1.

YIELD POINT
A yield point is the stress level at which a metal or other material ceases to behave elastically.
The stress divided by the strain is no longer constant. The point at which this occurs is known as
the yield point. A yield point, in mechanical engineering, is the load at which a solid material that
is being stretched begins to flow, or change shape permanently, divided by its original cross-
sectional area; or the amount of stress in a solid at the onset of permanent deformation.
Knowledge of the yield point is vital when designing a component, since it generally represents
an upper limit to the load that can be applied. It is also important for the control of many materials'
production techniques such as forging, rolling, or pressing. In structural engineering, this is a soft
failure mode which does not normally cause catastrophic failure or ultimate failure unless it
accelerates buckling.
Yield point is typically measured in pounds per square inch (psi) or Newtons per square meter,
also known as pascals (Pa).
The yield point marks the end of elastic behavior and the beginning of plastic behavior of a
material. When stresses less than the yield point are removed, the material returns to its original
shape. For many materials that do not have a well-defined yield point, a quantity called "yield
strength" is substituted. A few materials start to yield or flow plastically, at a fairly well-defined
stress (upper yield point) that falls rapidly to a lower steady value (lower yield point) as
deformation continues. Any increase in the stress beyond the yield point causes greater
permanent deformation and eventually fracture.
When a yield point is not easily defined based on the shape of the stress-strain curve, an offset
yield point is arbitrarily defined. The value for this is commonly set at 0.1 or 0.2% of the strain.
High-strength steel and aluminum alloys do not exhibit a yield point, so this offset yield point is
used on these materials.
Yield point is an important value to consider when selecting a material for design and building
applications, particularly when there are significant loads or stresses being applied. For example,
when building a structure with steel beams, it becomes necessary to know how much stress and
weight the beams can handle in order to build a sound structure. Yield point is also a key factor
in the processing of metals, which typically involves exposing the metal to high stresses during
the manufacturing process.
Furthermore, A yield strength or yield point is the material property defined as the stress at which
a material begins to deform plastically. Prior to the yield point the material will
deform elastically and will return to its original shape when the applied stress is removed. Once
the yield point is passed, some fraction of the deformation will be permanent and non-reversible.
In the three-dimensional principal stresses, an infinite number of yield points form together a yield
surface.
The yield point determines the limits of performance for mechanical components, since it
represents the upper limit to forces that can be applied without permanent deformation.
In structural engineering, this is a soft failure mode which does not normally cause catastrophic
failure or ultimate failure unless it accelerates buckling.
Yield strength is the critical material property exploited by many fundamental techniques of
material-working: to reshape material with pressure (such as forging, rolling, pressing,
or hydroforming), to separate material by cutting (such as machining) or shearing, and to join
components rigidly with fasteners.
Yield point is the point at which the material will have an appreciable elongation or yielding
without any increase in load.
2. ELASTIC LIMIT
The maximum stress up to which a material can exhibit the property of elasticity is called the
elastic limit. If the deformation forces applied causes the stress in the material to exceed the
elastic limit, there will be a permanent set in it. That is the body will not regain its original shape
and size even after the removal of the deforming force completely. There will be some residual
strain left in it.
Elastic limit, maximum stress or force per unit area within a solid material that can arise before
the onset of permanent deformation. When stresses up to the elastic limit are removed, the
material resumes its original size and shape. Stresses beyond the elastic limit cause a material
to yield or flow. For such materials the elastic limit marks the end of elastic behavior and the
beginning of plastic behavior. For most brittle materials, stresses beyond the elastic limit result in
fracture with almost no plastic deformation.

The elastic limit is in principle different from the proportional limit, which marks the end of the kind
of elastic behavior that can be described by Hookes law, namely, that in which the stress is
proportional to the strain (relative deformation) or equivalently that in which the load is proportional
to the displacement. The elastic limit nearly coincides with the proportional limit for some elastic
materials, so that at times the two are not distinguished; whereas for other materials a region of
no proportional elasticity exists between the two. The proportional limit is the end point of what is
called linearly elastic behavior.

Hookes Law
Hookes law states that stress is proportional to strain upto elastic limit. If I is the stress induced
in a material and e the corresponding strain, then according to Hookes law,
p / e = E, a constant.

This constant E is called the modulus of elasticity or Youngs Modulus, (named after the English
scientist Thomas Young).

