Brain-based Teaching

Strategies: Engaging the 21st

Century Learner
A Reference Guide for Secondary Educators in Singapore and the U.S.

By

Joseph Olan
Fulbright D.A.
April 2015
This booklet/ presentation is not endorsed and not representative of the views of the Fulbright
program, International Institution of Education, U.S. State Dept. or of the Ministry of Education,
Singapore.

This is the sole property Joseph Olan

Not to be distributed without consent.
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

1.
Introduction..2Erro
r! Bookmark not defined.

Desired Outcomes.............................................................2

2. Positive Emotional Climate...3

Relationships, Relationship, Relationships.......3

Developing Intrinsic Motivation in learners..4

3. Authentically Engaging the 21st Century Learner...........................5-6

Strategies: Introduction of Lesson.7

Strategies: Sustained Engagement ........8

4. Driving Lessons: Questioning Strategies ..8

Feel. Understand. kNow. (FUN)....9

Popcorn.......9

Asking Thinking Questions (Levelled)..10

6. Recommended Reading.........11

This booklet/ presentation is not endorsed and not

representative of the views of the Fulbright
Program, International Institution of Education, or
of the Ministry of Education, Singapore.

1
 INTRODUCTION

It was engaging! I was able to understand and participate

-Sec. 4 Student ( Girls High School 2015)

The aim of this capstone project is to serve and equip educators in Singapore and
U.S secondary schools in engaging 21st century learners through evidence-based
strategies in Mind, Brain, and Education Science (MBE). Through the use of
brain-mapping studies (research) and neuroimaging educators and are able to
inform their instruction with evidence-based strategies to teach and engage
students more effectively. There is still much progress to be made in this field of
study but tremendous advancement has already been made in the last decade.

Educators who understand the relevance of using brain-mapping research to

inform their instructional practices will be equipped to utilize certain aspects of
the learning processes of the brain like attentiveness, executive skills
development, memory retrieval, etc... This information is invaluable since key
insights can be made and Best-practices modified to effectively teach students in
support of developing their lower and higher cognitive processes, their emotional
and social intelligence, and overall development (Tokarczyk, 2009).

The effective use of Brain-based teaching strategies derived from Mind, Brain,
and Education Science will give rise to authentic student engagement and
knowledge and skill development while preparing them for the challenges and
demands of the 21st century. Developing and sustaining an atmosphere which is
truly conducive to authentic engagement is vital for students academic,
emotional and social well-being (Goleman, 2005).

Desired outcomes

Educators who sustain an authentically engaged environments for substantial

periods of time should observe a steady rise of the following in their learners:

Attentiveness/Curiosity
Initiative/Adaptability
Critical Thinking
Intrinsic Motivation
Effective oral/written communications
Risk-taking/Creativity

2
 POSITIVE EMOTIONAL CLIMATE

Optimal brain activation occurs when subjects are in positive emotional states or when
material hold personal meaning, connects to their interests, is presented with elements of
novelty, or evokes wonder

- Dr. Willis

Information that is processed in the frontal lobe of the brain where executive functions
are centrally located first goes through the Limbic system (emotional center). When
sensory information is processed by the thalamus and is more than transient awareness it
continues to the amygdala for emotional cueing (Carpenter, Williams & Wilkins, 1991).
If positive emotional cueing is linked to information then increased brain activity in long-
term memory centers are stimulated. According to Judy Willis, if negative emotional
cueing from stress-provoking emotion is taking place while learning then information
given at that time will not reach the long-term memory centers of the frontal lobe as
effectively. Under extreme stress- provoking emotion functional magnetic resonance
imaging (fMRI) scans have shown a condition commonly called the affective filter. The
affective filter is a state in which students are not responsive to processing, learning, and
saving new information (Willis, 2006).

Also, the significance of Blooms Taxonomy as a classification structure or domains for

learning remains one of the most widely used system of its kind. Out of the three domains
of Blooms Taxonomy: Cognitive, Affective, and Psychomotor only cognitive and
psychomotor have been continually addressed to increase standardized testing or
standards-based reform. The Affective domain which, takes student feelings, emotions,
and behavior into account when learning lower and higher order cognitive processes is
seldom utilized or reflected upon in developing students. According to A.H. Sequeria,
(2012) the quality of learning is related to the process of learning, and how learning is
brought about. Learning is a process and a product (Sequeria, 2012).

