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PHYSICS
I. HEAD-ON ELASTIC COLLISION
If colliding bodies before and after collision remain in a line, the collision is said to be
head-on collision. This will happen when bodies move along the line joining their
geometric centres.
r r r r
Consider two bodies of masses m1 and m2 moving with velocities u1 and u2 (u1 > u 2 )
r r
along the same straight line. Let after collision their velocities become v1 and v2 in the
same initial direction. Then

according to conservation of linear momentum, we have

r r r r
m1u1 + m2u 2 = m1v1 + m2 v 2 .
Since all the colliding bodies before and after collision remain in the same line, so we can
drop the vector signs from them. Thus we can write
m1u1 + m2u2 = m1v1 + m2v2 (i)
or m1(u1 v1) = m2(v2 u2) (ii)
As kinetic energy before collision = kinetic energy after collision
1 1 1 1
\ m1u12 + m2u22 = m1v12 + m2 v22 (iii)
2 2 2 2
or m1(u12 v12) = m2(v22 u22)
or m1(u1 + v1)(u1 v1) = m2(v2 + u2) (v2 u2) (iv)
Dividing equation (iv) by (ii), we get
u1 + v 1 = v 2 + u2
or u1 - u2 = v2 - v1. (v)
Thus velocity of m1 w.r.t. m2 before collision = velocity of m2 w.r.t. m1 after collision.
or velocity of approach = velocity of separation
Also we have,
m1 - m2 2m2
v1 = m + m u1 + m + m u2 (vi)
1 2 1 2

m2 - m1 2m1
and v2 = m + m u2 + m + m u1 ... (vii)
1 2 1 2

Special cases :
(i) When colliding bodies are of equal masses, let m1 = m2 = m. From equation (vi) and
(vii), we get
v1 = u2 and v2 = u1
Hence when two bodies of equal masses collide elastically, their velocities get
exchanged.

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(ii) If m1 = m2 = m and u2 = 0, then
v1 = 0 and v2 = u1.
(iii) When a light body collides with a massive stationary body. Here m1 << m2 and
u2 = 0
\ v1 = u1 and v2 ; 0.
Hence when a light body collides with a massive stationary body, the light body
rebounds after the collision with an equal speed while the massive body remains at
rest.
(iv) When a massive body collides with a light body at rest. Here m1 >> m2 and u2 = 0
\ v1 = u1 and v2 = 2u.
Transfer of kinetic energy during collision: Kinetic energy transferred from projectile
to the target
DK = decrease in K.E. of projectile
1 1
= m1u12 - m1v12 .
2 2
Fractional decrease in K.E.

1 m u 2 - 1 m v2
DK 2 1 1 2 11
= 1 m u2
K 2 1 1

2
DK v
or = 1- 1 . (viii)
K u 1

Perfectly inelastic collision in 1-D

Consider two bodies of masses m1 and m2 moving with velocities u1 and u2 along a
straight line. They make perfectly inelastic collision. Let after collision, their common
velocity becomes v, then by conservation of momentum, we have
m1u1 + m2u2 = (m1 + m2)v

m1u1 + m2 u2
\ v = .
m1 + m2
The loss of K.E. in collision

1 2 1 2 1 2
DK = m1u1 + m2u2 - (m1 + m2 )v
2 2 2

1 2 1 2 1
= m1u1 + m2u2 - (m1 + m2 )
2 2 2

2
m1u1 + m2 u2
m + m
1 2

1 m1m2
(u1 - u2 ) 2 .
= 2 m1 + m2

The loss of K.E.. will appear as heat and sound.

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General analysis of 1-D collision
Newton's experimental law : Coefficient of restitution
It is defined as;
velocity of separation
e =
velocity of approach

v2 - v1
= u1 - u2

v -v v -v
or e = - 2 1 = - 1 2 .
u2 - u1 u1 - u2
The value of e depends on materials of colliding bodies. The value of e can be e 1.
(i) For perfectly elastic collision, e = 1.
(ii) For perfectly inelastic collision, e = 0.

Note:
The coefficient of restitution is a 1D concept. Thus in problem involving oblique collision,
'e' is defined only along the line of collision. In the absence of tangential forces the
collision in the perpendicular direction is taken as elastic.

