.
In presenting information on the various environmental topics I have exercised
my personal judgement, based on 25 years of practical experience in
environmental geotechnics, in giving data, information and suggestions for
tackling common situations and problems. Others may have different views on
data values or analytical methods and they may believe that I have ignored or
overlooked important facets or aspects. Hence particular questions that I would
like readers to reflect upon when they are dealing with practical situations in
environmental geotechnics are:
How confident are they of the value of relevant parameters?
What is the anticipated spatial variability of their material (both inanimate
and animate)?
What are the inherent, unconscious simplifications in their approach?
What are the immediate and long-term consequences of making a mistake?
We have to undertake construction in a way that produces an overall benefit to
society and, as we become more aware of ways and means of reducing environ-
mentally negative outcomes, our obligations keep increasing. Environmental
protection legislation encourages and supports engineers in reducing environ-
mentally negative effects from construction operations. I fervently believe that
engineers must take up this challenge and incorporate environmental considera-
tions as a fundamental criterion in all their work.

Bob Sarsby

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Acknowledgements

Many sources of information have been used in the preparation of this book and
these sources are acknowledged within the text and the bibliography. In addition I
would like to thank the following organisations and persons for granting
permission to use specific copyrighted material: A A Balkema (Rotterdam),
Ashgate Publishing Ltd (Gower Publishing Ltd), BDA (British Drilling
Association), Dr L Beeuwsaert, Prof G E Blight, BSI (British Standards
Institution), Dr A K Chakroborty, CIRIA (Construction Industry Research and
Information Association, London), CIWEM (Chartered Institute of Water and
Environmental Management), Corus Construction, ENPC (Ecole Nationale des
Ponts et Chaussees, Paris), Prof D Ellis, Elsevier Science, The Engineering
Council, Foundation for Water Research, Dr J Gettinby, HM Stationery Office,
ICE (The Institution of Civil Engineers), International Atomic Energy Agency,
International Thomson Publishing Services Ltd, John Wiley & Sons Ltd
(Chichester and New York), Kluwer Academic Publishers, Prof G S Littlejohn,
M Neden, Plenum Publishing Corporation, The Royal Society, Soil Instruments
Ltd, Swiss National Co-operative for the Disposal of Radioactive Wastes,
Thomas Telford Publishing, W F Thompson, US Bureau of Mines, US
Geological Survey, WRc-NSF Ltd, Dr L Wu.
My greatest acknowledgement (and thanks) must go to my wife, Irene, for her
patience, encouragement, fortitude and strength in driving me into my study (the
torture chamber) at times when I did not feel like working on this book
kocham cie bardzo.

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Notation

This notation only contains those symbols which have more-or-less universal
meaning within the construction industry. Other terms which are used within this
book are defined as they occur, within the section to which they are specifically
applicable.

Symbol Parameter Units

A Skemptons pore pressure parameter


(for shearing) /
B Skemptons pore pressure parameter
(for isotropic compression) /

B Pore pressure parameter for vertical loading /
c0 Effective cohesion kN/m2 or kPa
Cc Compression index /
cr0 Effective residual cohesion kN/m2 or kPa
cw Wall adhesion kN/m2 or kPa
cu Undrained cohesion kN/m2 or kPa
Cv Coefficient of consolidation (vertical drainage) m2/yr
Ch Coefficient of consolidation
(horizontal drainage) m2/yr
C Coefficient of secondary compression strain/log(time)
CU Coefficient of uniformity /
CZ Coefficient of curvature /
e Voids ratio /
G or Gs Specific gravity of soil solids /
i Hydraulic gradient /
IP Plasticity index %
k Coefficient of permeability (or hydraulic
conductivity) m/s
kh Coefficient of permeability (horizontal flow) m/s
kv Coefficient of permeability (vertical flow) m/s
KA Coefficient of Active earth pressure /
KA0 Effective coefficient of Active earth pressure /
Ko Coefficient of earth pressure at-rest /
KP Coefficient of Passive earth pressure /
KP0 Effective coefficient of Passive earth pressure /
Leq Equivalent notional uniform sound level dB(A)
Lp Sound level dB(A)
Lw Sound power level dB(A)
m Volumetric moisture content /
mv Coefficient of volume compressibility m2/MN
n Porosity %
ru Pore pressure ratio /
Sr Degree of saturation %
Tv Time factor (vertical drainage) /