Relationships, Relationships, Relationships

In conjunction with schools Character and Citizenship Education (CCE) programs

educators should model the 6 core values of Respect, Responsibility, Resilience,
Integrity, Care, and Harmony in the classroom so as to build sincere teacher student
relationships (MOE, 2014). The following tips can enhance these relationships
(Tokuhama-Espinosa, T. 2014).

Check-ins: frequent conversations about academic and nonacademic concerns.

Nurturer v. Facilitator: Have a balanced understanding of students emotional
and social well-being in relation to their academics (Goleman, 2005).
Relationships, Relationships, Relationships: Develop sincere teacher-student
relationships based on modelling the 6 core values.

3
 CCA interest: An invested interest in the Co-curricular activities (CCA) in
which an educators students participate is also a meaningful way to help
develop a meaningful teacher-student relationship.

DEVELOPING INTRINSIC MOTIVATION IN LEARNERS

Tell me and Ill forget; show me and I may remember; involve me and Ill understand

-Chinese Proverb

Nurturing intrinsic motivation in students is one of the most difficult tasks educators face. Once intrinsic motivation has been
developed self-efficacy yes I can belief will flourish (Tokuhama-Espinosa, T. 2014). A simple formula to increase the potential
of developing intrinsic motivation in students is:

Intrigue. Connect to students interests and fascinate their curiosity

Inform. Periodically inform students of the relevance the knowledge and skills have to the learning goals

Inspire. Stimulate their minds and make relevant modern day connections to their learning)

Involve. Involve students in their academic evaluation of their performance so they may address the processes of learning
(metacognition) (Tokuhama-Espinosa, T. 2014).

Students who regularly track their learning gaps, proficiency of academic learning standards, and short term personal and
academic goals have a much higher chance of progressing: 1. Have an academic folder for students to track own progress in class
of above mentioned. 2. Periodically have students update folders and have them produce a short self-reflection to track progress.
3. During feedback and evaluation sessions reiterate the importance of sustained growth and avoid sustained focus on final mark
or ranking. 4. Allow students to critique own performance: highs and Lows.

Breaking evaluation schemes down into processes, and progress keeps motivation HIGH (Guskey, 2011). By blurring the
lines of success and failure in classes students effort and sense of accomplishment will flourish. This also will strengthen
student resiliency toward letdowns which is vital for in school and in life for it begets confidence to succeed (Henderson, N., &
Milstein, M. 2003).

Figure 1

Intrigue

Intrinsic
Involve Inform
Motivation

Inspire

4
 AUTHENTICALLY ENGAGING THE 21ST CENTURY LEARNER

All Learning has an emotional base

-Plato

A brain that is consistently stimulated and challenged (proximal challenges that are
slightly above student abilities but within reach with proper facilitation of learning) is an
engaged brain. Neural plasticity dictates that the brain continually grows when faced
with new environments, stimulations, and challenges.

The greatest aspect of any lesson or learning experience is the learning goal or key take
away. This should always include a process of learning (hard or soft skill) and should be
reiterated during lesson to show the relevance of knowledge and skills being learned
(Doidge, N. 2007). This is a vital part of the lesson for it gives students significant
meaning to what they are learning (Pashler, McDaniel, Rohrer, & Bjork, 2008).

To minimize cognitive drift (inattentiveness and disengagement) educators should

always maintain a flexible sense of urgency. This keeps students alert and attentive
especially if lesson has multiple transitions (Chun, M., & Turk-Browne, N.B. 2007). A
seamless transition between various segments of the lesson also minimizes distractions
and cognitive drift as well. Segment learning (lesson) using various modalities of
learning or experiential learning is crucial to maximize student engagement (increases
engagement and allows for neurotransmitter replenishment if one area of brain has been
over stimulated) and gives rise to numerous neural connections and enhances the priming
process (Willis, 2006). Educators who understand and utilize the priming process (prime
the pump) will see tremendous growth in students ability to store (memory-storage),
retrieve, and reflect on information (Smallwood, J., Fishman, D.J., & Schooler, J.W.
2007). This process utilizes various areas of the brain to encode information more
efficiently which has been repeated in various ways (Betucci, 2006).