Consider two bodies of masses m1 and m2 moving with velocities u1 and u2 along a line.
Let the coefficient of restitution between the bodies is e. After collision their velocities
become v1 and v2 respectively. Then we have,
m1u1 + m2u2 = m1v1 + m2v2 (i)
v1 - v2
and e = - . (ii)
u1 - u2
Solving equations (i) and (ii), we get

v1 = m1 - em2 (1 + e)m2 (iii)

m + m u1 + m + m u2
1 2 1 2

m2 - em1 (1 + e)m1
and v2 = m + m u2 + m + m u1 (iv)
1 2 1 2

Special case
If m1 = m2 = m and u1 = u, u2 = 0, then
mu = mv1 + mv2
v1 - v2
and e = -
u-0
After solving above equations, we get
u
v1 = (1 - e)
2
u
v2 = (1 + e)
2
v1 1- e
\ v2 = .
1+ e

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4

II. ELECTRIC DIPOLE

A system of two equal and opposite charges fixed at a small distance constitutes a
dipole. If l is the distance between the charges + q and q, then dipole moment is
defined as :
r r
P = ql .
It is a vector quantity and its direction is from negative to positive charge.
r r
Potential due to an electric dipole : Consider a dipole AB of dipole moment, P = q l .
We want to calculate the electric potential at a point P, at a distance r from the centre of
the dipole. Let line r makes an angle q with the line of dipole.
The electric potential due to the charges of the dipole at P

1 q q
Vp = 4p PB - PA
0

l l
From the figure, PA = r + cos q and PB = r - cos q, assuming that l << r.
2 2

q q
1 -
\ Vp = l
4p r - cos q l
0 r + cos q
2 2

1 ql cos q
= 4p
0 2 l
2
2

r - cos q
4

l2
As l << r, hence cos 2 q can be neglected and putting ql = P , we get
4

1 P cos q
VP = 4p . (1)
0 r2
In vector notation it can be written as :
rr
VP 1 P.r
= .
4p 3
0 r

Electric field due to an electric dipole : The electric field at point P varies with r and q
r r
both, so we can not get E from the differentiation of V at once. The components of E
in two perpendicular directions are ; the radial component Er, and transverse component
Eq. Thus

V 1 P cos q
Er = - = - 4p
r r 0 r2

1 2 P cos q
= (i)
4p 0 r3

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 P:

1 V 1 1 P cos q
and Eq = - =-
r q r q 4p 0 r 2

1 P sin q
= 4p (ii)
0 r3

\ E = Er2 + Eq2

1 P 3cos 2 q + 1
or E = 4p (2)
0 r3
Dividing equation (ii) by (i), we get
tan q
tan a =
2

tan q
or a = tan -1 (3)
2
r r
Here a is the angle made by the resultant field E with the line of rr . The direction of E
from the direction of dipolemoment is q + a.
Special cases :
1. End -on position : At the axis of the dipole, q = 0, and so
1 2P
E = 4p 3
0 r

1 P
and V = 4 p 2
0 r

2. Broad side -on position : At the equatorial line of the dipole, q = 90 and so
1 P
E = 4p 3
0 r

and V = 0.

A DIPOLE IN AN ELECTRIC FIELD

r
Consider an electric dipole placed in an uniform field of intensity E . The ends of the
dipole experience equal and opposite forces, each of magnitude F = Eq.
Thus, because of uniform field, the net force on the dipole becomes zero and so the
centre of mass of the dipole does not move. However, the forces on the charged ends do
produce a net torque rt on the dipole about its centre of mass. The magnitude of this
torque
t = [magnitude of either force] [ distance
between lines of action of the forces]
= F l sin q
= Eq l sin q = E (ql)sin q
or t = PE sin q
In vector notation, it can be written as :
r = r r (1)
t PE
Work done by the agent to increase the angle from q1 to q2 :

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6
The torque exerted by the agent to increase the angle
tagent = PE sin q
q2
Work done, Wagent = tagent d q
q1

q2
= PE sin qd q
q1

= q
PE - cos q q2
1

or Wagent = PE (cos q1 - cos q2 ) (2)

III. MOTION OF CHARGED PARTICLE IN UNIFORM MAGNETIC

FIELD
r
The path of charged particle in magnetic field depends on the angle q between vr and B .
Depending on different values of q, the possible cases are :
Case 1 : When q is 0 or 180:

(
For q = 0 or 180, the force on the moving charge F = qvB sin 0o or 180o = 0, )
and therefore particle goes undeviated along a straight path.
Case 2 : When q = 90:
(i) When particle is projected from inside the field, it experiences a force which
always perpendicular to the velocity and so its path will be circular. The
necessary centripetal force is provided by the magnetic force. If r be the
radius of the path, then
mv 2
= qvB sin 90o
r
mv
or r =
qB
or we can write
mv^
r = ...(1)
qB
v
or r =

q
B
m

q
Let = a, is called specific charge,
m
\ The equation (1) can be written in the form :
v
r =
aB

P2
The K.E. of the particle K =
2m
or P = 2mK
If charged particle is accelerated by potential V, then
K = qV

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 7

P 2mK 2mqV
\ r = = = ...(2)
qB qB qB
Time period :
Length of path
T =
speed

mv
2p
2pr qB
= =
v v

2pm
or T =
qB
Also linear frequency of rotation
1 qB
f = = ,
T 2 pm
Bq
and angular frequency w = 2 pf = .
m

Note: 1.Timeperiod T, f and w are independent of v.