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viii Environmental Geotechnics

TR Time factor (radial drainage) /


U Degree of consolidation %
Uv Degree of consolidation (vertical drainage) %
UR Degree of consolidation (radial drainage) %
w Moisture (or water) content %
wL Liquid limit %
wP Plastic limit %
wS Shrinkage limit %
Angle Degrees or radians
 Angle of wall friction Degrees
" Axial strain /
"v Volumetric strain /
0 Effective friction angle Degrees
0 r Effective residual friction angle Degrees
u Undrained friction angle Degrees
Bulk unit weight kN/m3
0 Buoyant unit weight kN/m3
d Dry unit weight kN/m3
 Bulk density Mg/m3
0 Buoyant density Mg/m3
d Dry density Mg/m3
 Total direct stress kN/m2 or kPa
0 Effective direct stress kN/m2 or kPa
n Normal stress kN/m2 or kPa
0 n Effective normal stress kN/m2 or kPa
1 Major principal stress kN/m2 or kPa
01 Effective major principal stress kN/m2 or kPa
2 Intermediate principal stress kN/m2 or kPa
02 Effective intermediate principal stress kN/m2 or kPa
3 Minor principal stress kN/m2 or kPa
03 Effective minor principal stress kN/m2 or kPa
 Shear stress kN/m2 or kPa

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Contents

Preface iii
Acknowledgements v
Notation vii

1. Geotechnics and the environment 1


1.1. Introduction 1
1.2. Construction and the environment 2
1.3. Environmental impact from construction 4
1.4. Environmentconstruction interactions 7
1.5. Environmental geotechnics 9

2. Environmental basics 11
2.1. Introduction 11
2.1.1. Environmental protection 12
2.1.2. Aims of assessment 14
2.1.3. Environmental impact 16
2.1.4. Risk assessment 17
2.1.5. Life-cycle assessment 22
2.2. Environmental assessment components 22
2.2.1. Scoping 23
2.2.2. Baseline studies 26
2.2.3. The environmental impact statement 26

3. Basics of soil materials 31


3.1. Introduction 31
3.1.1. Geotechnical materials 31
3.1.2. Formation processes 32
3.1.3. Soil constituents 33
3.1.4. Soil characteristics 34
3.2. The soil model 38
3.2.1. State parameters 38
3.2.2. Principle of effective stress 41
3.3. Soil classification 43
3.3.1. Particle-size distribution 44
3.3.2. Consistency limits 46
3.3.3. Soil plasticity 49

4. Ground investigation 51
4.1. Introduction 51
4.1.1. Objectives of investigation 52
4.1.2. General methodology 53
4.2. Physical investigation 55
4.2.1. Shallow investigations 56
4.2.2. Drilling 57
4.2.3. Sampling 59

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x Environmental Geotechnics

4.3. In situ testing 62


4.3.1. Standard Penetration Test 62
4.3.2. Cone Penetration Test 63
4.3.3. Vane apparatus 64
4.3.4. The pressuremeter 66
4.3.5. Plate bearing tests 67
4.3.6. Geophysical ground investigation 67
4.4. Reporting 68

5. Compaction and earthworks 70


5.1. Introduction 70
5.1.1. Earthworks 70
5.1.2. Compaction 72
5.2. Laboratory testing 74
5.2.1. The compaction curve 74
5.2.2. Compaction effects 77
5.2.3. Moisture condition value 78
5.3. Field compaction 80
5.3.1. Specification 81
5.3.2. Field measurement 84
5.3.3. Compaction plant 85

