Continuum Mechanics

Stress Measures

Jaehong Lee

Architectural Engineering
Sejong University

September 27, 2017

Jaehong Lee (2014) Continuum Mechanics September 27, 2017 1 / 25

Table of Contents

1 Cauchy Stress Tensor and Cauchy Formula

Cauchy Stress Tensor

2 Transformation of Stress Components and Principal Stressses

Transformation of Stress Components
Principal Stresses and Principal Planes

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Cauchy Stress Tensor
In continuum mechanics, the Cauchy stress tensor , true stress tensor, or simply
called the stress tensor, named after Augustin-Louis Cauchy, is a second order
tensor of type, with nine components ij . The tensor relates a unit-length
direction vector n to the stress vector T (n) across an imaginary surface
perpendicular to n:
(n)
T(n) = n or Tj = ij ni

where,

11 12 13 xx xy xz
= 21 22 23 yx yy yz
31 32 33 zx zy zz

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Cauchy Stress Tensor

The Cauchy stress tensor obeys the tensor transformation law under a change
in the system of coordinates.
The Cauchy stress tensor is used for stress analysis of material bodies
experiencing small deformations: It is a central concept in the linear theory of
elasticity.
For large deformations, also called finite deformations, other measures of
stress are required, such as the Piola-Kirchhoff stress tensor, the Biot stress
tensor, and the Kirchhoff stress tensor.
There are certain invariants associated with the stress tensor, whose values
do not depend upon the coordinate system chosen, or the area element upon
which the stress tensor operates. These are the three eigenvalues of the
stress tensor, which are called the principal stresses.

Jaehong Lee (2014) Continuum Mechanics September 27, 2017 4 / 25

Euler-Cauchy Stress Principle

The Euler-Cauchy stress principle states that upon any surface (real or imaginary)
that divides the body, the action of one part of the body on the other is
equivalent (equipollent) to the system of distributed forces and couples on the
surface dividing the body, and it is represented by a field T(n) , called the stress
vector, defined on the surface S and assumed to depend continuously on the
surfaces unit vector n.

Jaehong Lee (2014) Continuum Mechanics September 27, 2017 5 / 25

Cauchy Stress Vector
Depending on the orientation of the plane under consideration, the stress vector
may not necessarily be perpendicular to that plane, i.e. parallel to n, and can be
resolved into two components:
one normal to the plane, called normal stress
Fn dFn
n = lim = ,
S0 S dS
and the other parallel to this plane, called the shear stress
Fs dFs
= lim = ,
S0 S dS

Jaehong Lee (2014) Continuum Mechanics September 27, 2017 6 / 25

Cauchy Stress Formula

Cauchys stress theorem states that there exists a second-order tensor field (x, t),
called the Cauchy stress tensor, independent of n, such that T is a linear function
of n:
(n)
T(n) = n or Tj = ij ni .

This equation implies that the stress vector T (n) at any point P in a continuum
associated with a plane with normal unit vector n can be expressed as a function
of the stress vectors on the planes perpendicular to the coordinate axes, i.e. in
terms of the components ij of the stress tensor .

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Derivation of Cauchy Formula
Consider a tetrahedron with three faces oriented in the coordinate planes, and
with an infinitesimal area dA oriented in an arbitrary direction specified by a
normal unit vector n. The equilibrium of forces gives:
 
h
T(n) dA T(e1 ) dA1 T(e2 ) dA2 T(e3 ) dA3 = dA a,
3

The area of the faces of the tetrahedron perpendicular to the axes can be found
by projecting dA into each face (using the dot product):

dA1 = (n e1 ) dA = n1 dA,
dA2 = (n e2 ) dA = n2 dA,
dA3 = (n e3 ) dA = n3 dA,

and then substituting into the equation to cancel

out dA:
 
(n) (e1 ) (e2 ) (e3 ) h
T T n1 T n2 T n3 = a.
3
Jaehong Lee (2014) Continuum Mechanics September 27, 2017 8 / 25
Derivation (Continued)
To consider the limiting case as the tetrahedron shrinks to a point, h must go to
0. As a result, the right-hand-side of the equation approaches 0, so

T(n) = T(e1 ) n1 + T(e2 ) n2 + T(e3 ) n3 .

