Class Notes Acoustics by Dr. S.

Karthikeyan

Acoustics
Acoustics is the study of sound which deals with the production, transmission and reception
of sound and its various applications. Sound waves are mechanical waves which require
medium (solid, liquid and air) having inertia and elasticity. Sound waves are travelling in the
form of longitudinal waves.

Sound Classification:

Sound waves are classified into infrasonic, sonic and ultrasonic on the basis of their
frequency.

Infrasonic - < 20 Hz
Sonic (audible) 20 to 20000 Hz
Ultrasonic > 20000 Hz

Audible sound (sonic) is further classified into musical sound and noise.

Musical sound:

1. Musical sound produces pleasant effect to ear.

2. It has regular waveform and periodicity.
3. There is no sudden change in amplitude.

Noise:

Noise has discontinuous wave forms and is not pleasant to our ears.

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Characteristics of musical sound

Frequency and Pitch

Frequency is defined as the number of oscillations produced per unit time. Pitch of a sound is
determined by its frequency and it depends on intensity and waveform. The greater the
frequency, the higher is the pitch. Pitch of a high frequency sound is a shrill sound and pitch
of a low frequency sound is a flat sound.

Frequency is a measureable quantity but pitch is psychological quantity which is a mental

sensation experienced by human.

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Timber (Quality)

Sound produced by a musical instrument contains not just a single frequency. It contains a
large number of tones of different frequencies with varying intensities. Timbre is a

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characteristic which enables to distinguish two or more sound waves of same frequency and
pitch with different waveforms.

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Intensity and intensity level

Intensity (I) of a sound wave at a point is defined as the energy flowing through unit area
perpendicular to the wave propagation per unit time.

sound energy Power

Intensity (watt/m2)
Area time Area

The lowest intensity that human can hear is 10-12 watt/m2. It is taken as a reference (I0) for
intensity measurement. Sound intensity is measured in terms of intensity level which is the
ratio of intensity of sound to be measured (I) to the standard intensity (I0).

Intensity level in decibel is given as

I
Intensity level 10 log10 dB
I0

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Loudness and Weber-Fechner Law

Loudness is the physiological counterpart of intensity of sound. Loudness is the hearing

sensation corresponding to an intensity level.

Loudness varies directly with the logarithmic of sound intensity. It is known as Weber-
Fechner law and is given by

Loudness log I
Loudness K log I where K is a constant.

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Phon and Sone

Loudness level as sensed by human ear is different for different frequencies of the same
I
ratio. So another unit is used to define loudness level. The loudness level of a given
I0
sound energy is said to be one phon if it is equal to the intensity level of an equally loud
sound of a 1000 Hz pure tone.

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Sone is the unit of loudness. One sone is equal to the loudness of any sound having loudness
level equal to 40 phon.

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Absorption Coefficient (a):

It is defined as the ratio of the sound energy absorbed by the given surface to the total sound
energy incident on the surface.

Sound energy absorbed by the surface

Absroption Coefficient,a
Total sound energy incident on the surface

Total Absorption (A):

Total absorption is given by

A ai si
i

Where A is the total absorption, measured in Sabine named in honour of W. C. Sabine.

a is the absorption coefficient of every surface and s is the corresponding surface area.

The average value of absorption coefficient is given as

a s
i
i i

s i
i

Open Window Unit (OWU):

An open window is a perfect sound absorber. Unit of absorption is also defined as Open
window unit or Sabine. One open window unit or one Sabine in m2 is equal to the amount of
the sound energy absorbed by an open window of unit area.

Absorption coefficient is also defined as the inverse of the area of the sound absorbing
surface which absorbs the same amount of sound energy as that of an open window of unit
area.

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Reverberation:

Reverberation is the persistence or prolongation of sound even after the source of sound is
turned off.

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Reverberation time is defined as the time for the sound intensity to fall to one millionth of
its initial value after the sound source had been turned off. It is also defined as the time
required for the intensity of sound to drop by 60 dB.

Reverberation time should neither be too long and nor too short.

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Sabines formula for reverberation time

Sabine derived a formula for reverberation time by studying the growth and decay of sound
energy inside a closed hall. He had the following assumptions to derive the relation.

1. Sound energy is uniformly distributed inside the hall. i.e. the average energy per unit
volume is constant.
2. The sound energy is lost only due to the absorption of walls, ceiling and floor and
windows.