Figure 1.1

Learning
Goal

Priming Sense of
Process Urgency

Segment Seamless
Learning Transitions

5
 Figure 1.2

Segmenting lessons with varying modalities of learning increases neural connections to

those parts of brain being utilized. Neurons that fire together, wire together

(Hebbian Theory, 1949).

Fig. 1.3

Frontal lobe-Higher Cognitive

processes

Broca area-Speech processes

Temporal lobe-Language
comprehension. Recognition/memory
*Wernicke area-Comprehension of
speech Emotion association. Sensory
processes.

Parietal lobe-Perception, spatial

mapping number representation

Occipital lobe-Visual processes

6
 STRATEGIES: INTRODUCTION OF LESSON

Real-world activities like conducting investigations, designing experiments, creating

metaphors and analogies, examining cause and effect patterns, analyzing perspective,
and engaging in creative thinking through the visual and performing arts

-Dr. Hardiman

The following are great strategies to authentically engage students at the beginning of a
lesson but can easily be used throughout lesson (Willis, 2006):

Use Big Picture Concepts: Mapping

Find opportunities for students to make personal connections to ideas,
concepts, or aspects of lesson to themselves, family, community or
nation.
Novelty/Hooks: Great way to stimulate the brain. Video clips, audio
clips, quote, joke, etcsomething that excites the senses and spark
curiosity.
Analogies/Metaphors
Exploratory questioning: Use of questions in the beginning of a lesson
engages students when they are exploratory in nature such as an opinion
or emotional response.

The following segment of a lesson was taken from a class conducted for 83 normal tech.
students during a 70min. class period. The first 8 minutes (sense of urgency) of the lesson
the students were introduced to the learning goal, shared their personal meaning of tension
(personal connection), chose four words to best describe the Cold War (big picture), then
watched a short engaging rap video (hook) about the key point of the Cold War up to the
Cuban Missile crisis, and then defined the Cold War in one sentence based on video
(Sembawang Secondary School, 2015).

Learning goal: I will be able to sequence the Cuban Missile Crisis and understand the
context and key players in relation to the Cold War. Figure 1.4

7
 STRATEGIES: SUSTAINED ENGAGEMENT

This lesson overall was great because it is interesting, fun, and engaging

-Sec 2 Student ( Secondary School, 2015)

To increase the potential for all students to be authentically engaged throughout a lesson
and to minimize cognitive drift (Sarter, Gehring, & Kozak, 2006) educators could
blend one or more the following to accompany their best-practices for optimal
engagement (Betucci, 2006). The following are not meant to entertain or lessen the level
of rigor in a class but rather to accommodate multiple intelligences, enrich the learning
experience and allow for risk-taking and creativity to flourish (Huen Mei Yiu, Chnwai,
2010). These should only be used in conjunction with learning goal or the topic being
learned.

Emotional or personal relevance: Encourage emotional and or personal

connections to be made to subject matter. Increases intrinsic motivation to learn.
Graphic organizers: Vary types and frequency.
The Arts/performing arts: Act-outs, abstract art to portray ideas or divergent
thinking (Smith, 2012).
Pop-culture: Use of movies, music, creating comics to assess learning.
Personal reflections: Chunked writings that allow for free flow quick writes
Bridging Conceptual-Mapping: Conceptualized mapping to enhance critical
thinking Tokuhama-Espinosa, 2014).

DRIVING LESSONS: QUESTIONING STRATEGIES

Education is not the filling of a vessel but the lighting of a flame

-Socrates

Questioning is the hallmark of student engagement and has been since humans first began
to wonder about their surroundings and purpose in life. Effective questioning elicits a
sense of wonder and stimulates curiosity. When educators first engage students they
should use exploratory questions to gauge their prior knowledge, understanding, and or
opinion. This will spark their interest and are more likely to participate as the lesson
flows. Educators must be open to different views and types of responses thus should ask
open ended questions when opportunities arise. This will give rise to divergent thinking
and will eventually help develop intrinsic motivation to learn. Educators must always be
cognizant of students abilities and allow for modified questioning such as question
stems. The following are three strategies which can be used in conjunction with other
questioning techniques (Tokuhama-Espinosa, 2014):

8
 Feel. Understand. kNow. (F.U.N.)

An easy to approach to eliciting responses from students is by allowing a choice in how

responses are given. This technique is a subtle way for students to participate who might
be usually be apprehensive. This is also a great way for educators to gauge level of
understanding by class. By using the F.U.N. questioning technique students may respond
to academic questions in one of three ways.