6. Shear strength 88
6.1. Introduction 88
6.1.1. Shearing behaviour of soils 89
6.1.2. The Coulomb failure envelope 90
6.1.3. The MohrCoulomb failure criterion 93
6.1.4. Volume changes in granular soils 96
6.1.5. Pore pressure behaviour 98
6.2. The direct shear box 100
6.3. The triaxial test 103
6.3.1. The triaxial apparatus 103
6.3.2. Analysis of test data 104
6.3.3. The undrained test 105
6.3.4. The consolidatedundrained test 106
6.3.5. The drained test 107
6.3.6. The unconfined compression test 108
6.4. The ring shear apparatus 109
6.5. The vane test 111
6.6. Applications of shear strength theory 112
6.6.1. Influence of pore suctions 112
6.6.2. Undrained shear strength 113
6.6.3. Parameters 114
6.6.4. Practical situations 115
6.6.5. Alternative shear strength models 117

7. Groundwater and permeability 120


7.1. Introduction 120
7.1.1. Groundwater 120
7.1.2. Darcys law and permeability 122
7.2. Laboratory measurement of permeability 123
7.2.1. Constant head permeameter 124
7.2.2. Falling head permeameter 125
7.2.3. Triaxial cell permeameter 128
7.2.4. Consolidation cell permeameter 128

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Contents xi

7.3. Field permeability tests 129


7.3.1. Well tests 129
7.3.2. Borehole tests 131
7.4. Seepage 133
7.4.1. Stratified deposits 133
7.4.2. Steady-state seepage 134
7.4.3. Flownets 136
7.4.4. Flownets for anisotropic soil 139
7.4.5. Quicksand conditions 140
7.5. Groundwater control 142
7.5.1. Groundwater barriers 142
7.5.2. Dewatering 145

8. Consolidation and settlement 148


8.1. Introduction 148
8.1.1. Consolidation and settlement 149
8.1.2. Piston and spring analogy 151
8.2. Consolidation theory 151
8.2.1. One-dimensional consolidation (Terzaghi) 152
8.2.2. Solution of the consolidation equation 153
8.2.3. Volume change due to consolidation 156
8.3. Consolidation testing 158
8.3.1. Casagrande oedometer 158
8.3.2. Rowe cell (hydraulic oedometer) 160
8.3.3. Analysis of results 162
8.4. Compressibility behaviour 164
8.4.1. Immediate settlement 164
8.4.2. Consolidation settlement 165
8.4.3. Secondary compression 166
8.4.4. Preconsolidation pressure 167
8.4.5. Construction aspects 168
8.5. Ground drainage 168
8.5.1. Radial consolidation 169
8.5.2. Vertical drains 169
8.5.3. Preloading 170

9. Slope stability 171


9.1. Introduction 171
9.1.1. Types of slope failure 173
9.1.2. Slope instability 175
9.2. Translational slide 180
9.2.1. Analysis 180
9.2.2. Practical aspects 182
9.3. Rotational failure 182
9.3.1. Analysis 183
9.3.2. The method of slices 185
9.3.3. Fellenius method of analysis 187
9.3.4. Bishop simplified method of analysis 188
9.3.5. Non-circular failure surfaces 189
9.4. Stability charts for rotational failure 190
9.4.1. Undrained analysis 191
9.4.2. Effective stress analysis 193
9.5. Wedge failure 197
9.5.1. Simple wedge 198
9.5.2. Multiple-wedge analysis 200

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xii Environmental Geotechnics

9.6. Practical aspects 202


9.6.1. Improvement of stability 202
9.6.2. Rapid drawdown 203
9.6.3. Earthquake effects 203

10. Retaining structures 206


10.1. Introduction 206
10.1.1. Earth pressure states 208
10.1.2. Soil behaviour 209
10.2. Earth pressures 210
10.2.1. Coulomb wedge analysis 210
10.2.2. Effective earth pressures 213
10.2.3. Earth pressure analysis 216
10.2.4. Undrained analysis 218
10.2.5. Groundwater effects 219
10.2.6. Wall friction 220
10.2.7. Extraneous loading 221
10.2.8. Practical considerations 226
10.3. Gravity walls 228
10.3.1. Types of wall 228
10.3.2. Sliding stability 231
10.3.3. Bearing failure 233
10.4. Embedded walls 234
10.4.1. Types of wall 234
10.4.2. Cantilevered walls 236
10.4.3. Anchored walls 238
10.4.4. Wall flexibility 242
10.4.5. Multilevel anchored walls 242
10.4.6. Braced excavations 243
10.4.7. Anchorages 245