Noting that

T(n) = T1 e1 + T2 e2 + T3 e3
(e1 ) (e1 ) (e1 ) (e1 )
T = T1 e1 + T2 e2 + T3 e3
...

Considering the component in x1 -direction

(e1 ) (e2 ) (e3 )
T1 = T1 n1 + T1 n2 + T1 n3
= 11 n1 + 21 n2 + 31 n3 = i1 ni

Accordingly,

Tj = ij ni .

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Normal and Tangential components
The magnitude of the normal stress component n of any stress vector T(n) acting
on an arbitrary plane with normal unit vector n at a given point, in terms of the
components ij , is the dot product of the stress vector and the normal unit vector:

tn = T(n) n
(n)
= Ti ni
= ij ni nj .
The magnitude of the shear stress component n, acting in the plane spanned by
the two vectors T (n) and n, can then be found using the Pythagorean theorem:
q
2
ts = T (n) t2n
q
(n) (n)
= Ti Ti t2n ,
where
 2
(n) (n)
T (n) = Ti Ti = (ij nj ) (ik nk ) = ij ik nj nk .

Jaehong Lee (2014) Continuum Mechanics September 27, 2017 10 / 25

Example Problem 4.2.1

200 400 300
[] = 400 0 0
300 0 100

(x1 , x2 ) = x1 + 2x2 + 2x3

1 Find the unit normal to the plane

1
n= = (e1 + 2e2 + 2e3 )
|| 3
2 Stress vector

t1 200 400 300
1 1
1 1600
t2 = 400 0 0 2 = 400
3 3
t3 300 0 100 2 100

Jaehong Lee (2014) Continuum Mechanics September 27, 2017 11 / 25

Example 4.2.1

1 normal component of the stress vector

T
1600 1
1 1 2600
tn = nj ji ni = 400 2 =
3 3 9
100 2

2 shear component of the stress vector

p
ts = |t|2 t2n = 468.9

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Transformation of Stress
From an xi -system to an x0i -system, the components ij in the initial system are
transformed into the components ij in the new system according to the tensor
transformation rule:
0
ij = aim ajn mn or 0 = AAT ,
where A is a rotation matrix with components aij . In matrix form this is
0 0 0

11 12 13 a11 a12 a13 11 12 13 a11 a21 a31
0
21 0 0
22 23 = a21 a22 a23 21 22 23 a12 a22 a32 .
0 0 0
31 32 33 a31 a32 a33 31 32 33 a13 a23 a33

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Derivation of Stress Transformation
Recall the first-order tensor transformation rule

t0i = aij tj
n0i = aij nj

Consider Cauchy Formula

ti = ji nj
t0i = ji
0 0
nj

Starting from

t0j = ajs ts
= ajs (rs nr )
= ajs rs air n0i

Also

t0j = ij
0 0
ni

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Transformation of Stress

Therefore,
0
(ij air ajs rs )n0i = 0

Transformation of stress tensor

0
ij = air ajs rs

or

0
ii = jj

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Direction Cosine for 2-D transformation

cos sin 0
aij = cos ij = sin cos 0
0 0 1

where ij : angle between x0i and xj

x02 x2 a11 = cos 11 = cos() = cos
a12 = cos 12 = cos(90 ) = sin
a13 = cos 13 = cos 90 = 0
x01 a21 = cos 21 = cos((90 )) = sin
12 a22 = cos 22 = cos() = cos
21 a23 = cos 23 = cos 90 = 0
11
x1 a31 = cos 31 = cos 90 = 0
a32 = cos 32 = cos 90 = 0
a33 = cos 33 = cos 0 = 1

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2-D Transformation of stress

Stress is transformed for -degree counterclockwise with respect to x3 coordinate

0
11 m2 n2 0 0 0 2mn 11
0



22


n2 m2 0 0 0 2mn


22


0

33 0 0 0 1 0 0 33

0 =
23 0 0 m n 0 0 23
0

13

0

0 n m 0 0
13


0
2 2

12 mn mn 0 0 0 m n 12

where

m = cos
n = sin

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Principal Stress
There are certain invariants associated with every tensor which are also
independent of the coordinate system. One set of such invariants are the principal
stresses of the stress tensor, which are just the eigenvalues of the stress tensor.
Their direction vectors are the principal directions or eigenvectors.
A stress vector parallel to the normal unit vector n is given by:

T(n) = n = tn n

where is a constant of proportionality, and in this particular case corresponds to

the magnitudes n of the normal stress vectors or principal stresses.
(n)
Knowing that Ti = ij nj and ni = ij nj , we have

(n)
Ti = ni
ij nj = ni
ij nj ni = 0
(ij ij ) nj = 0

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Eigenvalue Problem
To obtain a nontrivial (non-zero) solution for nj , the determinant matrix of the
coefficients must be equal to zero, i.e. the system is singular. Thus,
 
11 12 13 

|ij ij | =  21 22 23  = 0
 31 32 33 
Expanding the determinant leads to the characteristic equation
|ij ij | = 3 + I1 2 I2 + I3 = 0
where

I1 = 11 + 22 + 33 = kk
     
 23  11 13  11 12 
I2 =  22 + +
32 33  31 33  21 22 
2 2 2 1
= 11 22 + 22 33 + 11 33 12 23 31 = (ii jj ij ji )
2
I3 = det(ij )
2 2 2
= 11 22 33 + 212 23 31 12 33 23 11 31 22
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Physical Interpretation of the Principal Stress
The characteristic equation has three real roots i which are the principal
stresses. The principal stresses are unique for a given stress tensor.
The coefficients I1 , I2 and I3 , called the first, second, and third stress
invariants, respectively, have always the same value regardless of the
coordinate systems orientation.
For each eigenvalue, there is a non-trivial solution for nj in the equation
(ij ij ) nj = 0. These solutions are the principal directions or
eigenvectors defining the plane where the principal stresses act.
Consider a coordinate system with axes oriented to the principal directions

1 0 0
ij = 0 2 0
0 0 3
The principal stresses can be combined to form the stress invariants, I1 , I2 , and I3 .
I1 = 1 + 2 + 3
I2 = 1 2 + 2 3 + 3 1
I3 = 1 2 3

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Principal Stresses in 2-D

Principal stresses are often expressed in the following equation for evaluating
stresses in the x and y directions or axial and bending stresses on a part. The
principal normal stresses can then be used to calculate the von Mises stress and
ultimately the safety factor and margin of safety.
s 2
x + y x y 2
1 , 2 = + xy
2 2

Using just the part of the equation under the square root is equal to the maximum
and minimum shear stress for plus and minus. This is shown as:
s 2
x y 2
max , min = + xy
2

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Characteristics of eigenvectors

Theorem
Principal directions are orthogonal each other

Starting from

ij nj = ij nj
(2)
For = 1 , multiplied by ni
(1) (2) (1) (2)
ij nj ni = 1 ni ni
(1)
For = 2 , multiplied by ni
(2) (1) (2) (1)
ij nj ni = 2 ni ni

Therefore
(1) (2)
(1 2 )ni ni =0
(1) (2)
Since 1 6= 2 , ni ni
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Maximum Shear Stresses
The maximum shear stress or maximum principal shear stress is equal to one-half
the difference between the largest and smallest principal stresses, and acts on the
plane that bisects the angle between the directions of the largest and smallest
principal stresses, i.e. the plane of the maximum shear stress is oriented 45 from
the principal stress planes. The maximum shear stress is expressed as
1
max = |max min |
2
Assuming 1 2 3 then
1
max = |1 3 |
2
When the stress tensor is non zero the normal stress component acting on the
plane for the maximum shear stress is non-zero and it is equal to
1
n = (1 + 3 )
2

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Maximum Shear Stress

stress vector

ti = i ni

normal component

tn = ni ti = i ni ni = 1 n21 + 2 n22 + 3 n23

shear component

t2s = ti ti t2n = 12 n21 + 22 n22 + 32 n23 (1 n21 + 2 n22 + 3 n23 )2

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Maximum Shear Stress
Maximize the function
t2s = ti ti t2n = 12 n21 + 22 n22 + 32 n23 (1 n21 + 2 n22 + 3 n23 )2
subjected to
n21 + n22 + n23 1 = 0
Maximum shear can be given
1 1
ts1 = |2 3 | n = (n(2) n(3) )
2 2
1 1
ts2 = |3 1 | n = (n(3) n(1) )
2 2
1 1
ts3 = |1 2 | n = (n(1) n(2) )
2 2
The largest shear stress
1
ts,max = (max min )
2
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