1. Feel: What and why do I Feel toward topic, idea, or skill in question (link)?

2. Understand: What do I Understand about question (comprehension)?

3. kNow: What do I need to kNow to Understand the question (clarity)?

Popcorn

Educator gives a question to class or group of students that calls for a one word opinion
or one word emotion for the answer (depending on question). As answers are being said
out-loud teacher repeats as many one word answers as fast as possible back to class. This
gives the whole class or group a focal point and connection to topic or idea. This
technique is requires a great deal of attention by educator. The following is an example
taken from a class a week after Mr. Lee s passing (April 2015).

Teacher: Class what is the first word that comes to mind when you hear the words Mr.
Lee (Lysa, 2002)?

Students: Minister, Leader, Singapore, Father, Important, Strong, Gone, Resting, Missed,
Great, etc

Teacher: Repeated words to whole class as soon as she or he hears them. Thus bring
whole class to a focal point in lesson.

According to Dr. Charan Ranganath, recent studies with Functional Magnetic Resonance
Imaging (fMRI) have shown:

Interest (inquisitiveness) in a question increases levels of dopamine in the brain

(stimulates ALL learning centres in the brain).

Metabolic activity in Hippocampus increases (memory formation)

Dopamine is a neurotransmitter which stimulates all learning centres in the brain and also
helps regulate movement and emotional responses!

9
 ASKING THNKING QUESTIONS (LEVELLED)

This questioning technique is great for students to begin to develop and formulate their
own low-level connections and in-depth associations in a levelled step-by-step manner
according to their ability. This strategy is great when developing intrinsic motivation and
can easily be adapted for any subject or topic. Typically, used best when students work in
pairs or individually on readings, projects, and homework.

Figure 1.5

Gareth Surgey, 2012, Creative Commons.

10
 RECOMMNED READING

What Mind, Brain, and Education (MBE) Can Do for Teaching

Dr. Tracey Tokuhama-Espinosa, Ph.D.

Director of IDEA (Instituto de Enseanza y Aprendizaje or Teaching and Learning

Institute), and

Professor of Education and Neuropsychology at the of the University of San Francisco in

Quito, Ecuador

The following is an excerpt from Mind, Brain, and Education Science: A comprehensive
guide to the new brain-based teaching (W.W. Norton) a book based on over 4,500 studies
and with contributions from the worlds leaders in MBE Science.

What a thing is and what it means are not separate, the former being physical and the
latter mental as we are accustomed to believe.

James J. Gibson, More on Affordances (1982, p. 408)

Evidence-Based Solutions for the Classroom

How do we learn best? What is individual human potential? How do we ensure that
children live up to their promise as learners? These questions and others have been posed
by philosophers as well neuroscientists, psychologists, and educators for as long as
humans have pondered their own existence. Because MBE science moves educators
closer to the answers than at any other time in history, it benefits teachers in their efficacy
and learners in their ultimate success.

Great teachers have always sensed why their methods worked; thanks to brain imaging
technology, it is now possible to substantiate many of these hunches with empirical
scientific research. For example, good teachers may suspect that if they give their
students just a little more time to respond to questions than normal when called upon,
they might get better-quality answers. Since 1972 there has been empirical evidence that
if teachers give students several seconds to reply to questions posed in class, rather than
the normal single second, the probability of a quality reply increases.[1] Information
about student response time is shared in some teacher training schools, but not all.
Standards in MBE science ensure that information about the brains attention span and
need for reflection time would be included in teacher training, for example.

The basic premise behind the use of standards in MBE science is that fundamental skills,
such as reading and math, are extremely complex and require a variety of neural
pathways and mental systems to work correctly. MBE science helps teachers understand
why there are so many ways that things can go wrong, and it identifies the many ways to
maximize the potential of all learners. This type of knowledge keeps educators from
flippantly generalizing, He has a problem with math, and rather encourages them to
decipher the true roots (e.g., number recognition, quantitative processing, formula
structures, or some sub-skill in math). MBE science standards make teaching methods

11
 and diagnoses more precise. Through MBE, teachers have better diagnostic tools to help
them more accurately understand their students strengths and weakness. These standards
also prevent teachers from latching onto unsubstantiated claims and neuromyths and
give them better tools for judging the quality of the information. Each individual has a
different set of characteristics and is unique, though human patterns for the development
of different skills sets, such as walking and talking, doing math or learning to read, do
exist. One of the most satisfying elements of MBE science is having the tools to
maximize the potential of each individual as he or she learns new skills.