2.The velocity at any instant can be written as
r $ $
v = vx i + v y j
(ii) When particle is projected out side the field: If the length of the magnetic
field is enough, then the angle with which the charged particle emerges out
will equal to the angle with which it enters into the field. Thus we have two
cases:

(a)Time spend in magnetic field

T pm
t = =
2 qB
PQ = 2r
(b)The time spend in magnetic field
2q q 2pm
t =
2p
[ T ] = [T ] , where T =
p qB
PQ = 2r sinq

IV. THE PRISM

When two refracting surfaces are inclined at some angle, they constitute
a prism. Figure shows a triangular prism. The angle between the inclined
surfaces is called angle of prism or refracting angle. The angle of commonly
used prism is 60. Prism can cause deviation as well as dispersion.

Refraction through a prism

Consider a monochromatic ray of light incident at an angle i on the face AB of the prism.
It gets refraced at an angle r1 into the prism, after this the ray incident on the other face

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8
AC of the prism at an angle r2, and then finally emerges from this face with an angle e (see
figure). By Snells law

sin i sin e
m = = . ...(1)
sin r1 sin r2
Deviation produced by prism
Because of the inclination between the refracting surfaces, the incident ray and emerging
ray are not parallel. The angle between the incident ray and emerging ray is called angle
of deviation and designated by d. In figure
A + R = 180
Principal section of prism
\ R = 180 A

In DPQR, R + r1 + r2 = 180

or (180o - A) + r1 + r2 = 180

\ r1 + r2 = A ...(2)
Angle of deviation, d = SPQ + SQP

= ( i - r1 ) + ( e - r2 )
= ( i + e ) - ( r1 + r2 )
= (1 + e ) - A
\ i+e = A+d ...(3)
Deviation produced by small angled prism
From equation (1), for small angle, we have
i e
m = =
r1 r2
\ i = m r1 and e = m r2
Now from equation (3), we have
m r1 + m r2 = A+d
or m(r1 + r2) = A+d
or mA = A+d
\ d = (m 1)A ...(4)

There are two values for angle of incidence for same angle of deviation
When a ray is incident at an angle i, it emerges at an angle e, with a deviation angle d. If
the ray is incident at an angle e, then it will emerge at an angle i having same angle of
deviation. Thus there are two angles of incidence for same angle of deviation. These are
i1 = i and i2 = e.

Minimum deviation
We know that
i+e = A+ d

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 9
\ d = (i + e) A
From the above equation, we can say that angle of deviation depends on angle of
incidence. Experiments show that with the increase in angle of incidence, the angle of
deviation first decreases, passes through minimum and then increases. Thus for a certain
value of the angle of incidence (i1 = i2), the light passing through prism suffers minimum
deviation. The angle of deviation at this position is called the minimum angle of deviation
(dm). Figure shows the minimum deviation and graph shows the variation of angle of
deviation with angle of incidence.
In minimum deviation position, d = dm
i = e
and so r1 = r2 = r (say)
From equations (2) and (3), we get

A A + dm
r = and i = .
2 2
If m is the refractive index of material of the prism, then by Snells law

sin i
m =
sin r

A + dm
sin
2
or m = . ...(5)
A
sin
2

This is called prism formula.

Maximum deviation
We know that, angle of deviation
d = (i + e) A.
The deviation angle will be maximum, when either of i or e is maximum. Thus for
i = 90,
dmax = (90 + e) A. ...(i)
At face AB of the prism,

sin 90o
m =
sin r1

1
\ sin r1 =
m

1
or r1 = sin -1 = C
m

We have r1 + r2 = A
\ r2 = A r1 = A C

sin e
Now for face AC, m =
sin ( A - C )

or sin e = m sin(A C)

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10

or e = sin -1 m sin ( A - C ) ...(ii)

Thus dmax = 90o + sin -1 m sin ( A - C ) - A . ...(6)

Condition of no emergence
A ray of light will not emerge out from the prism, if it gets totally reflected from the other
face of the prism, even for angle of incidence on first face is 90. Thus angle of incidence
on second face should be greater than critical angle. i.e.,
r2 > C.

For i 90o , r1 C. Thus for no emergence from any face of the prism, angles
r1 + r2 = A,
\ A > 2C ...(7)
So, a ray of light will not emerge out from the prism, if A > 2C.
Totally reflecting prism
The critical angle for glass-air interface is 42. Thus if we make a prism in such a way, that
light ray incident into it at an angle greater than critical, then it becomes totally reflecting
prism. Such a prism may be right angled isosceles (45 90 45). They can be used to
deviate rays through 90 or 180.

Erecting prism
This is also the right-angled isosceles prism. In this case rays of light should be parallel
to the hypotenuse. By doing so the rays invert themselves and an inverted object
appears as erect.