Step 1 -To find the rate of sound absorption:

Consider the small surface element having area ds of a wall. This surface element is
receiving sound energy from the volume in front of it. Two semi circles are drawn with
radius r and r dr . A small area made by the angular displacement of the radius vector by
an angle d is rdrd . If this elemental surface area is rotated about a normal through an
angle d , the differential volume traced out by the area is

dV r 2 sin drd d ----- (1)

If E is the energy per unit volume, then the energy contained in the volume dV is equal to
EdV . Energy is travelling from the source in all direction.

EdV
The sound energy reaching ' ds ' from unit direction= (total solid angle = 4 )
4

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 Class Notes Acoustics by Dr. S. Karthikeyan

ds cos
The solid angle subtended by ' ds ' at the volume element dV =
r2

EdV ds cos
Now the energy travelling towards ' ds ' form dV =
4 r2

E r 2 sin drd d ds cos

4 r2
Eds
sin cos drd d
4

Total sound energy received by ' ds ' in unit time from the whole volume in its front

Eds
4
sin cos drd d ---- (2)

If v is the velocity of sound, r varies from 0 to v . varies from 0 to and varies from 0
2
to 2 .

v 2
Eds 2
4 0
Energy incident on ' ds ' per second sin cos d dr d
0 0

v 2
Eds 2 sin 2
4 0 2
d dr d
cos 2 2 1 1
2
sin 2 d
0 0
1

v 2 0 2 0 2 2
Eds 1 2
4 2 0
sin 2 d dr d
0 0

Eds 1 Evds
1 v 2
4 2 4

Evds
The average sound energy falling on ' ds ' per second ----- (3)
4

If a is the absorption coefficient of the given surface element ' ds ' , then the sound energy
Ev(ads)
absorbed by the surface element ' ds ' per second
4

Ev ads EvA
Now the rate of absorption by all surfaces in the hall ----- (4)
4 4

A is the total absorption of all the surfaces.

Step 2 to obtain the equation of growth and decay of sound energy

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If P is the power generated by the audio source and V is the total volume and E is the energy
density, we can write Rate of growth of energy in space = Rate of supply energy from
audio source - rate of absorption by all the surfaces.

In mathematical form,

d EvA
EV P
dt 4

dE EvA
V P ------ (5)
dt 4

Under steady state,

dE E vA 4P
E Em and 0 , then 0 P m . We have Em ------ (6)
dt 4 vA

Divide (5) by V, we get

dE P vA
E ------ (7)
dt V 4V

vA 1 4
Take and we have ------ (7a)
4V V vA

Equation (6) becomes

dE P 4
E
dt vA

dE P 4
E
dt vA

dE P 4 t
E e t e multiplying both side by e t
dt vA

d 4P t
dt
Ee t
vA
e

Integrating the above equation, we get

4P t
Ee t e K ------ (8)
vA
K is the integration constant which can be found by applying initial condition.

Step 3 growth of energy density:

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Consider that the sound source is turned on at t=0. At t=0, E=0. Now the equation (8)
4P
becomes 0 K
vA

4P
K . Substitute the value of K in (8), we get
vA

4P t 4P
Ee t e
vA vA

4 P 4 P t
E e dividing by e t on both sides
vA vA

4P
E
vA
1 e t

E Em 1 e t ------ (9)

4P
W.K.T Em from (6)
vA

The equation represents the growth of sound energy in an exponential way.

Step 4 decay of sound energy:

We know that under steady state, E Em . Let us consi3der, the sound source is turned off at
t=0, after the steady state condition is reached. We have also P=0 at t=0.

Applying E Em and P=0 at t=0 in the equation (8), we have

K Em . Substitute P=0 and K Em in (8), we get

Ee t Em

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 Class Notes Acoustics by Dr. S. Karthikeyan

E Em e t ------ (10)

Equation (10) represents the decay of sound energy with respect to time after the audio
source is turned off.

Step 5 Sabines formula for reverberation time:

The decay of sound energy is given by the following equation.

E Em e t ------ (11)

Reverberation time is the time required for the sound intensity to decrease by one millionth
(10-6) of its initial value.

If we take t=T as reverberation time, we can write (11) as

E
e T 106
Em
e T 106

Take natural log on both sides, we get

T 6log e 10

vA
From equation (7a), we know that , now the above equation is written as
4V

vA
T 6 log e 10
4V
6 log e 10 4V
T
vA

Let us take the velocity of sound in air is 330 m/s. We get

6log e 10 4V 24 2.302585 V
T
330 A 330 A

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 Class Notes Acoustics by Dr. S. Karthikeyan

0.165V 0.165V
T
A aS ------ (12)

The above equation is the Sabines formula for the reverberation time which is directly
proportional to the volume of the hall and inversely proportional to the total absorption.