Figure 2.1 Discipline and sub-disciplines in Mind, Brain, and Education Science

Source: Bramwell for Tokuhama-Espinosa

Education is now seen as the natural outgrowth of the human thirst to know oneself better
combined with new technology that allows the confirmation of many hypotheses about
good teaching practices. Past models of learning, many of which came from psychology
and neuroscience, lay the path for current research problems being addressed today to
devise better teaching tools. For example, early in the development of psychology, Freud

12
 theorized that part of successful behavior management techniques, including teaching,
was the result of actual physical changes in the brain, not just intangible changes in the
mind.[2] This theory has since been proven through evidence of neural plasticity and the
fact that the brain changes daily, albeit on a microscopic level, and even before there are
visible changes in behavior. These changes vary depending on the stimulus, past
experiences of the learners, and the intensity of the intervention. What were once
hypotheses in psychology are now being proven, thanks to this new interdisciplinary
view and the invention of technology. On the other hand, other past beliefs about the
brain have been debunked. For example, it was once fashionable to think of a right and a
left brain that competed for students attention and use. It has now been proven beyond a
doubt that the brain works as a complex design of integrated systems, not through
specialized and competing right- and left-brained functions. These examples show how
past beliefs are now partnered with evidence about the functioning human brain to
produce this powerful, new teachinglearning model.

The Five Well-Established Concepts of MBE Science

The following summary of the well-established concepts in MBE science comes from
MBE Science: The New Brain-Based Education, [3] which I wrote:

1. Human brains are as unique as faces.[4] Although the basic structure is the same, no
two are identical. While there are general patterns of organization in how different people
learn and which brain areas are involved, each brain is unique and uniquely organized.
The uniqueness of the human brain is perhaps the most fundamental belief in MBE
science. Even identical twins leave the womb with physically distinct brains due to the
slightly different experiences they had; one with his ear pressed closer to the uterus wall
and bombarded with sounds and light, and the other smuggled down deep in the dark.
There are clear patterns of brain development shared by all people, but the uniqueness of
each brain explains why students learn in slightly different ways. Many popular books try
to exploit this finding by using it as an excuse for the inability of teachers to reach all
learners. This is simply irresponsible. The uniqueness of each brain is not to be
overshadowed by the fact that humans as a species share clear developmental stages that
set parameters for learning.

2. All brains are not equal because context and ability influence learning.[5] Context
includes the learning environment, motivation for the topic of new learning, and prior
knowledge. Different people are born with different abilities, which they can improve
upon or lose, depending on the stimuli or lack thereof. How learners receive stimuli is
impacted by what they bring to the learning context, including past experience and prior
knowledge. This means that children do not enter the classroom on an even playing field.
Some are simply more prepared for the world from birth. This is a harsh reality to face
because it explicitly establishes a definitive framework for potential. The key, however,
is to maximize this potential. There are thousands of people who are born with the
potential or circumstances to be quite smart who do not live up to this possibility, while
there are thousands who are born with modest potential, but who maximize this
limitation well beyond expectations. Genes, previous experiences, and what the child
does with his or her potential contribute to the childs success as a learner.

13
 3. The brain is changed by experience. [6] The brain is a complex, dynamic, and
integrated system that is constantly changed by experience, though most of this change is
evident only at a microscopic level. You will go to bed tonight with a different brain from
the one you had when you awoke. Each smell, sight, taste, and touch you experience and
each feeling or thought you have alters the physical form of your brain. Although these
brain changes are often imperceptible unless viewed under a powerful microscope, they
constantly change the physical makeup of the brain. With rehearsal, these changes
become permanentwhich can work in both positive and negative ways. Areas of the
brain that are used together tend to be strengthened, whereas areas that are not stimulated
atrophy. This truth gives rise to the Hebbian synapse concept (1949): Neurons that fire
together, wire together. The wire together part is a physical manifestation of how life
experiences change the brain. In short, it is nearly impossible for the brain not to learn as
experiencebroadly defined as knowledge or practical wisdom gained from what one
has observed, encountered, or undergone [7] changes the brain on a daily basis.