It has later been established that Hookes law is valid only upto a stress called the limit of
proportionality which is slightly less than the elastic limit.
Elastic Constants
Elastic constants are used to express the relationship between stresses and strains. Hookes
law, is stress/strain = a constant, within a certain limit. This means that any
stress/corresponding strain = a constant, within certain limit. It follows that there can be three
different types of such constants. (which we may call the elastic constants or elastic modulae)
corresponding to three distinct types of stresses and strains. These are given below.

(i)Modulus of Elasticity or Youngs Modulus (E)

Modulus of Elasticity is the ratio of direct stress to corresponding linear strain within elastic limit.
If p is any direct stress below the elastic limit and e the corresponding linear strain, then E = p /
e.
What is Young's Modulus?

Youngs Modulus: The ratio of tensile or compressive stress to the corresponding strain within
elastic limit is called youngs modulus.

Youngs modulus is also known as modulus of elasticity. It is denoted by E.

The formula of Youngs modulus is given by

Where

= Tensile or compressive stress,

e = Tensile or compressive strain,
E = youngs modulus or modulus of elasticity.

(ii)Modulus of Rigidity or Shear Modulus (G)

Modulus of Rigidity is the ratio of shear stress to shear strain within elastic limit. It is denoted by
N,C or G. if q is the shear stress within elastic limit and f the corresponding shear strain, then G
= q / f.

What is Modulus of Rigidity?

Modulus of Rigidity or Shear Modulus: It is defined as the ratio of shear stress to the
corresponding shear strain within elastic limit.

It is denoted by C or G or N
The formula of modulus of rigidity is given by

Where
= Shear stress
= Shear stress
C = Modulus of rigidity
(iii) Bulk Modulus (K)
Bulk Modulus is the ratio of volumetric stress to volumetric strain within the elastic limit. If pv is
the volumetric stress within elastic limit and ev the corresponding volumetric strain, we have K =
pv / ev.
A body will return back to its original shape and size when the deformation caused by the external
force, is within certain limit. There is a limiting value of force up to and within which the deformation
caused completely disappears on the removal of external force. The value of stress corresponding
to this limiting force is known as elastic limit of the material.

Other definitions:
Elastic Limit: It is defined as the value of stress upto and within which the material return back to
their original position (i.e. shape and size) on the removal of external force.

If the value of external force is such that it exceeds the elastic limit, than the body will not
completely regain its original position. The body loses its property of elasticity to some extent.
And if the external force acting on the body is removed, in that condition the body will not return
to its original shape and size and there will be a residual deformation in the material.

The elastic limit is the limit beyond which the material will no longer go back to its original shape
when the load is removed, or it is the maximum stress that may e developed such that there is no
permanent or residual deformation when the load is entirely removed.

The elastic limit is the limit beyond which the material will no longer go back to its original shape
when the load is removed, or it is the maximum stress that may e developed such that there is no
permanent or residual deformation when the load is entirely removed.

Difference between Elastic Limit and Yield Point

Elastic Limit and Yield Point may convey the same state of material that is but the latter is used
for engineering convenience.

Elastic limit is a value of stress upto which material can be deformed elastically under load, after
unloading it will return to its original dimension. Beyond elastic limit, material will start deform
plastically which is characterized with permanent deformation. It is marked by breakage of bonds.
Technically, it is a stress at which first of such bond breaks. Limitations of measuring such delicate
phenomena has made engineers to define another point at which permanent deformation can be
measured which is known as Yield Point (Offset).

3. ELASTICITY
Elasticity of a body is the property of the body by virtue of which the body regains its original size
and shape when the deformation force is removed. Most materials are elastic in nature to a lesser
or greater extend, even though perfectly elastic materials are very rare.
When an external force is applied on a body and it undergoes some deformation. If the body
returns back to its original shape and size on complete removal of the load, the body is called
elastic body. This property by which any material regains its original shape and size when load
acting on it is completely removed is called elasticity.
Other Definitions:

Elasticity: The property of a material by which it returns back to its original position (i.e. shape and
size) on the removal of external force or load, is called elasticity.

Elasticity is the ability of a material to return to its previous shape after stress is released. In many
materials, the relation between applied stress is directly proportional to the resulting strain (up to
a certain limit), and a graph representing those two quantities is a straight line.