11. Instrumentation and monitoring 247


11.1. Introduction 247
11.1.1. Purpose of monitoring 248
11.1.2. Instrumentation requirements 249
11.1.3. Instrumentation planning 250
11.1.4. Data handling 252
11.2. Vertical ground movements 253
11.2.1. Hydraulic overflow settlement cell 253
11.2.2. Settlement profile gauge 255
11.2.3. USBR settlement gauge 256
11.3. Horizontal movements 258
11.3.1. Magnetic probe extensometer 258
11.3.2. Inclinometer 259
11.4. Porewater monitoring 262
11.4.1. Standpipe piezometer 263
11.4.2. Casagrande piezometer 263
11.4.3. Hydraulic piezometer 265
11.4.4. Pneumatic piezometer 265
11.4.5. Vibrating wire piezometer 267
11.5. Ground pressures 268
11.5.1. Acoustic pressure cell 269
11.5.2. Pneumatic and hydraulic earth pressure cells 270
11.5.3. Electrical resistance boundary cell 270
11.5.4. Vibrating wire boundary cell 270

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Contents xiii

12. Waste disposal by landfill 272


12.1. Introduction 272
12.1.1. Waste disposal 273
12.1.2. Waste composition 273
12.1.3. Development of landfilling 276
12.1.4. Landfill containment 279
12.2. Waste decomposition 282
12.2.1. Biodegradation 282
12.2.2. Landfill leachate 283
12.2.3. Landfill gas 288
12.2.4. Waste settlement 290
12.2.5. Strength characteristics of waste 294
12.3. Clay liners 296
12.3.1. General requirements 296
12.3.2. Permeability behaviour of compacted clay 297
12.3.3. Stability of compacted clay 299
12.3.4. Field compaction and control 303
12.3.5. Performance of compacted clay liners 305
12.4. Geomembranes and composite liners 308
12.4.1. Geomembranes 309
12.4.2. Geomembrane liner formation 309
12.4.3. Geomembrane performance 311
12.4.4. Composite liners 315
12.4.5. Practical aspects of composite liners 317
12.5. Alternative lining materials 318
12.5.1. Geosynthetic clay liners 318
12.5.2. Bentonite-enriched soil 319
12.5.3. Other materials 320
12.6. Fluid control 321
12.6.1. Leachate collection 321
12.6.2. Landfill gas collection 322
12.6.3. Landfill gas monitoring 324
12.7. Covers and capping 326
12.7.1. Daily and intermediate cover 326
12.7.2. Final capping 327
12.7.3. Cap performance 327

13. Contaminated land 331


13.1. Introduction 331
13.1.1. Background 332
13.1.2. Sources of contamination 334
13.1.3. The nature of contaminants 335
13.1.4. Mobility of ground contamination 338
13.2. Site investigation 341
13.2.1. Preliminary work 343
13.2.2. Ground investigation 344
13.2.3. Sampling strategy 347
13.2.4. Sampling and measurement 351
13.3. Site assessment and treatment selection 353
13.3.1. Trigger concentrations 353
13.3.2. Assessment criteria 355
13.3.3. Treatment selection 358
13.4. Ex situ treatment 362
13.4.1. Excavation and disposal 363
13.4.2. Soil washing 364

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xiv Environmental Geotechnics

13.4.3. Thermal treatment 366


13.4.4. Biological treatment 367
13.4.5. Physical separation 368
13.4.6. Fixation 369
13.5. Containment 371
13.5.1. General aspects of containment 371
13.5.2. Low-permeability soil zones 372
13.5.3. Displacement barriers 373
13.5.4. Trench barriers 374
13.5.5. Covers and horizontal barriers 376
13.6. In situ treatment 378
13.6.1. Extraction 378
13.6.2. Biological and fungal treatment 380
13.6.3. Fixation 381
13.6.4. Electrokinesis 382
13.6.5. Hydraulic measures 383