4. The brain is highly plastic. [8] Human brains have a high degree of plasticity and
develop throughout the lifespan, though there are major limits on this plasticity, and these
limits increase with age. People can, and do, learn throughout their lives. One of the most
influential findings of the 20th century was the discovery of the brains plasticity. This
discovery challenges the earlier belief in localization (i.e., that each brain area had a
highly specific function that only that area could fulfill), which lasted for hundreds of
years. It has now been documented that neuroplasticity can explain why some people are
able to recuperate skills thought to be lost due to injury. People born with only one
hemisphere of the brain, who nevertheless manage to live their lives normally, are an
extreme example of this plasticity. Antonio Battro and Mary Helen Immordino-Yang,
offer documentation of people with half a brain. Antonio Battros work on Half a brain is
enough: The story of Nico (2000) is a remarkable documentation of one childs life with
just a half a brain and defies previous concepts about skill set location in the brain.
Taking Battros lead, Immordino-Yang offers the detailed story of two cases in her recent
work, A tale of two cases: Lessons for education from the study of two boys living with
half their brains (2007). She shows how the entire brain works as a single large system,
and when parts are missing, as in the case of these two children who were born with only
half a brain each, then other parts of the brain can take over and learn functions with
which they are not normally associated.

Researchers such as Paul Bach-y-Rita make it clear that we see with our brains, not with
our eyes (as cited in Doidge, 2007, p. 14). That is, the brain as a whole is responsible for
sensory perception, not necessarily a single part of the brain. Bach-y-Rita explains this
point using a simple metaphor: Lets assume that you are driving from point A to point B.
You normally take the most efficient route, but if a bridge is down or the road is blocked,
you take a secondary road. This secondary road might not be as fast as the natural
route, but it gets you to point B all the same, and it may even become the preferred route
if it is sufficiently reinforced.

Perhaps the author who has done the most to explain neuroplasticity to the public is
physician Norman Doidge, who has documented studies that showed that children are
not always stuck with the mental abilities they are born with; that the damaged brain can
often reorganize itself so that when one part fails, another can often substitute; that is

14
 brain cells die, they can at times be replaced; that many circuits and even basic reflexes
that we think are hardwired are not.[9]. Neuroplasticity has implications for brains that
have been damaged, but also for basic learning in classroom experiences and how we
think about education. Whereas it was popular in the 1990s to think of the crucial early
years, it is now acknowledged that learning takes place throughout the lifespan. Does this
point speak against the privileging of early childhood educational practices? Not at all; it
simply means that under the right conditions, the skills that identify normal
developmental stages should be seen as benchmarks, not roadblocks, because humans can
learn throughout the lifespan.

5. The brain connects new information to old.[10] Connecting new information to prior
knowledge facilitates learning. We learn better and faster when we relate new
information to things that we already know. This principle may sound like it needs no
evidencewe experience it every day. For example, lets say you are going somewhere
you have never been before. When someone gives you directions, it is very helpful if they
offer you a point of reference that is familiar to you (Youll see the post office; from
there, turn right at the next corner). Similarly, when a child learns, he or she builds off
of a past knowledge; there is no new learning without reference to the past.

It is unfortunate that new concepts are sometimes taught in schools in a conceptual

vacuum without anchoring the information to what students already know. This vacuum
is the reason that students who have a poor foundation in a particular subject will
continue to fail. How can a child who does not understand addition move on to
understand subtraction? To use a house-building metaphor, if we have a weak foundation,
then it is irrelevant how sturdy the walls are, or how well built the roof is; the structure
cannot be supported. This is an argument for quality instruction in the early years.
Without a firm foundation in basic mathematical conceptualization (or basic concepts in
language, values, artistic or social content, for that matter), then a student will have a lot
of trouble moving on to build more complex conceptual understandings.

The well-established concepts in MBE science are not new ideas. All five have been
around for decades, if not centuries. What is new is that all five concepts have been
proven without a doubt in neuroscience, psychology, and educational settings, adding to
their credibility for use in planning, curriculum design, classroom methodology design,
and basic pedagogy. What is new is their consistent application in best-practice
classroom settings. These five truths should guide all teaching practices as well as
future research on better teaching tools.[11]

15
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Chun, M., & Turk-Browne, N.B. (2007). Interactions between attention and memory.
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 Smallwood, J., Fishman, D.J., & Schooler, J.W. (2007). Counting the cost of an absent
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