4. DURABILITY
Durability is, according to one definition, "the ability of a product to perform its required function
over a lengthy period under normal conditions of use without excessive expenditure on
maintenance or repair. Several units may be used to measure the durability of a product
according to its field of application, such as years of life, hours of use, and operational
cycles.[2] In economics, good with a long usable life are referred to as durable goods.

5. HARDNESS
Hardness is the measurement of how much a material resists to penetration from a semi-static
force. It is tested for with an indenter hardness machine usually (but not solely) by measuring the
size of the indentation after releasing the load.

Hardness correlates well with scratch proof ability meaning that harder materials are harder to
scratch. It also correlates well with the yield strength (yy, that is the value of stress after which
is deforms permanently) or the ultimate tensile strength of the material (that is the maximum load
it can bear in a tensile test) through the empirical equation Hv=y/3Hv=y/3. So harder materials
are also stronger materials.

Hardness: A materials ability to withstand friction, essentially abrasion resistance, is known as

hardness. Diamonds are among the hardest substances known to man, it is incredibly difficult to
scratch a diamond. However, while a diamond is hard it is not tough. If you took a hammer to a
diamond it would shatter, which demonstrates that not all materials that are hard are also
tough. In the world of metal tools, drill bits and grinding discs must be extremely hard to be able
to handle high amounts of friction.

6. ULTIMATE STRENGTH

The maximum ordinate in the stress-strain diagram is the ultimate strength or tensile strength.
Ultimate tensile strength (UTS), often shortened to tensile strength (TS) or ultimate strength, is
the capacity of a material or structure to withstand loads tending to elongate, as opposed to
compressive strength, which withstands loads tending to reduce size.

The ultimate tensile strength (UTS) is the maximum resistance to fracture. It is equivalent tothe
maximum load that can be carried by one square inch of cross-sectional area when the loadis
applied as simple tension. It is expressed in pounds per square inch.
 7. TOUGHNESS

Toughness is the ability of a material to absorb energy and plastically deform without fracturing.
One definition of material toughness is the amount of energy per unit volume that a material can
absorb before rupturing. It is also defined as a material's resistance to fracture when stressed.

The ability of a metal to deform plastically and to absorb energy in the process before fracture is
termed toughness. The emphasis of this definition should be placed on the ability to absorb
energy before fracture. Recall that ductility is a measure of how much something deforms
plastically before fracture, but just because a material is ductile does not make it tough. The key
to toughness is a good combination of strength and ductility. A material with high strength and
high ductility will have more toughness than a material with low strength and high ductility.
Therefore, one way to measure toughness is by calculating the area under the stress strain
curve from a tensile test. This value is simply called material toughness and it has units of
energy per volume. Material toughness equates to a slow absorption of energy by the material.

There are several variables that have a profound influence on the toughness of a material.
These variables are:

Strain rate (rate of loading)

Temperature
Notch effect
A metal may possess satisfactory toughness under static loads but may fail under dynamic
loads or impact. As a rule ductility and, therefore, toughness decrease as the rate of loading
increases. Temperature is the second variable to have a major influence on its toughness. As
temperature is lowered, the ductility and toughness also decrease. The third variable is termed
notch effect, has to due with the distribution of stress. A material might display good toughness
when the applied stress is uniaxial; but when a multiaxial stress state is produced due to the
presence of a notch, the material might not withstand the simultaneous elastic and plastic
deformation in the various directions.

There are several standard types of toughness test that generate data for specific loading
conditions and/or component design approaches. Three of the toughness properties that will be
discussed in more detail are 1) impact toughness, 2) notch toughness and 3) fracture
toughness.

Toughness can be determined by integrating the stress-strain curve.[1] It is the energy of

mechanical deformation per unit volume prior to fracture. The explicit mathematical description
is:

where

is strain

is the strain upon failure

is stress
Another definition is the ability to absorb mechanical energy up to the point of failure. The
area under the stress-strain curve is called toughness.

Toughness can also be defined with respect to regions of a stress-strain diagram. Toughness is
related to the area under the stress-strain curve. In order to be tough, a material must be both
strong and ductile.

Modulus of toughness is the work done on a unit volume of material as the force is gradually
increased from O to R, in Nm/m3. This may be calculated as the area under the entire stress-
strain curve (from O to R). The toughness of a material is its ability to absorb energy without
causing it to break.