V. PHOTO-ELECTRIC EFFECT
When light of certain frequency is incident on a metal surface, electrons are ejected from
themetal. Thisphenomenon iscalled photoelectric effect (PEE). Electrons ejected from
the metal are called photoelectrons. The photoelectric effect was first observed by
Heinrich Hertz in 1887.
Work function
We know that metals have large number of free electrons. These electrons move freely
inside the metal but can not come out from it due to attraction of the positive ions. Some
energy is needed to liberate the electrons from the bondage of the attraction of the ions.
The minimum energy required to liberate the electrons from the metal surface, is called
work function, and is represented by W0.
Work functions of some photometals

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Work function
Metal Work function (ev) Metal
(eV)
Cesium 1.9 Calcium 3.2
Potassium 2.2 Copper 4.5
Sodium 2.3 Silver 4.7
Lithium 2.5 Platinum 5.6

Experimental set-up of PEE

The experimental set-up to study the photoelectric effect is shown in
fig.
When monochromatic light of frequency greater than f0 is incident
on the cathode, photoelectrons are emitted from it and they move
towards anode A. Initially, the space between the cathode and the
anode contains a number of electrons making up electron cloud. This
negative charge repels the fresh electrons coming from the cathode.
The electrons of maximum kinetic energy are able to reach the anode
and constitutes a photocurrent. If anode is made positive with respect
to the cathode, the emitted electrons are attracted by the anode and
the photoelectric current increases. With the increase in anode
potential, the photoelectric current increases and becomes maximum. Thereafter current
will not increase with the increase in anode potential. This maximum value of current is
called the saturation current (is). This will happen when all the emitted electrons by the
cathode in any time interval are attracted by the anode . Fig. shows the photoelectric
current i with anode potential V.

Stopping potential
When anode is given negative potential with respect to the cathode, the photoelectric
current decreases. For a particular value of anode potential, the photoelectric current
becomes zero. The minimum negative anode potential at which photoelectric current
becomes zero is called stopping or cut off potential V0. To stop the photoelectric current,
we must ensure that even the fastest electron will not reach the anode. Thus stopping
potential is related to the maximum kinetic energy of the ejected electrons. If V0 is the
stopping potential, then
Kmax = eV0. ...(4)

Characteristics of pee
1. Effect of intensity of incident light
When the intensity of the light increases, more number of photons strike with the
photometal and thereby liberate more number of electrons. Because of this, photo
current increases. As the frequency of the incident light is same, so maximum
kinetic energy and hence slopping potential remains same.
2. Effect of frequency of incident light
When the intensity of incident light is kept constant and its frequency increases,
the number of photons remains same but their kinetic energy increases. Therefore
the emitted electrons are same in number but of greater kinetic energy and hence
stopping potential also increases. Fig. shows the variation of photocurrent with
frequency of light f.

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12
3. Effect of photometal
When intensity and frequency of incident light are kept constant and photo-
metal is changed, the stopping potential V0 versus frequency f are parallel straight
lines. This shows that the slope V0/f is same for all metals and is equal to universal
constant (h). If the graph is plotted between Kmax and f, then there is straight line.
Slope of which gives the value of h/e (Fig.).
4. Effect of time
Metal starts emitting electrons as soon as light is incident on it and so there is no
time lag between incident light and emitted electrons.
Einstein's explanation of pee

Einstein forwarded the Planks quantum theory to explain photoelectric effect. According
to him light is made of small energy bundles, called photons. The energy of photon is
proportional to the frequency f. That is
E = hf,
where h is a universal constant, called Planks constant. He made the following
assumptions :
1. The photoelectric effect is the result of collisions between photons of incident
light and free electrons of the metal.
2. The electrons of metal are bound with the nucleus by attractive forces. The
minimum energy required to liberate an electron from this binding is called work
function W0.
3. The incident photon interacts with a single electron and spend energy in two
parts :
(i) in liberating the electron from the metal surface,
(ii) and imparting kinetic energy to emitted electrons. Thus if hf is the energy of
incident photons, then
h f = W0 + Kmax ...(i)

c hc
As f = and W0 = l ,
l 0

hc hc 1 2
\ = + mvmax . ...(ii)
l l0 2
Above equation is known as Einstein photo-electric equation. It should be
remembered that photoelectric effect will occur only if l l o .
4. The efficiency of photoelectric effect is less than 1%, i.e., only less than 1% of
photons are capable of ejecting electrons from the metal surface. The rest 99% of
the photon energy will convert into thermal energy.
5. If V0 is the stopping potential, then Kmax = eV0 and so

hf = W0 + eV0

hf W0
or = + V0
e e

W0 h
or V0 = - + f. ...(iii)
e e

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 13

h
The equation (iii) is a straight line between V0 and f, whose slope is , which
e
is a universal constant.

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