14. Derelict land 385


14.1. Introduction 385
14.1.1. Land dereliction and treatment 386
14.1.2. Grouting 390
14.1.3. Dynamic compaction 392
14.1.4. Vibrocompaction 394
14.1.5. Preloading and surcharging 395
14.1.6. Lime stabilization 396
14.2. Underground voids 396
14.2.1. Mine workings 397
14.2.2. Subsidence 398
14.2.3. Mine shafts 401
14.2.4. Gas and water effects 402
14.2.5. Investigation 403
14.2.6. Remediation 404
14.3. Filled ground 407
14.3.1. Opencast mining 407
14.3.2. Geotechnical problems 408
14.3.3. Remediation 410
14.4. Colliery spoil heaps 412
14.4.1. Spoil heap formation 412
14.4.2. Stability considerations 413
14.4.3. Spoil heap restoration 414
14.5. Sewage sludge 418
14.5.1. Sludge production 418
14.5.2. Disposal facilities 420
14.5.3. Material properties 422

15. Tailings dams 425


15.1. Introduction 425
15.1.1. General aspects of tailings disposal 426
15.1.2. Hazards from tailings disposal 428
15.2. Tailings 430
15.2.1. Production 431
15.2.2. Disposal 433
15.3. Tailings facilities 434
15.3.1. The dam 435
15.3.2. The lagoon 438

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15.4. Engineering properties of tailings 439


15.4.1. Physical properties 440
15.4.2. Permeability 441
15.4.3. Shear strength 442
15.4.4. Liquefaction potential 443
15.4.5. Consolidation characteristics 444
15.5. Engineered tailings disposal 445
15.5.1. Design aspects 446
15.5.2. Slope stability 446
15.5.3. Dynamic stability 449
15.5.4. The lagoon 450
15.5.5. Hydraulic aspects 452
15.5.6. Reclamation of tailings facilities 454

16. Waste materials in geotechnical construction 457


16.1. Introduction 457
16.1.1. Waste materials 458
16.1.2. Environmental aspects 460
16.1.3. Use of waste materials in construction 462
16.1.4. Material characterization 464
16.2. Minestone 465
16.2.1. Production 466
16.2.2. Disposal 468
16.2.3. Properties 469
16.2.4. Utilization 472
16.3. China clay 473
16.3.1. Waste production 474
16.3.2. Waste properties 475
16.3.3. Waste utilization 475
16.4. Residues from coal-fired power stations 477
16.4.1. Waste generation 477
16.4.2. Ash characteristics 479
16.4.3. Ash utilization 482
16.5. Slate waste 485
16.5.1. Waste generation 486
16.5.2. Waste properties 486
16.5.3. Waste utilization 488
16.6. Demolition and construction wastes 489
16.6.1. Waste generation 489
16.6.2. Demolition waste properties 490
16.6.3. Waste utilization 492
16.7. Other materials 494

17. Noise and ground vibrations 495


17.1. Introduction 495
17.1.1. Construction noise and ground vibrations 495
17.1.2. Environmental protection 498
17.2. Sound 500
17.2.1. Fundamentals of sound 500
17.2.2. Human sensitivity to sound 503
17.2.3. Sound level data 505
17.3. Noise assessment 506
17.3.1. Sound power level method 507
17.3.2. Activity method 508
17.3.3. Plant using a well-defined route 509

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xvi Environmental Geotechnics

17.3.4. Noise control 509


17.4. Ground vibrations 512
17.4.1. Vibration characteristics 513
17.4.2. Generation of ground vibrations 515
17.4.3. Vibration data 516
17.5. Vibration assessment 518
17.5.1. Vibrations from impactive piling 518
17.5.2. Vibrations from quarrying 520
17.5.3. Other construction operations 521
17.5.4. Effects of vibrations on humans 521
17.5.5. Effects of vibrations on buildings 524
17.5.6. Reduction of effects 525

18. Radioactive waste disposal 528


18.1. Introduction 528
18.1.1. Sources of radioactivity 530
18.1.2. Ionizing radiation 532
18.1.3. General aspects of disposal 536
18.2. Intermediate and low level wastes 538
18.2.1. Intermediate level waste 539
18.2.2. Low level waste 539
18.2.3. Current disposal methods 539
18.2.4. Future disposal 540
18.3. High level waste 541
18.3.1. Origins 541
18.3.2. Disposal facility location 542
18.3.3. Facility design 545
18.3.4. Long-term performance of disposal facilities 547

References and further reading 549

Index 574

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