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Measurement of absorption coefficient:

Absorption coefficient for an unknown sample can be found by finding reverberation time in
the room without and with the sample inside the room. Let T1 be the reverberation time
without the sample inside. Using Sabines formula, we have

0.165V
T1
aS
1

aS
T1 0.165V
------ (A)

Let the sample has an area S1and absorption coefficient, a1.

Reverberation time T2 with the sample inside the hall is given by

1

aS a S 1 1

T2 0.165V
------ (B)

(B) (A), we will get

aS a S 1 1

aS
1 1

0.165V 0.165V T2 T1
a1S1 1 1

0.165V T2 T1

0.165V 1 1
a1
S1 T2 T1

Hence by knowing the volume of the room, Surface area of the given sample and
reverberation times from the experiments, absorption coefficient can be found.

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Basic requirements of an acoustically good hall:

1. All audience should receive the clear reception of information which is either speech
or music.
2. Adequate Sound intensity at every place inside the hall.
3. An optimum reverberation time.
4. A good quality of Speech or music should be retained.
5. A uniform distribution of sound energy everywhere inside the hall.
6. No echelon effect and resonance.

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Factors affecting architectural acoustics and their remedies:

Reverberation:

If the reverberation time is very large, it causes overlapping of successive sounds and clarity
of hearing is affected. If it is small, the loudness is not sufficient to reach all audience.

Remedy to control reverberation:

1. Covering walls and windows with pictures, sound absorbing materials such as fiber
board, glass wool, heavy curtains with fold.
2. Covering the floor with carpets.
3. Using acoustic tiles.
4. Having full capacity of audience.
5. By opening and closing of windows and walls to reach an optimum reverberation
time.

Loudness:

Loudness is sufficient so that all the audience should have adequate hearing. Large absorption
inside the hall causes low loudness.

Loudness can be increased by

1. Using sounding boards behind the speaker and highly polished wooden reflecting
board above the speaker.
2. Low ceiling
3. Additional loud speakers in the hall.

Focussing:

Concave, spherical, cylindrical and parabolic shaped surfaces produce concentration of sound
in particular region. It causes unequal distribution of sound energy.

Remedy:

1. No curved surface inside the hall.

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2. Covering curved surface by sound absorbing materials.

3. Parabolic reflecting surface behind the speaker having focus point at the speaker
location helps to produce uniform and parallel sound waves to reach the audience.

Echoes:

Echo is produced when the reflected sound reaching 1/7 second after the direct sound. Echoes
affect the clarity of speech or music. Echoes are produced in a Hall with high ceiling, long
distance walls.

It is avoided by covering ceiling and long distance walls by sound absorbing materials.

Echelon effect:

If there is a regular spacing of reflected surface inside the hall or staircase, a regular
succession of echoes will reach the observer. It is known as echelon effect. To avoid this
effect, surfaces causing this effect should be covered with sound absorbing materials.

Resonance:

When the natural frequency of window panes, loosely fitted wooden portions, wall separators
etc, is matched with a frequency of the sounding note, the surface is set into forced vibrations
and it causes resonance. These forced vibrations produce interference effect and make
distortion of the original sound and leads to unpleasant hearing.

Resonance effect is avoided by using larger number of curtains in walls.

Noises:

There are 3 types of noises which affect clear reception of information in a hall. Proper sound
insulation is necessary to stop the noise from outside reaching the hall.

1: Air-borne noises: Noises transmitted through air is reaching the hall through windows,
doors and ventilators. Air borne noises are reduced by the following ways.

1. Placing ventilations, windows and doors at the right places.

2. Closing doors and windows properly.
3. Using double walls, doors and windows.

2: Structure-borne noise: noises are generated by the vibration of structure of the hall due to
some activities inside and outside the hall. Footsteps, street traffic, moving heavy things on
the floor and operating electrical machines will cause structural vibrations.

1. It is reduced by the proper sound insulation of electrical machines.

2. By using anti-vibration mounts
3. Using double wall doors to avoid noise from street-traffic.
4. Covering floor with carpets

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3: Inside Noise: It is mainly due to machinery such as Air conditioners, type writers, fans,
coffee machines etc inside the hall.

1. Using noise free Air conditioners

2. Placing machinery on sound absorbent pads.
3. Fixing machinery on walls or floors with the layer of wood or felt.
4. Having sound absorbing materials in walls, doors and windows.

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